Datasets:

---

vblagoje

/

lfqa_support_docs

like 6

[ { "answer": "The womb is also called the [uterus](_URL_1_). This is the organ in which the fetus develops, but it does not contribute to the genetic make up of the child. A fetus is created by the combination of sperm and egg. Eggs are created and stored in the [ovaries](_URL_2_). \n\nThe [woman who just successfully had a child after a womb transplant](_URL_0_) had functioning ovaries. The child is genetically hers as an egg from her ovaries (and her husband's sperm) was used to create embryos which were implanted in the transplanted womb (In Vitro fertilization).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2094394", "title": "Male pregnancy", "section": "Section::::Humans.:Uterus transplantation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 264, "text": "A uterine transplant was performed in Saudi Arabia in 2000, from one woman to another, but it did not result in a pregnancy. This advance drew speculation about the possibility of a male receiving a womb transplant, and bearing a child from the transplanted womb.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1399392", "title": "Embryo transfer", "section": "Section::::Third-party reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 1617, "text": "Embryo transfer may be used where a woman who has eggs but no uterus and wants to have a biological baby; she would require the help of a gestational carrier or surrogate to carry the pregnancy. Also, a woman who has no eggs but a uterus may utilize egg donor IVF, in which case another woman would provide eggs for fertilization and the resulting embryos are placed into the uterus of the patient. Fertilization may be performed using the woman's partner's sperm or by using donor sperm. 'Spare' embryos which are created for another couple undergoing IVF treatment but which are then surplus to that couple's needs may also be transferred (called embryo donation). Embryos may be specifically created by using eggs and sperm from donors and these can then be transferred into the uterus of another woman. A surrogate may carry a baby produced by embryo transfer for another couple, even though neither she nor the 'commissioning' couple is biologically related to the child. Third party reproduction is controversial and regulated in many countries. Persons entering gestational surrogacy arrangements must make sense of an entirely new type of relationship that does not fit any of the traditional scripts we use to categorize relations as kinship, friendship, romantic partnership or market relations. Surrogates have the experience of carrying a baby that they conceptualize as not of their own kin, while intended mothers have the experience of waiting through nine months of pregnancy and transitioning to motherhood from outside of the pregnant body. This can lead to new conceptualizations of body and self.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20177552", "title": "Transplantable organs and tissues", "section": "Section::::Other cells and tissues.:Ovary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 695, "text": "Ovary transplantation, giving rise to successful pregnancies, will result in children who will have the genetic inheritance of the organ donor and not the recipient; it has so far only been carried out on identical twins. Use of an ovarian transplant from a genetically identical donor prevents rejection of the donated organ. This bypasses the need for immune suppressants to maintain the function of the donated ovary, which is not vital for survival. More significantly, many immunosuppressants, such as mycophenolate mofetil, may cause birth defects. Lili Elbe received an ovary transplant in the early 1930s, followed by a uterus transplant, but died shortly thereafter from complications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5680651", "title": "XX gonadal dysgenesis", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 237, "text": "BULLET::::3. Her gonads cannot produce eggs so she will not be able to conceive children naturally. A woman with a uterus but no ovaries may be able to become pregnant by implantation of another woman's fertilized egg (embryo transfer).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12555388", "title": "The Shroud (The Outer Limits)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 488, "text": "A couple Marie Wells (Samantha Mathis) and her husband Justin (Robert Wisden) have trouble conceiving a child on their own so they turn to the use of in vitro fertilisation to implant an embryo in Marie's uterus. Behind the scenes, however, some scientists, under the direction of a popular televangelist, plan to use the woman to clone Jesus Christ using DNA from the Shroud of Turin. As the child grows in Marie's womb, strange occurrence seem to herald the birth of the special child.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1399651", "title": "Müllerian agenesis", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 372, "text": "If there is no uterus, a person with MRKH cannot carry a pregnancy without intervention. It is possible for the person to have genetic offspring by in vitro fertilization (IVF) and surrogacy. Successful uterine transplant has been performed in limited numbers of patients, resulting in several live births, but the technique is not widespread or accessible to many women.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1399651", "title": "Müllerian agenesis", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 887, "text": "Uterine transplantation has been performed in a number of people with MRKH, but the surgery is still in the experimental stage. Since ovaries are present, people with this condition can have genetic children through IVF with embryo transfer to a gestational carrier. Some also choose to adopt. In October 2014, it was reported that a month earlier a 36-year-old Swedish woman became the first person with a transplanted uterus to give birth to a healthy baby. She was born without a uterus, but had functioning ovaries. She and the father went through IVF to produce 11 embryos, which were then frozen. Doctors at the University of Gothenburg then performed the uterus transplant, the donor being a 61-year-old family friend. One of the frozen embryos was implanted a year after the transplant, and the baby boy was born prematurely at 31 weeks after the mother developed pre-eclampsia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The early modern period-- the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century is often referred to as a time of \"military revolution\", a term associated with Michael Roberts' 1955 lecture of the same name. While Geoffrey Parker and others have raised good points about some of the more exuberant claims, the core of the military revolution argument remains intact-- armies in 1750 looked very different than they did in 1600.\n\nThe most immediately obvious of these changes was that the pike had largely disappeared from the battlefield\n\nSome reasons for this change spring to mind as most important:\n\n1. A musket and pike formation has much less firepower than an all musket formation. The musket with bayonet is less capable than the pike, but it's adequate, and \"adequate + more firepower\" is better than \"some pikes with a longer reach and less firepower\"\n2. The challenges of commanding a combined musket and pike formation like the Spanish *tercio* were very, very complex, requiring a high degree of skill and training. Getting musketeers to firing position was a challenge. The musket and pike formations were the province of skilled professional soldiers, but as armies got bigger and recruited less experienced men, less complex formations were favored.\n3. Firearms steadily improved in quality, and armies got better at using them. Starting from the rather finicky, expensive and esoteric arquebus firepower evolved to much more easily manufactured, economical and reliable muskets: firepower got better, while pikes didn't. It was readily understood that firepower was increasing in capability, whereas polearms were little different from Alexander's *sarissa*\n4. As firepower increased in efficacy, fewer battles were decided by melee. In the musket and pike formations, the notion had been that firepower was essentially an auxiliary force, a way of harassing and attriting the enemy, but that the decisive blow would be delivered by the collision of forces. 18th and 19th century forces did still come to blows hand to hand, but they typically fired many more rounds and did far more damage to the enemy by firepower before that happened. Many formations broke without ever having reached the enemy, or like Napoleon's Guard at Waterloo, were so bloodied and shaky from losses due to firepower that they had little shock effectiveness left when they finally reached the enemy.\n5. As firepower improved, the threat from cavalry diminished. Horse are big targets, and by the end of the 18th century, cavalry was largely unable to break a well formed square-- in the Napoleonic wars, if memory serves, that happened only once, at the skirmish/battle of Garcia Hernandez in 1812. If bayonets and firepower were good enough to ward off cavalry, that was good enough; and they were most of the time. Cavalry had to surprise unprepared infantry, or run down broken formations to be effective-- against prepared infantry, they became progressively less effective in the 16th and 17th centuries.\n\nSources:\n\n[\"Doctors of the Military Discipline\": Technical Expertise and the Paradigm of the Spanish Soldier in the Early Modern Period](_URL_3_)\n\n[Tactical Evolution in the French Army, 1560-1660](_URL_4_)\n\n[Close Order and Close Quarter: The Culture of Combat in the West](_URL_1_)\n\n[Michael Roberts- The Military Revolution, 1560-1660](_URL_0_)\n\n[The \"Military Revolution,\" 1560-1660--a Myth?](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::End of the pike era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 920, "text": "The late 17th century saw the decline of the pike in most European armies. This started with the development of the plug bayonet, followed by the socket bayonet. This adds a long blade (up to 2 ft [60 cm]) to the end of the musket, allowing the musket to act as a pike-like weapon when held out with both hands. Although they didn't have the full reach of pikes, bayonets were effective against cavalry charges, which used to be the main weakness of musketeer formations; pikemen were no longer needed to protect musketeers from cavalry. Furthermore, improvements in artillery caused most European armies to abandon large formations in favor of multiple staggered lines, both to minimize casualties and to present a larger frontage for volley fire. Thick hedges of bayonets proved to be an effective anti-cavalry solution, and improved musket firepower was now so deadly that combat was often decided by shooting alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23468036", "title": "History of weapons", "section": "Section::::Modern Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 275, "text": "The use of the bayonet in starting in the 17th century allowed soldiers to use muskets as pikes in close combat. The flintlock, invented slightly earlier, made firearms more reliable. Cartridges were also invented around this time, and made existing firearms easier to load.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53436", "title": "Bayonet", "section": "Section::::History.:Plug bayonets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 818, "text": "Early bayonets were of the \"plug\" type, where the bayonet was fitted directly into the barrel of the musket. This allowed light infantry to be converted to heavy infantry and hold off cavalry charges. The bayonet had a round handle that slid directly into the musket barrel. This naturally prevented the gun from being fired. The first known mention of the use of bayonets in European warfare was in the memoirs of \"Jacques de Chastenet, Vicomte de Puységur.\" He described the French using crude plug bayonets during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). However, it was not until 1671, that General Jean Martinet standardized and issued plug bayonets to the French regiment of fusiliers then raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment raised in 1672, and to the Royal Fusiliers when raised in 1685.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2250567", "title": "Line infantry", "section": "Section::::Arms and equipment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 254, "text": "In the middle of the 16th century, the matchlock muskets of some line infantry were equipped with bayonets. Bayonets were attached to the muzzles of muskets and were used when line troops entered melee combat. They also helped to defend against cavalry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53436", "title": "Bayonet", "section": "Section::::History.:Sword bayonets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 827, "text": "The 19th century introduced the concept of the sword bayonet, a long-bladed weapon with a single- or double-edged blade that could also be used as a shortsword. Its initial purpose was to ensure that riflemen could form an infantry square properly to fend off cavalry attacks when in ranks with musketmen, whose weapons were longer. A prime early example of a sword bayonet-fitted rifle is the British Infantry Rifle of 1800–1840, later known as the \"Baker Rifle\". The hilt usually had quillons modified to accommodate the gun barrel and a hilt mechanism that enabled the bayonet to be attached to a bayonet lug. A sword bayonet could be used in combat as a side arm. When attached to the musket or rifle, it effectively turned almost any long gun into a spear or glaive, suitable not only for thrusting but also for slashing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1868350", "title": "Rifled musket", "section": "Section::::Characteristics of rifled muskets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 443, "text": "Since rifle muskets were meant as a direct replacement for smoothbore muskets, they were fitted with bayonets. Their designers envisioned that they would be used in battle much like the bayonets on older smoothbore muskets. However, in practice, the longer range of the rifle musket and changes in tactics rendered the bayonet almost obsolete. During the U.S. Civil War, bayonets accounted for less than one percent of battlefield casualties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32873905", "title": "British soldiers in the eighteenth century", "section": "Section::::A soldier in the army.:Equipment and weaponry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 290, "text": "Bayonets were used in conjunction with the musket for close range fighting – the bayonet was fitted into the socket the musket barrel, allowing it to be fired while the bayonet was fixed (unlike earlier screw or plug bayonets) and effectively turned the musket into a pike-like instrument.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > By color of all colors I'm referring to black since this is the color you see when all waves of color (visible light) are reflected back to your eye.\n\nYou mean white, not black. White light is all wavelengths of visible light (or, at least, equal levels of the three you do sense).\n\nScents are a bit different, since they're a combination of various chemical interactions, and there are far, far more different scent receptors in our noses.\n\nThere's also five taste receptors on the tongue, but flavour typically also includes things like temperature, roughness and texture, astringency, moistness, and so on, which all contribute to how something tastes. Just being a combination of all five tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami) isn't going to taste like a single thing the way white light is perceived as white. It's just going to taste like a sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami thing. Kind of like how lemonade is sour and sweet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well see, when you eat things that smell yummy on their own, your tummy puts them all together for you to push out later, and it smells like shit. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18046910", "title": "Phenylacetaldehyde", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Fragrances and flavors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 255, "text": "The aroma of pure substance can be described as honey-like, sweet, rose, green, grassy and is added to fragrances to impart hyacinth, narcissi, or rose nuances. For similar reasons the compound can sometimes be found in flavored cigarettes and beverages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1039075", "title": "Aroma compound", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 253, "text": "Generally molecules meeting this specification have molecular weights of less than 300. Flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be naturally occurring, and fragrances tend to be synthetic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "98581", "title": "Perfume", "section": "Section::::Composing perfumes.:Technique.:Basic framework.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 429, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Primary scents\" (Heart): Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as \"rose\". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an \"abstract\" primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53688865", "title": "Olfactory art", "section": "Section::::Examples of olfactory art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 333, "text": "\"Green Aria: A Scent Opera\" was an exhibit by Christophe Laudamiel at the Guggenheim that incorporated both over two dozen fragrances pumped through special \"scent microphones\" to 148 seats, accompanied by music. Some scents were intended to invoke natural fragrances, while others were described as \"Industrial\" or \"Absolute Zero\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1380144", "title": "Linalool", "section": "Section::::Enantiomers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 278, "text": "Each enantiomer evokes different neural responses in humans, so are classified as possessing distinct scents. (\"S\")-(+)-Linalool is perceived as sweet, floral, petitgrain-like (odor threshold 7.4 ppb) and the (\"R\")-form as more woody and lavender-like (odor threshold 0.8 ppb).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1366807", "title": "Colors of noise", "section": "Section::::Technical definitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 374, "text": "The color names for these different types of sounds are derived from a loose analogy between the spectrum of frequencies of sound wave present in the sound (as shown in the blue diagrams) and the equivalent spectrum of light wave frequencies. That is, if the sound wave pattern of \"blue noise\" were translated into light waves, the resulting light would be blue, and so on.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3920544", "title": "Brut (cologne)", "section": "Section::::Acquisitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 322, "text": "In 2006, after acquiring partial ownership of the Brut copyright and patents, Idelle Laboratories launched Brut Revolution, an \"ozonic\" variant on the core fragrance. \"As Different As You Are\" is the theme of the fragrance, which is housed in a blue and silver bottle, breaking with the traditional green of the original.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Cracks and folds are removed by carefully hiding them, either hand-painting over them, or simply copying nearby textures over them. Missing parts are painted.\n\nFaded parts of the foto are simply restored by taking the color that are present, and amplifying them (like turning up the volume).\n\nThere are tools in the popular photo editing software Photoshop that help with this (healing brush, clone stamp, and various adjustment layers)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Old photos tend to be black and white and that makes the process a lot easier. It requires a reasonable understanding of the tools available in Photoshop but doesn't take long to get decent results. The most important part is getting a high res scan of the original image. Tidying/cropping ripped edges, setting the white balance and removing noise/grain are the first simple things that make the most improvement.\n\nLines, creases and folds are quite easy to repair as you can usually select the correct grayscale shades from either side of the white crease line using the colour picker and then 'paint' in the missing parts. \n\nA lot of photo restoration is guesswork, trying to add in parts that blend and don't draw attention. \n\nWhen you repair a photo you're moving the focus back to the subject of the photo where as before the focus was on the damage to the image. \n\nStains & ink blots can be drawn around and then the colour de-saturaturated just from that small area i.e removing the blue hue. It takes trial and error to get it to match the sepia or black and white tone of the rest of the image.\n\nIntricate patterns (wallpaper, clothing, carpet) can be difficult however if you have a reference point elsewhere in a picture you can use that to copy and paste over the small damaged section small section.\n\nThe toughest bits are where damage/creases obscure features of a face and then the missing bits have to be re-imagined. \n\nHowever the Photoshop 'Content Aware Fill' tool can produce some amazing results. Highlight an area and it will try to automatically fill in what it thinks should be there based on the pixels around it! This is especially good for removing distracting elements, filling in textures like sky/grass within an image. \n\nThe art of restoration can go a lot deeper into colorisation (colouring black & white images) and painting in elements that were not there to begin with. These take a lot of time & patience and talent.\n\nTL DR; You can recreate a lot by copying similar tones/elements within the picture.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Zoom in to 400 - 800%. Rubber Stamp tool with a soft edge.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10156974", "title": "Digital photograph restoration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 225, "text": "Digital photograph restoration is the practice of restoring the appearance of a digital copy of a physical photograph which has been damaged by natural, man made, or environmental causes or simply affected by age or neglect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10156974", "title": "Digital photograph restoration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 880, "text": "Digital photograph restoration uses a variety of image editing techniques to remove visible damage and aging effects from digital copies of physical photographs. Raster graphics editors (see list below) are typically used to repair the appearance of the digital images and add to the digital copy of the photo where pieces of the physical photograph are torn or missing. Evidence of dirt, scratches, and other signs of photographic age are removed from the digital image manually, by painting over them meticulously. Unwanted color casts are removed and the image's contrast or sharpening may be altered in an attempt to restore some of the contrast range or detail that is believed to be in the original physical image. In addition image processing techniques such as image enhancement and image restoration are also applicable for the purpose of digital photograph restoration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24882775", "title": "Image restoration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 462, "text": "Image Restoration is the operation of taking a corrupt/noisy image and estimating the clean, original image. Corruption may come in many forms such as motion blur, noise and camera mis-focus. Image restoration is performed by reversing the process that blurred the image and such is performed by imaging a point source and use the point source image, which is called the Point Spread Function (PSF) to restore the image information lost to the blurring process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24862923", "title": "Photo recovery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 218, "text": "Photo recovery is the process of salvaging digital photographs from damaged, failed, corrupted, or inaccessible secondary storage media when it cannot be accessed normally. Photo Recovery can be considered a subset of\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4289261", "title": "Conservation and restoration of photographs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 408, "text": "Photograph preservation is distinguished from \"digital\" or \"optical restoration\", which is concerned with creating and editing a digital copy of the original image rather than treating the original photographic material. Photograph preservation does not normally include moving image materials, which by their nature require a very different approach. Film preservation concerns itself with these materials.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9871405", "title": "Image rectification", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 217, "text": "Image rectification is a transformation process used to project images onto a common image plane. This process has several degrees of freedom and there are many strategies for transforming images to the common plane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4289261", "title": "Conservation and restoration of photographs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 889, "text": "The Conservation and restoration of photographs is the study of the physical care and treatment of photographic materials. It covers both efforts undertaken by photograph conservators, librarians, archivists, and museum curators who manage photograph collections at a variety of cultural heritage institutions, as well as steps taken to preserve collections of personal and family photographs. It is an umbrella term that includes both preventative preservation activities such as environmental control and conservation techniques that involve treating individual items. Both preservation and conservation require an in-depth understanding of how photographs are made, and the causes and prevention of deterioration. Conservator-restorers use this knowledge to treat photographic materials, stabilizing them from further deterioration, and sometimes restoring them for aesthetic purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is a grievous, fundamental misunderstanding of biology here. I don't know what you think thoughts are, but they are really not at all related to the immune system, performing \"actions,\" or bacteria. \n\nLet's start with a really simple chemical reaction. When you mix baking soda and vinegar, it makes the classic science fair volcano. Mixing these two chemicals causes foam to form. There are no thoughts related to this process. It just happens, like how ice melts or things fall down when you let go of them. \n\nLiving things are like that too, only *way* more complicated. Lots of bacteria have genes that, when they enter a potential host, are turned on. The genes can produce molecules that do things like help the bacteria stick to your own cells to infect them, or physically form a shield around it so your immune system can't reach them. There's no thought involved. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They don't think in the way we do because they don't have nervous systems.\n\nThey hide from our immune cells because they have evolved the ability to do that because it helps them survive. They have also evolved the ability to sense when a good time to hide is, because they survive better when they hide at a good time. Their actions seem intelligent because they help them survive and can be quite complex, but they are just evolved mechanical responses to stimuli.\n\n(Some people think the same about our actions! But that's another discussion.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short answer: they don't. \n\nLong answer: They do it by what you might consider a very basic instinct, (far from a thought as you know it) - think a slug avoiding salt, but even dumber. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9028799", "title": "Bacteria", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 814, "text": "Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as \"E. coli\") have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three-dimensional random walk. Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum (\"monotrichous\"), a flagellum at each end (\"amphitrichous\"), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (\"lophotrichous\"), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (\"peritrichous\"). The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21457419", "title": "Bacterial cellular morphologies", "section": "Section::::Spiral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 452, "text": "Bacteria are known to evolve specific traits to survive in their ideal environment. Bacteria-caused illnesses hinge on the bacteria’s physiology and their ability to interact with their environment, including the ability to shapeshift. Researchers discovered a protein that allows the bacterium \"Vibrio cholerae\" to morph into a corkscrew shape that likely helps it twist into — and then escape — the protective mucus that lines the inside of the gut.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9028799", "title": "Bacteria", "section": "Section::::Significance in technology and industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 954, "text": "Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of molecular biology, genetics and biochemistry. By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes, scientists can determine the function of genes, enzymes and metabolic pathways in bacteria, then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms. This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of enzyme kinetic and gene expression data into mathematical models of entire organisms. This is achievable in some well-studied bacteria, with models of \"Escherichia coli\" metabolism now being produced and tested. This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to bioengineer bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins, such as insulin, growth factors, or antibodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43183712", "title": "Bioluminescent bacteria", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 969, "text": "Bioluminescent bacteria are light-producing bacteria that are predominantly present in sea water, marine sediments, the surface of decomposing fish and in the gut of marine animals. While not as common, bacterial bioluminescence is also found in terrestrial and freshwater bacteria. These bacteria may be free living (such as \"Vibrio harveyi\") or in symbiosis with animals such as the Hawaiian Bobtail squid (\"Aliivibrio fischeri\") or terrestrial nematodes (\"Photorhabdus luminescens\"). The host organisms provide these bacteria a safe home and sufficient nutrition. In exchange, the hosts use the light produced by the bacteria for camouflage, prey and/or mate attraction. Bioluminescent bacteria have evolved symbiotic relationships with other organisms in which both participants benefit close to equally. Another possible reason bacteria use luminescence reaction is for quorum sensing, an ability to regulate gene expression in response to bacterial cell density.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53190588", "title": "Bacteria collective motion", "section": "Section::::Bacteria swimming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 339, "text": "The patterns of bacteria collective motion are very different from the motion pattern of an individual bacterium. When flagellated bacteria are moving in bulk liquid, where the locomotion of one individual doesn’t affect the others, this movement is called swimming. single \"Escherichia coli\" bacterium swims in a ‘run-and-tumble’ motion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9028799", "title": "Bacteria", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 484, "text": "Many bacteria are motile and can move using a variety of mechanisms. The best studied of these are flagella, long filaments that are turned by a motor at the base to generate propeller-like movement. The bacterial flagellum is made of about 20 proteins, with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly. The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33153587", "title": "Paenibacillus dendritiformis", "section": "Section::::Pattern formation, self-organization and social behaviors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 744, "text": "Communicating with each other using a variety of chemical signals, bacteria exchange information regarding population size, a myriad of individual environmental measurements at different locations, their internal states and their phenotypic and epigenetic adjustments. The bacteria collectively sense the environment and execute distributed information processing to glean and assess relevant information. The information is then used by the bacteria for reshaping the colony while redistributing tasks and cell epigenetic differentiations, for collective decision-making and for turning on and off defense and offense mechanisms needed to thrive in competitive environments, faculties that can be perceived as social intelligence of bacteria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[From John Grohol, PSY.D](_URL_0_): I was browsing a blog the other day and saw an undated (recent?) entry suggesting that research shows that “weather has little effect on our mood.” The entry relied heavily on a recent study (Denissen et al., 2008) that shows that although a correlation between mood and weather does exist, it’s a small one (not nearly as large as conventional wisdom might suggest). The entry quotes almost exclusively and entirely from the one study.\n\nI’m familiar with this area of research, so I found the entry’s conclusions a little simplistic and not really doing justice to this topic. There’s a fair amount of research in this area (more than the 3 or 4 studies mentioned in the blog), and I think the overall preponderance of evidence suggests that weather can have more than just a “little effect” on your mood.\n\nSome previous research confirms the blog entry’s conclusion that weather may have little effect on our moods. For instance, Hardt & Gerbershagen (1999) looked at 3,000 chronic pain patients who came to a hospital over a 5-year period. The researchers had patients fill out a depression questionnaire, and then analyzed the results. They found no correlation between depression and the time of the year, nor the amount of daily hours of sunshine. But the researchers only examined depression, and didn’t measure how much time subjects spent outside (a factor that some have suggested might influence how much the weather impacts us).\n\nOther research paints a very different picture.\n\nHoward and Hoffman (1984) had 24 college students keep track of their mood (by filling out a mood questionnaire) over 11 consecutive days. They found a significant effect on mood correlated with the weather, especially with regards to humidity (a component of weather not always measured):\n\n Humidity, temperature, and hours of sunshine had the greatest effect on mood. High levels of humidity lowered scores on concentration while increasing reports of sleepiness. Rising temperatures lowered anxiety and skepticism mood scores. [...]\n\n The number of hours of sunshine was found to predict optimism scores significantly. As the number of hours of sunshine increased, optimism scores also increased. [...]\n\n Mood scores on the depression and anxiety scales were not predicted by any weather variable. \n\nAnother study by Sanders and Brizzolara (1982) on 30 college students also found similar findings — that high humidity was a predictor for lack of vigor, elation, and affection.\n\nBut you may dismiss these studies as small, or on unrepresentative samples (college students). You’d have a harder time making that argument against Faust et al.’s (1974) study on 16,000 students in Basle City, Switzerland. Although not the most robust study designed, the researchers nonetheless found that nearly one-third of the girls and one fifth of the boys responded negatively to certain weather conditions. Symptoms reported included poor sleep, irritability, and dysphoric (depressed) mood.\n\nIf you noticed that higher humidity is associated with certain mood states, you won’t be surprised to hear there is also a good body of research that has investigated the link between heat and different types of human behavior, especially aggression (see, for example, Rotton & Cohn, 2004; Cohn & Rotton, 2005; Anderson, 1987; etc.). While there’s some debate as to how strong a relationship exists between heat and violence, this is a relationship that been undergoing research since the 1970s. At this point, it’s not in question whether a link exists, just how strong and what the relationship exactly looks like (and whether it’s mediated by other factors, like time of day).\n\nThe Weather Can Affect You Negatively and Positively\n\nKeller and his colleagues (2005) examined 605 participants responses in three separate studies to examine the connection between mood states, a person’s thinking and the weather. They found that:\n\n [...P]leasant weather (higher temperature or barometric pressure) was related to higher mood, better memory, and ‘‘broadened’’ cognitive style during the spring as time spent outside increased. The same relationships between mood and weather were not observed during other times of year, and indeed hotter weather was associated with lower mood in the summer.\n\n These results are consistent with findings on seasonal affective disorder, and suggest that pleasant weather improves mood and broadens cognition in the spring because people have been deprived of such weather during the winter. \n\nSo while Denissen et al. (2008) found no general ability for the weather itself to lift us into a more positive mood (contrary to both Howard & Hoffman and Keller’s findings above), the researchers did find that the weather can impact our moods negatively. And while that effect in the present study was small, it confirms the same effect found in a multitude of other studies (some of which are mentioned above).\n\nAnother way to look at it is that Denissen and colleagues confirmed prior research that showed that people’s moods and emotions can definitely be affected by the weather. The strength of that relationship varies from person to person. But a study’s design has a lot to do with trying to find this relationship in the data. And while Denissen’s design was good, it wasn’t foolproof. Its problems include the over-representation of women in the sample (89%), suggesting a skewed and biased sample, and the response rate, with participants submitting on average half the number of surveys needed by the study’s design. In other words, the data may not be the most robust in the world either (despite the large sample size).\n\nSo, sorry, yes, weather does appear to impact our moods. And that effect may become serious. Look no further for evidence of this than the very real condition called Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). SAD is characterized by feelings of sadness and depression that occur in the winter months when the temperatures drop and the days grow short. This specific form of depression is often associated with excessive eating or sleeping and weight gain. Women are twice to three times more likely to suffer from the winter blues than men. If SAD is merely a “culturally transmitted idea” (as the blog quotes the researchers as suggesting), then so is every mental disorder to one extent or another.\n\nThe new research provides some contradictory data to previous findings. And when such discrepancies arise, the answer is not to conclude the matter settled, but to go and conduct more research. So what Denissen’s study really shows is that more research is needed to better determine the strength of the link, and whether it affects people in different geographical regions (and countries).\n\nSo no, you’re not crazy if you think your mood is affected by the weather. Nearly 40 years of research suggests there’s a strong link. And one that, in some people, can lead to significant seasonal problems.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39807", "title": "Nature versus nurture", "section": "Section::::Personality traits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 1244, "text": "In the case of personality traits, non-shared environmental effects are often found to out-weigh shared environmental effects. That is, environmental effects that are typically thought to be life-shaping (such as family life) may have less of an impact than non-shared effects, which are harder to identify. One possible source of non-shared effects is the environment of pre-natal development. Random variations in the genetic program of development may be a substantial source of non-shared environment. These results suggest that \"nurture\" may not be the predominant factor in \"environment\". Environment and our situations, do in fact impact our lives, but not the way in which we would typically react to these environmental factors. We are preset with personality traits that are the basis for how we would react to situations. An example would be how extraverted prisoners become less happy than introverted prisoners and would react to their incarceration more negatively due to their preset extraverted personality. Behavioral genes are somewhat proven to exist when we take a look at fraternal twins. When fraternal twins are reared apart, they show the same similarities in behavior and response as if they have been reared together.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24235330", "title": "Behavioural genetics", "section": "Section::::General findings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 421, "text": "There are many broad conclusions to be drawn from behavioural genetic research about the nature and origins of behaviour. Three major conclusions include: 1) all behavioural traits and disorders are influenced by genes; 2) environmental influences tend to make members of the same family more different, rather than more similar; and 3) the influence of genes tends to increase in relative importance as individuals age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24235330", "title": "Behavioural genetics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 627, "text": "Findings from behavioural genetic research have broadly impacted modern understanding of the role of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour. These include evidence that nearly all researched behaviors are under a significant degree of genetic influence, and that influence tends to increase as individuals develop into adulthood. Further, most researched human behaviours are influenced by a very large number of genes and the individual effects of these genes are very small. Environmental influences also play a strong role, but they tend to make family members more different from one another, not more similar. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34866140", "title": "Person–situation debate", "section": "Section::::Current directions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 520, "text": "Most personality researchers have now concluded that both the person and the situation contribute to behavior. Specifically, situational variables are more conclusive when it comes to predicting behavior in specific situations, while traits are more descriptive of patterns of behavior that influence behavior across situations. Some researchers have also suggested the possibility of situational factors (like social roles) eliciting situation-specific goals which then influence the development of personality traits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3717", "title": "Brain", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 983, "text": "There has long been debate about whether the qualities of mind, personality, and intelligence can be attributed to heredity or to upbringing—this is the nature and nurture controversy. Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience research has clearly shown that both factors are important. Genes determine the general form of the brain, and genes determine how the brain reacts to experience. Experience, however, is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections, which in its developed form contains far more information than the genome does. In some respects, all that matters is the presence or absence of experience during critical periods of development. In other respects, the quantity and quality of experience are important; for example, there is substantial evidence that animals raised in enriched environments have thicker cerebral cortices, indicating a higher density of synaptic connections, than animals whose levels of stimulation are restricted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6406113", "title": "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns", "section": "Section::::Findings.:Genetic and environmental variables.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 677, "text": "While both genetic and environmental variables were involved in the manifestation of intelligence, the role of genetics had been shown to increase in importance with age. In particular, the effect of the family environment shared by all children in a family, while important in early childhood, became quite small (zero in some studies) by late adolescence. Why this occurs is unclear. One possibility is that people with different genes tend to seek out different environments that reinforce the effects of those genes. Nonetheless, there were several important environmental factors which were known to affect IQ, such as having received very poor or interrupted schooling. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24984", "title": "Personality psychology", "section": "Section::::Personality theories.:Biopsychological theories.:Genetic basis of personality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 569, "text": "DNA-environment interactions are important in the development of personality because this relationship determines what part of the DNA code is actually made into proteins that will become part of an individual. While different choices are made available by the genome, in the end, the environment is the ultimate determinant of what becomes activated. Small changes in DNA in individuals are what lead to the uniqueness of every person as well as differences in looks, abilities, brain functioning, and all the factors that culminate to develop a cohesive personality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hello!\nAnother related question, how much did the supply of Allied apparel affect the combat strength of the Soviet army during the continuation war against Finland? I've heard anecdotes that one of the key reasons Finland was forced into an armistice was that the useful equipment used in the continuation war was primarily US -supplied military gear ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "519489", "title": "Eastern Front (World War II)", "section": "Section::::Forces.:Foreign support and measures.:Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 540, "text": "Stalin noted in 1944, that two-thirds of Soviet heavy industry had been built with the help of the United States, and the remaining one-third, with the help from other Western nations such as Great Britain and Canada. The massive transfer of equipment and skilled personnel from occupied territories helped further to boost the economic base. Without Lend-Lease aid, Soviet Union's diminished post invasion economic base would not have produced adequate supplies of weaponry, other than focus on machine tool, foodstuff and consumer goods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2692270", "title": "First five-year plan", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 419, "text": "Soviet reports from before the Five Year Plan found that much of the military production capacities in the Soviet Union lay in the country's war threatened Western provinces and notably the city of Leningrad. In 1931 evacuation plans for military production facilities into deeper Soviet territories were drafted beginning a policy that would accelerate and relocate deeper within the Soviet Union during World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "97477", "title": "Eastern Bloc", "section": "Section::::Economies.:Initial changes.:Asset relocation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 768, "text": "At the same time, at the war's end, the Soviet Union adopted a \"plunder policy\" of physically transporting and relocating east European industrial assets to the Soviet Union. Eastern Bloc states were required to provide coal, industrial equipment, technology, rolling stock and other resources to reconstruct the Soviet Union. Between 1945 and 1953, the Soviets received a net transfer of resources from the rest of the Eastern Bloc under this policy of roughly $14 billion, an amount comparable to the net transfer from the United States to western Europe in the Marshall Plan. \"Reparations\" included the dismantling of railways in Poland and Romanian reparations to the Soviets between 1944 and 1948 valued at $1.8 billion concurrent with the domination of SovRoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7237748", "title": "Allied plans for German industry after World War II", "section": "Section::::The Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 240, "text": "In accordance with the agreements with the USSR shipment of dismantled German industrial installations from the west began on March 31, 1946. By August 1947 11,100 tons of equipment had been shipped east as reparations to the Soviet Union.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "465971", "title": "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "section": "Section::::The Cold War.:Tenor of Soviet–U.S. relations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 733, "text": "The USSR urgently needed munitions, food and fuel that was provided by the U.S. and also Britain, primarily through Lend Lease. The three power kept in regular contact, with Stalin trying to maintain a veil of secrecy over internal affairs. Churchill and other top Soviets visited Moscow, as did Roosevelt's top aide Harry Hopkins. Stalin repeatedly requested that the United States and Britain open a second front on the European continent; but the Allied invasion did not occur until June 1944, more than two years later. In the meantime, the Russians suffered high casualties, and the Soviets faced the brunt of German strength. The Allies pointed out that their intensive air bombardment was a major factor that Stalin ignored. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55832", "title": "Lend-Lease", "section": "Section::::British deliveries to the Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 397, "text": "In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of June 27, 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7062377", "title": "Aftermath of World War II", "section": "Section::::Immediate effects.:Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 816, "text": "The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union coerced Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasised heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You may want to be more specific - countless technological advancements have contributed to the kind of combat aircraft we see today. If we ignore electronics (which nowadays are arguably the most important part of combat aircraft design) and armament, the biggest areas of improvement are engines and propulsion, aerodynamic design, and materials. I'll try to do a broad overview of things - let me know if there's anything specific you want me to elaborate on. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe triplanes made famous in WW1 - the Sopwith Triplane and Fokker Dr.I - were alarmingly simple aircraft. They were largely made of canvas stretched over a wood frame with wires spanning around the aircraft to provide structural support to critical areas like the wings. Structural support would be the driving reason behind the biplane and triplane layouts, as the wings could be braced off of eachother with wires and struts. Airfoils - the cross-section of the wing - were very rudimentary, often consisting of just a single layer of canvas stretched over the top of an airfoil-shaped wood frame. Engines were perhaps the most terrifying feature of these designs - the rotary engines popular during WW1 were mounted in such a way that they spun with the propeller. Combined with the very light construction of the airframe, the several hundred pounds of engine spinning at the same speed as the propeller on the front of the plane led to dangerous gyroscopic effects that made the aircraft very difficult to control at low speeds. On the topic of the propulsion, propellers of the time were simple fixed-pitch propellers and almost always two-bladed.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nGoing forward, every aspect of these aircraft would be improved upon. Better structural design and materials would allow for simpler biplane structures with fewer wires and struts or even monoplane designs if the wings were made thick enough. New materials contributed to this, particularly the aluminum alloy known as Duralumin, which would make the use of metal in aircraft structures feasible. The first all-metal aircraft - the Junkers J I - appeared during WW1 and in fact was a monoplane, but metal construction would catch on more commonly by replacing the wood structure underneath the canvas with metal tubing. All-metal designs would become the norm during WW2, although control surfaces often remained canvas-covered frames even in otherwise all-metal designs. Aerodynamic design massively improved, with groups like NACA (predecessor to America's NASA) doing huge amounts of research in the design of airfoils, engine cowlings, and various other aerodynamic features. New developments in propulsion would allow engineers to make the most of these new aerodynamic developments. Through the interwar period, engines became significantly more powerful and, perhaps more critically, significantly more reliable. During WW1 and the early interwar period, it was common for large multi-engined aircraft to have the engines serviceable in flight (see many of the Riesenflugzeug Germany used in WW1). Come WW2, however, such a feature is unheard of on aircraft - engines were reliable enough for even long endurance flights. Whereas the Fokker Dr.I mounted a 110 hp rotary engine in 1917 and the one of the premier aircraft engines at the end of the war was the American 400hp Liberty engine, fighter engines by 1939 were of the 1,000 hp class - the DB 601, Rolls-Royce Merlin, and Hispano-Suiza 12Y. By the end of the war, engines like the Wasp Major were pushing to nearly 4,000 hp. Just as important as added engine power was improved propeller design. Variable-pitch propellers would become commonplace in the interwar period, allowing the pitch of the propeller to be tailored to factors like the speed of the aircraft, air density, and RPM of the propeller. The ultimate result of these developments in propulsion was that aircraft were able to become faster and - more significantly - heavier. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nOnce we get to the postwar era, some new factors become important. The increasing speed of aircraft during WW2 had seen aircraft pushing up against supersonic flight at the extremes of their performance, but it wouldn't be until after WW2 that engineers were really capable of designing for transonic flight. The theory of supersonic flight had largely been figured out during the interwar period, but the kind of understanding of transonic flight necessary for supersonic aircraft wasn't developed until after WW2. Developments like swept wings, conically-cambered delta wings, and area-ruling would further contribute to high-speed flight, and would have applications outside of supersonic aircraft (as we see with modern airliners). New propulsion also drastically changed flight profiles. Both piston engines and turbines lose power as altitude increases, but turbines proved more suited to high altitudes thanks to their greater power/thrust output. Jet engines replaced propellers for most applications, and where propellers remained, they were most often replaced by turoprops - effectively a propeller powered by a jet turbine - to provide a more powerful powerplant in a more compact and lighter package.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nFrom there, however, surprisingly little has changed in the grand scheme of things. Most of the advances for several decades have been the introduction finite-element-analysis using supercomputers for aerodynamic analysis (alongside wind tunnels), new materials improving structures and powerplants, and electronics (both hardware and software) improving capabilities of airframes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "49580136", "title": "Passenger Drones", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 820, "text": "Drones have been around since the beginning of the 21st century. While popular in recreational settings though the use of remote control airplanes in the 1970s and 1980s, drones gained in popularity during military war campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. Though the use of drones has been controversial at times, especially when drone use is tied to the loss of innocent lives, the strategic value of drones used in conducting military operations throughout the Middle East is apparent. Preceding the Ehang 1841 passenger drone, there were many concepts developed surrounding flight as a primary means of human transportation. The Aeromobil flying car concept of the early 1990s, Terrafugia flying vehicle concept of 2006, and personal jetpack introduced in the 1960s were all precursors to the passenger drone of today.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "177680", "title": "History of aviation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 341, "text": "In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital electronics produced great advances in flight instrumentation and \"fly-by-wire\" systems. The 21st century saw the large-scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3525512", "title": "History of unmanned combat aerial vehicles", "section": "Section::::Israel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 262, "text": "The first time UAVs drones were used as proof-of-concept of super-agility post-stall controlled flight in combat flight simulations was with tailless, Stealth-Technology-based three-dimensional Thrust Vectoring flight control jet steering was in Israel in 1987.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2397929", "title": "Lockheed DC-130", "section": "Section::::Development.:Origin of the design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 562, "text": "Since World War I many nations' air forces have investigated different means of remotely controlling aircraft. Spurred by the 1960 U-2 incident, the United States Air Force gained a renewed interest in using unmanned aerial vehicles, or drones, to obtain intelligence on the SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missile system. Under the code names \"Lightning Bug\" and \"Compass Cookie\", Firebee target drones were modified for reconnaissance as the Ryan Model 147. The drones were test flown over North Korea and China after the Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29642120", "title": "Interstate TDR", "section": "Section::::Design and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 792, "text": "In 1936, Lieutenant Commander Delmar S. Fahrney proposed that unpiloted, remotely controlled aircraft had potential for use by the United States Navy in combat operations. Due to the limitations of the technology of the time, development of the \"assault drone\" project was given a low priority, but by the early 1940s the development of the radar altimeter and television made the project more feasible, and following trials using converted manned aircraft, the first operational test of a drone against a naval target was conducted in April 1942. That same month, following trials of the Naval Aircraft Factory TDN assault drone, Interstate Aircraft received a contract from the Navy for two prototype and 100 production aircraft to a simplified and improved design, to be designated TDR-1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144589", "title": "Information warfare", "section": "Section::::New battlefield.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 917, "text": "Moreover, physical ICTs have also been implemented into the latest revolution in military affairs by deploying new, more autonomous robots (i.e. – unmanned drones) into the battlefield to carry out duties such as patrolling borders and attacking ground targets. Humans from remote locations pilot many of the unmanned drones, however, some of the more advanced robots, such as the Northrop Grumman X-47B, are capable of autonomous decisions. Despite piloting the drones from remote locations, a proportion of drone pilots still suffer from stress factors of more traditional warfare. According to NPR, a study performed by the Pentagon in 2011 found that 29% of drone pilots are “burned out” and undergo high levels of stress. Furthermore, approximately 17% of the drone pilots surveyed as the study were labeled “clinically distressed” with some of those pilots also showing signs of post-traumatic stress disorder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1036221", "title": "Star Fleet Universe", "section": "Section::::History.:Alpha Octant history.:Wartime technological advances.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 1341, "text": "Likely the most important technological advance made during the General War in the west was the fast drone. Early drones could only make speeds 8 or 12, and target starships could easily evade them while still threatening the ships that launched them. These slow drones made the Anchor tactic practically mandatory for the Kzintis, who relied on drones for most of their firepower. Just before the war's start, the speed-20 (type M or medium speed) drones appeared. These could still be evaded but were difficult to avoid while attacking the launcher starship. In Y180 the fastest type F or speed-32 drones began appearing in the war, and these proved devastatingly effective, though expensive. Many other drone improvements became available to the drone-using races: multi-warhead drones, spearfish and swordfish drones with specialized warheads, Active Terminal Guidance (freeing drone control channels on the launcher starship), and armored drones which were more difficult to intercept. The Electronic Warfare Drone revolutionized starship fighting tactics because it made its parent ship more difficult to hit. Finally, the long-range bombardment drone, with its specialized carrier starship, won many battles for their users throughout the war. They became ever-more-powerful with the ongoing development of superior drone ammunition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The only real difference would be the increased fallout and radiation from the spread of radioactive material during the explosion. The other material wouldn't achieve the critical pressures/temperatures required to set off a chain reaction and it would just get blown into the atmosphere by the blast. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22133", "title": "Nuclear chain reaction", "section": "Section::::Nuclear power plants and control of chain reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 771, "text": "It is impossible for a nuclear power plant to undergo a nuclear chain reaction that results in an explosion of power comparable with a nuclear weapon, but even low-powered explosions due to uncontrolled chain reactions, that would be considered \"fizzles\" in a bomb, may still cause considerable damage and meltdown in a reactor. For example, the Chernobyl disaster involved a runaway chain reaction but the result was a low-powered steam explosion from the relatively small release of heat, as compared with a bomb. However, the reactor complex was destroyed by the heat, as well as by ordinary burning of the graphite exposed to air. Such steam explosions would be typical of the very diffuse assembly of materials in a nuclear reactor, even under the worst conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47330931", "title": "Severomorsk Disaster", "section": "Section::::Reporting and aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 262, "text": "Though no nuclear weapons were damaged during the fire and subsequent explosion, according to the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, had nuclear weapons detonated during the blasts, the nuclear fallout would've almost certainly reached Norway, just away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22151", "title": "Nuclear reactor", "section": "Section::::Natural nuclear reactors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 169, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 169, "end_character": 369, "text": "The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22133", "title": "Nuclear chain reaction", "section": "Section::::Nuclear power plants and control of chain reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 1179, "text": "In addition, other steps can be taken for safety. For example, power plants licensed in the United States require a negative void coefficient of reactivity (this means that if water is removed from the reactor core, the nuclear reaction will tend to shut down, not increase). This eliminates the possibility of the type of accident that occurred at Chernobyl (which was due to a positive void coefficient). However, nuclear reactors are still capable of causing smaller explosions even after complete shutdown, such as was the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. In such cases, residual decay heat from the core may cause high temperatures if there is loss of coolant flow, even a day after the chain reaction has been shut down (see SCRAM). This may cause a chemical reaction between water and fuel that produces hydrogen gas which can explode after mixing with air, with severe contamination consequences, since fuel rod material may still be exposed to the atmosphere from this process. However, such explosions do not happen during a chain reaction, but rather as a result of energy from radioactive beta decay, after the fission chain reaction has been stopped.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1350293", "title": "Vela Incident", "section": "Section::::Possible responsible parties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 216, "text": "If a nuclear explosion did occur, it occurred within the 3,000-mile-wide (4,800 km diameter) circle covering parts of the Indian Ocean, the South Atlantic, the southern tip of Africa, and a small part of Antarctica.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "207347", "title": "Nuclear power plant", "section": "Section::::Safety and accidents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 711, "text": "Modern nuclear reactor designs have had numerous safety improvements since the first-generation nuclear reactors. A nuclear power plant cannot explode like a nuclear weapon because the fuel for uranium reactors is not enriched enough, and nuclear weapons require precision explosives to force fuel into a small enough volume to go supercritical. Most reactors require continuous temperature control to prevent a core meltdown, which has occurred on a few occasions through accident or natural disaster, releasing radiation and making the surrounding area uninhabitable. Plants must be defended against theft of nuclear material and attack by enemy military planes or missiles, or planes hijacked by terrorists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1421832", "title": "Boosted fission weapon", "section": "Section::::Gas boosting in modern nuclear weapons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 209, "text": "Fusion-boosted fission bombs can also be made immune to neutron radiation from nearby nuclear explosions, which can cause other designs to predetonate, blowing themselves apart without achieving a high yield.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As far as we know, and according to our current models, time is continuous. There are some proposed models of quantum gravity where time is quantized at very small scales, like around the Planck scale, but we lack the experimental accuracy needed to access those scales, so as of now we can't know for sure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11701033", "title": "Scale relativity", "section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Minimum and maximum invariant scales.:Minimum invariant scale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 494, "text": "In special scale relativity, similar unreachable observational scales are proposed, the Planck length scale (\"l\") and the Planck time scale (\"t\"). Dilations are bounded by \"l\" and \"t\", which means that we can divide spatial or temporal intervals without end, but they will always be superior to Planck's length and time scales. This is a result of special scale relativity (see section 2.7 below). Similarly, the composition of two scale changes is inferior to the product of these two scales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174386", "title": "Planck time", "section": "Section::::Physical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 781, "text": "The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "418156", "title": "Second quantization", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 583, "text": "Second quantization, also referred to as occupation number representation, is a formalism used to describe and analyze quantum many-body systems. In quantum field theory, it is known as canonical quantization, in which the fields (typically as the wave functions of matter) are thought of as field operators, in a manner similar to how the physical quantities (position, momentum, etc.) are thought of as operators in first quantization. The key ideas of this method were introduced in 1927 by Paul Dirac, and were developed, most notably, by Vladimir Fock and Pascual Jordan later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42598658", "title": "Problem of time", "section": "Section::::Time in quantum mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 638, "text": "In classical mechanics, a special status is assigned to time in the sense that it is treated as a classical background parameter, external to the system itself. This special role is seen in the standard formulation of quantum mechanics. It is regarded as part of an a priori given classical background with a well defined value. In fact, the classical treatment of time is deeply intertwined with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, and, thus, with the conceptual foundations of quantum theory: all measurements of observables are made at certain instants of time and probabilities are only assigned to such measurements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11701033", "title": "Scale relativity", "section": "Section::::Astrophysical applications.:Dark matter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 276, "text": "In the same way as quantum physics differs from the classical at very small scales because of fractal effects, symmetrically, at very large scales, scale relativity also predicts that corrections from the fractality of space-time must be taken into account (see also Fig. 1).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33710707", "title": "Planck units", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 769, "text": "The term \"Planck scale\" refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the Standard Model, quantum field theory and general relativity are no longer reconcilable, and quantum effects of gravity are expected to dominate. This region may be characterized by energies around (the Planck energy), time intervals around (the Planck time) and lengths around (the Planck length). At the Planck scale, current models are not expected to be a useful guide to the cosmos, and physicists have no scientific model to suggest how the physical universe behaves. The best known example is represented by the conditions in the first 10 seconds of our universe after the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152664", "title": "Loop quantum gravity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 408, "text": "To do this, in LQG theory space and time are quantized, analogously to the way quantities like energy and momentum are quantized in quantum mechanics. The theory gives a physical picture of spacetime where space and time are granular and discrete directly because of quantization just like photons in the quantum theory of electromagnetism and the discrete energy levels of atoms. A minimum distance exists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sweat can be a factor (evaporation cools you, of course).\n\nHowever, more commonly, it's because the air is far below your body temperature, so the more air per minute you're exposed to, the more cooling effect there is. Your body doesn't perceive external temperature, per se, but the rate and direction of heat exchange with the environment. \n\nAir below body temperature then will always cool you. Air above body temperature will still cool you because of evaporation and sweat. However, air with a wet bulb temperature (that's basically the temperature you can reach with sweating) near body temperature is eventually fatal and the more it flows the faster you die. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12877572", "title": "Fan (machine)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 406, "text": "While fans are often used to cool people, they do not actually cool air (electric fans may warm it slightly due to the warming of their motors), but work by evaporative cooling of sweat and increased heat convection into the surrounding air due to the airflow from the fans. Thus, fans may become ineffective at cooling the body if the surrounding air is near body temperature and contains high humidity. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32173050", "title": "High-volume low-speed fan", "section": "Section::::Heating and cooling benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 395, "text": "Unlike air conditioners, which cool rooms, fans cool people. Ceiling fans increase air speed at the occupant level, which facilitates more efficient heat rejection, cooling the occupant, rather than the space. Elevated air speed increases the rate of convective and evaporative heat loss from the body, thus making the occupant feel cooler without changing the dry bulb temperature of the air. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152643", "title": "Hand fan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 310, "text": "On human skin, the airflow from handfans increases evaporation which has a cooling effect due to the latent heat of evaporation of water. It also increases heat convection by displacing the warmer air produced by body heat that surrounds the skin. Fans are convenient to carry around, especially folding fans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4045710", "title": "Computer fan", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Case fan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 655, "text": "Fans are used to move air through the computer case. The components inside the case cannot dissipate heat efficiently if the surrounding air is too hot. Case fans may be placed as \"intake fans\", drawing cooler outside air in through the front or bottom of the chassis (where it may also be drawn over the internal hard drive racks), or \"exhaust fans\", expelling warm air through the top or rear. Some ATX tower cases have one or more additional vents and mounting points in the left side panel where one or more fans may be installed to blow cool air directly onto the motherboard components and expansion cards, which are among the largest heat sources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5224564", "title": "Space heater", "section": "Section::::Convective heaters.:With a fan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 210, "text": "Some convective heaters use a fan to help circulate warm air throughout a room. Their heating elements are metal or ceramic and are in direct contact with room air, allowing fan heaters to warm a room quickly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3508315", "title": "Electric heating", "section": "Section::::Space heating.:Fan heaters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 451, "text": "A fan heater, also called a forced convection heater, is a kind of convection heater that includes an electric fan to speed up the airflow. They operate with considerable noise caused by the fan. They have a moderate risk of ignition hazard if they make unintended contact with furnishings. Their advantage is that they are more compact than heaters that use natural convection and are also cost-efficient for portable and small room heating systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3842696", "title": "Eastgate Centre, Harare", "section": "Section::::Passive cooling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 229, "text": "BULLET::::- Evening: temperatures outside drop. The warm internal air is vented through chimneys, assisted by fans but also rising naturally because it is less dense, and drawing in denser cool air at the bottom of the building.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your policy will tell you when the copay applies, and when the deductible applies. You need to check there, as almost every policy is different.\n\nWith that said, typically things like normal visits (annual physicals, OB/GYN visits, etc.) only require the copay, while unscheduled emergency count against your deductible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Generally anything preventative is not applied to the deductable, removing a mole to prevent cancer. Reactive, however, applies to the deductable, like casting a broken arm. Furthermore, many doctors will call a lot more things preventative, so it does not apply. A very easy way to convince your GF her visit will be covered is to call the office, give them your insuance information and they can tell you right then and there! (or in a few minutes depending on how busy they are)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your girlfriend's OB/GYN visit is covered 100% with no out of pocket costs. This is part of the new ACA law.\nsrc: i'm licensed and fully ACA certified with CMS. i sell health insurance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends on the plan--your paperwork is more reliable than anything I could tell you-- but generally a copay works independently of the deductible. The trick is that the copy ONLY covers those things that the copay covers and everything else is subject to the deductible. So if it is $30/$50 and preventive care is 100% covered, your girlfriend will pay nothing for an annual checkup and routine screenings at the OB/GYN, but $30 or $50 for any other visits (depending on whether OB/GYN is considered specialist or primary care). Any lab tests or procedures that are not routine screenings are usually subject to the deductible separately of the office visit copay. Under the ACA birth control is supposed to be 100% covered, but other procedures/diagnostic tests may not be and will be subject to the deductible and coinsurance. \n\nEdited to add: Back when we had this sort of plan, we would pay the specialist office visit copay for my son's cardiologist, and later be billed (deductible + coinsurance) for the echocardiogram and EKG since these were not covered by the office visit copay.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Get out your packet of information or go to your plan's website. Generally your charges are going to fall into two categories: services with a copay and services with coinsurance. \r\rAny time you have a copay, this is the most you will pay for that service, and it almost never applies to a deductible. So your $15 (or whatever) primary care physician copay won't count against your deductible unless specified.\r\rAny time there is coinsurance, is when your deductible comes into play. So if you have a $500 deductible with 80/20 coinsurance and you get a $1000 bill, you will pay $600 [$500+(0.20*$500)] and your insurance will pay the remaining $400 (0.80*500). Any other coinsurance bills the rest of the year will just be you (0.20*X) and insurance (0.80*X).\r\rYour plan will generally cover preventative services such as mammograms, pap smears, colonoscopies, etc on a schedule i.e. 1-2x a year or every other year. Many preventative checkups are covered free or low copay if you follow the schedule. \r\rTwo other notes. \rIf you have a critical illness policy(cancer, heart disease, etc) they will usually pay you to get preventative checkups. It's usually capped (like one a year or $100) but if you're already getting the free checkup, may as well get the money. \r\rMost of the time, the bigger the building, the bigger the bill. Avoid hospitals if possible in favor of your primary care physician or even a specialist with an office not at a hospital. It's amazing the price difference sometimes (like $50 copay for a diagnostic test vs $250 copay).\r\rSource: Insurance license.\r\r", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hearing aid specialist here. \n\nAlways check for additional deductibles as well. Some insurances have put sneaky stuff for hearing aids like \"100% coverage after meeting the hearing aid deductible (of $6000). \n\nIt isn't the regular deductible that you can whittle down with other stuff. It's specific to hearing aids - and it's dishonest as fuck since most hearing aids are cheaper than that. \n\nAny time you see percentages thrown around, check for more solid dollar amounts. 100% coverage usually ain't. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2151313", "title": "Copayment", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 614, "text": "A copayment or copay is a fixed amount for a covered service, paid by a patient to the provider of service before receiving the service. It may be defined in an insurance policy and paid by an insured person each time a medical service is accessed. It is technically a form of coinsurance, but is defined differently in health insurance where a coinsurance is a percentage payment after the deductible up to a certain limit. It must be paid before any policy benefit is payable by an insurance company. Copayments do not usually contribute towards any policy out-of-pocket maxima whereas coinsurance payments do. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1190346", "title": "Deferral", "section": "Section::::Deferred expense.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 908, "text": "A Deferred expense or prepayment, prepaid expense, plural often prepaids, is an asset representing cash paid out to a counterpart for goods or services to be received in a later accounting period. For example, if a service contract is paid quarterly in advance, at the end of the first month of the period two months remain as a deferred expense. In the deferred expense the early payment is accompanied by a related recognized expense in the subsequent accounting period, and the same amount is deducted from the prepayment. The deferred expense shares characteristics with accrued revenue (or \"accrued assets\") with the difference that an asset to be covered later are proceeds from a delivery of goods or services, at which such income item is earned and the related revenue item is recognized, while cash for them is to be received in a later period, when its amount is deducted from \"accrued revenues\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "798022", "title": "Flexible spending account", "section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:Use it or lose it.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 513, "text": "A second requirement is that all applications for refunds must be made by a date defined by the plan. If funds are forfeited, this does not eliminate the requirement to pay taxes on these funds if such taxes are required. For example, if a single person elects to withhold $5,000 for child care expenses and gets married to a non-working spouse, the $5,000 would become taxable. If this person did not submit claims by the required date, the $5,000 would be forfeited but taxes would still be owed on the amount.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1670509", "title": "Tax resistance", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Legal.:Paying under protest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 595, "text": "Some taxpayers pay their taxes, but include protest letters along with their tax forms. Others pay in a protesting form — for instance, by writing their cheque on a toilet seat or a mock-up of a missile. Others pay in a way that creates inconvenience for the collector — for instance, by paying the entire amount in low-denomination coins. This last method is less effective in countries where small coins are legal tender only in limited amounts, allowing the tax authority legally to reject such payments; for example in England and Wales, 1p coins are legal tender only in amounts up to 20p.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1568235", "title": "Payment in lieu of taxes", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "A payment in lieu of taxes (usually abbreviated as PILOT, or sometimes as PILT) is a payment made to compensate a government for some or all of the property tax revenue lost due to tax exempt ownership or use of real property.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20609557", "title": "Baltic Shipping Company v Dillon", "section": "Section::::Judgment.:High Court.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 246, "text": "He then observed that, in order to avoid over-compensation, a claim for restitution of money paid on a total failure of consideration will succeed only if accompanied by counter-restitution of benefits bargained for and received by the claimant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2942704", "title": "Deferred compensation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 375, "text": "Deferred compensation is an arrangement in which a portion of an employee's income is paid out at a later date after which the income was earned. Examples of deferred compensation include pensions, retirement plans, and employee stock options. The primary benefit of most deferred compensation is the deferral of tax to the date(s) at which the employee receives the income.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, this is based in history. The British went through numerous versions of the phonetic alphabet and during the WWI period, it was indeed Apples, Butter, Charlie, Duff, etc. [Tables here](_URL_0_)\n\nDue to issues with differences in the phonetic alphabet, and difficulty in pronouncing certain words, after WW2, the newly formed International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) drafted up a new phonetic alphabet, which is frequently called the NATO alphabet as NATO was one of the first major organizations to adopt it in full for all of its militaries. [History here from ICAO](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "154675", "title": "Allied military phonetic spelling alphabets", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 375, "text": "The Allied military phonetic spelling alphabets prescribe the words that are used to represent each letter of the alphabet, when spelling other words out loud, letter-by-letter, and how the spelling words should be pronounced. They are not a \"phonetic alphabet\" in the sense in which that term is used in phonetics, i.e. they are not a system for transcribing speech sounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6759802", "title": "United States Army enlisted rank insignia of World War II", "section": "Section::::Abbreviations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 538, "text": "As seen in the comparative chart below, the U.S. Army ranks during World War II were not abbreviated the same as they currently are today having all letters capitalized. Rather, only the first letter was capitalized, followed by the rest of the abbreviated word in the lower case, and a period to indicate it as being an abbreviation. In some cases, two or more letters were capitalized with a slash mark after the first letter to indicate that there was more than one word in the full title of the rank. See the comparative chart below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59045", "title": "NATO phonetic alphabet", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 670, "text": "Throughout World War II, many nations used their own versions of a spelling alphabet. The U.S. adopted the Joint Army/Navy radiotelephony alphabet during 1941 to standardize systems among all branches of its armed forces. The U.S. alphabet became known as \"Able Baker\" after the words for A and B. The Royal Air Force adopted one similar to the United States one during World War II as well. Other British forces adopted the RAF radio alphabet, which is similar to the phonetic alphabet used by the Royal Navy during World War I. At least two of the terms are sometimes still used by UK civilians to spell words over the phone, namely \"F for Freddie\" and \"S for Sugar\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59045", "title": "NATO phonetic alphabet", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 449, "text": "The first non-military internationally recognized spelling alphabet was adopted by the CCIR (predecessor of the ITU) during 1927. The experience gained with that alphabet resulted in several changes being made during 1932 by the ITU. The resulting alphabet was adopted by the International Commission for Air Navigation, the predecessor of the ICAO, and was used for civil aviation until World War II. It continued to be used by the IMO until 1965.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154675", "title": "Allied military phonetic spelling alphabets", "section": "Section::::United Kingdom military spelling alphabets.:RAF radiotelephony spelling alphabet.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 511, "text": "During World War I both the British Army and the Royal Navy had developed their own quite separate spelling alphabets. The Navy system was a full alphabet, starting: \"Apples, Butter, Charlie, Duff, Edward\", but the RAF alphabet was based on that of the \"signalese\" of the army signallers. This was not a full alphabet, but differentiated only the letters most frequently misunderstood: \"Ack (originally \"Ak\"), Beer (or Bar), C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, eMma, N, O, Pip, Q, R, eSses, Toc, U, Vic, W, X, Y, Z\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1352105", "title": "Assyrian Neo-Aramaic", "section": "Section::::Script.:Modern development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 266, "text": "The oldest and classical form of the alphabet is \"\" (); the name is thought to derive from the Greek adjective (\"strongúlē\") 'round'. Although ʾEsṭrangēlā is no longer used as the main script for writing Syriac, it has undergone some revival since the 10th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154675", "title": "Allied military phonetic spelling alphabets", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 528, "text": "The Allied military radiotelephone spelling alphabets were created prior to World War I and evolved separately in the United States and the United Kingdom—and separately among the individual military services in the two countries—until being merged during World War II. The last WWII spelling alphabet continued to be used through the Korean War, being replaced in 1956 as a result of both countries adopting the ICAO/ITU Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, with the NATO members calling their usage the \"NATO Phonetic Alphabet\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is a way to shorten a longer quote. For example, if the original quote was:\n\n\"We at the university, through partnership with both the intellectual property holders and the telecom providers, feel the best approach is to change social attitudes towards downloading.\"\n\nSo the stuff in brackets shows the gist of the first part of the sentence, but makes it clear it is not a direct quote.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I often see it used to add words the speaker left out. A sentence like \"They have a right to happiness\" doesn't confer the idea of the speaker without more context so it might be quoted in print as \"[Gays] have the right to happiness\". It's used to show added or substituted words for clarity. When used properly it will add understanding without changing the intent of the statement. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3331114", "title": "Speech analytics", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 474, "text": "The process can isolate the words and phrases used most frequently within a given time period, as well as indicate whether usage is trending up or down. This information is useful for supervisors, analysts, and others in an organization to spot changes in consumer behavior and take action to reduce call volumes—and increase customer satisfaction. It allows insight into a customer's thought process, which in turn creates an opportunity for companies to make adjustments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18576207", "title": "Social information processing", "section": "Section::::Key concepts.:Social Recommender Systems.:Content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1022, "text": "Social media lets users to provide feedback on the content produced by users of social media websites, by means of commenting on or liking the content shared by others and annotating their own-created content via tagging. This newly introduced metadata by social media helps to obtain recommendations for social media content with improved effectiveness. Also, social media lets to extract the explicit relationship between users such as friendship and people followed/followers. This provides further improvement on collaborative filtering systems because now users can have judgement on the recommendations provided based on the people they have relationships. There have been studies showing the effectiveness of recommendation systems which utilize relationships among users on social media compared to traditional collaborative filtering based systems, specifically for movie and book recommendation. Another improvement brought by social media to recommender systems is solving the cold start problem for new users.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40827228", "title": "Opinion Stage", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 266, "text": "The Opinion Stage widget optionally makes use of social polling and voting (people use their social network identities to vote), intended to promote social sharing, drive social traffic to the site, improve voting authenticity, and facilitate demographic filtering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51695563", "title": "Gab (social network)", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 435, "text": "Users can sort comments and posts in a subject by time or score. Default biographies for new users display a randomly chosen quotation about the importance of free speech. Users also have the option to \"mute\" other users and terms. The default profile picture for new users to the site features NPC Wojak, a meme popular on far-right sites. The site offers its users an option to delete their entire posting history in a single click.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44166237", "title": "The People's Platform", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 258, "text": "\"The People's Platform\" was created to document how the internet has been instrumental in wiping out the \"cultural industry’s middle classes\" and that the middle class has been \"replaced by new cultural plantations ruled over by the West Coast aggregators.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9933471", "title": "Digital marketing", "section": "Section::::Latest developments and strategies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 320, "text": "5. Remarketing: Remarketing plays a major role in digital marketing. This tactic allows marketers to publish targeted ads in front of an interest category or a defined audience, generally called searchers in web speak, they have either searched for particular products or services or visited a website for some purpose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15144375", "title": "Social network aggregation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 640, "text": "There are other related uses of social media aggregators aside from simplifying the user's social networking experiences. Some aggregators are designed to help companies (and bloggers) improve engagement with their brand(s) by creating aggregated social streams that can be embedded into an existing website and customized to look visually intrinsic to the site. This allows potential customers to interact with all the social media posts maintained by the brand without requiring them to jump from site to site. This has the benefit of keeping customers on the brand's site for a longer period of time (increasing \"time on site\" metrics).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Pliny the Elder in Natural History seems well aware of bird migration in the first century AD. He claims cranes fly from the east of India: \n\n > The tracts over which they travel must be immense, if we only consider that they come all the way from the Eastern Sea.\n\nBut he doesn’t know where storks come from:\n\n > Up to the present time it has not been ascertained from what place the storks come, or whither they go when they leave us. There can be no doubt but that, like the cranes, they come from a very great distance, the cranes being our winter, the storks our summer, guests.\n\nHe thinks swallows don’t migrate that far:\n\n > The swallow, the only bird that is carnivorous among those which have not hooked talons, takes its departure also during the winter months; but it only goes to neighbouring countries, seeking sunny retreats there on the mountain sides; sometimes they have been found in such spots bare and quite unfledged.\n\n…and claims the thrush winters in the north, not the south:\n\n > they are often to be seen in places where they seek their food during the winter: hence it is that in winter, more especially, the thrush is so often to be seen in Germany.\n\nPliny also points out that geese and swans migrate, and interestingly even knows the V-formation makes for easier flying.\n\n > The flocks, forming a point, move along with great impetus, much, indeed, after the manner of our Liburnian beaked galleys; and it is by doing so that they are enabled to cleave the air more easily than if they presented to it a broad front. The flight gradually enlarges in the rear, much in the form of a wedge, presenting a vast surface to the breeze, as it impels them onward; those that follow place their necks on those that go before, while the leading birds, as they become weary, fall to the rear. \n\nPliny actually categorises some birds on their migration, or non-migration, which you can see in [Book X](_URL_0_).\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4945021", "title": "Pfeilstorch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 478, "text": "This ' was crucial in understanding the migration of European birds. Before migration was understood, people had no explanation for the sudden annual disappearance of birds like the white stork and barn swallow. Some theories of the time held that they turned into mice, or hibernated at the bottom of the sea during the winter, and such theories were even propagated by zoologists of the time. The ' in particular proved that birds migrate long distances to wintering grounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9628780", "title": "Animal migration", "section": "Section::::In culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 635, "text": "Before the phenomenon of animal migration was understood, various folklore and erroneous explanations sprang up to account for the disappearance or sudden arrival of birds in an area. In Ancient Greece, Aristotle proposed that robins turned into redstarts when summer arrived. The barnacle goose was explained in European Medieval bestiaries and manuscripts as either growing like fruit on trees, or developing from goose barnacles on pieces of driftwood. Another example is the swallow, which was once thought, even by naturalists such as Gilbert White, to hibernate either underwater, buried in muddy riverbanks, or in hollow trees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201943", "title": "Bird migration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 569, "text": "Migration of species such as storks, turtle doves, and swallows was recorded as many as 3,000 years ago by Ancient Greek authors, including Homer and Aristotle, and in the Book of Job. More recently, Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749, and modern scientific studies have used techniques including bird ringing and satellite tracking to trace migrants. Threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction especially of stopover and wintering sites, as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244511", "title": "Barn owl", "section": "Section::::Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1022, "text": "In continental Europe the distance travelled is greater, commonly somewhere between but exceptionally , with ringed birds from the Netherlands ending up in Spain and in Ukraine. In the United States, dispersal is typically over distances of , with the most travelled individuals ending up some from the point of origin. Movements in the African continent include from Senegambia to Sierra Leone and up to within South Africa. In Australia there is some migration as the birds move towards the northern coast in the dry season and southward in the wet, and also nomadic movements in association with rodent plagues. Occasionally, some of these birds turn up on Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island or New Zealand, showing that crossing the ocean is not beyond their capabilities. In 2008, barn owls were recorded for the first time breeding in New Zealand. The barn owl has been successfully introduced into the Hawaiian island of Kauai in an attempt to control rodents, however it has been found to also feed on native birds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34061", "title": "Winter", "section": "Section::::Ecological reckoning and activity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 214, "text": "BULLET::::- Migration is a common effect of winter upon animals, notably birds. However, the majority of birds do not migrate—the cardinal and European robin, for example. Some butterflies also migrate seasonally.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "273665", "title": "Little egret", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1076, "text": "In warmer locations, most birds are permanent residents; northern populations, including many European birds, migrate to Africa and southern Asia to over-winter there. The birds may also wander north in late summer after the breeding season, and their tendency to disperse may have assisted in the recent expansion of the bird's range. At one time common in Western Europe, it was hunted extensively in the 19th century to provide plumes for the decoration of hats and became locally extinct in northwestern Europe and scarce in the south. Around 1950, conservation laws were introduced in southern Europe to protect the species and their numbers began to increase. By the beginning of the 21st century the bird was breeding again in France, the Netherlands, Ireland and Britain. Its range is continuing to expand westward, and the species has begun to colonise the New World; it was first seen in Barbados in 1954 and first bred there in 1994. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the bird's global conservation status as being of \"least concern\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "357331", "title": "Common nighthawk", "section": "Section::::Habitat and distribution.:Migration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 239, "text": "While migrating, these birds have been reported travelling through middle America, Florida, the West Indies, Cuba, the Caribbean and Bermuda, finally completing their journey in the wintering grounds of South America, primarily Argentina.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It doesn't. Plants don't age the way animals do. They show symptoms of aging as their structure becomes too large and woody to carry out its functions, but their growing cells are no older now than they were when it first sprouted. There are plants that have been cloning themselves for tens if not hundreds of thousands of years, and other plants that could live forever unless something kills them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60825445", "title": "Dioscorea chouardii", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 796, "text": "\"Dioscorea chouardii\" is related to the yam and grows from a tuber hidden in the rock fissure. From this it sends out a shoot each year which withers away in the autumn. The shoot leaves a scar on the tuber, which makes it possible to estimate the age of the plant from the number of scars; the oldest plants are calculated to have lived for three hundred years, and may be contenders for being the \"slowest growing plants in the world\". The plant reproduces by seed, pollination having been performed by ants. When fertilised, the flower-stem bends over to bury the resulting seedhead in the crack, the seeds being released when it dries. This would limit dispersal possibilities for the plant were it not for the fact that the seeds are transported by ants, which distributes them more widely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17471519", "title": "Hylocomium splendens", "section": "Section::::Morphology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 771, "text": "It is generally olive green, yellowish or reddish green in colour, with reddish stems and branches. These often form branches up to 20 cm long, with current year's growth starting from near the middle of the previous year's branch. This produces feathery fronds in steps. It is possible to estimate the age of a plant by counting the steps - a new level being produced each year. This form of growth enables the species to \"climb\" over other mosses and forest debris that falls on it. It is shade-loving, grows in soil and humus and on decaying wood and often forms mats with living parts growing on top of older, dead or dying sections. Further south, the plants are larger with several steps; further north, in the arctic tundra, the plants are smaller with few steps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57515326", "title": "Acacia carneorum", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 300, "text": "Carbon dating has found that these plants range from approximately 120–330 years of age and this research also found that populations are heavily skewed towards older plants, meaning there has been little or no replacement in these populations since the introduction of grazing animals in the 1860s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2660950", "title": "Diapensia lapponica", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 214, "text": "It could be aged by counting growth-rings or clump diameter, and on this basis, many Canadian plants are thought to live to over a century or two. See also the thesis by R. Day at Memorial University Newfoundland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "414958", "title": "Paleobotany", "section": "Section::::Plant fossils.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 321, "text": "A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded history (before about 3500 BC).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36292433", "title": "Trema lamarckiana", "section": "Section::::Growth and management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 305, "text": "They grow slowly at early stage. Later, they grow 1 m/year and the growth rate declines as they become old. Its lifespan is 10 to 20 years. According to the record, the species is not weedy. Reproduction can be enhanced by disturbing the soil close to seed-bearing plants before the seasonal rain begins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1780967", "title": "Heirloom plant", "section": "Section::::Requirements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 669, "text": "One school of thought places an age or date point on the cultivars. For instance, one school says the cultivar must be over 100 years old, others 50 years, and others prefer the date of 1945, which marks the end of World War II and roughly the beginning of widespread hybrid use by growers and seed companies. Many gardeners consider 1951 to be the latest year a plant could have originated and still be called an heirloom, since that year marked the widespread introduction of the first hybrid varieties. It was in the 1970s that hybrid seeds began to proliferate in the commercial seed trade. Some heirloom varieties are much older; some are apparently pre-historic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In a broad sense, **dry** is the opposite of **sweet**. Sweet alcohols are just that- sweeter. Dry is literally a lack of sweetness, not necessarily a taste on its own. Dry and sweet are often used to describe wine and gin, among other alcohols.\n\n**Wine** is made from fermented grapes. It can be red, white, or rose (pronounced \"ro-ZAY\") and there are numerous varieties within those groups, such as pinot noir, zinfandel, and chardonney. Wine is usually consumed straight (no additions). Red is drunk at room temperature, while white is usually chilled. \"Champagne\" is usually used as a shorthand for sparkling (carbonated) white wine. You can also get sparkling rose, or sparkling red, but the latter is uncommon.\n\n**Gin** is a clear liquor made from distilled juniper berries. It's very herby and floral, and can be dry or sweet. It's popular for cocktails, including the martini (gin+vermouth, and often olives), Tom Collins (basically gin+lemonade) and the gin & tonic (often with lime). People don't often drink gin straight.\n\n**Whiskey** is any number of fermented grain alcohols. They tend to be bitter and smoky, and often burn a little. **Rye** is a type of whiskey made with rye, and **bourbon** is made with corn. **Malt whiskey** is made from malted (partly germinated) barley. Whiskey can be consumed straight, either at plain room temperature (\"neat\") or over ice (\"on the rocks\"), and is also often used for cocktails, such as the whiskey sour (whiskey+lemon+sugar) and the Manhattan (whiskey+vermouth+bitters). \n\n**Rum** is a distilled alcohol made from molasses. It's sweet and spicy, and is very popular for cocktails, and sometimes cooking. It can be clear or dark.\n\n**Vodka** is a clear distilled alcohol that is made from cereal grains or potatoes. Good vodka ideally has very little taste, other than the taste of alcohol. This makes it a very popular tool for cocktails, because you can mix it with almost anything without the flavors fighting. Vodka is about as neutral as an alcohol gets. \n\n**Brandy** is alcohol made from... other alcohol, actually. You take wine (which is fermented) and then distill that to get brandy. Not very popular anymore, except as an accent or additive to cocktails.\n\n**Tequila** is a distilled alcohol made from the agave plant. Like rum it can be light or dark, and is sweet and spicy. Likewise to rum, it's popular for cocktails. It doesn't taste that much like rum, mind you. The most popular tequila cocktail by far, you'll likely know, is the margarita (tequila+triple sec+citrus juice, often with ice in a glass with a salted rim).\n\nEDIT: I'll edit to keep adding more.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You've got your main spirits:\n\nVodka - Clear colourless liquid, normally around 37% alcohol(in the UK at least). Made from fermented grains or potato. Smells like well alcohol. Normally mixed with various sodas or drunk straight(usually very cold). Can be flavoured with various sweet tastes like fruits or caramel. \n\nGin - Again clear and colourless, smells like flowers. Made from juniper berries. Normally mixed with soda. Again around 37%. \n\nRum - Made from fermented sugar cane. Can be white, spiced or dark. Bacardi is a common white rum. Captain Morgans is a common spiced rum but they also do a dark rum(and probably a white version too). Mixed with various sodas similar to vodka and again 37% \n\nWhisky/Whiskey - Ok things get tricky, it's easier to split these into 2 groups; Bourbon and Scotch(I hate to call it that as a Scottish person but its easier for explanation purposes). Bourbon is generally American whiskeys made from a corn mash; similar to Jack Daniels or Old Turkey. Its very sweet and normally drunk straight or with coke. \nScotch is more european, the most common types are Scottish Whisky or Irish Whiskey(but you get them from everywhere including America). This is made from malted barley, a single casket produces a single malt ie 1 type of barley grain used. If you blend a few different types together you get a blended malt. Either way it's normally drunk straight, with a bit of ice or a splash of water but never mixed with soda! A single malt tastes a lot more harsh where as a blend is normally less so. These are normally a lot higher percentage of alcohol. Colour wise they're all most commonly golden brown similar to a spiced rum. \n\nWine - 3 main types; Red, Rose and White. Made from fermented grapes, I think the colour comes from the grape type but I may be wrong. Drunk straight or as a spritzer, Normally around 12%. Red wine is a lot deeper and complex in taste whereas white wines are fruitier and lighter. Come from all over the world big areas though are Italy, France, South Africa, Australia and California. Champagne is a special type of white wine that is fizzy, as far as the EU goes this can only be made in the Champagne region of France to be called such otherwise it's fizzy wine, Cava is a similar wine from Spain. I don't think the same restrictions apply in the US though. \n\nMy suggestion to you would be to go to a bar and start trying things particularly rums, gins and vodkas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are two VERY basic differences between different types of alcoholic beverages. a) What they are primarily made from (fruit, grain, etc.) and b) How they are processed. What they all have in common is some sort of sugar (starch is a sugar) base that allows yeast to thrive and convert the sugar into alcohol (fermentation).\n\nSome basic examples: Wine is primarily produced from fruit. Fruits contain simple sugars. Beer, whiskey (there are tons of variations of whiskey) are produced from grain, which contain complex sugars. Gin is made from juniper berries. Tequila is made from agave, a type of cactus plant. Rum is made from molasses, which is essentially sugar cane.\n\nDifferent types of grain (read: starch) can be used as a base such as wheat, rye, barley, rice, corn, potato. Each will yield a different result. Whiskey, rye, beer, vodka, etc.\n\nDifferent processes yield different sub-types. For example, the type of vessel used for aging will affect the outcome. Bourbon is a type of whiskey that is aged in oak barrels that have been burned on the inside. The end result is a very distinct flavor compared to other whiskeys. \n\nSingle malt and double malt are just that, one type of malt is used or two. \n\nMost wines are either red or white. (The difference between the two depends on the type of grape or whether or not the grape skins are included in the process. The other basic description is sweet or dry (not sweet).\n\nPut all of these together in various combinations and the various possibilites are endless.\n\nThere are many exceptions to this but this is an ELI3 explanation.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most people already have an idea what they want, so just expand on what they're asking for.\n\nBut here's a primer.\n\nWines:\n\nAnything red for big flavour foods (dark meat, game meat, old or stinky cheeses).\n\nWhite is for lighter flavours (white wine doesn't have a stong taste so it doesnt drown a meal). Seafood or fruits.\n\nRose (pronounce Rose- EH) is usually a blend of red and white. Best in summer served chilled. Women love it.\n\nChampagne vs sparkling wine: only fizzy wine made in Champagne can be called so. Hence 'sparkling wine' for everyone else.\n\n(Sparkling wine vs cider: wine is from grapes, cider is other fruits (usually apple) and also difference in alcohol percentage).\n\nHard Bars:\n\nVodka- potato base. Some cleaner taete than others. You get what you pay for, usually.\n\nGin- from Juniper berries. Very distinct flavour.\n\nWhiskeys: no way around it, read this _URL_0_\n\nSake: Japanese fermented rice alcoholic something\n\nPort / Sherry: sweeter, cant remember why or how. \n\nTequila: Mexican fermented Agave drink. Most women's clothing are allergic: watch for flying articles of clothing.\n\nBeers: \nThe lighter the beer, the lighter the taste, usually.\n\nI'm not getting any more indepth because it is as bad as wine making now.\n\n*This guide is meant to be a very bare-bones quick guide. OP asked for an \"Alcohol for dummies\" and I tried to give basic things shop employees can pass with, at least until they get more experience and exposure to the different nuances etc. I'm not about to explain California vs French vs Italian vs Chilean wines, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6943948", "title": "Paddington alcohol test", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 598, "text": "When 40–70% of the patients in an accident and emergency department (AED) are there because of alcohol-related issues, it is useful for the staff of the AED to determine which of them are hazardous drinkers so that they can treat the underlying cause and offer brief advice which may reduce the health impact of alcohol for that patient. In accident and emergency departments it is also important to triage incoming patients as quickly as possible, to reduce staff size and cost. In one study, it took an average of 73 seconds to administer the AUDIT questionnaire but only 20 seconds for the PAT.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11280044", "title": "Alcohol laws in Germany", "section": "Section::::Other legislation.:Alcohol consumption in public.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 331, "text": "Until 2009, it was acceptable for employees in many fields of work (especially construction workers, gardeners and the like) to consume medium quantities of alcohol during work hours. However, occupational safety legislation has since tightened down and has induced a significant decrease of alcohol consumption during work hours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2227304", "title": "Beverage function", "section": "Section::::Types of drinks served.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 368, "text": "Another factor that affects whether alcohol is served is liability, for subsequent intoxication and anything that results from it. Many U.S. jurisdictions allow the victims of accidents to sue not only the person who was intoxicated, but also the person who served the alcohol, the person or company employing the bartender, and the board of directors of the company.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "137986", "title": "Harm reduction", "section": "Section::::Drugs.:Alcohol-related programmes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 440, "text": "A high amount of media coverage exists informing users of the dangers of driving drunk. Most alcohol users are now aware of these dangers and safe ride techniques like 'designated drivers' and free taxicab programmes are reducing the number of drunk-driving accidents. Many cities have free-ride-home programmes during holidays involving high alcohol abuse, and some bars and clubs will provide a visibly drunk patron with a free cab ride.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18079605", "title": "Occupational health psychology", "section": "Section::::Research topics.:Mental disorder.:Alcohol abuse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 692, "text": "Workplace factors can contribute to alcohol abuse and dependence of employees. Rates of abuse can vary by occupation, with high rates in the construction and transportation industries as well as among waiters and waitresses. Within the transportation sector, heavy truck drivers and material movers were shown to be at especially high risk. A prospective study of ECA subjects who were followed one year after the initial interviews provided data on newly incident cases of alcohol abuse and dependence. The study found that workers in jobs that combined low control with high physical demands were at increased risk of developing alcohol problems although the findings were confined to men.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19967284", "title": "Alcohol laws of Maryland", "section": "Section::::State laws.:Underage possession and consumption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 376, "text": "BULLET::::- Underage individuals who are employees of businesses that hold a valid state-issued liquor license may possess (but not consume) alcohol in the course of their job during regular business hours. Common examples are serving alcoholic drinks to customers of a restaurant, making deliveries for a catering company, and stocking shelves at a store that sells alcohol.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39206092", "title": "Alcohol laws of Texas", "section": "Section::::Legitimate age.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 472, "text": "No specific training is required to serve alcohol; however, the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Code states that the actions of an employee (such as serving alcohol to a clearly intoxicated patron) will not be imputed to the employer if 1) the employer requires the employee to complete training approved by the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission, 2) the employee actually completes the training, and 3) the employer has not directly encouraged the employee to violate the law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They actually have an after hours crew of around 600 that maintain the park. If someone were left behind, they'd be caught. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "And they have video surveillance. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On another note, how do they keep losing money year after year when they have a LOT of visitors, everything is very overpriced and they don't really add or renew things.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44676317", "title": "Disney utilidor system", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 475, "text": "According to modern legend, Walt Disney was bothered by the sight of a cowboy walking through California Disneyland's Tomorrowland en route to his post in Frontierland. He felt that such a sight was jarring, and detracted from the guest experience. Since the California Disneyland was small, such a tunnel system could not be feasibly implemented. When the new Florida Disney park was being planned, engineers designed utilidors to keep park operations out of guests' sight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3633470", "title": "Adventureland (Iowa)", "section": "Section::::Themed areas and attractions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 742, "text": "The park contains many design nods inspired by Disneyland: The entrance has a train station with two tunnels (on the left- and right-hand side) leading into the Main Street area, just like at Disneyland or Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom (and also similar to many other parks built since Disneyland opened in 1955); over in Outlaw Gulch, there are several tombstones that have virtually the same wording as tombstones outside of Walt Disney World's Haunted Mansion attraction; the rocking pirate ship (Galleon) has played a soundtrack that included splashing water and an excerpt from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme song, \"Yo Ho\". Adventureland is a theme area of its own at Disneyland. The different themed areas in Adventureland are:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3059526", "title": "The Park (2003 film)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1337, "text": "They meet the park's caretaker, a weird-looking old man, who shouts at them to leave, warning them that the park is haunted. They do not believe him and return to the park again at night, thinking that the old man is asleep. While waiting, Ka-ho tells them that he heard that the park used to be a cemetery before it was built. Strange things start to happen when they split up to find Alan. Ka-ho sees something on his camera recorder and follows it into the Haunted House. One hour later, when everyone comes back to the meeting point, they see that Ka-ho is missing too. They split up into two groups again to find him. Ken and Pinky take a ride on the carousel but it starts spinning at a fast speed on its own. Ken manages to jump off the carousel but accidentally knocks Pinky out in the process. Shan is left behind with Pinky while Ken runs away in fear and almost dies from being drowned by a ghost. His crucifix saves him but does not prevent him from being decapitated on a wire later on. Pinky is possessed and dies after slitting her wrist. Shan is apparently killed after being strangled by the possessed Pinky but his lucky charm saves him. Yen, YY and Dan enter the Haunted House and the wax figures inside come to life and attack them. YY is killed by the figurines while Dan dies after being set on fire by the ghosts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10197334", "title": "Studio Backlot Tour", "section": "Section::::History.:Original ride.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 593, "text": "The first incarnation of the Backlot Tour loaded at the former entrance to The Magic of Disney Animation. The original tour was far longer and more elaborate than the final version. The former tour originally drove through New York Street/Streets of America. However, due to the surprise popularity of the park, New York Street was removed from the tour and made into a public walking space within the first few years of operation. It remained open to pedestrians until April 2, 2016 when Streets of America closed. After driving through New York Street, the tram drove to Catastrophe Canyon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "680973", "title": "List of former Disneyland attractions", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 373, "text": "Disneyland is a theme park in Anaheim, California conceived by Walt Disney. This is a list of attractions – rides, shows, shops and parades – that have appeared at the park but have permanently closed. Character meets and atmosphere entertainment (e.g., roving musicians) are not listed. Also not listed are permanently closed attractions from Disney California Adventure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1738064", "title": "Pinkeye (South Park)", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 482, "text": "RealSouthPark.com, a 1999 website that examined real-life people and places that may have inspired \"South Park\" episodes, suggested the settings in \"Pinkeye\" may have been inspired by a supposedly haunted hotel in Fairplay, Colorado, a Park County town that serves as the basis for the South Park location within the show. In a review of the site, however, \"The Australian\" suggested the interpretation was unlikely, since the hotel is rumored to be haunted by ghosts, not zombies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20199410", "title": "Anaheim Resort", "section": "Section::::History and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 505, "text": "In the 1990s, while Disneyland was undergoing a significant expansion project surrounding the construction of Disney California Adventure Park, the city undertook a project of its own in the area surrounding the Disney property and Anaheim Convention Center. The project included removing the colorful neon signs and replacing them with shorter, more modest signs, as well as widening the arterial streets in the area into tree-lined boulevards. The name \"Anaheim Resort\" was coined to refer to the area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Do you mean \"where over 50% of the adult population could vote\"?\n\nSince in most democracies approximately half the adult population are women, your question can be re-phrased as which democracy first had both, broad adult suffrage and women voters? That would be the British colony of New Zealand in 1893, followed by the colony of South Australia in 1894 and then the Commonwealth of Australia (no longer a colony) in 1903.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "95816", "title": "Direct democracy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 976, "text": "The earliest known direct democracy is said to be the Athenian democracy in the 5th century BC, although it was not an inclusive democracy: women, foreigners, and slaves were excluded from it. The main bodies in the Athenian democracy were the assembly, composed of male citizens; the boulê, composed of 500 citizens; and the law courts, composed of a massive number of jurors chosen by lot, with no judges. There were only about 30,000 male citizens, but several thousand of them were politically active in each year, and many of them quite regularly for years on end. The Athenian democracy was \"direct\" not only in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also in the sense that the people through the assembly, boulê, and law courts controlled the entire political process, and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. Modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29066482", "title": "Electoral system", "section": "Section::::History.:Early democracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 214, "text": "Most elections in the early history of democracy were held using plurality voting or some variant, but as an exception, the state of Venice in the 13th century adopted approval voting to elect their Great Council.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "292416", "title": "First Brazilian Republic", "section": "Section::::Rule of the landed oligarchies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 596, "text": "In the last decades of the 19th century, the United States, much of Europe, and neighboring Argentina expanded the right to vote. Brazil, however, moved to restrict access to the polls. In 1874, in a population of about 10 million, the franchise was held by about one million , but in 1881 this had been cut to 145,296. This reduction was one reason the Empire's legitimacy foundered, but the Republic did not move to correct the situation. By 1910 there were only 627,000 voters in a population of 22 million. Throughout the 1920s, only between 2.3% and 3.4% of the total population could vote.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "433911", "title": "2004 European Parliament election", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 317, "text": "342 million people were eligible to vote, the second-largest democratic electorate in the world after India. It was the biggest transnational direct election in history, and the 10 new member states elected MEPs for the first time. The new (6th) Parliament consisted of 732 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1764584", "title": "Republicanism in the United States", "section": "Section::::Legal terminology.:Democracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 418, "text": "After 1800 the limitations on democracy were systematically removed; property qualifications for state voters were largely eliminated in the 1820s. The initiative, referendum, recall, and other devices of direct democracy became widely accepted at the state and local level in the 1910s; and senators were made directly electable by the people in 1913. The last restrictions on black voting were made illegal in 1965.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175581", "title": "Women's suffrage", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 347, "text": "The emergence of modern democracy generally began with male citizens obtaining the right to vote in advance of female citizens, except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i, where universal manhood and women's suffrage was introduced in 1840; however, a constitutional amendment in 1852 rescinded female voting and put property qualifications on male voting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70322", "title": "Suffrage", "section": "Section::::Basis of exclusion from suffrage.:Gender.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 347, "text": "The emergence of modern democracy generally began with male citizens obtaining the right to vote in advance of female citizens, except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i, where universal manhood and women's suffrage was introduced in 1840; however, a constitutional amendment in 1852 rescinded female voting and put property qualifications on male voting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The historical accuracy of events portrayed in the Bible change depending on the books and division of the Bible. Generally, the farther back in the past a Biblical story takes place, the more likely it is the details of the story are inaccurate if the story has any basis in history at all. For example, the invasion of Jerusalem by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BC is an unquestioned historic fact, it is an event recounted throughout several books in the Hebrew Bible, as well as being chronicled by the Babylonians themselves. Whereas the events in the Torah/Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) are largely agreed to have not happened in the way the Bible describes them. What is worth noting, however, is that though the stories of the Pentateuch did not happen as they are portrayed, it is likely that many of the stories of the Pentateuch are mythologized accounts loosely based off of real world events. For example, there is no archaeological evidence for the figure Abraham, Abraham’s journey, though, is described in Genesis as a journey from Mesopotamia (“Ur of the Chaldeans”) to the land of Canaan. Archaeological evidence has shown similar migration patterns among the Amorites, who likewise migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan. It is theorized the Biblical authors had some kind of awareness to these migration patterns, but that Abraham was a later edition to the story.\n\nThe Book of Judges is placed in the Historical Books section of the Christian Old Testament (The Historical Books are the books from Joshua to Esther, in the Hebrew Bible/TaNaKh, Judges is placed within the Nevi'im (prophetic books)) Judges is a continuation of the narrative presented in Joshua. The description of the Israelites under Joshua taking over Canaan has been under great academic skepticism. Current archaeological evidence suggests that rather than the Israelites taking over Canaan by force, they integrated into the land over the span of many generations. If Joshua is like Genesis in that the stories presented often contain mythologized accounts of history, then it is possible the conquest of Canaan as described in Joshua may be dramatized renditions of small scale revolts that sporadically happened during the transition of the Canaanites controlling the land to the Israelites.\n\nSeveral of the kings described in 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles have been identified as real figures (such as Omri of Israel, Josiah of Judah, and Zedekiah of Judah), but the existence of the earlier kings (such as in 1 Kings, and especially in 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel) is much more controversial. The books of Samuel describe Israel as being a united monarchy from Syria to Edom (Edom being south of Jerusalem). Apart from the Hebrew Bible, however, there are no major sources of the United Kingdom of Israel, what has been theorized is that David, if he existed, rather than being the king of all Israel, was likely a tribal king who controlled a much smaller portion of land than the dimensions given in the Biblical account. It has been speculated that the story of David was promoted by later kings of Judah to validate their rule (the kings of Judah saw themselves as being part of the “House of David”), and to potentially control the northern Kingdom of Israel as David, after all, was said to have ruled all Israel as well as what was then Judah.\n\nMuch like the account of the first kings of Israel, the Book of Judges presents Israel as a sort of unity. Whenever a judge is described, they are never described as judging the specific tribe they are from, but Israel, in the story of Othniel becoming the first judge of Israel, it is stated “and he \\[Othniel\\] judged Israel” (Judges 3:10, NRSV). The judges period appears to serve as a sort of prologue as to why Israel was ruled by kings, the judges are contrasted by kings in a few ways\n\n1. The judges are chosen by God: Whenever a dynasty in Israel lost popularity with the populous, the books of Kings and Chronicles tells of how they would be overthrown, and a new dynasty of kings would take over. The judges are described as being determined not by overthrowing the current ruler, or gaining popularity, but by being men (and women, as Deborah was among the judges named) handpicked by God Himself.\n2. The judges did not rule by hereditary rule: The judges described did not belong in the same family as each other, Judges portrays God as choosing who should judge Israel not based on familial ties and lineages, but by those God sees as worthy to judge.\n\n1 Samuel tells of the end of the period of judges with the abdication of Samuel the final judge of Israel, and the coronation of Saul the first king of Israel. The kings are contrasted with the judges, the judges are depicted as righteous leaders chosen by God, whereas several of the kings of Judah and all of the kings of Northern Israel are described as sinful. Again, if the figures in Judges were based on actual historical figures, it is unlikely they would have ruled the whole land of Canaan as the Book of Judges implies, especially when one considers the commonly accepted time period the Israelites entered Canaan (circa 1250 BC) and compare it to when Judges would have taken place when using Biblical chronology (circa 1500-1000 BC).\n\nApologies if much of my answer seems speculative, though scholars are pretty much certain that the events in the Pentateuch did not happen in the way the Bible describes it, the time period between the judges and kings of Israel is much more uncertain, and is hotly debated.\n\nSources\n\n“ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle).” *Livius*, 26 July 2017, [_URL_4_](_URL_4_).\n\n“Archeology of the Hebrew Bible.” *PBS*, Public Broadcasting Service, 18 Nov. 2008, [_URL_3_](_URL_3_).\n\nAstle, Cynthia. “Is There Archaeological Evidence About the Story of Abraham?” *Learn Religions*, Learn Religions, 4 May 2019, [_URL_1_](_URL_1_).\n\nDever, William G. “Archaeology and the Israelite 'Conquest'.” *W.Dever Archaelogy & Conquest ABD*, [_URL_5_](_URL_0_).\n\n“The City of David and Solomon.” *David and Solomon: Myth or Reality*, [_URL_6_](_URL_6_).\n\nThe Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Canaan.” *Encyclopædia Britannica*, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 11 Oct. 2019, [_URL_2_](_URL_2_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1678076", "title": "Patriarchal age", "section": "Section::::Biblical criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 522, "text": "Independent, datable historical confirmation of Biblical events begins during the era of the first Jewish kings. With the advent of biblical criticism in the 19th century, the events before this period came to be disputed. Little interest in questioning the biblical chronology existed before then, but came with the development of the documentary hypothesis – the theory that the Pentateuch, including the Book of Genesis, was composed not by Moses but by unknown authors living at various times between 950 and 450 BCE.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40315776", "title": "A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom", "section": "Section::::Content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 773, "text": "The Biblical record was traditionally taken as a standard for the antiquity of mankind with estimates of 5199 BC under Pope Urban VIII in 1640 and 4004 BC of Bishop Ussher in 1650. Joseph Scaliger had previously argued for taking the histories of Egypt and Babylon into account and during the eighteenth century it became increasingly difficult to fit their chronologies into this timescale. In the nineteenth century, Menes, the first king of Egypt was dated at more than 3,000 BC and that itself represented an advanced civilization, with its pyramids, sphinxes and astronomical knowledge. Manetho gave lists before this covering 24,000 years. Excavations of pottery in the Nile flood area gave times of 11,000 years. These periods were confirmed in Assyria and Babylon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10962583", "title": "Othniel", "section": "Section::::Campaign as a Judge.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 381, "text": "The historical reality of events described in the Book of Judges is the subject of ongoing dispute among scholars, who vary in their opinions about how much of the book is historical. As to the story of Othniel in particular, biblical scholar Mark Zvi Brettler states, \"The Ehud and Othniel stories contain clues that they are not meant to be read as depictions of the real past.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4331", "title": "Book of Joshua", "section": "Section::::Composition.:Historicity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 505, "text": "In 1955, G. Ernest Wright discussed the correlation of archaeological data to the early Israelite campaigns, which he divided into three phases per the Book of Joshua. He pointed to two sets of archaeological findings that \"seem to suggest that the biblical account is in general correct regarding the nature of the late thirteenth and twelfth-eleventh centuries in the country\" (i.e., \"a period of tremendous violence\"). He gives particular weight to what were then recent digs at Hazor by Yigael Yadin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3390", "title": "Bible", "section": "Section::::Archaeological and historical research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 248, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 248, "end_character": 675, "text": "The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "73384", "title": "Gideon", "section": "Section::::Textual history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 605, "text": "In the early twentieth century, the text of Judges 6–8 was regarded by the \"critical school\" as a composite narrative, combining Jahwist, Elohist and Deuteronomic sources, with further interpolations and editorial comments of the Second Temple period. Emil Hirsch alleged a historical nucleus in the narrative, reflecting the struggle of the tribe of Manasseh with hostile Bedouins across the Jordan, along with \"reminiscences of tribal jealousies on the part of Ephraim\" in the early period of Hebrew settlement, later conflated with the religious context of connecting Yahweh with the shrine at Ophrah.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1678076", "title": "Patriarchal age", "section": "Section::::Modern biblical archaeology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 545, "text": "Albright's interpretation came under fierce criticism as archaeology unearthed apparent anachronisms in the biblical accounts of the patriarchal age, in some cases suggesting that some of the texts were written later than the traditional dates. For example, in Genesis 21:32, Abraham apparently encounters Philistines, who actually did not settle in the Middle East until the 12th century BCE. However, usage of future place names had been a known scriptural phenomenon to Jewish scholars for centuries prior to the biblical criticism movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some of it is due to lack of practice and realizing you can. Physical therapy for instance helps people locate weakened or atrophied muscles using electrical stimulation so you can find them and learn to use them again.\n\nSo for those that can raise a single eyebrow or whatnot, it comes with practice. \n\nFor something like wiggling your ears, not everyone can do that. The muscles responsible for that are vestigial in many people, from the time that we could move our ears in response to sound. They did experiments highlighting that sound does activate those muscles in everyone, but very few could actually move their ears with said muscles, because they usually just don't work. I'm sure there are a few other muscles that are similar as far as genetics go.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12082283", "title": "Human vestigiality", "section": "Section::::Anatomical.:Ear.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 944, "text": "The ears of a macaque monkey and most other monkeys have far more developed muscles than those of humans, and therefore have the capability to move their ears to better hear potential threats. Humans and other primates such as the orangutan and chimpanzee however have ear muscles that are minimally developed and non-functional, yet still large enough to be identifiable. A muscle attached to the ear that cannot move the ear, for whatever reason, can no longer be said to have any biological function. In humans there is variability in these muscles, such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions, and it can be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials. In such primates, the inability to move the ear is compensated mainly by the ability to turn the head on a horizontal plane, an ability which is not common to most monkeys—a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "768413", "title": "Ear", "section": "Section::::Other animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 829, "text": "Some large primates such as gorillas and orang-utans (and also humans) have undeveloped ear muscles that are non-functional vestigial structures, yet are still large enough to be easily identified. An ear muscle that cannot move the ear, for whatever reason, has lost that biological function. This serves as evidence of homology between related species. In humans, there is variability in these muscles, such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions, and it has been said that it may be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials. In such primates, the inability to move the ear is compensated for mainly by the ability to easily turn the head on a horizontal plane, an ability which is not common to most monkeys—a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59595112", "title": "Ear wiggling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 523, "text": "Ear wiggling is movement of the external ear using the three muscles which are attached to it forward, above and behind. Some mammals have good control of these muscles, which they use to twitch and orient their ears, but humans usually find this difficult. J. H. Bair conducted experiments on humans, using a kymograph to measure their ear movements. He found that only two out of twelve subjects had any voluntary control at the start but that the others could acquire this by training with an early form of biofeedback.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14429491", "title": "Occlusion effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 286, "text": "A person with normal hearing can experience this by sticking their fingers into their ears and talking. Otherwise, this effect is often experienced by hearing aid users who only have a mild to moderate high-frequency hearing loss, but use hearing aids which block the entire ear canal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1555553", "title": "Unilateral hearing loss", "section": "Section::::Management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 420, "text": "Adaptation in the central nervous system through \"neural-plasticity\" or biological maturation over time does not improve the performance of monaural listening. In addition to conventional methods for improving the performance of the impaired ear, there are also hearing aids adapted to unilateral hearing loss which are of very limited effectiveness due to the fact that they don't restore the binaural hearing ability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3204006", "title": "Silver Spring monkeys", "section": "Section::::Background.:Edward Taub.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1079, "text": "An \"afferent nerve\" is a sensory nerve that conveys impulses from the skin and other sensory organs to the spine and the brain. \"Deafferentation\" is a surgical procedure in which the spinal cord is opened up and the sensory nerves cut so that these impulses do not reach the brain. A monkey whose limbs have been deafferented will not feel them, or even be able to sense where they are in space. At his trial in 1981, Taub told the court that deafferented monkeys are notoriously difficult to look after, because they regard their deafferented limbs as foreign objects, mutilating them and trying to chew them off. Taub continued working with deafferented monkeys at New York University, where he obtained his Ph.D. in 1970. Engaged in what he saw at first as pure research, he conducted several kinds of deafferentation experiments. He deafferented monkeys' entire bodies, so that they could feel no part of themselves. He deafferented them at birth. He removed monkey fetuses from the uterus, deafferented them, then returned them to be born with no sense of their own bodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1699840", "title": "Active listening", "section": "Section::::Barriers to active listening.:Understanding of non-verbal cues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 667, "text": "Ineffective listeners are unaware of non-verbal cues, though they dramatically affect how people listen. To a certain extent, it is also a perceptual barrier. Up to 93 percent of people's attitudes are formed by non-verbal cues. This should help one to avoid undue influence from non-verbal communication. In most cases, the listener does not understand the non-verbal cues the speaker uses. A person may show fingers to emphasize a point, but this may be perceived as an intent by the speaker to place their fingers in the listener's eyes. Overuse of non-verbal cues also creates distortion, and as a result listeners may be confused and forget the correct meaning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm mostly familiar with things from the minority-side of things, not the German side. But Imperial Germany did emancipate its Jews, giving them political rights, along with other countries during this era. This (along with the enlightenment) produced new religious movements in Judaism, particularly the Reform movement. The result of this was that Jews tried to re-identify themselves as \"Germans of the Mosaic faith\" (the same nationality and ethnicity as their neighbors, but a different religion). This meant that Jews in Imperial Germany were meaningfully participating in German society, which at the time was fairly new in Europe (but was occurring at roughly the same time in Europe). German Jews started to be more German culturally, and started replacing Western Yiddish with High German. [This guy](_URL_1_) is a good example of a proponent of this.\n\nI really don't know to what extent this was encouraged by the German government, but given that they emancipated the Jews I imagine it was. So they essentially wanted to incorporate the Jews into being a sub-grouping of Germans, rather than a group on their own. Of course, the pendulum ultimately swung the other way, and in the early 1900s the dualling philosophies among the Jewish thinkers were whether Jews ought to be part of nationalist movements (adopting the national identity of their countries of residence. Note that non-Jewish nationalists sometimes opposed this) or develop a Jewish nationalist movement, namely Zionism. Various events and convincing writers caused the latter to become dominant in the end, but in Imperial Germany the two views were very much both present, with the former being dominant.\n\nedit: See [here](_URL_2_) and [here](_URL_0_) for sources and more information", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, the German Empire was far from being a homogeneous society (if there ever was one ...) after its unification in 1871. First, you have to keep in mind that \"the Germans\" themselves (or rather Prussians, Hessians, Bavarians, Franconians etc.) were split almost evenly into Catholics and Protestants. Unified by protestant Prussia, the German states with catholic majorities remained uneasy with the hegemony of Protestantism in the new German state. The fact, that the early Empire (still under Chancellor Otto v. Bismarck) waged a \"culture war\" against Catholicism, deeming Catholics as unpatriotic and thralls of Rome, did not help either.\n\nIn relation to the Catholicism issue Germany's minorities are less important, although in the case of the Polish minority (which was also Germany's largest minority) both issues are inseperably connected, as most Poles are Catholics. The Polish minority of Germany was mainly a part of the Prussian state, whose territories stretched eastwards. The Prussian authorities did in fact try to stamp out Polish identity and significance. This \"Germanization\" policy included laws to enshrine German as exclusive institutional and court language, attempts to outlaw any foreign language clubs and of course general institutional discrimination of Poles to push them out of business and land ownership. As of now, off the top of my head, I can't judge the effectiveness of these measures (although I don't remember them to be), until I can look it up more precisely. Anyway, Polish communities, clubs, societies and newspapers were significant in East Prussia and in the Ruhr Area (due to labour migration) well into the 1930s. Only the National Socialists destroyed them in the end.\n\nThe German Empire had no laws regarding Jews or any other religious affiliation. Full legal equality of all German citizens, Christian or not, was provided for -- in theory. Anti-Semitism ran rampant (as it did in other parts of Europe as well), race and eugenics theorists tinkered with ideas how to \"deal\" with the \"Jewish question\", i.e. if Jews could be a part of German society or were alien to it by nature. Long story short, while there was no legal discrimination of Jews, the climate of late 19th/early 20th century Germany was hostile to Jews and especially open \"Jewishness\". ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10199885", "title": "Volksliste", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 578, "text": "\"Volksdeutsche\" (ethnic Germans) topped the list as a category. They comprised people without German citizenship but of German ancestry living outside Germany (unlike German expatriates). Though \"Volksdeutsche\" did not hold German citizenship, the strengthening and development of ethnic German communities throughout east-central Europe formed an integral part of the Nazi vision for the creation of Greater Germany (\"Großdeutschland\"). In some areas, such as Romania, Croatia, and Yugoslavia/Serbia, ethnic Germans were legally recognised in legislation as privileged groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71963", "title": "Volksdeutsche", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 612, "text": "This is in contrast to Imperial Germans (\"Reichsdeutsche\"), German citizens living within Germany. The term \"Volksdeutsche\" also contrasted from 1936 with the term \"Auslandsdeutsche\" (Germans abroad, German expatriates), which generally denoted German citizens residing in other countries. The difference between \"Imperial German\" and \"Ethnic German\" (\"Volksdeutsche\") was that those designated Ethnic-German did not have paperwork proving their legal citizenship to work or vote within Germany, though some were either from Germany or from territories that had been lost by Germany during or after World War I.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "428521", "title": "Count Kasimir Felix Badeni", "section": "Section::::Incumbency.:Language conflict.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 533, "text": "Late-19th-century Germans in Austria-Hungary, as a general rule, wanted the Empire to maintain its German character established during the period of Germanization under Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor in the late 18th century, so they resisted the demands of the other ethnic groups for linguistic recognition. Badeni's ordinance was seen by Germans as the \"last straw\" in a series of concessions. Badeni was not prepared for the level of animosity the Germans in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Empire directed at him due to his reform.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2851904", "title": "Detlev Peukert", "section": "Section::::\"The Genesis of the 'Final Solution’ from the Spirit of Science\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 2150, "text": "Peukert wrote that when faced with the same financial contains that their predecessors in the Imperial and Weimar periods had faced, social workers, teachers, professors and doctors in the Third Reich began to advocate plans to ensure that the genes of the \"racially unfit\" would not be passed on to the next generation, first via sterilization and then by killing them. Furthermore, Peukert argued that \"völkisch\" racism was part of a male backlash against women's emancipation, and was a way of asserting control over women's bodies, which were viewed in a certain sense as public property since women had the duty of bearing the next generation that would pass on the \"healthy genes\". Peukert maintained that as the bearers of the next generation of Germans that Nazi social policies fell especially heavily upon German women. Peukert argued that for \"volksgenossenlinnen\" (female \"national comrades\"), any hint of non-conformity and the \"pleasures of refusal\" in not playing their designated role within the \"volksgemeinschaft\" as the bearers of the next generation of soldiers could expect harsh punishments such as sterilization, incarceration in a concentration camp or for extreme case \"vernichtung\" (\"extermination\"). Peukert wrote that \"after 1933 any critical public discussion and any critique of racism in the human sciences from amongst the ranks of the experts was eliminated: from then on, the protective...instances of the \"Rechstaat\" (legal state) no longer stood between the racist perpetrators and their victims; from then on, the dictatorial state put itself solely on the side of racism\". Peukert argued that all of the National Socialist social policies such as natalist policies that relentlessly pressured Aryan women to have more and children were all part of the same effort to strengthen the \"volksgemeinschaft\". Peukert argued that despite a turn towards Social Darwinism when confronted with the failure of the welfare state to solve all social problems in the 1920s, that it was the democratic Weimar constitution that had provided a thin legal wedge that prevented the full implications of this from being worked out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9785181", "title": "History of German settlement in Central and Eastern Europe", "section": "Section::::1914–1939.:Nazi claims to \"Lebensraum\" and resettlements of Germans before the war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 429, "text": "German nationalists used the existence of large German minorities in other countries as a basis for territorial claims. Many of the propaganda themes of the Nazi regime against Czechoslovakia and Poland claimed that the ethnic Germans (\"Volksdeutsche\") in those territories were persecuted. There were many incidents of persecution of Germans in the interwar period, including the French invasion of Germany proper in the 1920s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2489166", "title": "Austrian literature", "section": "Section::::The search for a definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 329, "text": "The multi-ethnic Habsburg Monarchy, Austrian Empire and eventually Austro-Hungarian Empire should therefore not be reduced to the German parts of the empire. There were large ethnic or religious minorities in nearly all regional capitals, like Prague, Budapest or Vienna—microcosmi with their own traditions and characteristics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "799831", "title": "Lithuania Minor", "section": "Section::::Ethnic history.:Germanization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 1545, "text": "The process of Germanization of other ethnic groups was complex. It included direct and indirect Germanization. Old Prussians were welcomed with the same civil rights as Germans after they were converted, while the Old Prussian nobility waited to receive their rights. There were about nine thousand farms left empty after the plague of 1709, remedied by the Great East Colonization. Its final stage was 1736–1756. Germans revived the farms vacated by the plagues. Thus, the percentage of Germans increased to 13.4 percent in the Prussian villages and neighboring Lithuania, also stricken by the plague. By 1800, most Prussian-Lithuanians were literate and bilingual in Lithuanian and German. There was no forced Germanization, even before 1873. After Germany was unified in 1871, Lithuanians were influenced by German culture, leading to the teaching of German in schools—a practice common throughout northern and eastern Europe. The Germanization of Lithuania accelerated in the second half of the 19th century, when German was made compulsory in the education system at all levels, although newspapers and books were freely published and church services were held in the Lithuanian language even during the German occupation of WWII. At the same time, Lithuanian periodicals were printed in the areas bordering German Prussia, such as \"Auszra\" or \"Varpas\". Between World Wars one and two, in the countries liberated by the Treaty of Lithuanian Brest, Russian and Jewish communists printed seditious literature in native languages until 1933.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Prices of individual shares are not as relevant as the overall market cap of the company. Share prices can be driven downward by having stock splits, which most companies do when the per share price becomes high. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple. Stock price is a function of total number of shares. More shares means less price per share. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Stock is like slice a pizza.\n\nYou can cut a big pizza into a much of little slices, and a little pizza into big slices. The fact the smaller pizza has bigger slices doesn't mean there is more pizza.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The price of Nissan is ~$18.50. What you are looking at is the price of Nissan in Japanese yen. I think that might clear something up \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "978030", "title": "William Clay Ford Sr.", "section": "Section::::Professional career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 301, "text": "According to the \"Forbes\" magazine, Ford was the 371st richest person in the United States in 2013, with an approximate net worth of $1.4 billion. He reportedly owned in Ford Motor Company: 6.7 million shares of Class B stock and 26.3 million common shares; making him the largest single shareholder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20501965", "title": "Ford Motor Argentina", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 273, "text": "In 2000, Ford held 14.9% of the market share, ranking second in the market. Market participation was 13.4% in cars and 18.9% in trucks; where Ford maintains leadership, production volume was 56.300 units. Ford ranked first among automotive manufacturers regarding exports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "494773", "title": "Kirk Kerkorian", "section": "Section::::Business career.:Auto industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 291, "text": "On October 21, Tracinda sold the 7.3 million Ford shares at an average price of $2.43, and said it planned to cut further its existing 6.1 percent stake in Ford, for a potential total loss of more than half a billion dollars. Kerkorian sold his remaining stake in Ford on December 29, 2008.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "797742", "title": "The Hertz Corporation", "section": "Section::::Development of The Hertz Corporation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 526, "text": "By the second quarter of 2005, Hertz produced about ten percent of Ford's overall pre-tax profit. However, after 18 years of ownership, the Ford Motor Company announced it would be selling the Hertz brand with the intent to focus more on building Ford cars and trucks. Private equities Clayton, Dubilier & Rice, The Carlyle Group, and Merrill Lynch Global Private Equity agreed to purchase all shares of common stock in Hertz for an estimated US$15 billion, including debt, and the business itself for US$5.6 billion in 2005.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2463771", "title": "Dodge v. Ford Motor Co.", "section": "Section::::Facts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 629, "text": "By 1916, the Ford Motor Company had accumulated a capital surplus of $60 million. The price of the Model T, Ford's mainstay product, had been successively cut over the years while the wages of the workers had dramatically, and quite publicly, increased. The company's president and majority stockholder, Henry Ford, sought to end special dividends for shareholders in favor of massive investments in new plants that would enable Ford to dramatically increase production, and the number of people employed at his plants, while continuing to cut the costs and prices of his cars. In public defense of this strategy, Ford declared:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1240566", "title": "Merkur XR4Ti", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 291, "text": "Ford projected sales of 16,000 to 20,000 units per year. These targets were never met, although for the first two years they came close, with over 25,000 units sold. The car continued to struggle to establish its identity in the North American market, both with the public and with dealers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29691020", "title": "Tesla Model X", "section": "Section::::Production and sales.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 552, "text": "According to Tesla, with 5,428 units sold in the U.S. in the third quarter of 2016, the Model X captured a 6% market share of the luxury SUV market segment, outselling Porsche and Land Rover, but behind seven SUV models manufactured by Mercedes, BMW, Cadillac, Volvo, Audi, and Lexus. With an estimated 9,500 units delivered worldwide during the fourth quarter of 2016, global sales in 2016 totaled 25,312 Model X cars, allowing the Model X to rank seventh among the world's top ten best-selling plug-in cars just in its first full year in the market.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In physics I would note electricity, and electromagnetic theory (which allows radio) is perhaps a separate discovery. The steam engine is also an obvious one, or if you prefer theory you could say thermodynamics - but the applications side was clearly first here. I guess this could also be considered engineering, as could the internal combustion engine, which also shades into chemistry. Going back into prehistory, you have the lever! Or, more generally, mechanical advantage, which allows the spear thrower, the bow, the crossbow, and the catapult. \n\nChemistry: Gunpowder is perhaps debatable, being discovered well before modern science per se. Antibiotics, although you could consider it biology. Plastics, oh boy. Condoms without latex really suck.\n\nBiology: Genetic engineering - take your pick: The old-fashioned kind with crossbreeding and culling that created all the modern cereals and cattle breeds, or the kind that people get hysterical about that uses pipettes. The latter is perhaps mostly a false alarm so far. The Pill! (Possibly chemistry?) Machine guns are not really practical without smokeless powder - the residue of black powder will foul it very quickly - but I don't know if this gives you the social change you want; at any rate it's pretty indirect. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1911: Rutherford's gold foil experiment, which lead to the Bohr model and modern quantum mechanics...\n\nMendelev's periodic table: The first periodic table identifies several previously unknown elements and eventually grows to the current form\n\nLavoisier (1794.): Discovered oxygen, moved chemistry towards quantitative science, helped develop the metric system now used in science.\n\nOrganic chemistry: Revolutionised how we see the world, allowing the development of polymers, drugs etc.\n\nThese are a few chemistry based discoveries which I think are important.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1455630", "title": "Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental", "section": "Section::::Activities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 363, "text": "Historically, the main discoveries were in the fields of endocrinology and physiology. The current research areas are wider and include Neurosciences, Biology of Reproduction, Experimental Oncology and Immunology. Results are published in journals of international recognition, thus demonstrating the level of excellence reached by the different research groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2161571", "title": "University of Maryland School of Medicine", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 387, "text": "Researchers at the University of Maryland School of Medicine have made several milestone discoveries in the field of biomedical research and therapeutics. Recent discoveries include the development of aromatase inhibitors for the treatment of breast cancer by the lab of Angela Brodie, and the discovery of calcium sparks as drivers of heart contraction by the lab of Jonathan Lederer. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3884961", "title": "The Value of Science", "section": "Section::::Mathematical physics.:Second crisis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 331, "text": "Throughout the 19th century, important discoveries were being made in laboratories and elsewhere. Many of these discoveries gave substance to important theories. Other discoveries could not be explained satisfactorily - either they had only been occasionally observed, or they were inconsistent with the new and emerging theories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60919", "title": "University of London", "section": "Section::::Notable people.:Notable alumni, faculty and staff.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 186, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 186, "end_character": 974, "text": "Staff and students of the university, past and present, have contributed to a number of important scientific advances, including the discovery of vaccines by Edward Jenner and Henry Gray (author of \"Gray's Anatomy\"). Additional vital progress was made by University of London people in the following fields: the discovery of the structure of DNA (Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin); the invention of modern electronic computers (Tommy Flowers); the discovery of penicillin (Alexander Fleming and Ernest Chain); the development of X-Ray technology (William Henry Bragg and Charles Glover Barkla); discoveries on the mechanism of action of Interleukin 10 (Anne O'Garra); the formulation of the theory of electromagnetism (James Clerk Maxwell); the determination of the speed of light (Louis Essen); the development of antiseptics (Joseph Lister); the development of fibre optics (Charles K. Kao); and the invention of the telephone (Alexander Graham Bell).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5253238", "title": "New Museums Site", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 394, "text": "Several important scientific developments of the 19th and 20th centuries were made here, mainly at the Old Cavendish Laboratory, including the discoveries of the electron by J.J. Thomson (1897) and the neutron by Chadwick (1932), splitting the atom by Cockcroft and Walton (1932), mechanism of nervous conduction by Hodgkin and Huxley (1930s–40s), and DNA structure by Watson and Crick (1953).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13787178", "title": "Joseph de Torre", "section": "Section::::Some excerpts from his works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 584, "text": "The scientific and technological breakthrough took place in 16th century Christian Europe, coinciding with the European evangelization and colonization of the American continent. But this breakthrough, which has accelerated at a bewildering pace ever since, did not occur out of the blue. It was the consequence of the philosophy of science elaborated by the early 13th century universities founded by the Church, in Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Naples, Padua, Cambridge, Cologne, Salamanca, etc., etc., as has been brilliantly demonstrated by Pierre Duhem and Stanley Jaki, among others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38890", "title": "Natural science", "section": "Section::::Branches of natural science.:Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 337, "text": "The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " A double blind study is when neither the scientist nor the participants know what the study is about. \n Say that we have researchers studying the effects of a new drug. group A will receive the drug, and group B will get a placebo. No one in the test groups know who has which.\n If the researchers know who has what drug, they may accidentally report false findings. Because they know that group A has the real drug, they report that group A did well in the study. The researchers do this subconsciously.\n If the researchers do not know which group has the placebo, they cannot make this mistake. This is why double blind studies are more reliable. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Double-blind studies are usually used in medicine. They are to control for the placebo effect.\n\nLet's say you have a new drug and you want to test how well it treats a disease. So, you get a whole bunch of patients with that disease. You give half of them the new drug and half of them a sugar pill (you could also give them the old drug if you want to compare against that instead). The patient doesn't know which pill they got, so that's the first blind. The second blind is that the doctor that gave them the pill also doesn't know which pill they got.\n\nThe reason for the second blind is that the doctor's actions might influence the patient. So, if neither the patient nor the doctor know whether they got the new drug or not you can be sure that any effects are from the drug itself and not from the placebo effect.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "if a test subject knows that they are getting a placebo, they will tend to report no changes in whatever areas the study is testing. if they know they have the real pill, they'll report that they were affected by what they got. if they don't know what they have, they won't be influenced by the knowledge of what they got and they will tell the truth. \nthat's the first blind. the second blind is where the person administering the pill doesn't know if they are giving the test subjects a placebo or the real thing either, so they won't skew the results that they get from the subjects. \n\nbasically, if nobody knows if they got the real thing or gave the real thing, you get results much closer to the truth. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's say you and your best friend each bring in your moms' recipe of chocolate chip cookies to recess. You would like to see which recipe is better received. So you give a group of your mutual friends the cookies — half get your cookie, the other half get your best friend's. Then you see their reactions when they eat the cookies.\n\nIf you know who is getting what type of cookie, it may affect the results... as hard as you try not to be influenced, you may say the friends who ate your cookies reacted better than the others. Or, if the cookie eaters knew whose cookies they were eating, they may give a different result... maybe they like your best friend better, so they act more excited when they eat his cookies. But, if you have the recess monitor mix the cookies up, split them up amongst your friends and keep track of who got which cookie, you'd get a more natural result. Neither the testers (you and your best friend) or the test subjects (your group of mutual friends) know who got what, so both sides are considered \"blind\".\n\nThis is usually used to test medical drugs. One group of patients are given a new drug, the other group gets a placebo (or an old drug). Neither the patients nor the scientists testing the results know who got what. They just record the results. It creates results that are more \"pure\". Not perfect, but it tries to get opinions and preconceived notions out of the picture.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the hardest things to do in science is show that A, and only A, caused B. If I drink some herbal tea, and my headache goes away, it is very hard to say whether it was the tea that helped, something else I did, or if the headache just went away on its own.\n\nDouble blind studies help rule out the external factors. \n\nThe patients are blind, meaning they don't know if they are getting the treatment or not. This prevents them from changing their behavior and expectations based on whether they got the treatment or not.\n\nThe researchers are also blind. They don't know which patients are getting the real treatment, so they don't react to the patients differently, and aren't biased when they evaluate progress.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28248191", "title": "Funding bias", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Predetermined conclusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 392, "text": "A double-blind study with only objective measures is less likely to be biased to support a given conclusion. However, the researchers or the sponsors still have opportunities to skew the results by discarding or ignoring undesirable data, qualitatively characterizing the results, and ultimately deciding whether to publish at all. Also, not all studies are possible to conduct double-blind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "241717", "title": "Clinical trial", "section": "Section::::Trial design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 483, "text": "BULLET::::- Blind: The subjects involved in the study do not know which study treatment they receive. If the study is double-blind, the researchers also do not know which treatment a subject receives. This intent is to prevent researchers from treating the two groups differently. A form of double-blind study called a \"double-dummy\" design allows additional insurance against bias. In this kind of study, all patients are given both placebo and active doses in alternating periods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30042974", "title": "Between-group design", "section": "Section::::Experimental blinds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 656, "text": "In order to avoid experimental bias, experimental blinds are usually applied in between-group designs. The most commonly used type is the single blind, which keeps the subjects blind without identifying them as members of the treatment group or the control group. In a single-blind experiment, a placebo is usually offered to the control group members. Occasionally, the double blind, a more secure way to avoid bias from both the subjects and the testers, is implemented. In this case, both the subjects and the testers are unaware of which group subjects belong to. The double blind design can protect the experiment from the observer-expectancy effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "277248", "title": "Blinded experiment", "section": "Section::::Applications.:In psychology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 240, "text": "Psychology and social science research is particularly prone to observer bias, so it is important in these fields to properly blind the researchers. In some cases, while blind experiments would be useful, they are impractical or unethical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "277248", "title": "Blinded experiment", "section": "Section::::Background.:Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 601, "text": "In medical research, the terms single-blind, double-blind and triple-blind are commonly used to describe blinding. These terms describe experiments in which (respectively) one, two, or three parties are blinded to some information. Most often, single-blind studies blind patients to their treatment allocation, double-blind studies blind both patients and researchers to treatment allocations, and triple-blinded studies blind patients, researcher, and some other third party (such as a monitoring committee) to treatment allocations. However, the meaning of these terms can vary from study to study.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12224435", "title": "Eyewitness identification", "section": "Section::::Causes of eyewitness error.:\"System variables\" (police procedures).:Lineup structure and content.:\"Illinois Report\" controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 461, "text": "The Illinois study compared the traditional simultaneous method of lineup presentation with the sequential double-blind method recommended by recognized researchers in the field. The traditional method is not conducted double-blind (meaning that the person presenting the lineup does not know which person or photo is the suspect). The critics claim that the results cannot be compared because one method was not double-blind while the other was double-blind. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156859", "title": "Comparison of analog and digital recording", "section": "Section::::Sound quality.:Subjective evaluation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 395, "text": "There are critics of double-blind tests who see them as not allowing the listener to feel fully relaxed when evaluating the system component, and can therefore not judge differences between different components as well as in sighted (non-blind) tests. Those who employ the double-blind testing method may try to reduce listener stress by allowing a certain amount of time for listener training.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Atomic spectra have gross, fine and hyperfine structure.\n\nThe gross structure corresponds to the energy levels which result from non-relativistic solutions to the Schrodinger equation, with no allowance for the effects of electron spin.\n\nFine structure results from taking account of relativistic effects, and of interactions between electron spin and orbital angular momentum. This has the effect of splitting what would otherwise be single energy levels into closely spaced ones. It is the fact that these levels - and hence the resulting spectral lines - are closely spaced that leads to it being referred to as fine structure.\n\nHyperfine structure is an even smaller effect due to interactions with the nucleus.\n\nThe fine structure constant was given that name because it appears in the equations for calculating the size of fine structure corrections.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "49295", "title": "Fine-structure constant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 567, "text": "In physics, the fine-structure constant, also known as Sommerfeld's constant, commonly denoted by (the Greek letter \"alpha\"), is a dimensionless physical constant characterizing the strength of the electromagnetic interaction between elementary charged particles. It is related to the elementary charge , which characterizes the strength of the coupling of an elementary charged particle with the electromagnetic field, by the formula . As a dimensionless quantity, it has the same numerical value in all systems of units, which is approximately . The inverse of is \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23205", "title": "Physical constant", "section": "Section::::Choice of units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 745, "text": "The fine-structure constant \"α\" is the best known dimensionless fundamental physical constant. It is the value of the elementary charge squared expressed in Planck units. This value has become a standard example when discussing the derivability or non-derivability of physical constants. Introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld, its value as determined at the time was consistent with 1/137. This motivated Arthur Eddington (1929) to construct an argument why its value might be 1/137 precisely, which related to the Eddington number, his estimate of the number of protons in the Universe. By the 1940s, it became clear that the value of the fine-structure constant deviates significantly from the precise value of 1/137, refuting Eddington's argument.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49295", "title": "Fine-structure constant", "section": "Section::::Is the fine-structure constant actually constant?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 419, "text": "Physicists have pondered whether the fine-structure constant is in fact constant, or whether its value differs by location and over time. A varying has been proposed as a way of solving problems in cosmology and astrophysics. String theory and other proposals for going beyond the Standard Model of particle physics have led to theoretical interest in whether the accepted physical constants (not just ) actually vary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "610202", "title": "Fine structure", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 405, "text": "In atomic physics, the fine structure describes the splitting of the spectral lines of atoms due to electron spin and relativistic corrections to the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. It was first measured precisely for the hydrogen atom by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley in 1887 laying the basis for the theoretical treatment by Arnold Sommerfeld, introducing the fine-structure constant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20869108", "title": "Stability constants of complexes", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 626, "text": "A stability constant (formation constant, binding constant) is an equilibrium constant for the formation of a complex in solution. It is a measure of the strength of the interaction between the reagents that come together to form the complex. There are two main kinds of complex: compounds formed by the interaction of a metal ion with a ligand and supramolecular complexes, such as host–guest complexes and complexes of anions. The stability constant(s) provide the information required to calculate the concentration(s) of the complex(es) in solution. There are many areas of application in chemistry, biology and medicine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "113302", "title": "Surface tension", "section": "Section::::Physics.:Physical units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 212, "text": "Surface tension, represented by the symbol \"γ\" (alternatively \"σ\" or \"T\"), is measured in force per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per centimeter is also used. For example,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "491316", "title": "Unit fraction", "section": "Section::::Unit fractions in physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 239, "text": "Arthur Eddington argued that the fine structure constant was a unit fraction, first 1/136 then 1/137. This contention has been falsified, given that current estimates of the fine structure constant are (to 6 significant digits) 1/137.036.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The particle is \"trying\" to generate a wavefront that is propagating faster than light could in that medium. Since that can't happen, you get higher energy emissions instead.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > What is going on at the atomic level in the material that causes this?\n\nThe electric field of the charged particle distorts the atoms. When the atoms relax back to equilibrium the excess energy of the disruption is released as photons.\n\n > What happens if the particle is not charged?\n\nUncharged molecules won't disrupt atoms. \n\n > How fast does the charged particle slow down to sub-luminal speeds?\n\nIt depends on how how much kinetic energy they start with. The rule of thumb is that muons loose 2 MeV/cm in water. Electrons loose energy considerably faster. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28736", "title": "Speed of light", "section": "Section::::Propagation of light.:In a medium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 291, "text": "It is possible for a particle to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium (but still slower than \"c\"). When a charged particle does that in a dielectric material, the electromagnetic equivalent of a shock wave, known as Cherenkov radiation, is emitted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7702975", "title": "Frank–Tamm formula", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 309, "text": "When a charged particle moves faster than the phase speed of light in a medium, electrons interacting with the particle can emit coherent photons while conserving energy and momentum. This process can be viewed as a decay. See Cherenkov radiation and nonradiation condition for an explanation of this effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3476702", "title": "Bragg peak", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 773, "text": "When a fast charged particle moves through matter, it ionizes atoms of the material and deposits a dose along its path. A peak occurs because the interaction cross section increases as the charged particle's energy decreases. Energy lost by charged particles is inversely proportional to the square of their velocity, which explains the peak occurring just before the particle comes to a complete stop. In the upper figure, it is the peak for alpha particles of 5.49 MeV moving through air. In the lower figure, it is the narrow peak of the \"native\" proton beam curve which is produced by a particle accelerator of 250 MeV. The figure also shows the absorption of a beam of energetic photons (X-rays) which is entirely different in nature; the curve is mainly exponential.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24383048", "title": "Cherenkov radiation", "section": "Section::::Physical origin.:Basics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 802, "text": "than the velocity of light in the medium.\". However, some misconceptions regarding Cherenkov radiation exist: for example, it is believed that the medium becomes electrically polarized by the particle's electric field. If the particle travels slowly then the disturbance elastically relaxes back to mechanical equilibrium as the particle passes. When the particle is traveling fast enough, however, the limited response speed of the medium means that a disturbance is left in the wake of the particle, and the energy contained in this disturbance radiates as a coherent shockwave. Such conceptions do not have any analytical foundation, as electromagnetic radiation is emitted when charged particles move in a dielectric medium at subluminal velocities which are not considered as Cherenkov radiation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18589032", "title": "Particle accelerator", "section": "Section::::Electrodynamic (electromagnetic) particle accelerators.:Circular or cyclic RF accelerators.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 690, "text": "Since the special theory of relativity requires that matter always travels slower than the speed of light in a vacuum, in high-energy accelerators, as the energy increases the particle speed approaches the speed of light as a limit, but never attains it. Therefore, particle physicists do not generally think in terms of speed, but rather in terms of a particle's energy or momentum, usually measured in electron volts (eV). An important principle for circular accelerators, and particle beams in general, is that the curvature of the particle trajectory is proportional to the particle charge and to the magnetic field, but inversely proportional to the (typically relativistic) momentum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6334273", "title": "Detection of internally reflected Cherenkov light", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 744, "text": "A charged particle travelling through a material (for instance fused silica) with a speed greater than c/n (n refractive index, c vacuum speed of light) emits Cherenkov radiation. If the light angle on the surface is sufficiently shallow, this radiation is contained inside and transmitted through internal reflections to an expansion volume, coupled to photomultipliers (or other types of photon detectors), to measure the angle. Preserving the angle requires a precise planar and rectangular cross section of the radiator. Knowledge of the angle at which the radiation was produced, combined with the track angle and the particle's momentum (measured in a tracking detector like a drift chamber) may be used to calculate the particle's mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11439", "title": "Faster-than-light", "section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 234, "text": "BULLET::::- In some materials where light travels at speed \"c/n\" (where \"n\" is the refractive index) other particles can travel faster than \"c/n\" (but still slower than \"c\"), leading to Cherenkov radiation (see phase velocity below).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It isn't known exactly how tobacco first came to Japan. In the mid-to-late 16th century, tobacco was spreading in East Asia and South-East Asia, probably through multiple routes: Portuguese sailors/traders from Europe or Brazil, Dutch sailors/traders, Spanish sailors/traders from Mexico and the Philippines, and Arab and Indian sailors/traders. By one or more (and most likely it was through multiple routes), tobacco was known around the East and SE Asian maritime world in the 16th century. But the early 16th century it was being grown in China and Japan.\n\nThe 16th century also saw the rise of the tea ceremony in Japan. Tea already had a long history in Japan, having been introduced from China and grown in Japan in the early 9th century. The classic tea of the tea ceremony, made with *matcha* powder, arrived in China in the 12th century, and was drunk by Buddhist priests. It spread to the samurai class in the 13th century, and was popular in the 14th century. The tea ceremony, as opposed to merely drinking tea, was assuming a recognisably modern form in the 16th century, brought into this shape by the first recognised tea masters. Perhaps the most famous and influential of these tea masters was Rikyū, who smoked, and might have introduced smoking tobacco to the tea ceremony. Smoking as part of the tea ceremony did help spread smoking in cultured elite circles in Japan. If Rikyū was responsible, the inclusion of smoking in the tea ceremony took place before his death in 1591.\n\nJapan was already exporting tobacco to SE Asia by 1634, so production was well-established by then.\n\nFor a brief summary of the introduction of tobacco to Japan, see\n\n* Barnabas Tatsuya Suzuki, \"Tobacco culture in Japan\", pp 76-83 in Sander L. Gilman and Zhou Xun, *Smoke: A Global History of Smoking*, Reaktion, 2004. Further chapters discuss Edo Period smoking in Japan, and also modern Japan.\n\nThere is also discussion of the early history of tobacco in East Asia in\n\n* Benedict, Carol, *Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550-2010*, University of California Press, 2011. \n\nIn both of these books, one thing that stands out is that we don't know much about the details of the introduction of tobacco in either Japan or China. By the time we have good evidence, it's already there, and being smoked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3192672", "title": "Kiseru", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 303, "text": "Tobacco has been known in Japan since the 1570s at the earliest. By the early 17th century, kiseru had become popular enough to even be mentioned in some Buddhist textbooks for children. The kiseru evolved along with the equipment and use of incense associated with the Japanese incense ceremony: kōdō:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21276853", "title": "Tobacco politics", "section": "Section::::Tobacco politics and litigation outside of the United States.:Japan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 687, "text": "After the Meiji Restoration in the nineteenth century, Japan began taxing tobacco. Historically, tobacco revenue has been used to fund military endeavors. In the late nineteenth century, following the deficits from the Sino-Japanese War and in preparation for the Russo-Japanese War, the government imposed a monopoly over tobacco production. In 1985, this monopoly was privatized into what is now Japan Tobacco (JT), although the government still exhibits great influence over and benefits from tobacco tax revenue. In 1999, Japan Tobacco created its international branch, Japan Tobacco International (JTI). JTI is now the world’s third largest transnational tobacco corporation (TTC).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37037828", "title": "Onshino Tabako", "section": "Section::::Terminology of Imperial Household-related tobacco.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 855, "text": "BULLET::::- The Goryō tobacco: tobacco for the Emperor, the Empress and the Empress Dowager. Its production started in 1873 by Sotoike Shozaburo (the name of the store was Yanagiya). The contract went to the Tobacco Monopoly Bureau in 1904, which started the production of tobacco for Emperor Meiji the same year and for the Empress in the fiscal 1906 year. At first, the leaves of tobacco were those stored in traditional houses since the Kanbun era (1661 - 1672) and other eras to Kansei era (1789 - 1800); since 1908, excellent tobacco producers and places had been selected, and the leaves were dried and stored at least for several years. The leaves were Kokubu (the name of place), Izumi, Tarumizu, Ibusuki, Maru, Mizufu, Taino and Kirigasa leaves. The last was used to soften the taste. All were excellent leaves in color, dryness and preparation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21797606", "title": "History of smoking", "section": "Section::::Popularization of smoking.:East Asia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 487, "text": "By the early 17th century the kiseru, a long-stemmed Japanese pipe inspired by Dutch clay pipes, was common enough to be mentioned in Buddhist text books for children. The practice of tobacco smoking evolved as a part of the Japanese tea ceremony by employing many of the traditional object used to burn incense for tobacco smoking. The \"kō-bon\" (the incense tray) became the \"tabako-bon\", the incense burner evolved into a pot for tobacco embers and the incense pot became an ash tray.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37037828", "title": "Onshino Tabako", "section": "Section::::History of Onshino Tabako.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 953, "text": "participating in the Sino-Japanese War. In 1904, its production went to the Tobacco Monopoly Agency. The production line of Iwaya Shokai went to the Tokyo First Tobacco Production Place, and in the same year, Imperial tobacco began to be produced not only exclusively for noblemen, such as Emperor Taisho and his relatives, but also for its original purposes. Imperial tobacco was made from special leaves of tobacco, while the Special tobacco for noblemen and gifts was made from the finest Fuji leaf or 不二; these were also produced with the utmost care manually. Emperor Taisho was a smoker and smoked his exclusively produced cigarettes, while Hirohito did not; the production of Imperial tobacco, however, continued. The production of special tobacco for the relatives of the Emperor Hirohito was discontinued by the order of the General Headquarters of Japan of the allied forces in 1945. However, Onshino Tobako as gifts continued to be produced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "521502", "title": "Japan Tobacco", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 668, "text": "Japan Tobacco is the successor entity to a nationalized tobacco monopoly first established by the Government of Japan in 1898 to secure tax revenue collections from tobacco leaf sales. In 1904, the government's leaf monopoly was extended to a complete takeover of all tobacco business operations in the nation, including all manufactured tobacco products such as cigarettes. The ostensible reason for the expansion of control was to help fund the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, but because all foreign tobacco interests in Japan at the time were forcibly evicted under the monopolization scheme, this also protected the domestic tobacco business for over eighty years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20426550", "title": "Tobacco smoke enema", "section": "Section::::Tobacco in medicine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1067, "text": "Before the Columbian Exchange tobacco was unknown in the Old World. The Native Americans, from whom the first western explorers learnt about tobacco, used the leaf for a variety of purposes, including religious worship, but Europeans soon became aware that the Americans also used tobacco for medicinal purposes. The French diplomat Jean Nicot used a tobacco poultice as an analgesic, and Nicolás Monardes advocated tobacco as a treatment for a long list of diseases, such as cancer, headaches, respiratory problems, stomach cramps, gout, intestinal worms and female diseases. Contemporaneous medical science placed much weight on humorism, and for a short period tobacco became a panacea. Its use was mentioned in pharmacopoeia as a tool against cold and somnolence brought on by particular medical afflictions, its effectiveness being explained by its ability to soak up moisture, to warm parts of the body, and to therefore maintain the equilibrium so important to a healthy person. In an attempt to discourage disease tobacco was also used to fumigate buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If there's a species is still quite a good fit for their environment and no string of beneficial mutations come up to eventually mold a new species, the species just sort of stays the same.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "331755", "title": "Transitional fossil", "section": "Section::::Fossil record.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 551, "text": "Not every transitional form appears in the fossil record, because the fossil record is not complete. Organisms are only rarely preserved as fossils in the best of circumstances, and only a fraction of such fossils have been discovered. Paleontologist Donald Prothero noted that this is illustrated by the fact that the number of species known through the fossil record was less than 5% of the number of known living species, suggesting that the number of species known through fossils must be far less than 1% of all the species that have ever lived.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "344195", "title": "Living fossil", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 318, "text": "Living fossils exhibit stasis over geologically long time scales. Popular literature may wrongly claim that a \"living fossil\" has undergone no significant evolution since fossil times, with practically no molecular evolution or morphological changes. Scientific investigations have repeatedly discredited such claims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23084", "title": "Paleontology", "section": "Section::::Sources of evidence.:Body fossils.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 901, "text": "Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus phyla of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49417", "title": "Extinction", "section": "Section::::History of scientific understanding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 1586, "text": "A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, Robert Hooke presented an impression of a nautilus to the Royal Society that was more than two feet in diameter, and morphologically distinct from any known living species. Hooke theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet. While he contended that it was possible a species could be \"lost\", he thought this highly unlikely. Similarly, in 1695, Thomas Molyneux published an account of enormous antlers found in Ireland that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area. Molyneux reasoned that they came from the North American moose and that the animal had once been common on the British Isles. Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe. The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct Irish elk \"Megaloceros\". Hooke and Molyneux's line of thinking was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply \"hiding\" in unexplored regions of the Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19349161", "title": "Cambrian explosion", "section": "Section::::Cambrian life.:Small shelly fauna.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 357, "text": "While small, these fossils are far more common than complete fossils of the organisms that produced them; crucially, they cover the window from the start of the Cambrian to the first lagerstätten: a period of time otherwise lacking in fossils. Hence, they supplement the conventional fossil record and allow the fossil ranges of many groups to be extended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10958", "title": "Fossil", "section": "Section::::Dating.:Limitations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 812, "text": "Organisms are only rarely preserved as fossils in the best of circumstances, and only a fraction of such fossils have been discovered. This is illustrated by the fact that the number of species known through the fossil record is less than 5% of the number of known living species, suggesting that the number of species known through fossils must be far less than 1% of all the species that have ever lived. Because of the specialized and rare circumstances required for a biological structure to fossilize, only a small percentage of life-forms can be expected to be represented in discoveries, and each discovery represents only a snapshot of the process of evolution. The transition itself can only be illustrated and corroborated by transitional fossils, which will never demonstrate an exact half-way point.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32188954", "title": "Miocene fauna of north-eastern Paratethys", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 307, "text": "13 million years ago the area was part of a shallow sea called the Paratethys, which is why there were found few vertebrate fossils. Grains of sedimentary rock were too large to preserve soft tissues or small and delicate bones. However, shells and crabs carapaces, because they were hard enough, survived.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "the wavelength of microwaves is about 12 centimeters, so you'd need an animal that had rods/cones that big, right? maybe a blue whale or something.\n\nlight is in the 500 terahertz range, microwaves are in the hundreds of mhz range. That's orders of magnitude difference.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Humans have been known to [hear microwaves](_URL_1_). There is a sense called [electroreception](_URL_0_) which detects frequencies a few orders of magnitude lower than microwaves. It's very different from sight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41512168", "title": "Eleanor R. Adair", "section": "Section::::Scientific work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 460, "text": "Starting in the 1970s, Adair conducted physiology studies as a fellow at the John B. Pierce Laboratory in New Haven to learn how humans and animals react to heat. This work led her to focus on the controversial area of microwaves and their effect on human health. Experimenting first on squirrel monkeys and then on human volunteers, she concluded that microwave radiation from microwave ovens, cells phones, and power lines is harmless to humans and animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6757017", "title": "Space-based solar power", "section": "Section::::Counter arguments.:Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 431, "text": "In addition, a design constraint is that the microwave beam must not be so intense as to injure wildlife, particularly birds. Experiments with deliberate microwave irradiation at reasonable levels have failed to show negative effects even over multiple generations. Suggestions have been made to locate rectennas offshore, but this presents serious problems, including corrosion, mechanical stresses, and biological contamination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27625957", "title": "Microwave burn", "section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 759, "text": "High-energy microwaves are used in neurobiology experiments to kill small laboratory animals (mice, rats) in order to fix brain metabolites without the loss of anatomical integrity of the tissue. The instruments used are designed to focus most of the power to the animal's head. The unconsciousness and death is nearly instant, occurring in less than one second, and the method is the most efficient one to fix brain tissue chemical activity. A 2.45 GHz, 6.5 kW source will heat the brain of a 30 g mouse to 90 °C in about 325 milliseconds; a 915 MHz, 25 kW source will heat the brain of a 300 g rat to the same temperature in a second. Special devices designed or modified for this purpose have to be used; use of kitchen-grade microwave ovens is condemned.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38695606", "title": "Kvikk case", "section": "Section::::1987-94: Kvikk used for electronic warfare.:Risk for radiation injuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 331, "text": "It is shown in research from the 60's and 70's that non-ionizing radiation in the microwave range can provide genotoxic mechanisms in germ cells in animals which are then relayed to the offspring, as well as practical examples have shown that radiation have led to infertility in humans, but little recent research supports this. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41098", "title": "Electromagnetic radiation and health", "section": "Section::::Effects by frequency.:Radio frequency fields.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 317, "text": "Since 1962, the microwave auditory effect or tinnitus has been shown from radio frequency exposure at levels below significant heating. Studies during the 1960s in Europe and Russia claimed to show effects on humans, especially the nervous system, from low energy RF radiation; the studies were disputed at the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23416874", "title": "Sense", "section": "Section::::Non-human senses.:Not analogous to human senses.:Infrared sensing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 1687, "text": "The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in various families of snakes. Essentially, it allows these reptiles to \"see\" radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm to a degree of accuracy such that a blind rattlesnake can target vulnerable body parts of the prey at which it strikes. It was previously thought that the organs evolved primarily as prey detectors, but it is now believed that it may also be used in thermoregulatory decision making. The facial pit underwent parallel evolution in pitvipers and some boas and pythons, having evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons. The electrophysiology of the structure is similar between the two lineages, but they differ in gross structural anatomy. Most superficially, pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the eye and the nostril (Loreal pit), while boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales. Those of the pitvipers are the more advanced, having a suspended sensory membrane as opposed to a simple pit structure. Within the family Viperidae, the pit organ is seen only in the subfamily Crotalinae: the pitvipers. The organ is used extensively to detect and target endothermic prey such as rodents and birds, and it was previously assumed that the organ evolved specifically for that purpose. However, recent evidence shows that the pit organ may also be used for thermoregulation. According to Krochmal et al., pitvipers can use their pits for thermoregulatory decision making while true vipers (vipers who do not contain heat-sensing pits) cannot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14530447", "title": "Infrared sensing in snakes", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 704, "text": "The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in two different groups of snakes, Boidae (boas and pythons) and Crotalinae (pit vipers). What is commonly called a Pit Organ allows these animals to essentially \"see\" radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm. The more advanced infrared sense of pit vipers allows these animals to strike prey accurately even in the absence of light, and detect warm objects from several meters away. It was previously thought that the organs evolved primarily as prey detectors, but recent evidence suggests that it may also be used in thermoregulation and predator detection, making it a more general-purpose sensory organ than was supposed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The NFL is a much more competitive league. Just because he was great in College doesn't mean he will necessarily be able to compete at the NFL level", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because he doesn't have an accurate enough arm or a quick enough release for the nfl. You can get away with that in college as long as you are an athlete and in the right system but not in the \"league\". ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The NFL has a much higher skill level of players than college. This means that plays and strategies you can run in the college game simply do not work in the pros. Tim Tebow was a great quarterback in college because he could exploit these weaknesses in the opponents game. When he transitioned to the NFL he was unable to keep up with the pace, intensity, and skill set needed to be an NFL quarterback. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "College football teams favor running more than passing more often than not and a lot of quarterbacks can be starters based on their ability to run even if they struggle throwing the ball. Tebow was passable as a quarterback throwing the ball in college but he wasn't even close to many of the other NFL quarterback prospects, and since are better suited to stop quarterbacks who like to run in the NFL, a lot of what made him a really good college quarterback was useless. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Tebow is a great athlete. His throwing mechanics and accuracy weren't good, but he was stronger and faster than most other players in college.\n\nThe problem was that the gap in ability at the NFL level is so small in general. Even the worst NFL team is made up of the best college players. Since he could no longer simply be the best athlete on the field and win, he had to rely on his mechanics to win and that was always the weakest part of his game.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While the rules are similar between NCAA and NFL football, there's a big difference in strategies. In college, there are lots of teams and not everyone is all that good. In the NFL, the players have more experience, have more physical strength and speed, and only made it to the NFL by being great in college. Combine that with the fact that players can stay on teams for more than 4 years and everyone's concentrated into 32 teams and the result is a lot of really good athletes. \n\nNow that that's established, how does the quality of the players relate to strategy? In college, there is a heavy emphasis on plays like the option. Without getting into too much detail, an option is a play where the running back is near the quarterback and the quarterback, based on what the defense does, either runs with the ball or gives it to the running back. In college, these plays work great because if a player is aiming for the wrong guy, he can't recover and reach the actual ballcarrier. In the NFL, everyone's fast enough where you may be able to do a few option plays throughout the game, but you can't use the college-style strategy of just doing it on every other play.\n\nSo where does Tebow fit into this? Tebow has good speed and strength for a quarterback. In college, when he needed to run with the ball, he could knock over potential tacklers. In the NFL, the defensive players are bigger, stronger, and faster. Tebow's no weakling, but he's not going to run over a 300lb defensive lineman or blow by a linebacker. In short, NFL quarterbacks need to rely on passing. Simply put, Tebow was never an exceptional passer. His accuracy was ok and his throwing motion takes much more time than a typical NFL quarterback. \n\nTL;DR: Tebow was a good running QB by college standards. He's not so impressive by NFL standards. Due to strategic differences between the leagues, NFL QBs need to rely on passing ability, which is Tebow's weakness. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50707622", "title": "History of Florida Gators football", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Urban Meyer era (2005–2010).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 468, "text": "Tim Tebow became the full-time starting quarterback for the 2007 season. Although the Gators began with a 4–0 record and were ranked as high as third in media polls, a mid-season slump in which they lost three of four games to conference foes ended their hopes for another national championship. They finished with a 9–4 record and a # 13 final ranking, but Tebow's record-setting season earned him the Heisman Trophy; he was the first sophomore to receive the honor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18582416", "title": "Tim Tebow", "section": "Section::::Professional football career.:Denver Broncos.:2011 season.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 379, "text": "After the season, Elway confirmed that Tebow would be the Broncos starting quarterback going into training camp in 2012. Despite on-field successes by the Broncos under Tebow, he finished the season with the lowest passing completion rate in the NFL (reaching 50% in just four of his 14 games) which led many to question his potential as a quarterback at the professional level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18582416", "title": "Tim Tebow", "section": "Section::::Professional football career.:Pre-draft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 854, "text": "After passing on the 2009 NFL Draft for his senior season at Florida, Tebow went on to enter the 2010 NFL Draft. Despite his college success, Tebow's NFL potential was much debated. According to former Tampa Bay Buccaneers coach Jon Gruden, who said he could \"revolutionize\" the pro game, Tebow was \"the strongest human being that's ever played the position. He can throw well enough at any level.\" Former Indianapolis Colts coach Tony Dungy said he would pick Tebow with a top 10 pick over any quarterback in the 2010 Draft. However, NFL analyst Mel Kiper, Jr. believed Tebow did not have the intangibles to play quarterback in the NFL. \"I don't think he can be a fulltime quarterback. I don't think he can be the quarterback of the future for you, but I do think in the third round, maybe the second round, he'll be the same as Pat White\", said Kiper.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18582416", "title": "Tim Tebow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 688, "text": "As a member of the Denver Broncos, he started the last three games of his rookie season and became the team's full-time starting quarterback beginning in the sixth game of 2011. The Broncos were 1–4 before he became the starter, but began winning with him on the field, often coming from behind late in the fourth quarter, until they won their first AFC West title and first playoff game since 2005, defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers in overtime. Despite the team's success, however, Tebow's potential as a professional level quarterback was called into question due to a perceived lack of passing ability, persistent fumbles, and having the lowest passing completion rate in the league.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18582416", "title": "Tim Tebow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 611, "text": "Tebow became the Florida Gators' starting quarterback during the 2007 season when he became the first college sophomore to win the Heisman Trophy. In 2008, Tebow led Florida to a 13–1 record and its second national championship in three years, and was named the offensive MVP of the national championship game. The Gators again went 13–1 in 2009, his senior year. At the conclusion of his college career, he held the Southeastern Conference's all-time records in both career passing efficiency and total rushing touchdowns, appearing second and tenth (respectively) in the NCAA record book in these categories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21033486", "title": "Heisman curse", "section": "Section::::Heisman winner's professional history.:2000s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 642, "text": "BULLET::::- Tim Tebow (2007) - First sophomore to win the Heisman and a runner-up as a junior and senior, Tebow was heralded by many as one of the greatest college football players of all time, after contributing to Florida's 2006 National Championship as a freshman and then leading his team to another one as a junior. After being drafted in the first round by the Denver Broncos, a team he brought to the NFL playoffs, he was subsequently traded to the New York Jets and then released, briefly picked up by the New England Patriots and then cut prior to the start of the 2013 season. He is currently pursuing a career in baseball instead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18582416", "title": "Tim Tebow", "section": "Section::::Professional football career.:Denver Broncos.:2010 season.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 487, "text": "Tebow finished his rookie season playing sparingly in six games as a back-up (primarily on plays involving the wild horse formation, which is Denver's variation of the wildcat formation) before starting the last three games of the Broncos' season. He passed for a total of 654 yards, five touchdowns and three interceptions. He also rushed for 227 yards and six touchdowns. He became the first quarterback in NFL history to rush for a touchdown in each of his first three career starts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yep mostly phonetic. Generic names such as Mark is normally translated to 马克 (Mah-Ker) while Paul is translated to 保罗 (Bao-Luo). Same thing applies for names that aren't common as well...but im not sure who decides for the famous ppl oops", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "According to someone I know who does business in China, they make them up, but perhaps base it on something. Maybe they'll choose a name that sounds a little like part of their given name, maybe it'll be the name of their favorite western movie star, maybe it'll be just something that *sounds* good to them.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "163247", "title": "Chinese name", "section": "Section::::Chinese names in English.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 589, "text": "Chinese people, except for those traveling or living outside China, rarely reverse their names to the western naming order (given name, then family name). Western publications usually preserve the Chinese naming order, with the family name first, followed by the given name. Beginning in the early 1980s, in regards to people from Mainland China, western publications began using the Hanyu Pinyin romanization system instead of earlier romanization systems; this resulted from the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China in 1979.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "277226", "title": "Demonym", "section": "Section::::Suffixation.:\"-ese, -lese, -vese, -gese or -nese\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 398, "text": "\"-ese\" is usually considered proper only as an adjective, or to refer to the entirety. Thus, \"a Chinese person\" is used rather than \"a Chinese\". Often used for East Asian and Francophone locations, from the similar-sounding French suffix \"-ais(e)\", which is originally from the Latin adjectival ending \"-ensis\", designating origin from a place: thus Hispaniensis (Spanish), Danensis (Danish), etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "96909", "title": "Chinese fire drill", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 446, "text": "Historians trace Westerners' use of the word Chinese to denote \"confusion\" and \"incomprehensibility\" to the earliest contacts between Europeans and Chinese people in the 1600s, and attribute it to Europeans' inability to understand China's radically different culture and world view. In his 1989 \"Dictionary of Invective\", British editor Hugh Rawson lists 16 phrases that use the word Chinese to denote \"incompetence, fraud and disorganization\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "291405", "title": "Chinese whispers", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 272, "text": "Historians trace Westerners' use of the word \"Chinese\" to denote \"confusion\" and \"incomprehensibility\" to the earliest contacts between Europeans and Chinese people in the 17th century, and attribute it to Europeans' inability to understand China's culture and worldview.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3618401", "title": "Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary", "section": "Section::::Proper names.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 514, "text": "Western names, approximated in Chinese (in some cases approximated in Japanese and then borrowed into Chinese), were further \"garbled\" in Vietnamese pronunciations. For example, Portugal became , and in Vietnamese \"Bồ Đào Nha\". England became \"Anh Cát Lợi\" (), shortened to \"Anh\" (), while United States became \"Mỹ Lợi Gia\" (), shortened to \"Mỹ\" (). The official name for the United States in Vietnamese is \"Hoa Kỳ\" (); this is a former Chinese name of the United States and translates literally as \"flower flag\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26532661", "title": "Kashgar", "section": "Section::::Name.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 505, "text": "The modern Chinese name is (\"Kāshí\"), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (\"Kāshígá'ěr\"; Uyghur: ). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his \"Geography\", Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the \"Kāš\" (\"rock\"), to which the East Iranian \"-γar\" (\"mountain\"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian \"gar/ġar\", from Old Persian/Pahlavi \"girīwa\" (\"hill; ridge (of a mountain)\") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for \"Kashgar\" include \"Cascar\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10170714", "title": "Chinaman (term)", "section": "Section::::Historic usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 898, "text": "The term \"Chinaman\" has been historically used in a variety of ways, including legal documents, literary works, geographic names, and in speech. Census records in 19th century North America recorded Chinese men by names such as \"John Chinaman\", \"Jake Chinaman\", or simply as \"Chinaman\". Chinese American historian Emma Woo Louie commented that such names in census schedules were used when census takers could not obtain any information and that they \"should not be considered to be racist in intent\". One census taker in El Dorado County wrote, \"I found about 80 Chinese men in Spanish Canion who refused to give me their names or other information.\" Louie equated \"John Chinaman\" to \"John Doe\" in its usage to refer to a person whose name is not known, and added that other ethnic groups were also identified by generic terms as well, such as \"Spaniard\" and \"Kanaka\", which refers to a Hawaiian.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Han Chinese knew a decent amount, but largely shrouded in myth. Here is a list of historical documents:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe ones translated by John Hill are the best. There are descriptions and names for the chief cities of the Eastern empire, primary exports, notable flora, some not entirely nonsensical reports about the Roman political system, and so on.\n\nThe Japanese, at least as late as the Heian period, knew very little about the world beyond China, Korea, and Central Asia. One writer has his character shipwrecked in Persia while sailing from Japan to China, which should give you an idea.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "689", "title": "Asia", "section": "Section::::Etymology.:Classical antiquity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 391, "text": "The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BCE), not because he innovated it, but because his \"Histories\" are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully, mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7564733", "title": "Indian people", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1493, "text": "The Indian people established during ancient, medieval to early eighteenth century some of the greatest empires and dynasties in South Asian history like the Maurya Empire, Satavahana dynasty, Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Chalukya Empire, Chola Empire, Karkota Empire, Pala Empire, Vijayanagara Empire, Maratha Empire and Sikh Empire.The first great Empire of the Indian people was the Maurya Empire having Patliputra(currently Patna, Bihar) as its capital, conquered the major part of South Asia in the 4th and 3rd century BC during the reign of the Indian Emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka alongside their senior advisor, Acharya Chanakya, the pioneer of the field of political science and economics in the World. The next great ancient Empire of the Indian people was the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or \"Golden Age of India\". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and Hinduism and Buddhism spread to much of Asia, while Chola Empire in the south had flourishing maritime trade links with the Roman Empire during this period. The ancient Indian mathematicians Aryabhata, Bhāskara I and Brahmagupta invented the concept of zero and the Hindu–Arabic numeral system decimal system during this period. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "399656", "title": "Western Asia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 306, "text": "In the context of the history of classical antiquity, \"Western Asia\" could mean the part of Asia known in classical antiquity, as opposed to the reaches of \"interior Asia\", i.e. Scythia, and \"Eastern Asia\" the easternmost reaches of geographical knowledge in classical authors, i.e. Transoxania and India.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "334819", "title": "Prehistoric art", "section": "Section::::Asia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 568, "text": "Asia was the cradle for several significant civilizations, most notably those of China and South Asia. The prehistory of eastern Asia is especially interesting, as the relatively early introduction of writing and historical record-keeping in China has a notable impact on the immediately surrounding cultures and geographic areas. Little of the very rich traditions of the art of Mesopotamia counts as prehistoric, as writing was introduced so early there, but neighbouring cultures such as Urartu, Luristan and Persia had significant and complex artistic traditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15443", "title": "Western imperialism in Asia", "section": "Section::::Early European exploration of Asia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 261, "text": "European exploration of Asia started in ancient Roman times along the Silk Road. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian Red Sea ports was significant in the first centuries of the Common Era.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19605700", "title": "East Asia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1192, "text": "The region was the cradle of various ancient civilizations such as ancient China, ancient Japan, ancient Korea, and the Mongol Empire. East Asia was one of the cradles of world civilization, with China, an ancient East Asian civilization being one of the earliest cradles of civilization in human history. For thousands of years, China largely influenced East Asia (as it was principally the leading civilization in the region), exerting its enormous prestige and influence on its neighbors. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, and East Asian vocabulary and scripts are often derived from Classical Chinese and Chinese script. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture and serves as the root to which many other East Asian calendars are derived from. Major religions in East Asia include Buddhism (mostly Mahayana), Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Ancestral worship, and Chinese folk religion in Greater China, Buddhism and Shintoism in Japan, and Christianity, Buddhism, and Sindoism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongols and other indigenous populations of northern East Asia such as the Manchus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54593187", "title": "Eastern South Asia", "section": "Section::::History.:Old kingdoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 752, "text": "Eastern South Asia is a cradle of South Asian civilization. Historical states in the region include those recorded in Indian epics such as the Mahabharata, including ancient Nepal, Vanga, and Pundra; the Greek and Roman recorded kingdom of Gangaridai; major Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms including Kikata, Videha, Vrijji, Magadha, Nanda, Mauryan, Anga, Kalinga, Kamarupa, Samatata, Kanva, Gupta, Pala, Gauda, Sena, Khadga, Candra, Deva, Tripura , and Cooch Behar State. Major Islamic empires in the region included the Delhi and Bengal Sultanates, and the Suri and Mughal Empires (including the important province of Mughal Bengal). A confederation of Muslim and Hindu aristocrats called the Baro-Bhuyan existed in the late 16th and early 17thcenturies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Metal marble in the can to help stir the paint", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's a ball bearing, it's there to help stir up the product. Inside the can, there's a solvent, the product, and a propellant. When the can sits idle, the product separates out from the solvent. \n\nWhen you shake it, the ball bearing helps stir the product and the solvent together.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4956684", "title": "Bird scarer", "section": "Section::::Auditory scarers.:Cartridge scarers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 414, "text": "Cartridge scarers include a wide variety of noise-producing cartridges usually fired from rockets or rope bangers, or on aerodromes from modified pistols or shotguns, which produce a loud bang and emit flashes of light. They include shellcrackers, screamer shells and whistling projectiles, exploding projectiles, bird bangers and flares. Bird banger cartridges commonly use a low explosive known as flash powder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1820388", "title": "Gas duster", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 572, "text": "The products are most often a can that, when a trigger is pressed, blasts a stream of compressed gas through a nozzle. Despite the name \"canned air\", the cans actually contain gases that are compressable into liquids. True liquid air is not practical, as it cannot be stored in metal spray cans due to extreme pressure and temperature requirements. Common duster gases are 1,1-difluoroethane, 1,1,1-trifluoroethane, or 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane. Hydrocarbons, like butane, were often used in the past, but their flammable nature forced manufacturers to use fluorocarbons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11151707", "title": "Squib load", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 277, "text": "BULLET::::- Much quieter and unusual discharge noise. Smaller or empty powder loads, combined with the primer discharge echoing in the casing or barrel, produce an unusual noise. This noise is often called a \"ping\" or \"pop\", rather than the expected \"bang\" of a standard shot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "149051", "title": "M1 Garand", "section": "Section::::Design details.:En bloc clip.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 1083, "text": "Ejection of an empty clip created a distinctive metallic \"pinging\" sound. In World War II, it was rumored that German and Japanese infantry were making use of this noise in combat to alert them to an empty M1 rifle in order to catch their American enemies with an unloaded rifle. It was reported that the U.S. Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground began experiments with clips made of various plastics in order to soften the sound, though no improved clips were ever adopted. However, this claim regarding the risks of a pinging empty clip is questionable due to hearsay produced as fact by the only known source, the otherwise fairly reliable author Roy F. Dunlap in \"Ordnance Went Up Front\" in 1948. According to former German soldiers, the sound was inaudible during engagements and not particularly useful when heard, as other squad members might have been nearby ready to fire. Due to the often intense deafening noise of combat and gunfire it is highly unlikely any U.S. servicemen were killed as a result of the ping noise; however some soldiers still took the issue very seriously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "340291", "title": "Stick shaker", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 514, "text": "The shaker itself is composed of an electric motor connected to a deliberately unbalanced flywheel. When actuated, the shaker induces a forceful, noisy, and entirely unmistakable shaking of the control yoke. This shaking of the control yoke matches the frequency and amplitude of the stick shaking that occurs due to airflow separation in low-speed aircraft as they approach the stall. The stick shaking is intended to act as a backup to the auditory stall alert, in cases where the flight crew may be distracted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "583877", "title": "Aerosol spray", "section": "Section::::Safety concerns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 371, "text": "BULLET::::- The propellants in aerosol cans are typically combinations of ignitable gases and have been known to cause fires and explosions. However, non-flammable compressed gases such as nitrogen and nitrous oxide have been widely adopted into a number of aerosol systems (such as air fresheners and aerosolized whipped cream) as have non-flammable liquid propellants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "340291", "title": "Stick shaker", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 261, "text": "A stick shaker is a mechanical device to rapidly and noisily vibrate the control yoke (the \"stick\") of an aircraft to warn the pilot of an imminent stall. A stick shaker is connected to the control column of most civil jet aircraft and large military aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\nHey! A question on my field!\n\nFirst, 'erotic literature' (very good use of the correct term) was first printed in the late 1490's, the pioneer in the field being Pietro Aretino, of course.\n\nThe short answer is... What public?\n\nThe public, by and large could not read. Reading was still mostly limited to the upper classes, though it becomes much more widespread in the 18th century (1700's), and you see booksellers like Edmund Curll making a living selling erotic and controversial books. In the 1600's however, the seventeenth century, there was not really a reading 'public.'\n\nMost of what was published (in England) was in Latin and Italian, many of them reprints of Aretino's works. Some of the more famous works were written in this era, like *Nashe's Dildoe*, and *The School of Venus* (1680). \n\nWhat does survive from the seventeenth century (again, England), however, are erotic manuscripts. These manuscripts were absolutely fascinating items. You could think of them as group-notebooks. What this means is that maybe there would be a group of male college students (and these manuscripts are mostly found intact in University records), and individuals would write various things in them for everyone to read. Some things erotic, some things not. For example, there may be a recipe for \"cleaning the quente (cunt)\" alongside a long erotic poem. Another manuscript might have a recipe for curing a hangover alongside of a copied letter, a political satire. There was no real organization or coherence to them, although towards the end of the era, tables of contents began to be imposed after the fact.\n\nErotic manuscripts were essentially not 'literature' as they had a lack of coherence to them. They were, however, erotic 'discourse.' What I mean by this is that pornography might be used to launch social. religious, or political criticism. \n\nThe most famous of these might be Rochester's Satyr (Satire) on Charles II, in which he says: \n\"In th' isle of Britain, long since famous grown/ For breeding the best cunts in Christendom,/ There reigns, and oh! long may he reign and thrive, / The easiest King and best-bred man alive.\" and uses erotic discourse to accuse of the King of being too busy fucking and not busy enough overseeing the affairs of state.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "398452", "title": "Erotic literature", "section": "Section::::Erotic fiction.:History of western erotic fiction.:18th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 942, "text": "The rise of the novel in 18th-century England provided a new medium for erotica. One of the most famous in this new genre was \"Fanny Hill\" (1748) by John Cleland. This book set a new standard in literary smut and was often adapted for the cinema in the 20th century. Peter Fryer suggests that \"Fanny Hill\" was a high point in British erotica, at least in the eighteenth century, in a way that mainstream literature around it had also reached a peak at that time, with writers like Defoe, Richardson and Fielding all having made important and lasting contributions to literature in its first half. After 1750, he suggests, when the began, the quality of mainstream writing and of smut declined in tandem. Writes Fryer: \"sex was driven out of the English novel in the latter half of the eighteenth century. The castration of imaginative English literature made the clandestine literature of sex the most poverty stricken and boring in Europe\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "398452", "title": "Erotic literature", "section": "Section::::Erotic fiction.:Contemporary erotic fiction.:Internet erotic fiction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 256, "text": "The Internet and digital revolution in erotic depiction has changed the forms of representing scenes of a sexual nature. One researcher concluded that erotic literature was available among the poor and performed at public readings in 18th-century Britain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "369910", "title": "Erotic art", "section": "Section::::Historical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 398, "text": "In Europe, starting with the Renaissance, there was a tradition of producing erotica for the amusement of the aristocracy. In the early 16th century, the text \"I Modi\" was a woodcut album created by the designer Giulio Romano, the engraver Marcantonio Raimondi and the poet Pietro Aretino. In 1601 Caravaggio painted the \"Amor Vincit Omnia,\" for the collection of the Marquis Vincenzo Giustiniani.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "398452", "title": "Erotic literature", "section": "Section::::Erotic fiction.:History of western erotic fiction.:19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 318, "text": "Notable European works of erotica at this time were \"Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess\" (1833) by Frenchman Alfred de Musset and \"Venus in Furs\" (1870) by the Austrian author Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. The latter erotic novella brought the attention of the world to the phenomenon of masochism, named after the author.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6598994", "title": "History of erotic depictions", "section": "Section::::Beginnings of mass circulation.:Printing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 805, "text": "In the 17th century, numerous examples of pornographic or erotic literature began to circulate. These included \"L'Ecole des Filles\", a French work printed in 1655 that is considered to be the beginning of pornography in France. It consists of an illustrated dialogue between two women, a 16-year-old and her more worldly cousin, and their explicit discussions about sex. The author remains anonymous to this day, though a few suspected authors served light prison sentences for supposed authorship of the work. In his famous diary, Samuel Pepys records purchasing a copy for solitary reading and then burning it so that it would not be discovered by his wife; \"the idle roguish book, \"L'escholle de filles\"; which I have bought in plain binding… because I resolve, as soon as I have read it, to burn it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58159856", "title": "Victorian erotica", "section": "Section::::General.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 817, "text": "Art and Literature provided Victorians with an avenue to express transgressive and repressed sexual desire. Sex was a prominent feature in much of Victorian art, especially in theatre and literature. Sex was often illustrated by stories of deviance and scandal. It is argued that some Victorian erotica rests on techniques of implication and allusion to sexual desires and activity, such as in the works of Wilde, Dickens, and Field. Yet there are also explicitly sexual works, as compiled in Henry Spencer Ashbee's \"Forbidden Books of the Victorians\", in which the books describe sex in much erotic detail. Such Victorian works include \"The Romance of Lust\", \"My Secret Life\", and \"Venus in Furs\". Additional Victorian artists and authors include Aubrey Beardsley, George Eliot and, of course, a lot by \"Anonymous\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47418754", "title": "Pornographication", "section": "Section::::Effects of media.:Books.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 908, "text": "Literature which people read for sexual satisfaction is one of the earliest forms of media portraying sexuality. Now, there are various websites to satisfy most people's varied sexual preferences and tastes. As erotica was a form of social protest against the values of the culture at the time, as was with the famous book \"The Romance of Lust\", written as a few volumes between 1873–1876. Described in the book are homosexuality, incest, and other socially unacceptable concepts. The values of the Victorian era perpetuated purity and innocence. So this book offered a new perspective. In recent years, erotica has become the new norm, and is extremely popular. The most recent commercial success was \"Fifty Shades of Grey\", describing in detail scenes of sadomasochism and other forms of kink. It sold over \"31 million worldwide\", and has been adapted into a film starring Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you fly a lot you notice the flight to LA on Spirit airlines always leaves from gate A2 for example. Most connections you make are with the same airline. The guys handling the bags at a landing sort the bags. Most are headed to the local baggage pickup. Most of the remaining ones are headed to a gate close by. A carrier truck runs those over to the gate where a flight is headed to your destination. If you are changing carriers along your route you are usually told to wait for your checked bag at the gate where you arrive and gate check onto your next flight as baggage handlers can't go driving clear across the airport to find the gate and flight on another airline, but you can.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They usually sort it at the departing gate. They know which luggage needs to be taken out first. That information is sent to arrive airport. They also compartmentalize the bags. Ie, belt, terminal 1, terminal 2, etc. So this way, its easy to put the bags in correct cart and take it to correct place. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "the bag comes off the arriving plane and is bar code scanned. the arriving airport systems know what the gate the connecting flight is. so the handlers just have to put it on a truck giong to that gate. \n\nbags that are for transfers can also loaded in last into the airplane cargo hold so they're near the airplane cargo door. those containers or bags are the first ones off ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's sometimes a physical component here too. Your short connection is you running across a network of concourses, maybe terminals. The bag carts can often use tunnels to physically travel less distance than passengers for the same gate to gate trips", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Depending on the airport, it’s a complex conveyor belt system that helps gets the bags from one area to another. Here’s a cool video of it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: spelling of words.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Alright so here's my question, and I'm sure only someone in the industry will know.\n\nLet's say you have one of those hacker fares, where you're on one airline for the first flight, then another for the second. Since luggage is transported by the individual airlines, how does that work when the layover is short? Unlike flying with the same airline, the planes in the hacker's case could be on the other side of a space that's thousands of acres large.\n\nWould the connecting airline be waiting on the tarmac to transport the bag? The airline from the first flight? I doubt they could care less about one bag that won't be flying with them again.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As some one who works for a major airline this is something that I can answer, if you have a short layover our system is if it is less than an hour till departure the bag gets taken off the arriving plane it’s scanned and given to a runner who then takes it to the departure gate right from the plane. \nSorry about formatting am on mobile. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3206290", "title": "Check-in", "section": "Section::::Airport check-in.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 615, "text": "Many airlines have a deadline for passengers to check in before each flight. This is to allow the airline to offer unclaimed seats to stand-by passengers, to load luggage onto the plane and to finalize documentation for take-off. The passenger must also take into account the time that may be needed for them to clear the check-in line, to pass security and then to walk (sometimes also to ride) from the check-in area to the boarding area. This may take several hours at some airports or at some times of the year. On international flights, additional time would be required for immigration and customs clearance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10321936", "title": "Airport check-in", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 475, "text": "Airport check-in is the process whereby passengers are accepted by an airline at the airport prior to travel. The airlines typically use service counters found at airports. The check-in is normally handled by an airline itself or a handling agent working on behalf of an airline. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they do not wish or are not allowed to carry in to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they can proceed to board their aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10321936", "title": "Airport check-in", "section": "Section::::Baggage registration.:Self-service bag drop.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 571, "text": "Some airlines have a self-check-in process allowing passengers with bags to check-in at Self Bag Drop machines. Passengers then attach the baggage tag and drop the bag at the baggage drop belt. Passengers without checked luggage can go straight to the lounge (if entitled to lounge access) and check in at the kiosk there using their ePass (a small RFID device only for its premium customers) or proceed straight to the departure gate. Many airlines use electronic check-in such as ePass, mPass, or similar mobile apps, and these applications serve as the boarding pass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3206290", "title": "Check-in", "section": "Section::::Airport check-in.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 764, "text": "The check-in process at airports enables passengers to check in luggage onto a plane and to obtain a boarding pass. When presenting at the check-in counter, a passenger will provide evidence of the right to travel, such as a ticket, visa or electronic means. Each airline provides facilities for passengers to check in their luggage, except for their carry-on bags. This may be by way of airline-employed staff at check-in counters at airports or through an agency arrangement or by way of a self-service kiosk. The luggage is weighed and tagged, and then placed on a conveyor that usually feeds the luggage into the main baggage handling system. The luggage goes into the aircraft's cargo hold. The check-in staff then issues each passenger with a boarding pass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1585406", "title": "Boarding pass", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 486, "text": "Most airports and airlines have automatic readers that will verify the validity of the boarding pass at the jetway door or boarding gate. This also automatically updates the airline's database that shows the passenger has boarded and the seat is used, and that the checked baggage for that passenger may stay aboard. This speeds up the paperwork process at the gate, but requires passengers with paper tickets to check in, surrender the ticket, and receive the digitized boarding pass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2451025", "title": "Hand luggage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 793, "text": "The term hand luggage or cabin baggage (also commonly referred to as carry-on in North America) refers to the type of luggage that passengers are allowed to carry along in the passenger compartment of a vehicle instead of moving to the cargo compartment. Passengers are allowed to carry a limited number of smaller bags with them in the vehicle and contain valuables and items needed during the journey. There is normally storage space provided for hand luggage, either under seating, or in overhead lockers. Trains usually have luggage racks above the seats and may also (especially in the case of trains travelling longer distances) have luggage space between the backs of seats facing opposite directions, or in extra luggage racks, for example, at the ends of the carriage near the doors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10321936", "title": "Airport check-in", "section": "Section::::Online check-in.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1192, "text": "This service is generally promoted by the airlines to passengers as being easier and faster because it reduces the time a passenger would normally spend at an airport check-in counter. Some airlines, however, would still require passengers to proceed to a check-in counter at the airport, regardless of preferred check-in method, for document verification (e.g., to travel to countries where a visa is required, or to ensure the credit card used to purchase is genuine and/or matches the identity of the person who made the purchase). If passengers need to continue the check-in process at the airport after performing an online check-in, a special lane is typically offered to them to reduce wait times unless all desks are designated as baggage drop-off points. Furthermore, online check-in for a flight is often available earlier than its in-person counterpart. The process then transfers to passengers' control over their check-in. Airlines may use the system because self-service is frequently more efficient to operate, with a greater ability to cope with surges in passenger numbers. It also lessens activity at the airport, saving airlines money and reducing passenger waiting times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You might want to check out:\n\n- [When did the Monetary system using \"paper money\" we have today start?](_URL_0_)\n\n- [What are the earliest dates for paper money?](_URL_1_)\n\n- [How did they prevent counterfeiting of paper money before modern things like holograms, fluorescent ink, and microprinting?](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "208286", "title": "Banknote", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 608, "text": "Paper currency first developed in Tang dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. The usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire or Yuan dynasty China. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century. Napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Cash paper money originated as receipts for value held on account \"value received\", and should not be conflated with promissory \"sight bills\" which were issued with a promise to convert at a later date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58484031", "title": "Da Ming Baochao", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1164, "text": "The precursor of paper money (紙幣) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren’t meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997–1022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jurchen Jin dynasty also issued paper money, the Jiaochao (交鈔).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22156522", "title": "Fiat money", "section": "Section::::History.:Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 747, "text": "Washington Irving records an emergency use of paper money by the Spanish in a siege during the Conquest of Granada (1482–1492). In 1661, Johan Palmstruch issued the first regular paper money in the West, under royal charter from the Kingdom of Sweden, through a new institution, the Bank of Stockholm. While this private paper currency was largely a failure, the Swedish parliament eventually took over the issue of paper money in the country. By 1745, its paper money was inconvertible to specie, but acceptance was mandated by the government. This fiat currency depreciated so rapidly that by 1776 it returned to a silver standard. Fiat money also has other roots in 17th-century Europe, having been introduced by the Bank of Amsterdam in 1683.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "462983", "title": "Livre tournois", "section": "Section::::Circulating currency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 325, "text": "The first French paper money, issued between 1701 and 1720, was denominated in livres tournois (see \"Standard Catalog of World Paper Money\", Albert Pick). This was the last time the name was used officially, as later notes and coins were denominated simply in livres, the livre parisis having finally been abolished in 1667.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55336", "title": "Cash", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 733, "text": "Meanwhile, paper money had been developed. At first, it was thought of for emergency issues, hence were most popular in the colonies of European powers. In the 18th century, important paper issues were made in colonies such as Ceylon and the bordering colonies of Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice. John Law did pioneering work on banknotes with the \"Banque Royale\". However, the relation between money supply and inflation was still imperfectly understood and the bank went under, while its notes became worthless when they were over-issued. The lessons learned were applied to the Bank of England, which played a crucial role in financing Wellington's Peninsular war against French troops, hamstrung by a metallic Franc de Germinal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2763667", "title": "History of money", "section": "Section::::400–1450.:Banknotes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 923, "text": "Paper money was introduced in Song dynasty China during the 11th century. The development of the banknote began in the seventh century, with local issues of paper currency. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618–907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. The issue of credit notes is often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The jiaozi nevertheless did not replace coins during the Song Dynasty; paper money was used alongside the coins. The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money, issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit. By the early 12th century, the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26 million strings of cash coins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "208286", "title": "Banknote", "section": "Section::::History.:Early Chinese paper money.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 400, "text": "Development of the banknote began in the Tang dynasty during the 7th century, with local issues of paper currency, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm an artist who creates optical illusions. The big reason this particular type of illusion works is because the value of the lines lead the eye. Other moving illusions can force the perspective with the thickness of the lines. It is the same principle shown in [this famous illusion](_URL_0_) but much simplified. If you look at that one you can see the white color on one side and the black on the other. When you focus on one part of the drawing, your area of view is much smaller and your brain then imposes what it thinks should be in that place instead. It's similar but not quite exactly like the lens of a camera rack focusing. The big difference is that your brain also interpolates what it thinks it should be seeing. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If I stare at an optical illusion long enough, will I get used to it, and see it as a regular, picture which doesn't move?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1393135", "title": "Illusory motion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 366, "text": "The term illusory motion, also known as motion illusion, is an optical illusion in which a static image appears to be moving due to the cognitive effects of interacting color contrasts and shape position. Apparent motion is the most common type of illusory motion and is perceived when images are displayed in succession at a specific frame rate such as in a movie.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53497", "title": "Optical illusion", "section": "Section::::Explanation of cognitive illusions.:Future perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 259, "text": "The illusion tricks us into thinking we are looking at a perspective picture, and thus according to Changizi, switches on our future-seeing abilities. Since we aren't actually moving and the figure is static, we misperceive the straight lines as curved ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10769998", "title": "Induced movement", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 476, "text": "Induced movement or induced motion is an illusion of visual perception in which a stationary or a moving object appears to move or to move differently because of other moving objects nearby in the visual field. It is interpreted in terms of the change in the location of an object due to the movement in the space around it. The object affected by the illusion is called the \"target\", and the other moving objects are called the \"background\" or the \"context\" (Duncker, 1929).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41409124", "title": "Illusion optics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 462, "text": "Illusion optics is an electromagnetic theory that can change the optical appearance of an object to be exactly like that of another virtual object, i.e. an illusion, such as turning the look of an apple into that of a banana. Invisibility is a special case of illusion optics, which turns objects into illusions of free space. The concept and numerical proof of illusion optics was proposed in 2009 based on transformation optics in the field of metamaterials. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31982810", "title": "Geometrical-optical illusions", "section": "Section::::Categories of visual illusions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 816, "text": "Visual or Optical Illusions can be categorized according to the nature of the difference between objects and percepts. For example, these can be in brightness or color, called \"intensive\" properties of targets, e.g. Mach bands. Or they can be in their location, size, orientation or depth, called \"extensive\". When an illusion involves properties that fall within the purview of geometry it is \"geometrical-optical\", a term given to it in the first scientific paper devoted to the topic by J.J. Oppel, a German high-school teacher, in 1854. It was taken up by Wilhelm Wundt, widely regarded as the founder of experimental psychology, and is now universally used. That by 1972 the first edition of Robinson's book devotes 100 closely printed pages and over 180 figures to these illusions attests to their popularity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16350783", "title": "Illusions of self-motion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 246, "text": "Illusions of self-motion refers to a phenomenon that occurs when someone feels like their body is moving when no movement is taking place. One can experience illusory movements of the whole body or of individual body parts, such as arms or legs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4073095", "title": "Peripheral drift illusion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 293, "text": "The illusion is easily seen when fixating off to the side of it, and then blinking as fast as possible. Most observers can see the illusion easily when reading text with the illusion figure in the periphery. The motion of such illusions is consistently perceived in a dark-to-light direction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Former speaker Newt Gingrich was an assistant professor of history at West Georgia College before being elected to Congress.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8585275", "title": "Richard Norton Smith", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 260, "text": "Richard Norton Smith (born 1953) is an American historian and author specializing in U.S. presidents and other political figures. In the past, he worked as a freelance writer for \"The Washington Post\", and worked with U.S. Senators Edward Brooke and Bob Dole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4866316", "title": "Leonard D. White", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 415, "text": "Leonard Dupee White (January 17, 1891 in Acton, Massachusetts – February 23, 1958 in Chicago, Illinois) was an American historian who specialized in public administration in the United States. His technique was to study administration in the context of grouped U.S. presidential terms. A founder of the field, White worked at the University of Chicago after service in the administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1674801", "title": "Yale Law Journal", "section": "Section::::Notable alumni.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 551, "text": "Alumni have also served as United States Attorneys General (Nicholas Katzenbach, Peter Keisler) and United States Solicitors General (Walter E. Dellinger III, Neal Katyal, Seth P. Waxman). In addition, numerous editors have gone on to serve as high-ranking public officials (Senator Arlen Specter, Senator Michael Bennet, Senator Richard Blumenthal, former Secretary of Labor Robert Reich, Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar, FBI Director Christopher A. Wray, White House Counsel Lloyd Cutler, National Security Advisor John R. Bolton).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21969219", "title": "List of public administration scholars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 339, "text": "This list of public administration scholars includes notable theorists, academics, and researchers from public administration, public policy, and related fields such as economics, political science, management, administrative law. All of the individuals in this list have made a notable contribution to the field of public administration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4157", "title": "Brown University", "section": "Section::::Notable people.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 189, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 189, "end_character": 494, "text": "Alumni in politics include U.S. Secretary of State John Hay (1852), U.S. Secretary of State and Attorney General Richard Olney (1856), Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes (1881), Senator Maggie Hassan '80 of New Hampshire, Governor Jack Markell '82 of Delaware, Rhode Island Representative David Cicilline '83, Minnesota Representative Dean Phillips '91, 2020 Presidential candidate and entrepreneur Andrew Yang '96, and DNC Chair Tom Perez '83.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "529237", "title": "College of Idaho", "section": "Section::::Notable alumni.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 189, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 189, "end_character": 346, "text": "Among the alumni who have become elected officials, successful business owners, and other community leaders are two former governors, a Pulitzer Prize-winning historian, an Academy Award-winning musician, seven Rhodes Scholars, 14 Truman, Marshall and Goldwater Scholars, the founder of Albertson's Inc. and the co-founder of Patagonia Outerwear\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8952945", "title": "Raymond W. Smock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 275, "text": "Raymond W. Smock (born February 8, 1941) is an American historian, who is the Director Emeritus of the Robert C. Byrd Center for Congressional History and Education at Shepherd University, and formerly the Historian of the United States House of Representatives (1983-1995).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Maybe they hear the car but think it's farther away so they don't care. Like they hear it, 100 feet away and think the car can't possibly travel at 70 mph to hit me in time, so I'll just run across this road.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Every creature's ears are sensitive to different frequency ranges. It's possible that deer don't hear the sound of a car because the pitch is outside their hearing range. This is the same reason you won't hear a dog whistle, no matter how loudly it's blown.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think that they just don't know what cars are and don't know how to react to them. \n\nor they are just looking for an adrenaline rush. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think it's to do with their primitive nature. Rustling of leaves, food steps, to deer, means \"something is coming to eat me!\" while the sound of a engine, car honk means nothing to them, so it's ignored.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The deer will run away from cars and such in daylight as typically only the running lamps are on, however at night the deer become hypnotized by the headlights and instead just keep on staring at them instead of running away as would he expected due to their timid nature. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "when they're startled and run they don't always make good decisions about where they run. I've seen them run into fences and trees in daylight", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Deer don't understand roads or vehicles. They eat the vegetation along the road and really aren't all that frightened by road noise. \n\nWhat probably happens is they get spooked by some of the rustling you mentioned and their instincts tell them to run from the predator, but not away from the road they have been grazing next to. \n\nAlso, their eyes are greatly dilated at night, which means when headlights shine on them they can't see SHIT. So if a deer is standing in the road at night and a car comes around the corner with its high beams on, it instinctively freezes \"like a deer in headlights\" while it's eyes try to adjust. \n\nThe best thing to do, is of course, try to avoid slamming into a deer. I don't mean swerving! I'm talking about slowing down at night, paying attention to those yellow animal x-ing signs and watching out for reflecting eyes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I recently watched a documentary about deer. IIRC they don't have good vision but excellent hearing and smell. And when they headlights come on because of their small brains they cant comprehend what is the bright light because it stimulates their brains so much they sort of are in a trance. almost certain it was this one _URL_0_\n something interesting is older deer begin to understand the danger of roads and will be vvery cautious when crossing and even look both ways while younger deer following will just dart across without looking. I always wondered why deer dont learn that roads are dangerous.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Deers aren't \"used\" to cars. They run like hell if they hear a human or an other animal. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cars aren't very loud, especially when they're coming toward you. Go stand on the side of the road, close your eyes, and then open them when you hear a car coming. Even if you're specifically listening for cars, chances are you wont hear the car until it's quite close. Now imagine you're some dumb deer looking for food. The sound of an approaching car probably sounds like a gust of wind to it. What's that bright-ass light over there? I don't know. I can't make out shit, but I see that bright-ass light every morning when the sun comes up... guess it's time for be----BAM.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You ever notice how ambulances sound different if they're coming than going? It's called 'the doppler effect' - the car is catching up with it's own sound a bit, and it makes it sound different.\n\nNow, a car that's coming doesn't make a lot more noise than rushing wind until it's pretty close, and the noise builds up slowly. A deer is a tremendously high-strung beast, but it notices sudden noises like a twig snapping a lot more than constant noises like a stream or the wind. \n\nWhen the deer first heard the car, it sounded like the rustling of wind in the distance. It hardly noticed the changes to the ongoing noise until the car passed - it's after the car's passing that the engine's roar is heard.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From observation I am pretty sure that many animals, not just deer, feel an instincive urge to run across the path of anything going down a path. For example, when I walk down a sidewalk, some of the geckos hiding in the grass on either side of the path will run in front of me to get to the other side as I'm walking. They realize that I am dangerous to them, but they cross my path anyway. My guess is they are running to seek shelter, thinking I am hunting them or something, and trying to get better cover. For deer it is likely the same way, as deer tend to like to stay hidden. While they are already hiding, however, they will be on high alert trying to hear predators approaching.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Deer have instincts to tell them rustling leaves may mean a predator, but they haven't developed instincts for cars. Kind of like how lots of people are afraid of spiders, but aren't afraid of stuff like a bottle of medicine they could overdose on. (A person may be weary of taking too much medicine, but it wouldn't evoke the same primal fear by just looking at it)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They have sensitive hearing they cannot control. The loud noises from a highway confuse them and make them run where ever in fright. It's their \"flight mechanism\" taking over and going wild. Deer will usually just sit there and eat grass if it's a deserted highway and you're the only car. But to be sure, begin braking when you see one.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20622140", "title": "Deer–vehicle collisions", "section": "Section::::Contributing factors.:Time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 330, "text": "A contributing factor to deer-vehicle collisions, as preventable as it is prevalent, is the time of day at which motorists travel through deer habitation. During the daytime, motorists can more easily see and avoid hitting deer. At night, most especially during the dusk and dawn hours, deer are much harder to see, and therefore\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8238281", "title": "Calamian deer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 650, "text": "It's known as the hog deer because when it is fleeing from danger it dashes through underbrush with its head down like a hog instead of jumping over barriers like other deer. These animals are crepuscular, meaning that they are active at sunrise and twilight. They rest during the warmer part of the day and then come out from the undergrowth to forage. Mainly solitary, they sometimes form small herds if left undisturbed. As with other deer species, Calamian deer are ruminants, meaning that they have four stomach chambers and chew cud. A soft, high-pitched, nasal call is their main vocalization. Their diet consist of shoots, twigs, and leaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "780856", "title": "Black-tailed deer", "section": "Section::::Behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 446, "text": "Deer communicate with the aid of scent and pheromones from several glands located on the lower legs. The metatarsal (outside of lower leg) produces an alarm scent, the tarsal (inside of hock) serves for mutual recognition and the interdigital (between the toes) leave a scent trail when deer travel. Deer have excellent sight and smell. Their large ears can move independently of each other and pick up any unusual sounds that may signal danger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3204976", "title": "Thorold's deer", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 397, "text": "The species has a range of vocalisations, including loud alarm calls, which are audible over away, growling sounds made by males in rut, and quieter grunts or mews made by females and young. Like reindeer, they can also make unusual, loud snapping sounds from their carpal bones, the function of which is unclear. Thorold's deer rarely run, but they can gallop at up to 35 miles (56 km) per hour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "579839", "title": "New Forest", "section": "Section::::Wildlife.:Deer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 423, "text": "Numerous deer live in the Forest; they are usually rather shy and tend to stay out of sight when people are around, but are surprisingly bold at night, even when a car drives past. Fallow deer (\"Dama dama\") are the most common, followed by roe deer (\"Capreolus capreolus\") and red deer (\"Cervus elephas\"). There are also smaller populations of the introduced sika deer (\"Cervus nippon\") and muntjac (\"Muntiacus reevesii\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1765503", "title": "Water deer", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Communication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 621, "text": "Water deer are capable of emitting a number of sounds. The main call is a bark, and this has more of a growl tone when compared with the sharper yap of a muntjac. The bark is used as an alarm, and water deer will bark repeatedly at people and at each other for reasons unknown. If challenged during the rut, a buck will emit a clicking sound. It is uncertain how this unique sound is generated, although it is possibly by using its molar teeth. During the rut a buck following a doe will make a weak whistle or squeak. The does emit a soft pheep to call to their fawns, whilst an injured deer will emit a screaming wail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261105", "title": "Roadkill", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Night driving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 221, "text": "The simple tactics of reducing speed and scanning both sides of the road for foraging deer can improve driver safety at night, and drivers may see the retro-reflection of an animal’s eyes before seeing the animal itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's really true. The space between stars is really quite large.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you count molecular hydrogen, yes there are collisions. The clouds of hydrogen will press against each other, eventually increasing in pressure (mass accumulated in one region), and new stars will be born. Otherwise, it is so very unlikely that two objects will interact with each other that one can say that it never happens.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To give you a perspective of how much space there is on average between stars.\n\nImagine that the largest by radius star (UY Scuti, with 1708 solar radii) was the size of a 2 meter long human.\n\nThe average distance between humans then would be 4000 kilometers.\n\nA star the size of our sun would be only 0.12 centimeters.\n_________________________________________________\nThing get slightly less \"far away\" if we consider not just the sun but the entire solar system as one object, but the distances are still quite serious.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not any collisions in the sense of physical stars and planets directly hitting each other, no. \n\nHowever, nebulae will collide, compressing gas and causing an intense burst of star formation in both of the colliding galaxies.\n\nSome systems also may be gravitationally affected, i.e. a star passes close to another system and disturbs the orbits of long-period comets, but the distances really are vast enough that actual violent stellar collisions will be extremely, *extremely* rare if they even occur at all. The average galaxy just simply isn't dense enough.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I always wondered what happens with the supermassive black hole(SBH) of the galaxy being devoured? \n\nI assume it eventually makes its way to the supermassive black hole(SBH) of the dominate galaxy. \n\nDoes the smaller SBH get absorbed first or last?\n\nIf the SBH of the smaller system makes its way to the dominate SBH it must cause immense damage on its way to the center. \n\nOr, does the smaller SBH never join the dominant system, and simply gets flung into space?\n\nIt would seem that if a universe slows and begins to collapse, that given enough time, all matter and all black holes would meet and matter would lose that battle eventually. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12558", "title": "Galaxy", "section": "Section::::Other types of galaxies.:Interacting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 379, "text": "Collisions occur when two galaxies pass directly through each other and have sufficient relative momentum not to merge. The stars of interacting galaxies will usually not collide, but the gas and dust within the two forms will interact, sometimes triggering star formation. A collision can severely distort the shape of the galaxies, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7901784", "title": "Andromeda–Milky Way collision", "section": "Section::::Certainty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 287, "text": "Such collisions are relatively common, considering galaxies' long lifespans. Andromeda, for example, is believed to have collided with at least one other galaxy in the past, and several dwarf galaxies such as Sgr dSph are currently colliding with the Milky Way and being merged into it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63794", "title": "Impact event", "section": "Section::::Extrasolar impacts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 268, "text": "Collisions between galaxies, or galaxy mergers, have been observed directly by space telescopes such as Hubble and Spitzer. However, collisions in planetary systems including stellar collisions, while long speculated, have only recently begun to be observed directly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29459180", "title": "Stellar collision", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 248, "text": "A stellar collision is the coming together of two stars caused by stellar dynamics within a star cluster, or by the orbital decay of a binary star due to stellar mass loss or gravitational radiation, or by other mechanisms not yet well understood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40898", "title": "Collision", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 323, "text": "A collision is the event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other in about a relatively short time. Although the most common use of the word \"collision\" refers to incidents in which two or more objects collide with great force, the scientific use of the term implies nothing about the magnitude of the force.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20310362", "title": "Stellar kinematics", "section": "Section::::Stellar kinematic types.:Runaway stars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 328, "text": "BULLET::::- A collision or close encounter between stellar systems, including galaxies, may result in the disruption of both systems, with some of the stars being accelerated to high velocities, or even ejected. A large-scale example is the gravitational interaction between the Milky Way Galaxy and the Large Magellanic Cloud.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3193012", "title": "Interacting galaxy", "section": "Section::::Galaxy collision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 366, "text": "Galactic collisions are now frequently simulated on computers, which use realistic physics principles, including the simulation of gravitational forces, gas dissipation phenomena, star formation, and feedback. Dynamical friction slows the relative motion galaxy pairs, which may possibly merge at some point, according to the initial relative energy of the orbits. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Additional question (if permitted by mod overlords, please delete if not): is there a good english language book on this that does not look at this purely in reference to the lead up to the world wars?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"The Long Nineteenth Century\" by Blackburn is a general history of Germany, ending with WW1. You'll find plenty of information to get started in the book, as it is well sourced. I don't recall it being too specific in that area, but would certainly not hurt to start your search. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48709296", "title": "Ireland’s Great Hunger Museum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 560, "text": "Ireland’s Great Hunger Museum at Quinnipiac University publishes a series of booklets called Famine Folios, a unique resource for students, scholars and researchers, as well as general readers, covering many aspects of the Famine in Ireland from 1845–1852 — the worst demographic catastrophe of 19th-century Europe. The essays are interdisciplinary in nature, and make available new research in Famine studies by internationally established scholars in history, art history, cultural theory, philosophy, media history, political economy, literature and music.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56962845", "title": "Bund Deutscher Holzwirte", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 235, "text": "This course of study was established in 1939 by the Reichsinstitut für ausländische und koloniale Forstwirtschaft (English: Reich Institute for Foreign and Colonial Forestry). As of 1946 the University of Hamburg continues the course.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51365411", "title": "Germania Sacra", "section": "Section::::History and Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 231, "text": "The first attempt to collect and publish the history of the German dioceses in reference books was made by Martin Gerbert, the prince-abbot of the monastery St. Blasien in the late 18th century, but his works were never completed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53025112", "title": "Jakob Baechtold", "section": "Section::::Selected works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 219, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Bibliothek älterer Schriftwerke der deutschen Schweiz und ihres Grenzgebietes\" (edited with Ferdinand Vetter; 1877–92) – Library of older literary works of German-speaking Switzerland and its border areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36209300", "title": "1809 Gottscheer rebellion", "section": "Section::::Sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 214, "text": "BULLET::::- -Bencin, Thomas F. Gottschee: A History of a German Community on Slovenia from the Fourteenth to the Twentieth Century. Louisville, Colorado: Gottscheer Heritage and Genealogy Association, 1995. Print.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10313874", "title": "Gottschee", "section": "Section::::Further reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 215, "text": "BULLET::::- Thomas F. Bencin. Gottschee: A History of a German Community in Slovenia from the Fourteenth to the Twentieth Century. Master's Thesis 1995. Louisville, CO: Gottscheer Research and Genealogy Assn. 2003.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54189615", "title": "David Roberts (academic)", "section": "Section::::Publications.:Books.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 228, "text": "some hundred journal articles and chapters in books, on German literature, literary history and sociology, critical theory, systems theory, aesthetic theory, including essays in \"A New History of German Literature\" (Harvard UP)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Its because of the type of plastic that they use to make the bags. Because chips go stale rather quickly when exposed to oxygen they use a a high density plastic and pack them with gas(not sure what kind nitrogen?) To keep them fresh until you open them. The type of plastic they use is stiff so it makes a krinkley noise when moved. Hope that helps", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1804907", "title": "Woodchipper", "section": "Section::::Types.:Drum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 485, "text": "Chippers of this type have many drawbacks and safety issues. If an operator becomes snagged on material being fed into the machine, injury or death is very likely. Chippers of this type are also very loud. The chips produced may be very large, and if thin material is inserted, it may be cut into slivers rather than chips, and since the drum is directly driven by the engine, materials that are too large or long may stall the engine while usually remaining firmly stuck in the drum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "238209", "title": "Biltong", "section": "Section::::Retail.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 293, "text": "Biltong is a common product in Southern African butcheries and grocery stores, and can be bought in the form of wide strips (known as \"stokkies\", meaning \"little sticks\"). It is also sold in plastic bags, sometimes shrink-wrapped, and may be either finely shredded or sliced as biltong chips.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1440257", "title": "Dunnage", "section": "Section::::Dunnage bags.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 315, "text": "Originally rubber bags were used to brace pallets inside trucks. They evolved into kraft paper bags with a plastic-bag interior. As metal strapping has become less popular, many companies now use polyethylene- or vinyl-based bags because of their low cost. It is important to match the size of the bag to the void.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7815300", "title": "Red Hot Riplets", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 337, "text": "The chips are also known outside of St. Louis because of the rappers Murphy Lee and Nelly. Murphy Lee wrote a song \"Red Hot Riplets\" (from the album Murphy's Law) that mentions them in the chorus. When Murphy Lee was included in the Rap Snacks line of chips, he had them duplicate the Red Hot Riplets recipe as his flavor of Rap Snacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6552945", "title": "Ear pick", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 201, "text": "Other than the wide variety of materials used to make them, ear picks vary widely in their tips and embellishments. Disposable plastic ear picks with a cotton swab at one end are increasingly popular.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5895924", "title": "Decorative box", "section": "Section::::Snuff box.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 201, "text": "Modern snuff boxes are made from a variety of woods, pewter and even plastic and are manufactured in surprising numbers due, largely, to snuff's resurgence amongst tobacco connoisseurs and ex-smokers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24851", "title": "Potato chip", "section": "Section::::Production.:Potato chip bag.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 310, "text": "Chips sold in markets were usually sold in tins or scooped out of storefront glass bins and delivered by horse and wagon. Early potato chip bags were wax paper with the ends ironed or stapled together. At first, potato chips were packaged in barrels or tins, which left chips at the bottom stale and crumbled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An anonymous chronicler writing during the civil wars of the 1320s, wrote that:\n\n > ...upon looking on him [Piers Gaveston] the son of the king immediately felt such love for him that he entered into a covenant of constancy, and bound himself with him before all other mortals with a bond of indissoluble love, firmly drawn up and fastened with a knot.\n\nThe modern judgement on this by Edward's biographer [J. R. S. Phillips](_URL_0_) is that: \n\n > Such comments have led to the modern assumption that their relationship was definitely sexual. The evidence for this, however, is far from clear. While some of the chroniclers' remarks about Edward II can be interpreted as implying homosexuality or bisexuality, too many of them are either much later in date or the product of hostility, or a combination of the two, and thus not acceptable at face value.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44848", "title": "Edward II of England", "section": "Section::::Early life (1284–1307).:Piers Gaveston and sexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 698, "text": "The possibility that Edward had a sexual relationship with Gaveston or his later favourites has been extensively discussed by historians, complicated by the paucity of surviving evidence to determine for certain the details of their relationships. Homosexuality was fiercely condemned by the Church in 14th-century England, which equated it with heresy, but engaging in sex with another man did not necessarily define an individual's personal identity in the same way that it might in the 21st century. Edward and Gaveston both had sexual relationships with their wives, who bore them children; Edward also had an illegitimate son, and may also have had an affair with his niece, Eleanor de Clare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44848", "title": "Edward II of England", "section": "Section::::Early life (1284–1307).:Piers Gaveston and sexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 820, "text": "The contemporary evidence supporting their homosexual relationship comes primarily from an anonymous chronicler in the 1320s who described how Edward \"felt such love\" for Gaveston that \"he entered into a covenant of constancy, and bound himself with him before all other mortals with a bond of indissoluble love, firmly drawn up and fastened with a knot\". The first specific suggestion that Edward engaged in sex with men was recorded in 1334, when Adam Orleton, the Bishop of Winchester, was accused of having stated in 1326 that Edward was a \"sodomite\", although Orleton defended himself by arguing that he had meant that Edward's advisor, Hugh Despenser the Younger, was a sodomite, rather than the late King. The Meaux Chronicle from the 1390s simply notes that Edward gave himself \"too much to the vice of sodomy.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47387", "title": "William III of England", "section": "Section::::Later years.:Allegations of homosexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 875, "text": "During the 1690s, rumours grew of William's alleged homosexual inclinations and led to the publication of many satirical pamphlets by his Jacobite detractors. He did have several close male associates, including two Dutch courtiers to whom he granted English titles: Hans Willem Bentinck became Earl of Portland, and Arnold Joost van Keppel was created Earl of Albemarle. These relationships with male friends, and his apparent lack of mistresses, led William's enemies to suggest that he might prefer homosexual relationships. William's modern biographers disagree on the veracity of these allegations. Some believe there may have been truth to the rumours, while others affirm that they were no more than figments of his enemies' imaginations, and that there was nothing unusual in someone childless like William adopting or evincing paternal affections for a younger man.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "75985", "title": "Henry III of France", "section": "Section::::Early life.:Sexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1180, "text": "Reports that Henry engaged in same-sex relations with his court favourites, known as the \"mignons,\" date back to his own time. Certainly he enjoyed intense relationships with them. The scholar Louis Crompton maintains that all of the contemporary rumors were true. Some modern historians dispute this. Jean-Francois Solnon, Nicolas Le Roux, and Jacqueline Boucher have noted that Henry had many famous mistresses, that he was well known for his taste in beautiful women, and that no male sex partners have been identified. They have concluded that the idea he was homosexual was promoted by his political opponents (both Protestant and Catholic) who used his dislike of war and hunting to depict him as effeminate and undermine his reputation with the French people. Certainly his religious enemies plumbed the depths of personal abuse in attributing vices to him, topping the mixture with accusations of what they regarded as the ultimate devilish vice, homosexuality. And the portrait of a self-indulgent sodomite, incapable of fathering an heir to the throne, proved useful in efforts by the Catholic League to secure the succession for Cardinal Charles de Bourbon after 1585.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "125137", "title": "Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall", "section": "Section::::Questions of sexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 651, "text": "It was hinted at by medieval chroniclers, and has been alleged by modern historians, that the relationship between Gaveston and Edward was homosexual. The \"Annales Paulini\" claims that Edward loved Gaveston \"beyond measure\", while the \"Lanercost\" says the intimacy between them was \"undue\". The \"Chronicle of Melsa\" states that Edward \"particularly delighted in the vice of sodomy\", without making special reference to Gaveston. The portrayal of Gaveston as homosexual continued in fictional portrayals, such as Christopher Marlowe's play \"Edward II\" from the early 1590s, and the 1924 adaptation of that work by Bertolt Brecht and Lion Feuchtwanger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12149763", "title": "Ordinances of 1311", "section": "Section::::Notes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 215, "text": "c. Much speculation has centred on whether Edward and Gaveston's relation was of a homosexual nature. An in-depth discussion of this issue – and an alternative to the predominant view – is presented by P. Chaplais.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "891552", "title": "Harden–Eulenburg affair", "section": "Section::::Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 233, "text": "The Eulenburg affair has been held up as one example of homosexuality being used as a means to attain certain political goals. As Eulenburg's wife later commented, \"\"They are striking at my husband, but their target is the kaiser.\"\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Standard deviation and standard error are both functions of the variance, so we can start by trying to understand the variance first.\n\nThe variance is something that, intuitively, measures the \"spread\" of a distribution. It is how far away on average points from your sample will be from the mean of your distribution, where we say \"how far away\" in this case means \"squared distance.\" Now there are a whole host of reasons for using the squared distance for this type of thing, an example being that it is *additive* (i.e., var(X+Y) = var(X)+var(Y) for uncorrelated X and Y). This is something we don't get with standard deviation.\n\nHowever, the variance is not a linear map in that for a constant c, \n\n var(c*X) = c^2 * var(X) \n\nand not \n\n var(c*X) = c*var(X). \n\nWe can get this with the standard deviation, which is the square root of the variance. This scale property can be useful because this statistic will then have the same units as your data, so we can say things like \"Z number of standard deviations away from the mean\" as the units are now consistent.\n\nFinally, the standard error is typically defined as the standard deviation of a given statistic defined from a sample. For example, the standard error of the sample mean is the population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size, since the variance of the sample mean is the population variance divided by the sample size. Standard errors are also useful in that they have the same units as elements of your sample, and often statistical tests are based around how many standard errors a point is from a given statistic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It's there so the units make sense. The way it's calculated, you take the average of all the numbers, then for each number, you want to know how far away from the average that number is. Since some will be above and some will be below, and you want to add them, you need them all to be positive. Why not absolute value, you say? Because you want the numbers that are farther away to count more. You're trying to get a good description of the spread of the data. When you get to the end, your variance then will be the square of your original unit of measure. That's good, and it's descriptive, but not meaningful to a lot of people. You wouldn't say, \"I usually drive 50 miles a day, with a variance of 9 square miles.\" You could say \"I usually drive 50 miles a day with a standard deviation of 3 miles\" though, and that would make a lot more sense.\n\nThe thing about variances though, is that you can do math with them that you can't do with standard deviations. You can't add stdevs, but you *can* add variances, for example.\n\nAs to standard error, remember that everything follows a distribution, and you only typically have a sampling of that. Standard error takes that into account. It's got to do with the likelyhood that, based on your sample standard deviation and average, your sample is truly representative.\n\n(I do applied stats for a living)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Standard Deviation: on average, how far off you are from the average.\n\nVariance: How far apart your numbers are spread out from the average (square root of Standard Deviation).\n\nStandard Error: because standard deviation is never 100% accurate, you find the standard error to see how accurate your SD is.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Variance:\nI you measure the height of 100 men you will end up with 100 different numbers (e.g. between 170 cm and 210 cm). If you measure 100 animals that cross your path by chance you will also end up with 100 different numbers. These numbers will however most likely be spread over a larger range (e.g. from 2 mm (ant) to 30 meters (blue whale)). The difference between the two ranges is a difference in variance.\n\nstandard deviation:\nIs an other measure of variance.\n\nstandard error:\ntake these 100 men from above again and select only one individual. then go and measure this single individual 100 times. Most likely you will not get 100 identical numbers since you make errors in the measurement. The standard error is the number that gives you the precision with with you can measure. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The standard deviation is a number derived from a series of measurements, (of the same thing, or different things, doesn't matter.) If you take 100 men and measure their height you first calculate the mean, and then you take the differences between each measured height and the mean, and square each number. Then you add them all up, divide by the number of measurements, and take the square root of that.\n\nThere's no hand-waving, back of the envelope explanation of what the standard deviation is, except the formula. The number is **defined** by the calculations made in deriving it. I'm sorry if that doesn't help you, but the standard deviation is the standard deviation is the standard deviation :(\n\nHere's a simple example: 100 men, 50 are 68 inches tall, 50 are 72 inches tall. The mean (average) is obviously 70 inches.\n\n\nThe standard deviation is:\n\nSD = ( (( 50 * 2^2 ) + ( 50 * 2^2 ))/100 )^1/2 = (400/100)^1/2 = 2\n\nNow let's say 25 are 68, 25 are 69, 25 are 71, and 25 are 72 inches each. Now you have:\n\nSD = ( (( 25 * 2^2 ) + ( 25 * 1^2 ) + ( 25 * 1^2 ) + ( 25 * 2^2 ))/100 )^1/2 = (250/100)^1/2 = 1.58\n\nAs you can see, when the group (as a whole) moves closer to the mean, the standard deviation gets smaller.\n\n\nNow, the two examples I've given are degenerate: They don't occur in the real world, for the most part. In the real world if you measure the heights of 100 random men, you'll end up with a bell curve centered around the mean. In that case, the standard deviation can be helpful. For a normal distribution around the mean, the standard deviation gives you the **width** of the bell curve. That is to say, ~68% of the results will end up within 1 SD of the mean, and ~95.5% within 2 SD's of the mean.\n\nThe *variance* is nothing but the square of standard deviation.\n\nThe standard *error* is the standard deviation you get when you measure the same thing multiple times. It tells you what the error margins should be for the tool you're using.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is going to be a long answer, so please bear with me.\n\nLet's imagine you want to know the average height of a population. To do so, you take 10 people and measure each of them. Your values, in inches, are:\n\n > 60, 62, 62, 64, 65, 66, 66, 67, 70, 72\n\nYour mean is obviously 65.4\n\nCool. Now let's say you want to know how *different* each of your sample persons is. You would use Measures of Dispersion, which are standard deviation, standard error, and variance.\n\nStandard deviation describes the average difference of the data compared to the mean. It is simply the average amount each of the data points differs from the mean. So 60 is 5.4 inches from the mean. 62 is 3.4 inches from the mean. So on and so forth. You just add all these numbers up and take their average. You know now the average *difference* of each of the data points compared to the mean. \n\nNow you know the average difference, but let's pretend you just want to know how different all the data is from each other. This is the variance. Whatever text you're reading probably tells you how to calculate it, so I won't bore you with those details. Essentially, the variance tells you the \"spread\" of the data. A dart board in which the darts are very far apart has more variance than a board in which everything hit the bull's eye.\n\nFinally, imagine you weren't satisfied with this one sample. You decide to take a second sample. Obviously, you're going to get different people, so your mean might be a little different. This time it might be 67. If you took a bunch of different samples you would get a bunch of different means and you could plot them all on a graph. If you took the standard deviations of THESE values, you would have the standard error of the mean. It's a measure of the average error of your sample means.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Step 1 - find a ball and hold it in one hand.\n\nStep 2 - stand up and spread your arms as wide as you can.\n\nStep 3 - Without lowering or raising your arms, bring them together in front of you, now spread them wide. Do this a few times, passing the ball from hand to hand. Go as slow or as fast as you want.\n\nStep 4 - Now we know the full range of where the ball could be at any given time.\n\nStep 5 - repeat step 3, but have a friend point to the ball with his eyes open.\n\nStep 6 - repeat step 5, but have the same friend close his eyes.\n\nNow, in step 6, your friend had to guess where the ball was since he couldn't see it. Standard error is how much your guess can be wrong by and still be roughly correct.\n\nStep 7 - allow your friend to open his eyes three times then guess where the ball ends up. Standard error would take the number of positions the ball can be in and modify it by the 3 'observations' your friend made.\n\nThis helps your friends' single guess by making it a range of possible points. (let's say instead of a 1 ball wide guess your friend now gets a 7 ball wide guess due to standard error).\n\nVariance - let's make this a simple example and measure the distance between your two fists, that's the entire variance of where the ball can be placed.\n\nStandard Deviation - this is a bit trickier as it indicates the most likely area to spot the ball. In our simple example, standard deviation is the area between your chest and ONE of your elbows (right or left, not both). if we concentrate on looking at only the area between your chest and your elbow, we have a higher likelihood of spotting the ball as you pass it back and forth than we do focusing on the space your hand occupies when your arm is outstretched.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27590", "title": "Standard deviation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 241, "text": "The standard deviation of a random variable, statistical population, data set, or probability distribution is the square root of its variance. It is algebraically simpler, though in practice less robust, than the average absolute deviation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12498127", "title": "Risk measure", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Variance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 462, "text": "Variance (or standard deviation) is not a risk measure in the above sense. This can be seen since it has neither the translation property nor monotonicity. That is, formula_21 for all formula_22, and a simple counterexample for monotonicity can be found. The standard deviation is a deviation risk measure. To avoid any confusion, note that deviation risk measures, such as variance and standard deviation are sometimes called risk measures in different fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26685", "title": "Statistics", "section": "Section::::Statistical methods.:Inferential statistics.:Terminology and theory of inferential statistics.:Error.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 251, "text": "Standard deviation refers to the extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while Standard error refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27590", "title": "Standard deviation", "section": "Section::::Relationship between standard deviation and mean.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 448, "text": "The mean and the standard deviation of a set of data are descriptive statistics usually reported together. In a certain sense, the standard deviation is a \"natural\" measure of statistical dispersion if the center of the data is measured about the mean. This is because the standard deviation from the mean is smaller than from any other point. The precise statement is the following: suppose \"x\", ..., \"x\" are real numbers and define the function:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22715170", "title": "Variance-stabilizing transformation", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Example: relative variance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 214, "text": "If is a positive random variable and the variance is given as then the standard deviation is proportional to the mean, which is called fixed relative error. In this case, the variance-stabilizing transformation is\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11052041", "title": "Determination of equilibrium constants", "section": "Section::::Computational methods.:Equilibrium constant refinement.:Parameter errors and correlation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 367, "text": "In all cases, the variance of the parameter is given by and the covariance between parameters and is given by . Standard deviation is the square root of variance. These error estimates reflect only random errors in the measurements. The true uncertainty in the parameters is larger due to the presence of systematic errors—which, by definition, cannot be quantified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32344", "title": "Variance", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Units of measurement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 482, "text": "Unlike expected absolute deviation, the variance of a variable has units that are the square of the units of the variable itself. For example, a variable measured in meters will have a variance measured in meters squared. For this reason, describing data sets via their standard deviation or root mean square deviation is often preferred over using the variance. In the dice example the standard deviation is √2.9 ≈ 1.7, slightly larger than the expected absolute deviation of 1.5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Before they launch, they're held in place with scaffolding.\n\nAfter launch, the force is controlled and directed such that up is the direction they mostly go in, with very minor adjustments in the nozzles to change direction.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13965157", "title": "Saturn V dynamic test vehicle", "section": "Section::::Pre-flight configurations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 372, "text": "SA-500D was one of the five pre-flight configurations of the Saturn V. This configuration showed the Saturn V's \"bending and vibration characteristics\" and verified \"the adequacy of guidance and control systems' design.\" The rocket's of thrust would generate vigorous shaking and it was important to see that the rocket would not shake apart or vibrate itself off-course.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8688607", "title": "Soyuz-2", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 614, "text": "Soyuz-2, GRAU index 14A14, is the collective designation for the 21st-century version of the Russian Soyuz rocket. In its basic form, it is a three-stage carrier rocket for placing payloads into low Earth orbit. The first-stage boosters and two core stages feature uprated engines with improved injection systems, compared to the previous versions of the Soyuz. Digital flight control and telemetry systems allow the rocket to be launched from a fixed launch platform, whereas the launch platforms for earlier Soyuz rockets had to be rotated as the rocket could not perform a roll to change its heading in flight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8688607", "title": "Soyuz-2", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 342, "text": "Soyuz-2 is often flown with an upper stage, which allows it to lift payloads into higher orbits, such as Molniya and geosynchronous orbits. The upper stage is equipped with independent flight control and telemetry systems from those used in the rest of the rocket. The NPO Lavochkin manufactured Fregat is the most commonly used upper stage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "379368", "title": "AS-201", "section": "Section::::Flight.:Flight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 263, "text": "Finally, after months of delays and problems, the first flight of the Saturn IB lifted off from Pad 34. The first stage worked perfectly, lifting the rocket to , when the S-IVB took over and lifted the spacecraft to . The CSM separated and continued upwards to .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4348888", "title": "Modular rocket", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Saturn C-x.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 214, "text": "The Saturn C-x architecture consisted of five different stages (S-I, S-II, S-III, S-IV, and S-V/Centaur) that could be stacked vertically for specific rockets to meet various NASA payload and mission requirements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "712662", "title": "Saturn V instrument unit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 816, "text": "The Saturn V instrument unit is a ring-shaped structure fitted to the top of the Saturn V rocket's third stage (S-IVB) and the Saturn IB's second stage (also an S-IVB). It was immediately below the SLA \"(Spacecraft/Lunar Module Adapter)\" panels that contained the Lunar Module. The instrument unit contains the guidance system for the Saturn V rocket. Some of the electronics contained within the instrument unit are a digital computer, analog flight control computer, emergency detection system, inertial guidance platform, control accelerometers, and control rate gyros. The instrument unit (IU) for Saturn V was designed by NASA at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and was developed from the Saturn I IU. NASA's contractor to manufacture the Saturn V Instrument Unit was International Business Machines (IBM).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "712662", "title": "Saturn V instrument unit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 554, "text": "The Saturn V rocket, which sent astronauts to the Moon, used inertial guidance, a self-contained system that guided the rocket's trajectory. The rocket booster had a guidance system separate from those on the command and lunar modules. It was contained in an instrument unit like this one, a ring located between the rocket's third stage and the command and lunar modules. The ring contained the basic guidance system components—a stable platform, accelerometers, a digital computer, and control electronics—as well as radar, telemetry, and other units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Rent it to who? Those houses sometimes don't have basics like running water. Which means you need to invest money into it. So it's really not a dollar. And investing money in those neighborhoods just may not be worth the possible but likely no sale.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "my parents owned a house in detroit that they owed back taxes on to the amount of $7k or so. they let wayne county foreclose with no objection. the first time it is put up for auction the price is set at that $7. if it doesnt sell it goes back up for auction 6 months later starting at $50. i thought long and hard about buying it since i grew there but its just a bad investment. there's upkeep ,sure, but there's also property taxes, about $3500 a year. and you're living in detroit.\nthere are thousands of houses like this in detroit. its a city built for 2 million with only about 650,000 residents. no demand means no value. \nand as for renting, that house i grew up in? my uncle is living in it, after foreclosure. he pays the utilities and cuts the grass and NO ONE is coming to kick him out. you dont have to rent in detroit. you can just squat. noone cares.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38983196", "title": "Decline of Detroit", "section": "Section::::Problems.:Urban decay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 546, "text": "The average price of homes sold in Detroit in 2012 was $7,500. , 47 houses in Detroit were listed for $500 or less, with five properties listed for $1. Despite the extremely low price of Detroit properties, most of the properties have been on the market for more than a year as the boarded up, abandoned houses of the city are seldom attractive to buyers. \"The Detroit News\" reported that more than half of Detroit property owners did not pay taxes in 2012, at a loss to the city of $131 million (equal to 12% of the city's general fund budget).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16486734", "title": "David Whitney House", "section": "Section::::History and construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 329, "text": "The house was built between 1890 and 1894 by a prominent lumber baron, David Whitney Jr., who was considered not only one of Detroit's wealthiest personalities, but also one of Michigan's wealthiest citizens. The house is estimated to have cost 400,000 (equal to $ today), and it was featured in several newspapers of that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "659893", "title": "German Village", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Residential.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 335, "text": "The average home price is $377,450. Several homes in the neighborhood are priced at over $1 million, including a home that sold in August 2007 for $1.5 million. Another home, which was purchased for $1.4 million in 2006, boasts an underground tunnel linking the main house with the garage, which also serves as an art and wine cellar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33701219", "title": "Charles V. Paterno", "section": "Section::::Paterno Castle.:Guest House.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 278, "text": "The house was bought in 2000 for $1.1 million. By 2010 the house had only had four owners, and sold c.2011 for around $3.9 million. In 2016, it was put on the market at the asking price of $5.25 million, and after almost three years, it was sold in January 2019 for $2 million.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54096802", "title": "1974 in Michigan", "section": "Section::::Chronology of events.:February.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 221, "text": "BULLET::::- February 15 – The Department of Housing and Urban Development announced a plan to sell 2,000 abandoned homes in Detroit to the city for sale to homesteaders at a price of not more than five dollars per house.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5209675", "title": "Presidio Terrace", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 982, "text": "In 2015, as a result of delinquent non-payment of county property taxes by the homeowners association after a mix-up where tax bills were being sent to a defunct accounting firm on Kearney Street, a San Jose couple, Tina Lam and Michael Cheng, were able to purchase the street, sidewalks and all other “common ground\", including garden islands and palm trees, for $90,000. Worried that the new property owners would charge them for parking in the 120 parking spaces on the street, the homeowners complained to San Francisco Board of Supervisors asking that the sale be voided. In addition the British Consulate, which has owned a house on the street as a consular residence since 2003, raised security concerns. On November 28, 2017 the Board of Supervisors voted 7-4 to reverse the sale, reverting ownership to the homeowners. After the vote, Supervisor Mark Farrell referred to the couple as \"bottom-feeding pirates attempting to extort and hold San Francisco residents hostage\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19039537", "title": "Harold Lloyd Estate", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Sale and break-up.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 319, "text": "In 1993, billionaire Ron Burkle bought the home for $20 million – $19 million less than the $39 million asking price (which had included a valuable art collection of old masters paintings in the original asking price) but still among the highest prices paid for a home in the United States in the previous three years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We just found them as we investigated things. \nTake Pi; when people were investigating circles & their proportions, someone noticed that every circle's circumference was always about 3 times it's diameter. 'That's interesting' (the words preceding 99% of all major discoveries ever!) and so more investigations led to the discovery that π is actually always exactly 3.14159265.... etc. for every possible circle. \nConstants are discovered when you experiment and increasing one thing ways leads to a predictable increase in something else. A spring, for example: if you Han weights off a spring, the spring stretches more the more weight you add. In fact, when you double the weight, you double the stretch. This means you can say that extension is proportional to load, and so extension = a constant x the load. In this case every spring has a different constant - but sometimes we discover that some constants are the same under all circumstances, and so we have Planck's constant, gravitational field constant etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Any number that is not variable is a constant. Most of the familiar numbers like -1, 0, 1, 2, 1000, a million, 1/2 or googol are constants.\n\nOccasionally, there are useful numbers that can't be written as quickly or easily as those numbers. For example, the square root of 2 is 1.414... or the ratio of a circle's diameter to its circumference is 3.14159... neither can be written out exactly. So, we use placeholder symbols for them.\n\nIn the case of a physical constant (like Plank's Constant) there's usually a theoretical formula where the constant is a scaling factor. For example, Plank's constant shows up in the theory that the frequency and energy of a photon are linearly related.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The nature of constants is that they are immune to changing circumstances.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48779551", "title": "Mathematical constant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 359, "text": "A mathematical constant is a number whose value is fixed by an unambiguous definition, often referred to by a symbol or by mathematicians' names to facilitate using it across multiple mathematical problems. Constants arise in many areas of mathematics, with constants such as and occurring in such diverse contexts as geometry, number theory, and calculus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41302121", "title": "List of mathematical constants", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 434, "text": "A mathematical constant is a number whose value is fixed by an unambiguous definition, often referred to by a symbol or by mathematicians' names to facilitate using it across multiple mathematical problems. For example, the constant π may be defined as the ratio of the length of a circle's circumference to its diameter. The following list includes the decimal expansion and set containing each number, ordered by year of discovery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23205", "title": "Physical constant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 336, "text": "A physical constant, sometimes fundamental physical constant or universal constant, is a physical quantity that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have constant value in time. It is contrasted with a mathematical constant, which has a fixed numerical value, but does not directly involve any physical measurement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3728109", "title": "Variable (mathematics)", "section": "Section::::Specific kinds of variables.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 322, "text": "This use of \"constant\" as an abbreviation of \"constant function\" must be distinguished from the normal meaning of the word in mathematics. A constant, or mathematical constant is a well and unambiguously defined number or other mathematical object, as, for example, the numbers 0, 1, and the identity element of a group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50519584", "title": "Time-variation of fundamental constants", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 273, "text": "The term physical constant expresses the notion of a physical quantity subject to experimental measurement which is independent of the time or location of the experiment. The constancy (immutability) of any \"physical constant\" is thus subject to experimental verification.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23205", "title": "Physical constant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 389, "text": "Physical constant in the sense under discussion in this article should not be confused with other quantities called \"constants\" that are assumed to be constant in a given context without the implication that they are fundamental, such as the \"time constant\" characteristic of a given system, or material constants, such as the Madelung constant, electrical resistivity, and heat capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1883477", "title": "Astronomical constant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 708, "text": "An astronomical constant is a physical constant used in astronomy. Formal sets of constants, along with recommended values, have been defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) several times: in 1964 and in 1976 (with an update in 1994). In 2009 the IAU adopted a new current set, and recognizing that new observations and techniques continuously provide better values for these constants, they decided to not fix these values, but have the Working Group on Numerical Standards continuously maintain a set of Current Best Estimates. The set of constants is widely reproduced in publications such as the \"Astronomical Almanac\" of the United States Naval Observatory and HM Nautical Almanac Office.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Newer graphics cards come with new features, which the old ones don't support. If a game requests a feature from the card which it doesn't have, it'll likely give up.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18949896", "title": "Computer cluster", "section": "Section::::Design and configuration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 796, "text": "Due to the increasing computing power of each generation of game consoles, a novel use has emerged where they are repurposed into High-performance computing (HPC) clusters. Some examples of game console clusters are Sony PlayStation clusters and Microsoft Xbox clusters. Another example of consumer game product is the Nvidia Tesla Personal Supercomputer workstation, which uses multiple graphics accelerator processor chips. Besides game consoles, high-end graphics cards too can be used instead. The use of graphics cards (or rather their GPU's) to do calculations for grid computing is vastly more economical than using CPU's, despite being less precise. However, when using double-precision values, they become as precise to work with as CPU's and are still much less costly (purchase cost).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5911724", "title": "Enthusiast computing", "section": "Section::::Hardware description.:Graphics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 604, "text": "It is worth noting that a high-end graphics card will also use more electricity, or have a higher power draw, than a lower-end card. This power draw only increases as the number of graphics cards increases, adding another cost to a high-end \"rig\". Enthusiasts also tend to overclock their graphics cards which does add power draw. However, as the number of graphics cards increases, the performance gains by adding another graphics card decreases significantly due to the complexity of more than two GPU's communicating to each other in an efficient way. This is another example of depreciating returns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18898450", "title": "Game backup device", "section": "Section::::Backup devices for consoles.:Super Nintendo Entertainment System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 574, "text": "It is important to note that no commercially produced Backup Device for Super Nintendo can play back games which use additional processing hardware in the cartridge, with the sole exception of DSP-1. This is due in part to the way in which these processors operate. It may be possible with some copiers to manage to back up a game using an extra coprocessor chip though. A relatively small number of games fall into this category, but there are notable games included, for example \"Mega Man X2\", \"Mega Man X3\", \"Star Fox\", \"Kirby's Dream Land 3\", \"Super Mario RPG\", and \"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31562", "title": "TRS-80 Color Computer", "section": "Section::::Competition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 515, "text": "Games drove system sales then as they do now, and with its poor gameplay performance, the CoCo attracted little interest in officially licensed ports of popular games. The CoCo 3 did improve graphics capability and doubled CPU performance, but still contained no hardware graphics or sound acceleration. Drawing was performed by the CPU and most of the new graphics modes required at least twice as much processor time due to increased display resolution and color depth. The sound hardware was not changed at all.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6961053", "title": "Transform, clipping, and lighting", "section": "Section::::Usefulness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 509, "text": "Hardware T&L did not have broad application support in games at the time (mainly due to Direct3D games transforming their geometry on the CPU and not being allowed to use indexed geometries), so critics contended that it had little real-world value. Initially, it was only somewhat beneficial in a few OpenGL-based 3D first-person shooter titles of the time, most notably \"Quake III Arena\". 3dfx and other competing graphics card companies contended that a fast CPU would make up for the lack of a T&L unit. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3879451", "title": "Gaming computer", "section": "Section::::Pre-built computers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 428, "text": "One major drawback of buying a prebuilt gaming PC aside from the extra cost is that they are often built with a very powerful CPU, but with a relatively weak graphics card. This results in a \"gaming\" PC that performs poorly in gaming for the price paid. Most games today do not benefit much from having a very powerful CPU with more than 4 CPU cores and hyper-threading, but benefits greatly with a more powerful graphics card.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455898", "title": "Blade Runner (1997 video game)", "section": "Section::::Development.:Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 857, "text": "The game's environment takes up 60–65% of the CPU bandwidth, primarily because of the moving camera, but also because eight different characters can appear on screen at any one time – a large number for the technology of the time. Because of this, a powerful CPU was required to run the game, since the engine relied on the processor doing all the work in creating the 3D models. However, despite this limitation, the game runs at a minimum of 15 FPS, even on slow systems. The downside to this was that, since processor power at that time was limited, the in-game 3D models tended to look very pixelated, especially up-close and when motionless, due to the low amount of voxels used to display them. However, had the number of voxels been raised to increase the detail on the characters, the game would have become too slow to play, even on advanced CPUs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Here's](_URL_0_) a paper that attempts to relate Piaget IQ tests to standardized test scores for school achievement, and finds little overlap.\n\n[This](_URL_2_) study states > When success measures were regressed against intelligence and personality scales or factors, intelligence did not account for variance beyond that explained by personality.\n\n\n\nHowever, [this one](_URL_1_) seems to indicate that it can be predictive of success, but only in very specific circumstances and that life outcomes (getting a job, getting a career, rate of pay), when controlled for other promotional factors that influence/are influenced by IQ, aren't largely dependent on IQ.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31277", "title": "The Bell Curve", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 390, "text": "\"The Bell Curve\", published in 1994, was written by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray to explain the variations in intelligence in American society, warn of some consequences of that variation, and propose social policies for mitigating the worst of the consequences. The book's title comes from the bell-shaped normal distribution of intelligence quotient (IQ) scores in a population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31277", "title": "The Bell Curve", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 799, "text": "The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life is a 1994 book by psychologist Richard J. Herrnstein and political scientist Charles Murray, in which the authors argue that human intelligence is substantially influenced by both inherited and environmental factors and that it is a better predictor of many personal outcomes, including financial income, job performance, birth out of wedlock, and involvement in crime than are an individual's parental socioeconomic status. They also argue that those with high intelligence, the \"cognitive elite\", are becoming separated from those of average and below-average intelligence. The book was controversial, especially where the authors wrote about racial differences in intelligence and discussed the implications of those differences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "869600", "title": "Charles Murray (political scientist)", "section": "Section::::Research and views.:\"The Bell Curve\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 681, "text": "\"The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life\" (1994) is a controversial bestseller that Charles Murray wrote with Harvard professor Richard J. Herrnstein. Its central thesis is that intelligence is a better predictor of many factors including financial income, job performance, unwed pregnancy, and crime than one's parents' socio-economic status or education level. Also, the book argued that those with high intelligence (the \"cognitive elite\") are becoming separated from the general population of those with average and below-average intelligence, and that this was a dangerous social trend. Murray expanded on this theme in his 2012 book \"Coming Apart\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14892", "title": "Intelligence quotient", "section": "Section::::Criticism and views.:\"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 155, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 155, "end_character": 412, "text": "The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They stated that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by both genetics and environment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11773", "title": "Flynn effect", "section": "Section::::Rise in IQ.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 541, "text": "In 1987, Flynn took the position that the very large increase indicates that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but only a minor sort of \"abstract problem-solving ability\" with little practical significance. He argued that if IQ gains do reflect intelligence increases, there would have been consequent changes of our society that have not been observed (a presumed non-occurrence of a \"cultural renaissance\"). Flynn no longer endorses this view of intelligence and has since elaborated and refined his view of what rising IQ scores mean.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "753225", "title": "Uses of trigonometry", "section": "Section::::Some modern uses.:Statistics, including mathematical psychology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 793, "text": "Intelligence quotients are sometimes held to be distributed according to the bell-shaped curve. About 40% of the area under the curve is in the interval from 100 to 120; correspondingly, about 40% of the population scores between 100 and 120 on IQ tests. Nearly 9% of the area under the curve is in the interval from 120 to 140; correspondingly, about 9% of the population scores between 120 and 140 on IQ tests, etc. Similarly many other things are distributed according to the \"bell-shaped curve\", including measurement errors in many physical measurements. Why the ubiquity of the \"bell-shaped curve\"? There is a theoretical reason for this, and it involves Fourier transforms and hence trigonometric functions. That is one of a variety of applications of Fourier transforms to statistics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6406113", "title": "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns", "section": "Section::::Findings.:IQ correlation with skills and grades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 523, "text": "The report stated that IQ scores measure important skills as they correlate fairly well (0.5) with grades. This implied that the explained variance (given certain linear assumptions) is 25%. \"Wherever it has been studied, children with high scores on tests of intelligence tend to learn more of what is taught in school than their lower-scoring peers. There may be styles of teaching and methods of instruction that will decrease or increase this correlation, but none that consistently eliminates it has yet been found.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hop the border, turn yourself in, and apply for asylum. You'll be granted temporary stay during the trial. If you can demonstrate the need of jumping the border to save your life, you will be granted permenant residency.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends on the country you are trying to seek asylum in. I'll use Canada as an example because it's where I am.\n\nHere, when you seek asylum, you are filing for \"refugee status\", what that means is that you are in danger in your own country because of the current situation and you need a safe haven.\n\nRefugee Status requires a few things\n\n* Legitimate fear of persecution. You have to have some sort of evidence that you are in danger because of your religion/race/ethnicity/etc. This doesn't include stuff like not allowing you to wear a hijab and is reserved for stuff like \"They are trying to exterminate my *ethnic group*\"\n* You aren't a convention refugee of another country\n* You didn't try to enter Canada from the USA\n* You haven't been denied entry to Canada before on the basis of security hazards and/or denied refugee status\n\nPersecution is rather straightforward. You have to be part of a race/religion/ethnicity/political group/etc that faces torture/execution/cruel and unusual punishment because of the group you are in.\n\nA Convention Refugee is someone who already has a place to return to. For instance, let's say that you are gay, and were born in South Africa and have citizenship and can return there. But you live in Uganda, which has laws against homosexuality that might result in cruel/unusual punishment and a social stigma so bad that you might face death because of your sexuality. You wouldn't be able to go to Canada as a refugee, because you already can return home to South Africa.\n\nRefugee Status is reserved for people who have no where else to go.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I did some asylum work for a couple summers in law school. What /u/ACrusaderA said covers most of it, but I can give a little more detail from the a US perspective (except that I think the poster uses asylee and refugee interchangably. An asylee is basically a refugee that is already in the country where they want to stay. A refugee, on the other hand, gets status as a refugee *before* they come to the country where they are seeking protection. Maybe the distinction doesn't matter in Canada, but if you're in the US you can't apply for refugee status since you're already in the country).\n\nTo get asylum in the US you have to show that you have a well-founded fear of persecution if you are returned to your home country. If you can show that you have been persecuted in the past, then it is assumed your fear of persecution is well-founded and the government has to show that it's no longer well-founded to keep you from getting asylum. If you haven't been persecuted in the past the burden is on the applicant to prove their fear of persecution is well-founded.\n\nThere are some other caveats as well. If the persecuting group is not the government, you have to show that the government is unable or unwilling to control that group. So if you're a Jew and get beat up by skinheads in France, you were technically persecuted by a nongovernmental group, but couldn't get asylum because the French government can control skinheads. However, if the NGO is localized, the government can still deny you asylum if you can move within your country to a safer place. For example, there are places in Mexico where it is dangerous to be transgender. The government doesn't persecute you, but it can't control gangs who do. However, you may be able to move to Mexico City and be just fine. In that case, you wouldn't get asylum since you can relocate to safety within your own country. Of course if the government is doing the persecuting, there's no relocating.\n\nAs for proof, usually it's testimonial. We don't expect asylum seekers to be able to bring much with them. A government officer hears their story and decides if the person is credible or not. The credibility determination is huge and probably the biggest hurdle. It's also the most subjective, which is problematic, especially when dealing with other cultures (for example, avoiding eye contact is seen as shift in the US, but it might be a sign of respect in other countries). There is some objectivity to it, though. If the asylum seeker has documents, they can show those to the court. The court also considers human rights reports on the country in question, especially US State Department reports, and compares those to the story of the asylum seeker to see if they're consistent. Nonetheless, the rates at which asylum is granted vary greatly by judge, even when those judges are in the same building hearing the same cases (there are stats on this I can dig up if you're interested).\n\nAlso an interesting side note, Mexico, the US, and Canada have a treaty whereby if you seek asylum in one of those three countries, you can't seek it the other two (sometimes if you are rejected from one country, you can seek asylum from another country).\n\nThere's also something called the Convention Against Torture, which prevents the US from returning any person to a country where they will likely be tortured. Torture is a higher bar to show than persecution, but you don't have to deal with a lot of other stuff (like showing the persecution was based on race, religion, sex, etc.). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7833912", "title": "Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Cardoza-Fonseca", "section": "Section::::Majority opinion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 840, "text": "A person is eligible for the discretionary relief of asylum if they are a refugee—that is, \"unable or unwilling to return to, and is unwilling or unable to avail themselves of the protection of, [their home] country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion.\" By contrast, a person is eligible for the mandatory relief of withholding deportation if they demonstrate a \"clear probability of persecution\" if they return to their country. Because statutes governing these different forms of relief describe the showing the alien must make in different terms, the Court reasoned those showings were different. Furthermore, a \"well-founded fear\" is different, and can be lower than, a \"clear probability\" of persecution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7124412", "title": "Illegal immigration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 656, "text": "Asylum seekers who are denied asylum may face impediment to expulsion, for example if the home country refuses to receive the person or if new asylum reasons occur after the decision. In some cases, these people are considered illegal immigrants, and in others, they may get a temporary residence permit, for example with reference to the principle of non-refoulement in the international Refugee Convention. The European Court of Human Rights, referring to the European Convention on Human Rights, has shown in a number of indicative judgments that there are enforcement barriers to expulsion to certain countries, for example due to the risk of torture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "276005", "title": "Asylum seeker", "section": "Section::::Exclusion from protection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 264, "text": "Asylum seekers who have committed crimes against peace, a war crime or a crime against humanity, or other serious non-political crimes, or whose actions are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations, are excluded from international protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7124412", "title": "Illegal immigration", "section": "Section::::Reasons for illegal immigration.:Wars and asylum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 543, "text": "Unauthorised arrival into another country may be prompted by the need to escape civil war or repression in the country of origin. However, somebody who flees such a situation is in most countries under no circumstances an undocumented immigrant. If victims of forced displacement apply for asylum in the country they fled to and are granted refugee status they have the right to remain permanently. If asylum seekers are not granted some kind of legal protection status, then they may have to leave the country, or stay as illegal immigrants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4319287", "title": "Immigration to Canada", "section": "Section::::Immigration categories.:Refugees.:Claiming asylum in Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 354, "text": "BULLET::::- A person in need of protection: Claims for asylum under this category are usually made at a point of entry into Canada. Those claiming to be a person in need of protection must be unable to return to their home country safely because they would be subjected to a danger of torture, risk for their life or risk of cruel and unusual treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7195971", "title": "Asylum in the United States", "section": "Section::::Relevant law and procedures.:Individual application.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 909, "text": "A person may face persecution in their home country because of race, nationality, religion, ethnicity, or social group, and yet not be eligible for asylum because of certain bars defined by law. The most frequent bar is the one-year filing deadline. If an application is not submitted within one year following the applicant's arrival in the United States, the applicant is barred from obtaining asylum unless certain exceptions apply. However, the applicant can be eligible for other forms of relief such as Withholding of Removal, which is a less favorable type of relief than asylum because it does not lead to a Green Card or citizenship. The deadline for submitting the application is not the only restriction that bars one from obtaining asylum. If an applicant persecuted others, committed a serious crime, or represents a risk to U.S. security, he or she will be barred from receiving asylum as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1621432", "title": "Right of asylum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 591, "text": "That \"Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution\" is enshrined in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and supported by the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Under these agreements, a refugee is a person who is outside that person's own country's territory owing to fear of persecution on protected grounds, including race, caste, nationality, religion, political opinions and participation in any particular social group or social activities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Are all the planets on the same vertical level?\n\nYes\n\n > what happens if we go up?\n\nNothing, you just go up. What do you expect? Hit a ceiling?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe orbits aren't all perfectly aligned. Ceres has the most noticeable tilt, the others are less dramatic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The solar system started as a big cloud, with all the little bits spinning around the center in different directions. Over may millions of years a big cloud of randomly spinning junk will tend to flatten out into a disk as all the pieces smack into each other until they're all going in pretty much the same direction.\n\nSo now our solar system is largely \"flat\". Going \"up\" or \"down\" is moving out of the plane of the ecliptic. It's certainly doable, but it requires a whole lot of thrust, and there just isn't very much of interest (that we know of) outside the plane so we don't send many probes out there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The solar system does rotate on a relatively flat plane. It isn’t uniform, but close enough. Our planets formed from an accretion disk that collected around our Sun, the material in this disk was remnants of a larger star that went nova.. you would need to look at Astrophysics to understand why matter settled into a disk. If you were to go up relative to the disk, you’d find stuff but just not as common, whilst in our system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The planets are on the same flat plane, a few degrees difference. This is because the dust hat formed the planets was a disc.\n\nIf by up you mean in the z axis, then we would see the solar system like all the diagrams show, except good luck trying to see the planets, they're so tiny it's almost impossible to find them without knowing where to look.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nVoyager 1 did exactly this, went \"up\" and took a snapshot, known famously as the family portrait.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9264", "title": "Ecliptic", "section": "Section::::Plane of the Solar System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 582, "text": "Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk. Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the \"invariable plane of the Solar System\". Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, Jupiter's orbit is within a little more than ° of it, and the other major planets are all within about 6°. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18352021", "title": "Kepler orbit", "section": "Section::::Development of the laws.:Simplified two body problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 509, "text": "Planets rotate at varying rates and thus may take a slightly oblate shape because of the centrifugal force. With such an oblate shape, the gravitational attraction will deviate somewhat from that of a homogeneous sphere. This phenomenon is quite noticeable for artificial Earth satellites, especially those in low orbits. At larger distances the effect of this oblateness becomes negligible. Planetary motions in the Solar System can be computed with sufficient precision if they are treated as point masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244588", "title": "Heliocentrism", "section": "Section::::The view of modern science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 572, "text": "Even if the discussion is limited to the Solar System, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one focus of the elliptical orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the Solar System is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly Jupiter, amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an extrasolar planet would observe a small \"wobble\" in the Sun's motion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48908", "title": "Apparent retrograde motion", "section": "Section::::Apparent motion.:From Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1288, "text": "All other planetary bodies in the Solar System also appear to periodically switch direction as they cross Earth's sky. Though all stars and planets appear to move from east to west on a nightly basis in response to the rotation of Earth, the outer planets generally drift slowly eastward relative to the stars. Asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects (including Pluto) exhibit apparent retrogradation. This motion is normal for the planets, and so is considered direct motion. However, since Earth completes its orbit in a shorter period of time than the planets outside its orbit, it periodically overtakes them, like a faster car on a multi-lane highway. When this occurs, the planet being passed will first appear to stop its eastward drift, and then drift back toward the west. Then, as Earth swings past the planet in its orbit, it appears to resume its normal motion west to east. Inner planets Venus and Mercury appear to move in retrograde in a similar mechanism, but as they can never be in opposition to the Sun as seen from Earth, their retrograde cycles are tied to their inferior conjunctions with the Sun. They are unobservable in the Sun's glare and in their \"new\" phase, with mostly their dark sides toward Earth; they occur in the transition from evening star to morning star.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48329", "title": "Celestial pole", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 350, "text": "An analogous concept applies to other planets: a planet's celestial poles are the points in the sky where the projection of the planet's axis of rotation intersects the celestial sphere. These points vary because different planets' axes are oriented differently (the apparent positions of the stars also change slightly because of parallax effects).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26903", "title": "Solar System", "section": "Section::::Structure and composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 450, "text": "Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly greater angles to it. All the planets, and most other objects, orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above Earth's north pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145381", "title": "Ellipsoid", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Dynamical properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 296, "text": "One practical effect of this is that scalene astronomical bodies such as generally rotate along their minor axes (as does Earth, which is merely oblate); in addition, because of tidal locking, moons in synchronous orbit such as Mimas orbit with their major axis aligned radially to their planet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Carbohydrates are a very good source of energy which means that you don't have to eat much of them to get your daily calorie needs. Since your stomach is basically a flexible bag which you can stuff with food whilst it spends a few hours digesting, if you fill the bag with carbohydrates you will consume far more calories than you will generally be able to burn.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We actually work on sugar and we can break down carbohydrates to obtain that sugar. We store the excess in fat that we can use later. \n\nFor the vast majority of the history of life, obtaining food was a major activity that we had to do in order to get enough energy to live and it took energy to do that. For hundreds of millions of years, life walked that fine edge between getting enough energy to live while using less energy to get that food. One of the big survival factors was being able to take advantage of abundances of food by storing it so we could get through times where we couldn't get any (i.e. fat).\n\nWith civilization and cooperation, we've made is far less energy intensive to obtain food but it's still too new of a concept for evolution to have possibly caught up. So we have to consciously fight the instinct to consume the abundance of food that lots of people have access to because the mechanisms that used to help us survive (storing excess food as fat) eventually reaches a point where our bodies never evolved to handle the constant higher levels of fat for extended periods.\n\nFocusing on avoiding obvious carbohydrates is a fairly straightforward way for us to self-regulate.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Another major issue with carbs in \"modern\" diets (diets as in general nutrition habits, not some controlled diet like Atkins or paleo) is that it's much easier to get simple carbs, processed, high-glycemic index, etc than low-GI whole grain sources. When most people eat to the general nutrition macronutrient recommendations of ~60% of calories from carbs they end up eating tons of those simple carbs each day, which sends their insulin and blood sugar on a roller coaster. They just keep bouncing between high-insulin states, which inhibits fat burning, promotes fat storage, and over time can lead to insulin resistance (if levels stay high for months and months), and blood-sugar valleys which trigger hunger and more eating. \n\nInsulin on its own isn't bad, but the constant rise and fall of insulin and blood sugar caused by high-GI carbs can lead to a number of negative health outcomes. If we all got our 60% carbs from whole grains, fruits, and veggies then it wouldn't be that big of deal. Unfortunately, for the vast majority of people that's not the case, so lower carb levels (and proper calorie intake) tends to produce better health results in most people. IMO, most people would be better off with 30-40% of all three macros, and obviously choosing better sources. \n\nTL/DR: too many people eat too many simple carbs, causing an insulin roller coaster, leading to negative health outcomes. Either eat fewer carbs or pick better sources and you'll be okay. Oh and exercise. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your premise is wrong. We have evolved to utilize whatever calories we can, no matter the source. Carbs are definitely not required. Fat and protein are required. (Please note: the following explanation may be oversimplified.)\n\nIf I lock you in a room and feed you carbs and fat with no protein, you'll get sick and eventually die of malnutrition. Your body starts breaking down proteins to get at amino acids it needs somewhere else. Eventually it runs out of non-essential things to break down.\n\nIf I feed you only protein and carbs, you'll get sick and die of malnutrition. This is called \"[rabbit starvation](_URL_0_)\".\n\nIf I take away your carbs and give you only protein and fat, you'll probably get skinny, but you will maintain normal health. Your body (in the liver mostly) will begin producing ketones in order to substitute for the carbs, as well as creating sugars from fat.\n\nPart of the reason that carbs are processed before fats and proteins is that blood sugar levels need to remain constant. If it gets too high, your body produces insulin to store it. If your body has no insulin, or is not responding to insulin, your blood sugar levels will continue to rise. A chronic state of high blood sugar causes all kinds of problems. Any \"excess\" carbs tend to get stored as fat.\n\nLow blood sugar is bad too, but your liver can compensate for that, at least to a certain extent, and a small amount of juice can bring it back up very quickly to normal levels.\n\nTo actually answer your question: Carbs are not required for health*, and offer an easy way to restrict calories without restricting nutrients significantly while maintaining overall health. A lack of carbs typically leads to easily burning fat, a major goal of dieters these days.\n\n*Edit: There are some exceptions to this, as people are different.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Carbs are very simple, most of the time, which is the way they are found in a lot of foods we eat today. Like sugar, it is a simple carbohydrate, our body doesn't need to do much work at all to convert that to energy. Usually into the form of glycogen that's stored for a short time in our liver. Our liver holds about 1400 calories of glycogen, any extras are converted to fat and stored away. \n\nProtein has the same calories per gram as carbs, but it is much harder for our body to use as energy. Fat has over twice the calories per gram of protein and carbs, but is also harder for our body to use as energy. Carbs are the easiest and if we are getting them regularly, that's what our body is going to use for energy. \n\nSo historically we were hunter gatherers, we didn't have refrigerators and freezers so we had an ala carte menu of whatever we could find/kill that day. Now some meat would have lasted a few days, and some foraged items maybe a few days longer. So we ate with the seasons. During the spring and summer we ate fruits and berries and supple plants, wild vegetables, etc... We also would have hunted some, but the dense summer vegetation would have made that more difficult. And there was an abundance of food that we could just pick up from the ground and eat. Though these fruits and vegetables would not have resembled what we know today and would have been smaller and less sweet generally, still they would have provided carbs. We would have gorged on this stuff all summer long. Our bodies would have used the carbs as energy and then stored the rest as fat. Just like wildlife does today. \n\nAs summer drew to a close and fall comes the fruits and veggies and plant life dies off. This makes it easier to hunt and harder to forage. But there would be nuts in abundance. Nuts are high in fat. Even game in the fall has a much higher fat content as they too have been fattening up on summer crops. So our bodies have to use this fat as energy, to do that the fat needs to be converted into ketones. Our body has made a dietary shift to run on fat for energy instead of carbs. At this time of year we should have an excess of fat as well and all of the available foods would be high fat. As winter comes it's cold, animals are hard to hunt, the days are so short it doesn't allow as much time to hunt, etc... Without food storage you would have had to rely on what you could get that day, and during many days of the winter, that meant nothing. \n\nBut you didn't die, well as long as you had enough fat reserves. While you are not getting any food, your body is powering itself off of your body fat by turning it into ketones. If it's a really tough winter, you'd burn up all of your fat reserves and have a nice loin cloth body come spring. \n\nModern civilization has taken us from this transitional diet and allowed us to eat fresh fruit every day. It allows us to have carbs a plenty year round. And because the carbs are easy for our body to use for energy, that's what it wants. But carbs are also less filling than protein and fat. They have a low satiety. Especially carb heavy foods that are low fat. Fat, specifically a few amino acids, make us feel full and satiated. We can easily overeat low fat high carb foods, especially processed foods or ones that are specifically high in sugar or other simple carbs. These excesses are stored as fat. \n\nHumans ate a fairly high fat diet until just a few decades ago. Then someone decided that foods high in cholesterol and saturated fat would give you a heart attack. So the food industry changed and followed suit and foods became low fat, high carb. And humans got fat, fat, fat. Sodas by the gallon, sweets as far as the eye can see, desserts galore, etc... Year round. Our bodies see this as a surplus year, every year. \n\nDiets like keto, or Paleo, essentially put our bodies back onto a hunter gatherer diet. Limiting carb intakes to vegetables and no simple sugars at all. As a result the diet tends to be higher fat, KETO especially. 80% of the calories eaten on a keto diet come from fat. So that gets out body running on ketones instead of carbohydrates. And let me tell you, our body runs much better on ketones. It is something you can definitely tell when it kicks in. Your brain works better, you have limitless energy and stamina, you feel better. You completely understand how people back in the day worked 16 hour shifts every day in a factory. You don't get hungry as often, because your body is already running on fat so instead of it telling you to eat again, it says \"nah, I'm good, I'll just use some fat from your ass\". As the diet goes, you eat your calories in a deficit and make your body burn its own fat for energy. \n\nPeople are now starting to realize that a high fat diet does no harm to your body and all along the diabetes, heart disease, and obesity epidemic is cause by carbs, the same carbs they told us to eat 60% of our diet every day. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are cheap and easy to produce therefore hard to make big profets on so no one pays to marked them as healthy", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5932", "title": "Carbohydrate", "section": "Section::::Metabolism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 1077, "text": "The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of energy, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP. Organisms capable of anaerobic and aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen (aerobic) to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41120920", "title": "Central nervous system fatigue", "section": "Section::::Manipulation.:Carbohydrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 852, "text": "Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in organisms for metabolism. They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a carbohydrate and electrolyte solution on muscle glycogen use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher plasma glucose concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3954", "title": "Biochemistry", "section": "Section::::Biomolecules.:Carbohydrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 367, "text": "Two of the main functions of carbohydrates are energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1209760", "title": "Natural product", "section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.:Carbohydrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 227, "text": "Carbohydrates are an essential energy source for most life forms. In addition, polysaccharides formed from simpler carbohydrates are important structural components of many organisms such the cell walls of bacteria and plants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17190285", "title": "Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 361, "text": "Carbohydrates account for a major portion of the human diet. These carbohydrates are composed of three principal monosaccharides: glucose, fructose and galactose; in addition glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in humans. The failure to effectively use these molecules accounts for the majority of the inborn errors of human carbohydrates metabolism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1043627", "title": "Biomedicine", "section": "Section::::Biochemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 243, "text": "Carbohydrates, made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are energy storing molecules. The simplest one of carbohydrates is glucose, CHO, is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which supplies cells with energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5932", "title": "Carbohydrate", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 569, "text": "Often in lists of nutritional information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term \"carbohydrate\" (or \"carbohydrate by difference\") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This includes chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes dietary fiber which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute much in the way of food energy (kilocalories), even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Earthquakes are sinusoidal and logarythmic.. bombs make 1 wave and then small echoes are seen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With different listening points they can place the epicenter in 3D. Earthquakes happen very deep in the earths crust. Bombs are detonated near the surface ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33030415", "title": "Forensic seismology", "section": "Section::::Seismic Nuclear Detonation Detection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 831, "text": "Seismic stations record underground pressure waves and transmit this data for processing via secure communication links. There are many challenges involved with trying to differentiate a nuclear explosion from other natural and man-made phenomena, such as earthquakes, mining explosions, and construction. Nuclear explosions exceeding 150 kilotons generate pressure waves that primarily travel through the Earth's core and mantle. These types of explosions are straightforward to identify because the mixture of rock the signals pass through is fairly homogeneous and the signals generated are free from noise. Smaller nuclear explosions are more difficult to identify because pressure waves primarily travel through the Earth's upper mantle and crust, leading to signal distortion due to the heterogeneity of rocks at this depth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53683", "title": "Nuclear fallout", "section": "Section::::Factors affecting fallout.:Location.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 514, "text": "There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground. A nuclear explosion in which the fireball touches the ground pulls soil and other materials into the cloud and neutron activates it before it falls back to the ground. An air burst produces a relatively small amount of the highly radioactive heavy metal components of the device itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244601", "title": "Effects of nuclear explosions", "section": "Section::::Indirect effects.:Earthquake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 271, "text": "The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor earthquake. Theory suggests that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances within a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1016556", "title": "Induced seismicity", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Mining.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 388, "text": "BULLET::::- Explosions associated with routine mining practices, such as drilling and blasting, and unintended explosions such as the Sago mine Disaster. Explosions are generally not considered \"induced\" events since they are caused entirely by chemical payloads. Most earthquake monitoring agencies take careful measures to identify explosions and exclude them from earthquake catalogs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18597", "title": "Little Boy", "section": "Section::::Physical effects.:Blast.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 509, "text": "The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X-ray-heated air (the fireball) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions, initially at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning. Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima. Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances, but the Nagasaki bomb detonated from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33030415", "title": "Forensic seismology", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 328, "text": "In addition to nuclear explosions, the signatures of many other kinds of explosions can also be detected and analyzed by forensic seismology, and even other phenomena such as ocean waves (the global microseism), the movement of icebergs across the sea floor or in collision with other icebergs, or explosions within submarines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7135316", "title": "Earthquake bomb", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 828, "text": "The earthquake bomb, or seismic bomb, was a concept that was invented by the British aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis early in World War II and subsequently developed and used during the war against strategic targets in Europe. A seismic bomb differs somewhat in concept from traditional bombs, which usually explode at or near the surface, and destroy their target directly by explosive force. In contrast, a seismic bomb is dropped from high altitude to attain very high speed as it falls and upon impact, penetrates and explodes deep underground, causing massive caverns or craters known as \"camouflets\", as well as intense shockwaves. In this way, the seismic bomb can affect targets that are too massive to be affected by a conventional bomb, as well as damage or destroy difficult targets such as bridges and viaducts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What modern technology do you envision? Spherical lenses were entirely within the abilities of technology 500 years ago. Prior to that we didn't really bother with glasses.\n\nAlso prescriptions sure didn't exist. Such glasses were fairly limited to the wealthy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We've been able to make relatively clear optical grade glass for a few hundred years (1400s I think). And the big/shrink factor of various curvatures has been well known and proven mathmatically for hundreds of years if not longer - the ancient greeks were describing the math around refraction of liquid in spheres. \nSo if you know the math of refraction and calculate some some sample rays of light you can easily make a test pattern that appears distorted without a correctly ground lens but appears undistorted with a correct lens. From there its a simple matter of grinding and polishing until the test pattern looks correct. \n\nAnd they didn't make lenses to order. Spectacle makers would make a bunch of lenses of perscription 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5 and so on. If your actual perscription fell in between one of these standard focal powers the optician would round up or down to the nearest. Thats essentially what your Optometrist is doing with that funky facemask thing called a photoroptor when he asks you \"Which is better, A...? or B? Here's B... and here's A\" - its a systemmatic way of rough and then fine stepping through differnt powered lenses until close enough you can't distinguish between them. In the olden days theyd' literally have a box of little lenses and they'd hold them up in front of your eyes and ask you to watch the test chart.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "74844", "title": "Glasses", "section": "Section::::History.:Later developments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 725, "text": "Over time, the construction of frames for glasses also evolved. Early eyepieces were designed to be either held in place by hand or by exerting pressure on the nose (\"pince-nez\"). Girolamo Savonarola suggested that eyepieces could be held in place by a ribbon passed over the wearer's head, this in turn secured by the weight of a hat. The modern style of glasses, held by temples passing over the ears, was developed sometime before 1727, possibly by the British optician Edward Scarlett. These designs were not immediately successful, however, and various styles with attached handles such as \"scissors-glasses\" and lorgnettes were also fashionable from the second half of the 18th century and into the early 19th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74844", "title": "Glasses", "section": "Section::::History.:Later developments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 595, "text": "Despite the increasing popularity of contact lenses and laser corrective eye surgery, glasses remain very common, as their technology has improved. For instance, it is now possible to purchase frames made of special memory metal alloys that return to their correct shape after being bent. Other frames have spring-loaded hinges. Either of these designs offers dramatically better ability to withstand the stresses of daily wear and the occasional accident. Modern frames are also often made from strong, light-weight materials such as titanium alloys, which were not available in earlier times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47640735", "title": "Shwood Eyewear", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 272, "text": "The prototype wooden glasses were developed by Eric Singer, the idea was then shared with Ryan Kirkpatrick, Daniel Genco, Taylor Murray and Philip Peterson. The prototype was made using madrone tree, a pair of rusty cabinet hinges and salvaged lenses from a thrift store.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74844", "title": "Glasses", "section": "Section::::History.:Invention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 331, "text": "Early frames for glasses consisted of two magnifying glasses riveted together by the handles so that they could grip the nose. These are referred to as \"rivet spectacles\". The earliest surviving examples were found under the floorboards at Kloster Wienhausen, a convent near Celle in Germany; they have been dated to \"circa\" 1400.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "543329", "title": "Optician", "section": "Section::::History of opticians and spectacle makers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 396, "text": "The first spectacles utilized quartz lenses since optical glass had not been developed. The lenses were set into bone, metal and leather mountings, frequently fashioned like two small magnifying glasses with handles riveted together and set in an inverted V shape that could be balanced on the bridge of the nose. The use of spectacles extended from Italy to Germany, Spain, France and Portugal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13357912", "title": "Scissors-glasses", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 304, "text": "The invention of scissors-glasses solved the problem of the single lensed monocle or \"quizzing glass\", thought to be tiresome to the eye, by providing two lenses on a \"Y\" shaped frame. They usually had a ring in the end of the handle so that they could be worn on a ribbon or gold chain around the neck.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74845", "title": "Contact lens", "section": "Section::::Types.:Materials.:Rigid lenses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 560, "text": "Glass lenses were never comfortable enough to gain widespread popularity. The first lenses to do so were those made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA or Perspex/Plexiglas), now commonly referred to as \"hard\" lenses. Their main disadvantage is they do not allow oxygen to pass through to the cornea, which can cause a number of adverse, and often serious, clinical events. Starting in the late 1970s, improved rigid materials which were oxygen-permeable were developed. Contact lenses made from these materials are called rigid gas permeable lenses or 'RGPs'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So basically, history in the last 50 years has moved from the \"Great Man History\", or more specifically the standard politico-military histories that were oh so popular during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, towards cultural/social history. \n\nThe difference between cultural and social history is pretty goddamn slim, but basically they both study the history of people. An intermediate step was called Marxist history, or the study of the \"proletariat\", and that got cleaned up to (it got a haircut, put on a suit, and threw out its Che Guevara t-shirt. Fuckin' sellout.) \"bottom up\" history. Basically, all four really tried to figure out what everybody else was doing when the \"Great Men\" went out a'conquer-in. \n\nIn the case of Cultural/Social history, they really try to understand trends, experiences, and groups. Social historians look mainly for those trends and macro-level conclusions, which can be extrapolated down to fit smaller groups (usually). OTOH, cultural history focuses on \"microhistories\", or really small tales, vignettes, and stories of people, places, traditions, rituals, or other really unique things. These stories are then wrapped up into a larger connection to society in that place, at that time.\n\nActually, I would kinda say that Cultural history has really \"taken over\" history, and its really now the dominant, hegemonic, methodology for most historians. Or it is at my school, its hard to tell what the outside world is like sometimes. Schools are like echo-chambers in some ways. \n\nA great person to read, to try and see this method in practice is Natalie Zemon Davis. She has a collection of Essays (*Society and Culture in Early Modern France*), which is 8 essays that detail specific groups, rituals, etc. of early modern French life, and then connect them to great French Culture, and also modern society. An example: She has one essay about Journeyman printers in Lyons. These printers formed a group, the Griffarions (I *think* I spelled that right), which was sort of a trade union. This \"union\" then went around the town pissing off all the Protestants, killing scabs, and raising hell. The protestants kicked them out following their rise to power in Lyons. That essay really shows what Cultural History is: I take a small topic, explore it in detail, then connect it to something larger and more meaningful. \n\nThe major problem I have with cultural history, and especially its stats in the discipline now (again, where Im at in it) is its *too* powerful. Before, there was no balance between the \"great men\" and the little guys. Now theres no balance the other way, and nobody wants to talk \"traditional\" European history. Thats great if you really love, say, sexual history, and writing about the sexual mores of Victorian women really gets your motor running. In this methodology, youll do well. Me, I like War. And Tanks. And Strategy. Im a \"lines on the map\" kind of guy. I really want to talk about Bismarck, and the Molktes, and Marshall. But thats not the history thats popular right now, so sometimes I feel left out of the whole \"micro-cultural-history\" party. So thats my big criticism with the current direction of things. That and the fucking post-modernist school. Seriously. Fuck those guys. \n\nAlso, I notice your flair is Japanese history. Im not up on my Asian historiography, but Im pretty sure that native Asian historians are likely practicing their own specific kinds of historiography. There is enough trouble trying to apply what Ive just said to other Anglophone countries like England, let alone the rest of Europe, or *Asia*. \n\n > what sort of epistemic theories underpin different \"camps\" in current historical practice?\n\nI would answer this, if I knew what it meant. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In some ways the Great Man theory was a metanarrative, and I think metanarratives are in general less emphasized these days. The Great Man theory suggests that well... Great (or more perhaps \"important\") Men are the driving force in history. You acknowledge this in your question, but I think the question of \"what makes history go\" as you say has fallen a bit out of fashion. Certainly there are still people who are trying to answer that question, but many historians have eschewed it in favor of using different frameworks to explain different things.\n\nAs an example the Marxists metanarrative, which is quite far from the Great Man theory in that it posits that class conflict is the driving force behind history, has also pretty much gone out of fashion. But that does not mean that Marxist analysis has gone entirely out of fashion. Instead, it means that historians tend to use his insights about class and historical materialism in a more focused way. To poke and prod some bit of history to see what insights come, rather than try to place them into a grand narrative. \n\nI can not really speak for everyone, so I will just speak for myself. To me historical methods and theories are part of a sort of \"toolbox\" from which I can take out a particular thing when it is the right tool for the job. I will say that this - as a rule - is a bit of a post-modern position. I don't really think of myself as primarily a post-modernist. However, I do think that is probably has some post-structuralist leanings as you'll notice when you read the rest. So be it.\n\nFor example, I think discourse analysis can be incredibly powerful and useful as an analytical tool. But at the same time I don't need to buy into the idea that \"all the world's a text.\" Just as seeing the usefulness of post-modern theory in general to understand the way people understood (or understand) the world, how their world view and beliefs or \"knowledge\" influences their life and decision making does not mean I need to reject the notion of objective reality.\n\nGender theory has become very important for analysis as well. Joan Scott's article from 1986 sort of launched that. Even though a lot of work has been done since then, it still serves as a great introduction to the concept. It's available here: _URL_0_\n\nWilliam Sewell has made a somewhat similar point in his 2005 book *Logics of History* in which he discussions social and cultural history both at length. He thinks that both social and cultural history have offered important breakthroughs but that dedicating yourself to only one or the other can be a bit too limiting. \n\nI just remembered I answered a similar question to this a while back and dug up my answer. It is similar, but I included a list of relevant works by category in that one. If you want to see that, you can read it here: _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4752111", "title": "The History of Rock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 303, "text": "The History of Rock is a compilation album by Kid Rock. Released in 2000, the album consists of re-recorded versions of songs from the album \"The Polyfuze Method\", remixed versions of songs from the album \"Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp\", demos and unreleased songs, including the single \"American Bad Ass\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8432200", "title": "Riven Rock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 381, "text": "\"Riven Rock\" probes male-female relationships, the nature of psychiatric care (as it existed in the early twentieth century), and the crazy mix of classes and ethnicities that is modern America. It also shows, above all, how much is to be gained by giving literary treatment to historical characters and events—an exercise that Boyle repeats in \"The Women\" and other of his works.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25952803", "title": "Burton Rocks", "section": "Section::::Writing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 419, "text": "Rocks is the co-author, with New York Yankees outfielder Paul O'Neill, of the 2003 \"New York Times\" bestselling book \"Me and My Dad: A Baseball Memoir\", detailing O'Neill's relationship with his father and how they bonded over baseball. Andrea Cooper reviewing for the \"New York Times\" described the book as a charming eulogy for O'Neill's father. Rocks has also co-written books with other athletes and media figures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7600824", "title": "List of Metalocalypse characters", "section": "Section::::Recurring characters.:Dr. Rockso.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 289, "text": "Rockso seems to be a parody of various events and persons. According to Brendon Small, Dr. Rockso was supposed to be an amalgam of every kind of front man from the hard-rock era, including Vince Neil, Axl Rose, and Bret Michaels. Eventually the animators made him resemble David Lee Roth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18218711", "title": "Rock Prophecies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 222, "text": "Rock Prophecies is a 2009 documentary film concerning rock photographer Robert M. Knight. It was directed by John Chester (\"Lost In Woonsocket\", A&E's \"Random 1\") and produced by Tim Kaiser (\"Seinfeld\", \"Will and Grace\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "928469", "title": "Rock art", "section": "Section::::Rock Art Studies.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 1023, "text": "The discipline of rock art studies witnessed what Whitley called a \"revolution\" during the 1980s and 1990s, as increasing numbers of archaeologists in the Anglophone world and Latin America turned their attention to the subject. In doing so, they recognised that rock art could be used to understand symbolic and religious systems, gender relations, cultural boundaries, cultural change and the origins of art and belief. One of the most significant figures in this movement was the South African archaeologist David Lewis-Williams, who published his studies of San rock art from southern Africa, in which he combined ethnographic data to reveal the original purpose of the artworks. Lewis-Williams would come to be praised for elevating rock art studies to a \"theoretically sophisticated research domain\" by Whitley. However, the study of rock art worldwide is marked by considerable differences of opinion with respect to the appropriateness of various methods and the most relevant and defensible theoretical framework.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1523764", "title": "Herbert Butterfield", "section": "Section::::Work.:\"Christianity and History\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 532, "text": "BULLET::::- \"I have nothing to say at the finish except that if one wants a permanent rock in life and goes deep enough for it, it is difficult for historical events to shake it. There are times when we can never meet the future with sufficient elasticity of mind, especially if we are locked in the contemporary systems of thought. We can do worse than remember a principle which both gives us a firm Rock and leaves us the maximum elasticity for our minds: the principle: Hold to Christ, and for the rest be totally uncommitted.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Infertility, no, not at all.\n\nBut it can result in a mild case of impotence, if you get used to a different kind of stimulation than actual sex provides.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26758367", "title": "Birth Control Revolution", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 257, "text": "The insane gynaecologist, Dr. Marukido Sadao (Marquis de Sade), theorizes that a woman is unable to become pregnant if she is writhing in intense pain during intercourse. He sets about testing this new method of birth control by torturing women during sex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "226748", "title": "Stillbirth", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Constricted umbilical cord.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 517, "text": "When the umbilical cord is constricted (q.v. \"accidents\" above), the fetus experiences periods of hypoxia, and may respond by unusually high periods of kicking or struggling, to free the umbilical cord. These are sporadic if constriction is due to a change in the fetus' or mother's position, and may become worse or more frequent as the fetus grows. Extra attention should be given if mothers experience large increases in kicking from previous childbirths, especially when increases correspond to position changes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2040912", "title": "Self-induced abortion", "section": "Section::::Methods attempted.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 665, "text": "Attempts to insert hazardous objects into the uterus are particularly dangerous, as they can cause punctures leading to sepsis. Ingesting or douching with harmful substances can have poisonous results. Receiving blows to the abdomen, whether self-inflicted or at the hands of another, can damage organs. Furthermore, the less dangerous methods – physical exertion, abdominal massage, and ingestion of relatively harmless substances thought to induce miscarriage – are less effective, and may result in the fetus developing birth defects. However, abdominal massage abortion is traditionally practised in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "236732", "title": "Prolapse", "section": "Section::::Humans.:Umbilical cord prolapse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1114, "text": "Umbilical cord prolapse occurs when the umbilical cord comes out of the uterus with or before the presenting part of the fetus. It is a relatively rare condition and occurs in fewer than 1% of pregnancies. Cord prolapse is more common in women who have had rupture of their amniotic sac. Other risk factors include maternal or fetal factors that prevent the fetus from occupying a normal position in the maternal pelvis, such as abnormal fetal lie, too much amniotic fluid, or a premature or small fetus. The concern with cord prolapse is that pressure on the cord from the fetus will cause cord compression that compromises blood flow to the fetus. Whenever there is a sudden decrease in fetal heart rate or abnormal fetal heart tracing, umbilical cord prolapse should be considered. Due to the possibility for fetal death and other complications, umbilical cord prolapse is considered an obstetric emergency during pregnancy or labor. Current management guidelines focus on quick delivery, which usually entails a cesarean section. With appropriate management, the majority of cases have good neonatal outcomes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2960236", "title": "Predicament bondage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 328, "text": "Predicament bondage can also involve the use of a single position in which remaining still will not cause any discomfort for the subject, but moving their body will pull on ropes, weights or other devices meant to cause them pain. The subject may then be tickled, sexually pleasured or otherwise enticed to move uncontrollably.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23611672", "title": "Bovine prolapsed uterus", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 463, "text": "Although there is no true prevention, there are some ways to decrease the risks. To reduce the chances of uterine prolapse, get the cow up in a standing position and moving around as soon as possible. If the calf needs to be pulled, pull them out slowly and it is even more important to get the cow up and moving after the calf was pulled. When the cow is up and moving, the uterus can drop back into the abdominal cavity which straightens out the uterine horns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "629600", "title": "Exsanguination", "section": "Section::::Slaughtering animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 683, "text": "Exsanguination is used as a method of slaughter. Before the fatal incision is made, the animal may be rendered insensible to pain by various methods, including captive bolt, electricity or chemical. Without prior sedation, stunning or anesthetic, this method of slaughter causes a high degree of anxiety, although other religiously funded studies contradict these findings. The captive bolt is placed against the skull of the animal, and penetrates to cause tissue destruction in the brain, incapacitating the animal so that the procedure may take place. Electricity is used mostly to incapacitate swine, poultry and domestic sheep, whereas a chemical is used for injured livestock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They do what they are paid for by Russian (and Chechen) government.\n\nFor now Chechnya is governed by Russian puppet who gets loads of money and will do anything Putin asks him to do.\n\nWhy Chechens and not Russian from other regions? I guess they are cheaper and have better skills for purpose.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42098138", "title": "2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine", "section": "Section::::Participants.:Other foreign participants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 200, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 200, "end_character": 270, "text": "BULLET::::- Chechen, Abkhaz, Ossetian, and Cossack paramilitaries have been active participants in the insurgency in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts. Some Chechen opponents of Russian government were fighting pro-Russian separatists in Ukraine for the Ukrainian government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6581649", "title": "War of Dagestan", "section": "Section::::Alleged agreement between Basayev and Russian authorities to start the war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 415, "text": "The Invasion of Dagestan leading to the start of the new Russian-Chechen conflict was regarded by the Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya as a provocation initiated from Moscow to start war in Chechnya, because Russian forces provided safe passage for Islamic fighters back to Chechnya. It was reported that Alexander Voloshin of the Yeltsin administration paid money to Basayev to stage this military operation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22353469", "title": "Insurgency in the North Caucasus", "section": "Section::::History and background.:Chechnya.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 791, "text": "The insurgency in the North Caucasus is a direct result of the two post-Soviet wars fought between Russia and Chechnya. The First Chechen War was a nationalist struggle, with both secular and Islamist overtones, for independence from Russia and took place between 1994 and 1996. After a vicious struggle between Russian federal forces and Chechen separatist guerrillas, Chechnya was granted \"de facto\" independence per the terms of the Khasavyurt Accord, signed on 30 August 1996. With a devastated infrastructure and various armed factions, subordinate to specific warlords, the next three years saw Chechnya devolve into a corrupted and criminal state, plagued by armed gangs, an epidemic of kidnappings-for-ransom and the rise of radical Islam in the region as a response to suppression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6095", "title": "Chechnya", "section": "Section::::History.:Chechen Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 520, "text": "The First Chechen War took place from 1994 to 1996, when Russian forces attempted to regain control over Chechnya, which had declared independence in November 1991. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority in men, weaponry, and air support, the Russian forces were unable to establish effective permanent control over the mountainous area due to numerous successful full-scale battles and insurgency raids. In three months, Russia lost more tanks (over 1,997 tanks) in Grozny than during the Battle of Berlin in 1945.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39885899", "title": "Chechen–Russian conflict", "section": "Section::::Post-Soviet era.:Chechen Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 469, "text": "In 1999, the Russian government forces started an anti-terrorist campaign in Chechnya, in response to the invasion of Dagestan by Chechen-based Islamic forces. By early 2000 Russia almost completely destroyed the city of Grozny and succeeded in putting Chechnya under direct control of Moscow. According to Norman Naimark, \"serious evidence indicates that Russian government developed plans to deport the Chechens once again in the mid-1990s if they had lost the war.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20357557", "title": "Oleh Tyahnybok", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Political career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 283, "text": "In March 2014 Russia launched a criminal case against Tyahnybok, and some members of Ukrainian National Assembly – Ukrainian National Self Defence for \"organizing an armed gang\" that had allegedly fought against the Russian 76th Guards Air Assault Division in the First Chechen War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42563745", "title": "War in Donbass", "section": "Section::::Combatants.:Pro-Russian insurgents.:Foreign groups.:Caucasian and Central Asian armed groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 175, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 175, "end_character": 569, "text": "The Foreign Affairs ministry of Ukraine said that the presence of foreign soldiers amounted to \"undisguised aggression\" from Russia, and \"the export of Russian terrorism to our country\". \"There are grounds to affirm that Russian terrorists funnelled on to the territory of Ukraine are being organised and financed through the direct control of the Kremlin and Russian special forces,\" the ministry said. To date, reports and interviews have shown the presence of Chechen, Ossetian, Tajik, Afghan, Armenian, and various Russian paramilitary forces operating in Ukraine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The reinforcing rebar or steel mesh encapsulated in the concrete is rusting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It can be from some fertilizers or weed killers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2168691", "title": "Shades of Death Road", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 439, "text": "The road is the subject of folklore and numerous local legends. According to \"Weird NJ\", these rumors have drawn more visitors to the area, to the annoyance of residents, who have in the past gone so far as to smear the pole holding the street sign (pictured) at the road's southern end with grease or oil to prevent theft (Other signs along the road are in vertical type on poles and thus harder to remove and less desirable to display).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "354679", "title": "Road traffic safety", "section": "Section::::Mortality.:Built-up areas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 827, "text": "Most roads are cambered (crowned), that is, made so that they have rounded surfaces, to reduce standing water and ice, primarily to prevent frost damage but also increasing traction in poor weather. Some sections of road are now surfaced with porous bitumen to enhance drainage; this is particularly done on bends. These are just a few elements of highway engineering. As well as that, there are often grooves cut into the surface of cement highways to channel water away, and rumble strips at the edges of highways to rouse inattentive drivers with the loud noise they make when driven over. In some cases, there are raised markers between lanes to reinforce the lane boundaries; these are often reflective. In pedestrian areas, speed bumps are often placed to slow cars, preventing them from going too fast near pedestrians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3503341", "title": "Dowel bar retrofit", "section": "Section::::Confusion with road surface markings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 744, "text": "The visible marks may appear to be a symmetrical pattern of dash marks on the roadway, as if there were an associated meaning to the pattern. When there are many of them along the roadway, motorists on the interstate highways may interpret the grind marks as an unknown form of mechanical markers, such as ground-in strips, or strange road surface markings. In some cases, these marks are confusing for motorists. When roads are under construction and lanes are laterally shifted, such marks may interfere with temporary lane markings. As the marks from the dowel bar retrofit are not intended to be any form of road surface markings, the responsible agencies try to make these marks smooth and hope to make them less visible to the motorists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "324151", "title": "Forest Hill, Toronto", "section": "Section::::Character.:Streetscape.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 395, "text": "Several elements that contribute to the unique character of the area are its sidewalks and local roads, as well as landscaping and natural environment. A majority of the area does not have sidewalks. Streets are often very wide within the residential interior of the neighbourhood. Additionally, the streets of the area are littered with many stop signs as well as a fair number of speed bumps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22707654", "title": "Tulip Viaduct", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 291, "text": "Over the years, a large amount of graffiti has been spray-painted on the trestle, especially at the base of the towers nearest the road. The Indiana Rail Road has retained the graffiti: the thickness of the paint prevents rain and snow from rusting the metal, thus preserving the structure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24169585", "title": "Benjamin Harjo Jr.", "section": "Section::::Style.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 260, "text": "\"When you're traveling down the highway, you see an image whether it's dirt on the back of a truck or a splat on a windshield or two birds sitting by the side of the road picking at something. All those things have inspired me at some point in my creativity.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1633154", "title": "Road surface marking", "section": "Section::::Mechanical markers.:Confusion with marks left by roadwork.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 811, "text": "Sometimes the result of roadwork may leave visible marks on the pavements. An example is the dowel bar retrofit process to reinforce concrete slabs in order to extend the life of older concrete pavements. The completion of the process leaves a symmetrical pattern of dash marks on the roadway, as if there were an associated meaning to the pattern. When there are many of them along the roadway, motorists may interpret the marks as an unknown form of mechanical markers or strange road surface markings. When roads are under construction and the lanes are shifted laterally, those marks may interfere with temporary lane markings. As the marks from the dowel bar retrofit are not intended to be any form of road surface markings, the responsible agencies try to make these marks less visible to the motorists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well.\n\nWhat happens during a LCHF-diet is that you force your body to burn fat, and only fat. What happens when you metabolize fat is that [ketone bodies](_URL_0_) as produced, leading to a state of ketosis. Ketone bodies *can* be used as an energy source by the brain and other cells, as in the case during starvation as well as LCHF-diets.\n\nThere is evidence on both sides of the spectrum. My own personal opinion is: Eat balanced, eat right. Cutting out one part of your diet is unnecessary unless you have a pathological condition.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You are absolutely right that your brain and muscles will get glucose from glycogen stores for as long as they are available. Eventually they will run out though.\n\nGlycolosis is a VERY important process that your muscles undergo when there is a high demand for strength for short periods of time (lifting heavy weights, sprinting, etc). Fat oxidation is great and very good for stamina and your heart (hearts use between 70-90% purely fat for fuel) but glucose nets more ATP per gram of oxygen when compared to fats because of the two free anaerobic ATP you get from glycolosis.\n\n**Your body has a natural balance between fat and glucose oxidation. Don't fuck with it.**", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Health aspects.:Cardiovascular health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 334, "text": "Some randomized control trials have shown that low-carbohydrate diets, especially very low-carbohydrate diets, perform better than low-fat diets in improving cardiometabolic risk factors in the long term, suggesting that low-carbohydrate diets are a viable option alongside low-fat diets for people at risk of cardiovascular disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Health aspects.:Body weight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 551, "text": "Much of the research into low-carbohydrate dieting has been of poor quality and studies which reported large effects have garnered disproportionate attention in comparison to those which are methodologically sound. Higher quality studies tend to find no meaningful difference in outcome between low-fat and low-carbohydrate dieting. Low-quality meta-analyses have tended to report favourably on the effect of low-carbohydrate diets: a systematic review found that 9 out of 10 meta-analyses with positive conclusions were affected by publication bias.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60492138", "title": "Soul food health trends", "section": "Section::::Modifying soul food to fit within health trends.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 528, "text": "Low carb is also known as low carbohydrate, high fat. \"Diabetes Research and clinical Practice\" found that low carb positively affects glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes, triglycerides and HDL (high density lipoprotein). It is suggested that ideal diet requires less than 130 g of carbohydrate a day and claims to be promoted as a permanent lifestyle choice through books and websites. For example, people are suggested to eat green vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, and just as well as whole fat dairy and olive oil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Adoption and advocacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 536, "text": "Carbohydrate has been wrongly accused of being a uniquely \"fattening\" macronutrient, misleading many dieters into compromising the nutritiousness of their diet by eliminating carbohydrate-rich food. Low-carbohydrate diet proponents emphasize research saying that low-carbohydrate diets can initially cause slightly greater weight loss than a balanced diet, but some studies suggest that such an advantage does not persist. In the long-term successful weight maintenance is determined by calorie intake, and not by macronutrient ratios.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "264746", "title": "Saturated fat", "section": "Section::::Association with diseases.:Cardiovascular disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 223, "text": "While many studies have found that including polyunsaturated fats in the diet in place of saturated fats produces more beneficial CVD outcomes, the effects of substituting monounsaturated fats or carbohydrates are unclear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5932", "title": "Carbohydrate", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 504, "text": "Low-carbohydrate diets are associated with increased mortality, but they may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Disadvantages of the diet might include halitosis, headache and constipation, and in general the potential adverse effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets are under-researched, particularly for possible risks of osteoporosis and cancer incidence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459560", "title": "Low-carbohydrate diet", "section": "Section::::Adoption and advocacy.:Carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 679, "text": "Low-carbohydrate diet advocates including Gary Taubes and David Ludwig have proposed a \"carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis\" in which carbohydrate is said to be uniquely fattening because it raises insulin levels and so causes fat to accumulate unduly. The hypothesis appears to run counter to known human biology whereby there is no good evidence of any such association between the actions of insulin and fat accumulation and obesity. The hypothesis predicted that low-carbohydrate dieting would offer a \"metabolic advantage\" of increased energy expenditure equivalent to 400-600 kcal/day, in accord with the promise of the Atkin's diet: a \"high calorie way to stay thin forever\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A weekly or every-other week basis can simplify operations: everyone knows that pay periods close one day, and checks are written on another day of the week, regardless of the calendar date. \n\nA monthly or bi-monthly basis can screw with that, as pay periods and payroll processing may not concurrent with the same day of the week every time, but helps employees budget revolving expenses, which are typically also monthly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " From a business standpoint, every pay period carries a certain set work-load and the fewer they are, the less the total yearly cost to the business.\n\n Employees want to be paid yesterday.\n\n The situations you mention represent the best balance for the firms/employees involved.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From strictly a financial standpoint, business wants to pay you as infrequently as possible. It cuts down on processing overhead and lets them hold on to their money a little longer. The drawback is people are pretty unhappy to be paid less than bi-monthly, so it can hurt morale and the ability to hire and retain personnel.\n\nWeekly can have advantages when you have a lot of short-term, low pay people with highly variable hours, like a restaurant or a temp agency. Paying them as they work reduces the chance for errors and disagreements, and also can be a plus for people who live paycheck to paycheck.\n\nThe primary choice is between biweekly and twice monthly. Biweekly is nice, becasue you usually have the same number of hours on each paycheck. Twice monthly is nice, becasue you don't have to worry about paychecks spanning months or even years.\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I've noticed that places that have a lot of hourly workers tend to pay biweekly, vs. places that only have salaried workers tend to pay semimonthly. This is just how I think of it, but it seems as if the salary places can simply schedule the same fixed payments twice a month, but you wouldn't want people filling out timesheets of variable days, so the 2 week-long cycles makes more sense in that context.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "730742", "title": "Principal–agent problem", "section": "Section::::Performance evaluation.:Objective performance evaluation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 1438, "text": "The reason that employees are often paid according to hours of work rather than by direct measurement of results is that it is often more efficient to use indirect systems of controlling the quantity and quality of effort, due to a variety of informational and other issues (e.g., turnover costs, which determine the optimal minimum length of relationship between firm and employee). This means that methods such as deferred compensation and structures such as tournaments are often more suitable to create the incentives for employees to contribute what they can to output over longer periods (years rather than hours). These represent \"pay-for-performance\" systems in a looser, more extended sense, as workers who consistently work harder and better are more likely to be promoted (and usually paid more), compared to the narrow definition of \"pay-for-performance\", such as piece rates. This discussion has been conducted almost entirely for self-interested rational individuals. In practice, however, the incentive mechanisms which successful firms use take account of the socio-cultural context they are embedded in (Fukuyama 1995, Granovetter 1985), in order not to destroy the social capital they might more constructively mobilise towards building an organic, social organization, with the attendant benefits from such things as \"worker loyalty and pride (...) [which] can be critical to a firm's success ...\" (Sappington 1991,63)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66499", "title": "Informal economy", "section": "Section::::Social and political implications and issues.:Poverty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 508, "text": "Average incomes are substantially lower in the informal economy and there is a higher preponderance of impoverished employees working in the informal sector. In addition, workers in the informal economy are less likely to benefit from employment benefits and social protection programs. For instance, a survey in Europe shows that the respondents who have difficulties to pay their household bills have worked informally more often in the past year than those that do not (10% versus 3% of the respondents).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "478756", "title": "Salaryman", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1002, "text": "A typical description of the salaryman is a male white-collar employee who typically earns his salary \"based on individual abilities rather than on seniority.\" Salarymen are known for working many hours, sometimes up to sixty hours per week. Oftentimes, because of his busy work schedule, the salaryman does not have time to raise a family and his work becomes a lifelong commitment. Companies typically hire the salarymen straight after high school, and they are expected to stay with the company until retirement, around the time they reach the age between 55 and 60. As a reward for the demonstration of their loyalty, companies rarely fire the salarymen unless it is under special \"dire\" circumstances. There is also a belief that the \"amount of time spent at the workplace correlates to the perceived efficiency of the employee.\" As a result of this intense work-driven lifestyle, salarymen may be more likely to suffer from mental or physical health problems, including heart failure or suicide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2594158", "title": "Labour supply", "section": "Section::::Neoclassical view.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1089, "text": "Labour supply curves derive from the 'labour-leisure' trade-off. More hours worked earn higher incomes, but necessitate a cut in the amount of leisure that workers enjoy. Consequently, there are two effects on the amount of labour supplied due to a change in the real wage rate. As, for example, the real wage rate rises, the opportunity cost of leisure increases. This tends to make workers supply more labour (the \"substitution effect\"). However, also as the real wage rate rises, workers earn a higher income for a given number of hours. If leisure is a normal good—the demand for it increases as income increases—this increase in income tends to make workers supply less labour so they can \"spend\" the higher income on leisure (the \"income effect\"). If the substitution effect is stronger than the income effect then the labour supply slopes upward. If, beyond a certain wage rate, the income effect is stronger than the substitution effect, then the labour supply curve bends backward. Individual labor supply curves can be aggregated to derive the total labour supply of an economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "552168", "title": "Working time", "section": "Section::::Differences among countries and regions.:United States.:Overtime rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 716, "text": "Under most circumstances, wage earners and lower-level employees may be legally required by an employer to work more than forty hours in a week; however, they are paid extra for the additional work. Many salaried workers and commission-paid sales staff are not covered by overtime laws. These are generally called \"exempt\" positions, because they are exempt from federal and state laws that mandate extra pay for extra time worked. The rules are complex, but generally exempt workers are executives, professionals, or sales staff. For example, school teachers are not paid extra for working extra hours. Business owners and independent contractors are considered self-employed, and none of these laws apply to them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "526780", "title": "35-hour workweek", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 275, "text": "Businesses have overhead costs such as training, rent, and employment taxes that do not adjust with operating hours. These expenses paired with higher wages cause the cost benefit of hiring an extra worker to go down, while raising the marginal cost of an additional worker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2119223", "title": "Backward bending supply curve of labour", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1015, "text": "As wages increase above the subsistence level (discussed below), there are two considerations affecting a worker's choice of how many hours to work per unit of time (usually day, week, or month). The first is the substitution or incentive effect. With wages rising, the tradeoff between working an additional hour for pay and taking one extra hour of unpaid time changes in favor of working. Thus, more hours of labour-time will be offered at the higher wage than the lower one. The second and countervailing effect is that the hours worked at the old wage rate now all gain more income than before, creating an income effect, which encourages more leisure to be chosen because it is more affordable. Most economists assume that unpaid time (or \"leisure\") is a normal good and so people want more of it as their incomes (or wealth) rise. Since a rising wage rate raises incomes, all else constant, the attraction of unpaid time rises, eventually neutralising the substitution effect and causing the backward bend. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the universe is so huge and we're so small.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because on the local scale gravity effectively prevents the effect of the metric expansion of space on objects. Think of it like having having two treadmills facing back to back so that when they are turned on they move in opposite directions. If you place one book on one of the treadmills and one on the other, then both books will move away from each other, even though they aren't moving independent of the treadmill (that is, the expansion of space causes distant objects to have more space between them even if they aren't \"moving\"). Now what happens if you place a chair such that two legs are on one of the treadmill and the other two are on the other treadmill. The treadmill will still run (metric expansion of space is still occurring) but the forces that hold the chair together (the force of gravity that holds our galaxy together) causes it not to break apart. Everything within the local supercluster of galaxies of bound gravitationally so that we don't see the effects of the expansion of space, even though that expansion is still occurring.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5382", "title": "Inflation (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 631, "text": "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Topology of expanding space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 257, "text": "Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "921168", "title": "Scale factor (cosmology)", "section": "Section::::Detail.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 657, "text": "Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9075104", "title": "Dark Energy Survey", "section": "Section::::Supernovae.:Applications in cosmology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1019, "text": "To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1540711", "title": "Phantom energy", "section": "Section::::Consequences.:Big Rip mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 714, "text": "The expansion of the universe reaches an infinite degree in finite time, causing expansion to accelerate without bounds. This acceleration necessarily passes the speed of light (since it involves expansion of the universe itself, not particles moving within it), causing more and more objects to leave our observable universe faster than its expansion, as light and information emitted from distant stars and other cosmic sources cannot \"catch up\" with the expansion. As the observable universe expands, objects will be unable to interact with each other via fundamental forces, and eventually the expansion will prevent any action of forces between any particles, even within atoms, \"ripping apart\" the universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31880", "title": "Universe", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Age and expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 667, "text": "Over time, the Universe and its contents have evolved; for example, the relative population of quasars and galaxies has changed and space itself has expanded. Due to this expansion, scientists on Earth can observe the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away even though that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the very space between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey. Analyses of Type Ia supernovae indicate that the spatial expansion is accelerating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11439", "title": "Faster-than-light", "section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Universal expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 850, "text": "However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its \"peculiar velocity\" towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving and proper distances#Uses of the proper distance). The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light-years away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are 2 different things going on here. First gasses dissolved in a liquid. The ability of a normally gaseous substance to remain in a liquid is dependent on the kinetic energy. Remember that the equilibrium STRONGLY favors gasses staying gasses. At high temperatures, there is so much kinetic energy that gasses get the boot fairly quickly. \n\nIn solids dissolved in a liquid, it is about equilibrium... and it can go either way. Breaking solute-solute bonds releases energy. Forming solute-solvent bonds requires energy. Solute-Solute + solvent + heat1 < --- > solute-solvent + solute + heat 2. If heat2 > heat1, a high temperature will push the equilibrium back toward solute-solute (less soluble in solvent). That's rarely the case. \n\nNow make sure you don't get total solubility confused with dissolution RATE. The rate at which something dissolves is dependent on surface area of the solute and kinetic energy of the system. Think about cleaning a stain off of your counter. Which removes the stain faster: gentle scrubbing (low kinetic energy) or vigorous scrubbing (high kinetic energy). \n\nEdit: I just saw the link buried below. One of the plots shows the solubility of O2 and CO2 in water. CO2 is much higher than O2 (much higher than can be described by simple mass difference). One of the driving forces here is that CO2 has a permanent dipole (it is slightly charge - on the Os and + on the central C). Water and CO2 both being polar means that CO2 is being held in solution by the partial charges on the H2O. O2, on the other hand is a homonuclear diatom... which means any slight charge difference between the 2 Os of a molecule of O2 is very weak and transient... and this is that dreaded London dispersion force that my gen chem students always struggled to understand. That is caused by a slight imbalance between electrons and it quickly rights itself via electrostatic action.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Great question. Gas molecules tend to fly around and bump into each other. If you add heat to a gas, which is in a ballon, the volume of the balloon increases because gases expand when you heat them. As you add the heat, the gas molecules move faster and collide with more force. Solids, on the other hand, are in relatively fixed position.\n\nSay you have a pot of boiling water with the lid on, water molecules are constantly being shot out of the liquid and being shot back into it. The amount the leaves and enters depends on pressure, temperature, and volume of the container. The more heat inside the water, the faster the water molecules will shoot out.\n\nA hot gas in a liquid will have a lot of energy and be able to escape the liquid, but a colder gas will have less energy to escape and be more likely to remain in the liquid making it more soluble. \n\n\nThe atoms in solids are in fixed positions and bound together by either ionic or covalent bonding. Let's assume the liquid in this case is water and the dissolvable substance is salt, which has ionic bonds. When you had heat to water the molecules will move faster and with more energy. Water molecules with more kinetic energy will slam into salt particles with more energy which allows it to break apart the salt particles with more ease. Simply imagine throwing a baseball really fast, then really slow, at a LEGO structure. The faster you throw the baseball, the farther the LEGOs will fly. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The key here is that temperature is directly related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a system. \nConsider a nitrogen molecule in water. The nitrogen molecule is constantly moving around in the water, and as it passes water molecules, a dipole is induced and the two molecules attract. Now, at a low temperature, the molecule is overcome by the attractive forces and does not have the kinetic energy to escape the liquid. As the water is heated, the gas molecule gains energy. At some point this kinetic energy is greater than the attractive potential energy, and the molecule can escape the surface. If you continued to heat the solution, the water would eventually boil because the kinetic energy has overcome the potential energy of the hydrogen bonds in a similar fashion. \nThe solid situation is almost the exact opposite. Consider a sugar molecule in water. At cool temperatures, the sugar remains in its crystalline state. Each sugar molecule bonds uniformly with its neighbors to minimize energy, making it stable. Now as you heat the water, the sugar heats too(increasing in energy). This energy will eventually become equal to the energy of the bonds between sugar molecules and individual molecules will break away, disolving. Solvation and equilibria also play an important role here but I hope this is a decent \"short answer.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's most easily explained as an equilibrium question. You are attempting to equalize the energy state of both solute and solvent when you dissolve something. A gas must be cooled (energy state lowered) to find equilibrium with a liquid, and a solid must be heated (energy state increased). \nGas > Liquid > Solid, in terms of energy state.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Solids are generally more soluble in warmer liquids as explained by the other posters, but sometimes the opposite is true too. Calcium carbonate, which is the mineral calcite, is more soluble in cold water than warm water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The way I see it: a solution can come best out of two liquids,\n\nFor a solid to come close to becoming liquid you need to warm it\n\nFor a gas to come closer to liquid you need to cool it\n\nSo to me it makes perfect sense", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not seeing anything like correct answers but the solution to this eludes me at the moment. \n\nGas dissolves in cold liquids primarily because that provides more state spaces. Gibb's free energy is minimized and entropy delta are maximized by the gas dissolving. It doesn't dissolve in hot liquids primarily because other state spaces are available and are taken first. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When I first learned this, I remember finding it confusing too. But it makes sense when you learn that the math behind a solute isn't too different from the math behind the liquid phase. For a single molecule going from solid to liquid, you lose some enthalpy but gain some entropy. At higher temperatures this means you favor the liquid. For a single molecule going from solid to a solute, it also loses enthalpy but gains entropy. So again higher temperatures means you go into solution more easily. \n\nNow lets look at moving from gas to liquid. Here you gain enthalpy but lose entropy, so cold temperatures favor the liquid. And a molecule going from gas to solute works in roughly the same way. This means colder temperatures make it easier for gases to enter a liquid.\n\ntldr: CO2 has to do something like evaporation to leave the drink, which happens faster as it gets hotter. Salt hast to do something like melting to dissolve, which happens faster at higher temperatures.\n ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To really understand this you need to understand the general differences between physical states, what makes substances assume those states, and what it really means to dissolve something:\n\nSo the first thing we need is to get a picture of the typical state of a molecule in different states of matter. On a molecular scale you can think of a gas as a bunch of molecules flying all over the place, bumping into everything. This is why gasses fill their volume, and why they flow - because the molecules are shooting in every direction ridiculously fast, going *everywhere*. Liquids are like gasses in that the molecules are still moving around a lot, but they're not quite as crazy - they're not so much shooting past each other as sliding past each other, because they stick together. This is why a liquid flows, but doesn't necessarily fill the volume of its container. In solids the molecules don't appreciably move at all - they're more or less locked in place. This is why solids don't flow, and don't fill the volume of their container.\n\nSo why do substances occur in a given state? It has to do with how well the molecules of that substance interact with each other. These interactions are attractive, and serve to bind the molecules together. If they're extremely weak you get molecules that are barely held together at all and fly willy-nilly all over the place - a gas. If they're strong they make the molecules stick together, but still allow them to slide around - you have a liquid. If they're *really* strong they make the molecules stick together so strongly that they can't move around - that's a solid. These attractive forces compete against the natural thermal motion of molecules, which is why things tend to melt and eventually boil as you heat them - the forces are only so strong and can only constrain movement so much before the increased thermal motion 'wins'.\n\nSo now let's look at what it means to be dissolved:\n\nIf you have a solid sitting in a liquid, that means you have something that has relatively strong intramolecular forces sitting in something that has relatively weak intramolecular forces. It will often turn out that the liquid's interaction with the solid is more favorable than the liquid's interaction with itself, but it also often turns out that the liquid's interaction with the solid is *less* favorable than the solid's interaction with the solid. How soluble the solid is then, depends on the relative strengths of the interactions. You can think of it as the solids 'wanting' to be a part of the solid, but occasionally getting pulled away by the solvating liquid. Increasing the temperature makes the liquid molecules move faster, and all the extra moving and jostling around gives them more opportunities to occasionally peel a bit of solid off of the bulk mass. This shifts the equilibrium more towards a dissolved mixture.\n\nFor a gas dissolved in a liquid, the situation isn't quite the same. Although solvated gasses are typically slightly energetically stabilized by their interactions with the liquid solvent, there is a preference towards more chaotic arrangements. If a dissolved gas molecule can escape from its solution - it will. Just like always, there are two competing factors here. The interactions with the liquid keep the dissolved gas molecules held relatively tightly, and keep them in solution. The natural thermal motion of the dissolved gas works against those forces. If you heat the mixture the gas molecules have a more energetic movement which is more likely to 'break free' from the liquid - and then since chaotic arrangements are preferred and a gaseous state is *much* more chaotic than a dissolved liquid state, if a gas molecule manages to 'break free' it tends not to come back. So heating a dissolved gas helps that gas escape the mixture, and lowers its solubility.\n\nWhy don't dissolved solids 'escape' when the temperature rises? Because there's nowhere to 'escape' to. A substance that would otherwise be solid isn't going to escape as individual gas molecules - when the occasional dissolved molecule changes state it's going to go back to its highly-ordered solid state, where it will sit around waiting for more liquid molecules to bump into it in the right way to whisk it away again.\n\n** < TL;DR > ** Dissolved gasses are held in place by weak interactions with liquid solutes, which can be overcome by thermal motion. Adding heat makes it easier for the gasses to escape these interactions, and once they overcome these interactions they tend to stay in a gaseous state because nature tends towards chaotic states. Non-dissolved solids are held in place by strong interactions, and they will only dissolve into a liquid if the relatively weakly-interacting liquids can overcome the strong solid-solid interactions. Increasing the temperature increases the amount of interaction between the liquid and solid, allowing more solid to be dissolved.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple\n\nSolids need heat in order to break molecular bonds, which allows them to turn into ions and dissolve.\n\nGases dissolve in cold liquids better because warm liquid will have its molecules more excited, therefore moving faster and not being able to hold onto the dissolved gasses. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10915", "title": "Fluid", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 584, "text": "Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59497", "title": "Solubility", "section": "Section::::Factors affecting solubility.:Temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 237, "text": "Gaseous solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (to minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28729", "title": "Solution", "section": "Section::::Solubility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 418, "text": "Usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. However, most gases and some compounds exhibit solubilities that decrease with increased temperature. Such behavior is a result of an exothermic enthalpy of solution. Some surfactants exhibit this behaviour. The solubility of liquids in liquids is generally less temperature-sensitive than that of solids or gases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13036672", "title": "Miscibility", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 370, "text": "By contrast, substances are said to be immiscible if there are certain proportions in which the mixture does not form a solution. For example, oil is not soluble in water, so these two solvents are immiscible, while butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) is significantly soluble in water, these two solvents are also immiscible because they are not soluble in all proportions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1739001", "title": "Wetting", "section": "Section::::High-energy vs. low-energy surfaces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 454, "text": "The other type of solids is weak molecular crystals (e.g., fluorocarbons, hydrocarbons, etc.) where the molecules are held together essentially by physical forces (e.g., van der Waals and hydrogen bonds). Since these solids are held together by weak forces, a very low input of energy is required to break them, thus they are termed \"low energy\". Depending on the type of liquid chosen, low-energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1739001", "title": "Wetting", "section": "Section::::High-energy vs. low-energy surfaces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 706, "text": "Liquids can interact with two main types of solid surfaces. Traditionally, solid surfaces have been divided into high-energy solids and low-energy types. The relative energy of a solid has to do with the bulk nature of the solid itself. Solids such as metals, glasses, and ceramics are known as 'hard solids' because the chemical bonds that hold them together (e.g., covalent, ionic, or metallic) are very strong. Thus, it takes a large input of energy to break these solids (alternatively large amount of energy is required to cut the bulk and make two separate surfaces so high surface energy), so they are termed \"high energy\". Most molecular liquids achieve complete wetting with high-energy surfaces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24027000", "title": "Properties of water", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Polarity and hydrogen bonding.:Water as a solvent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 375, "text": "In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with non-polar molecules.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because most coffee you drink is hotter than room temperature, so in comparison to what you expect the coffee to feel like, a coffee at room temperature would feel cold.\n\nBut we usually drink milk from the refrigerator so when it's a room temperature it's hotter than what you expect.\n\nAnd the reason why coffee is usually hot is because you need hot water to properly get the favour out of the grains and the reason why milk is usually cold is because you can keep it longer that way.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Similarly, if you get a 60 degree day in March, it’s god damn summer time. If you get a 60 degree day in September, it’s sweatshirts and hot chocolate(north east US).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24044309", "title": "Sleep induction", "section": "Section::::Food and drink.:Warm milk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 419, "text": "A cup of warm milk or a milk-based drink is traditionally used for sleep induction. Hot chocolate is also a traditional bedtime drink but this contains high levels of xanthines (caffeine and theobromine), which are stimulants and therefore may be counterproductive. Also, a pinch of turmeric powder with warm milk reduces stress and induces sleep. The flavor of the milk can be improved by adding honey and/or vanilla.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1844136", "title": "Hong Kong-style milk tea", "section": "Section::::Criteria for quality milk tea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 250, "text": "Another criterion for tasty milk tea (and also bubble tea) is some white frothy residue inside the lip of the cup after some of it has been drunk. This white froth means that the concentration of butterfat in the evaporated milk used is high enough.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "427924", "title": "Condensed milk", "section": "Section::::Current use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 519, "text": "In parts of Asia and Europe, sweetened condensed milk is the preferred milk to be added to coffee or tea. Many countries in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, use condensed milk to flavor their hot or iced coffee. In Malaysia and Singapore, \"teh tarik\" is made from tea mixed with condensed milk, and condensed milk is an integral element in Hong Kong tea culture. In the Canary Islands, it is served as the bottom stripe in a glass of the local café cortado and, in Valencia, it is served as a café bombón.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21282070", "title": "Taste", "section": "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 407, "text": "Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26731675", "title": "Coffee extraction", "section": "Section::::Extraction yield.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 211, "text": "Transient temperature is not very significant: if coffee is heated to boiling point only very briefly, the taste will be little affected; the longer it is kept at a high temperature the worse the taste becomes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19619306", "title": "List of coffee drinks", "section": "Section::::Infused.:Cold brew.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 430, "text": "The water is normally kept at room temperature, but chilled water is also used. The grounds are filtered out of the water after they have been steeped using a paper coffee filter, a fine metal sieve, a French press, or felt, in the case of the \"Toddy\" brewing system. The result is a coffee concentrate that is diluted with water or milk, and is served hot, over ice, or blended with ice and other ingredients such as chocolate. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1646753", "title": "Iced coffee", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 534, "text": "Iced coffee is a type of coffee beverage served chilled, brewed variously with the fundamental division being cold brew – brewing the coffee cold, yielding a different flavour, and not requiring cooling – or brewing normally (hot) and then cooling, generally by simply pouring over ice or into ice cold milk. In hot brewing, sweeteners and flavourings are often mixed into the hot coffee before cooling, due to faster dissolution in hot water. Alternatively, syrup (sugar pre-dissolved in water) may be used, particularly gum syrup. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One thing to keep in mind is that administrative boundaries work differently in China than in the United States. Municipal administrative units usually include most of the suburbs of a city, and some of the outlying rural areas as well. The most extreme example of this is Chongqing which is the size of South Carolina in order to put the Three Gorges Dam into the Chongqing urban area. However, even other Chinese municipal areas are much larger than their American counterparts.\n\nIn fact, the Chinese government is actively trying to keep it's cities small. Engels had strong views about vast urban agglomeration, and much of Chinese policies, from it's investments in intercity high speed rail, and the operation of the household registration system is designed to keep cities from getting too big. The success in this is mixed at best. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10443808", "title": "Society of the Song dynasty", "section": "Section::::Urban life.:Urban growth and management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 2252, "text": "Chinese cities of the Song period became some of the largest in the world, owing to technological advances and an agricultural revolution. Kaifeng, which served as the capital and seat of government during the Northern Song (960–1127), had some half a million residents in 1021, with another half-million living in the city's nine designated suburbs. By 1100, the civilian population within the city walls was 1,050,000; the army stationed there brought the total to 1.4 million. Hangzhou, the capital during the Southern Song (1127–1279), had more than 400,000 inhabitants during the late 12th century, primarily due to its trading position at the southern terminus of the Grand Canal, known as the lower Yangzi's \"grain basket.\" During the 13th century, the city's population soared to approximately a million people, with the 1270 census counting 186,330 registered families living in the city. Although not as agriculturally rich as areas like western Sichuan, the region of Fujian also underwent a massive population growth; government records indicate a 1500% increase in the number of registered households from the years 742 to 1208. With a thriving shipbuilding industry and new mining facilities, Fujian became the economic powerhouse of China during the Song period. The great seaport of China, Quanzhou, was located in Fujian, and by 1120 its governor claimed that the city's population had reached some 500,000. The inland Fujianese city of Jiankang was also very large at this time, with a population of about 200,000. Robert Hartwell states that from 742 to 1200 the population growth of North China increased by only 54% percent in comparison to the Southeast which grew by 695%, the middle Yangzi Valley by 483%, the Lingnan region by 150%, and the upper Yangzi Valley by 135%. From the 8th to 11th centuries the lower Yangzi Valley experienced modest population growth in comparison to other regions of South China. The shift of the capital to Hangzhou did not create an immediate dramatic change in population growth until the period from 1170 to 1225, when new polders allowed land reclamation for nearly all the arable land between Lake Tai and the East China Sea as well as the mouth of the Yangzi to the northern Zhejiang coast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13630888", "title": "Urbanization in China", "section": "Section::::Modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 265, "text": "In 2005, China had 286 cities. Most of China's cities have a population of one million and below. Shanghai is the largest city in China, with a population of 19 million, followed by Beijing with a population of 17.4 million. These are the two mega-cities in China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13630888", "title": "Urbanization in China", "section": "Section::::Modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 896, "text": "Although country urban population—382 million, or 37 percent of the total population in the mid-1980s—was relatively low by comparison with developed nations, the number of people living in urban areas in China was greater than the total population of any country in the world except India. The four Chinese cities with the largest populations in 1985 were Shanghai, with 7 million; Beijing, with 5.9 million; Tianjin, with 5.4 million; and Shenyang, with 4.2 million. The disproportionate distribution of population in large cities occurred as a result of the government's emphasis after 1949 on the development of large cities over smaller urban areas. In 1985 the 22 most populous cities in China had a total population of 47.5 million, or about 12 percent of China's total urban population. The number of cities with populations of at least 100,000 increased from 200 in 1976 to 342 in 1986.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "788662", "title": "Northeast China", "section": "Section::::Economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 745, "text": "The region is, on the whole, more heavily urbanised than most parts of China, largely because it was the first part of the country to develop heavy industry owing to its abundant coal reserves. Major cities include Shenyang, Dalian, Harbin, Changchun and Anshan, all with several million inhabitants. Other cities include the steel making centres of Fushun and Anshan in Liaoning, Jilin City in Jilin, and Qiqihar and Mudanjiang in Heilongjiang. Harbin, more than any other city in China, possesses significant Russian influences: there are many Orthodox churches that have fallen out of use since the Cultural Revolution. Shenyang and Dalian, meanwhile, have sizable populations of Japanese and South Koreans due to their traditional linkages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6934277", "title": "History of Beijing", "section": "Section::::Liao, Song and Jin dynasties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 284, "text": "Though Beijing was but a peripheral city to Chinese dynasties centered in Luoyang and Xi'an, it was an important entryway into China for tribal peoples to the north. The city's stature grew from the 10th century with successive invasions of China by the Khitan, Jurchen, and Mongols.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21478413", "title": "Economic history of China before 1912", "section": "Section::::Pre-imperial era.:Spring and Autumn period (771–475 ).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 489, "text": "During the Spring and Autumn period, many cities grew in size and population. Linzi, the prosperous capital of Qi, had a population estimated at over 200,000 in 650 , making it one of the largest cities in the world. Alongside other large cities, Linzi served as a centre of administration, trade, and economic activity. Most of the cities' people engaged in husbandry and were thus self-sufficient. The growth of these cities was an important development for the ancient Chinese economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5361005", "title": "List of cities in China by population", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 332, "text": "China is the world's most populous country, and its largest city, Shanghai, is the largest city proper in the world, with a population of 26.3 million as of 2019. According to the Demographic research group in 2017, there are 102 Chinese cities with over 1 million people in the \"urban area\", as defined by the group's methodology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I’m not sure there is really a correlation there. More likely people already predisposed to some kind of mental health problem can be affected by viewing violence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It doesn't, slightly surprisingly. There is no correlation between the media you consume and mental health conditions.\n\nSome mental health conditions can change your interests so you watch more violent media (or sexual media, or indeed musical theatre - mental health is not exactly explicable). Media can't change your mental health. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It doesn't. This is merely an adjunct myth to a bigger myth: \"Violent video games cause people to be violent.\"\n\nIt's total BS.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13995904", "title": "Social aspects of television", "section": "Section::::Negative effects.:Alleged dangers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 528, "text": "On July 26, 2000 the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry stated that \"prolonged viewing of media violence can lead to emotional desensitization toward violence in real life.\" However, scholars have since analyzed several statements in this release, both about the number of studies conducted, and a comparison with medical effects, and found many errors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5270402", "title": "Deinstitutionalisation", "section": "Section::::Consequences.:Misconceptions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 467, "text": "Findings on violence committed by those with mental disorders in the community have been inconsistent and related to numerous factors; a higher rate of more serious offences such as homicide have sometimes been found but, despite high-profile homicide cases, the evidence suggests this has not been increased by deinstitutionalisation. The aggression and violence that does occur, in either direction, is usually within family settings rather than between strangers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49122154", "title": "Jeffrey Swanson", "section": "Section::::Views.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 404, "text": "Shortly after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, Swanson told the \"New York Times\" that \"Psychiatrists, using clinical judgment, are not much better than chance at predicting which individual patients will do something violent and which will not.” The following January, he told the \"Washington Post\" that “there’s a modest relative risk” for violence among people with a serious mental illness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4190878", "title": "Research on the effects of violence in mass media", "section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 645, "text": "BULLET::::5. \"Failure to account for \"third\" variables.\" Some scholars contend that media violence studies regularly fail to account for other variables such as genetics, personality and exposure to family violence that may explain both why some people become violent and why those same people may choose to expose themselves to violent media. Several recent studies have found that, when factors such as mental health, family environment and personality are controlled, no predictive relationship between either video games or television violence and youth violence remain (Ferguson, San Miguel & Hartley, 2009; Ybarra et al., 2008, Figure 2).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19356", "title": "Mental disorder", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Perception and discrimination.:Violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 169, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 169, "end_character": 716, "text": "Despite public or media opinion, national studies have indicated that severe mental illness does not independently predict future violent behavior, on average, and is not a leading cause of violence in society. There is a statistical association with various factors that do relate to violence (in anyone), such as substance abuse and various personal, social and economic factors. A 2015 review found that in the United States, about 4% of violence is attributable to people diagnosed with mental illness, and a 2014 study found that 7.5% of crimes committed by mentally ill people were directly related to the symptoms of their mental illness. The majority of people with serious mental illness are never violent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9629286", "title": "Desensitization (psychology)", "section": "Section::::Effects on violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 886, "text": "It is hypothesized that initial exposure to violence in the media may produce a number of aversive responses such as increased heart rate, fear, discomfort, perspiration and disgust. However, prolonged and repeated exposure to violence in the media may reduce or habituate the initial psychological impact until violent images do not elicit these negative responses. Eventually the observer may become emotionally and cognitively desensitized to media violence. In one experiment, participants who played violent video games showed lower heart rate and galvanic skin response readings, which the authors interpreted as displaying a physiological desensitization to violence. However, other studies have failed to replicate this finding. Some scholars have questioned whether becoming desensitized to media violence specifically transfers to becoming desensitized to real-life violence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59628", "title": "School shooting", "section": "Section::::Profiling.:Mental illness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1028, "text": "Although the vast majority of mentally ill individuals are non-violent, some evidence has suggested that mental illness or mental health symptoms are nearly universal among school shooters. A 2002 report by the US Secret Service and US Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available. Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems. However, they note that attempting to \"profile\" school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The [Congressional Research Service](_URL_3_) investigated whether inconsistent recording of births could be the cause of our bad infant mortality rates (IMR) and found that it does not ~~really affect~~ fully explain the results. (There is some effect from the inconsistent recording, but it isn't significant to explain the large gap).\n\nWe also have one of the lowest life expectancies of any developed nations and there isn't really any controversy about that statistic. The most likely reason is because we have a poor health care system. High infant mortality is most likely caused by the same thing.\n\nOne interesting thing to look at is the IMR of people with different health care plans. \"Researchers have found that IMRs are the lowest for infants born to women enrolled in private insurance, that IMRs are higher for women enrolled in Medicaid, and that IMRs are highest for infants born to women who were uninsured.\"\n\nSo basically it is probably safe to say that the primary reason that our IMR is worse than most other countries is that we don't provide very good health care to our citizens.\n\nLinks:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nTL;DR Poor health care causes the US to have some of the worst performance in almost every health metric. It is not because we are recording live births differently.\n\nEDIT: Changed a misleading paraphrase. Thanks to /u/ruotwocone for pointing that out.\n\nEDIT 2: I'd also like to point out that the issue of racial diversity was examined by the same CRS study and also found it to not be a particularly significant factor. Included a CDC link with essentially the same findings.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a number of intersecting reasons:\n\n1. Reporting differences *are* a factor. Some countries do not count every infant born alive in the calculations. In particular, [many European countries do not count extremely premature infants \\( < 22 weeks\\) in their infant mortality calculations](_URL_1_), while the US counts all infants born with any sign of life. These reporting differences are becoming less of a factor as countries adopt uniform standards.\n2. An[ increasing number of pre-term deliveries in the United States](_URL_2_); from 2000-2006, premature births in the US increased 10%. For a variety of reasons, more babies are born prematurely in the US; premature babies are more likely on average to die before 1 year of age.\n3. A larger percentage of the US population are disadvantaged minorities than in other Western Nations; in particular the US has a very large African-American population. [The mortality rate for African-American infants is much higher than for European-Americans.](_URL_0_) I won't go into all the causes here, which are sadly obvious to most of us by now. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you enjoy examining the correlations between socioeconomic differences and health, I recommend \n[\"How We Do Harm\"](_URL_0_) by Otis Webb Brawley, and Paul Goldberg.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm a resident in obstetrics and gynecology. This is where I'm coming from and I recognize that I'm probably biased. In my opinion, it is a complicated issue and people can make statistics say nearly anything. I feel like there are several reasons for this.\n\nFirst off, anyone including illegal immigrants are covered by insurance, at least in my State, Oklahoma. This is because their babies will be US citizens. They are covered by Medicaid. In Oklahoma our State Medicaid program is called Soonercare, and pregnant women who are not citizens are covered by Soon to be Sooners, or their unborn babies are. (this actually saves money because otherwise they'd get no prenatal care and this prevents complications and saves money. Otherwise their US citizen babies would be born overall in worse health and incur a lot more cost than providing prenatal care) So at the least everyone who is pregnant has some insurance. The main difference is Soon to be Sooners drops off after the birth and I believe covers less things (like dental care) while the woman is pregnant, but if you are a US citizen you have full Medicaid and have coverage for an additional 6 weeks afterwards. Thus, I don't feel like having or not having insurance is the biggest issue. Not saying this is true all of the time, but people with private insurance tend to care more about their health and about their children's health. They seem to have more planned pregnancies and thus fewer complications. They seem to care more and are more concerned with their health. That being said, the immigrants (with the bottom of the line medicaid) that I take care of are some of my favorite/most compliant patients. They are actually the most normal and seem to care the most. Here are what I feel like might be major contributing reasons.\n\n1. Obesity: no doubt this is a huge issue. I feel like it is the number one reason our medical system gets such a bad rap. It is so horrible for your health. Practically a third of American's are obese. It is an enormous risk factor for major complications in pregnancy. Preeclampsia (a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy), gestational diabetes/fetal macrosomia (large birthweight)/shoulder dystocia, and difficult labor/arrest of labor/need for c-section (which is so hard to do in someone who is obese). To illustrate this, we can get a baby out from cut time to cord clamp time in 1 minute in a normal primary c-section in case of emergency. On the flip side, the largest pt I've done a c-section on had a BMI of 88. We pushed for an hour trying to have a vaginal delivery with 5-6 nurses retracting her panniculus before we called the c-section. It took anesthesia an hour to do an awake sitting up intubation because the pt. couldn't breath laying flat without her cpap, and thus couldn't tolerate regional anesthesia (spinal) and was too large for a needle to reach to her epidural or intrathecal space of her spine. It took us another hour to cut down to the uterus and try and deliver the infant. It was so difficult a surgery we couldn't even start to be concerned for trying to go fast because of the risk to the patient herself. I'm not sure how the infant did long term, but the NICU team was there for resuscitation/initial care. Obesity is so common, we don't even notice or make a big deal out of it until a patient's BMI is > 40 or 45. BMI's greater than 30 are so common place they are normal. It takes so long, and is so frustrating trying to counsel people to lose weight that most physicians can't/don't do it. I say that as I have tried spending 15 mins just talking about diet with patient's and it's so frustrating seeing them week after week in their pregnancy and they just keep gaining weight/don't care. I know you can kick obesity back and say it is an issue with our health care system, but I think it has become more an issue with our culture. \n\n2. Opposition to abortions (especially of fetuses with birth defects): in Europe, I know something like in the 90%tile of fetuses with Trimsomy 21 (Down Syndrome) are terminated. This is much lower in the US, at least in conservative states. Not an advocate for abortions, but we keep a lot of people pregnant for this moral reason who most likely are aborted around 18-20 weeks in other countries during the first anatomy scan. It's actually crazy the extent some people will go to try and save their babies who have terminal conditions. I can't imagine it is like to have to go through something like that, losing a baby, but a lot of patients will ask for heroic measures and do everything they can to try and keep them alive as possible or be born as late as possible.\n\n3. Not 100% sure on this one, but I have heard that in the United States, viability or our cutoff for what is considered infant mortality is 20 weeks, compared to 22-24 weeks gestational age in other countries. A fetus has little chance of surviving if being born < 24-25 weeks. So there is this month period where there is no hope of saving them. \n\n4. Poor utilization of contraception: not sure on the statistics for other countries, but we have an attending who give a lecture to every group of rotating medical students. He quotes 50% of pregnancies in the US are unintended. These non planned pregnancies can have worse outcomes based on mothers drinking alcohol before they know they are pregnant or not taking appropriate prenatal vitamins.\n\n5. Maternal Drug Use: Not saying this isn't an issue in other countries, but this is a huge contributor to infant and maternal deaths. Two thirds of the maternal deaths that occurred at our large teaching hospital last year that I am aware of were the result of maternal drug use. Methamphetamine. I have seen multiple instances of maternal drug use leading to fetal death. I specifically recall a 26 week gestational age fetus whose heart rate I watch tank on our monitors, went back for a crash c-section, and die due to placental abruption (separating from uterus early) due to maternal cocaine use. It is crazy what people will do to themselves and their unborn children due to addiction. \n\nI do nothing but take care of patients who are \"disadvantaged.\" Some people make it so frustrating. They literally are receiving free medical care and we try so hard, but they are so noncompliant or apathetic that it can be very disheartening. They will come in with all these crazy complications and comorbidities a few weeks before they are due, (hard to say when you only have their word for dating because ultrasounds have a margin of error for dating of 3 weeks after 24 weeks gestational age. It's just crazy. \n\nSorry if this seems like rambling or anecdotal, but it is something that I feel strongly about. I truly take pride in caring for my patients and try my best. I know anti-American sentiment is popular on this website and that it is popular to be down on our healthcare in general. In the United States, you can get the best medical attention in the world. I know there are lots of issues with access and expense and waste, but if you truly care about your health and have private health insurance you can get better care here than anywhere else. Not saying that it always happens or that this is fair, but what I am saying is that someone with private insurance who goes to a good doctor and takes care of herself/is compliant most likely has a lower infant mortality rate than the rest of the Western countries. Maybe there is a study on this, but I am unaware of it and am too tired to research it right now. And, I know this is different than having the best health care system. There are a lot of things that contribute to this problem of infant mortality, but access to our healthcare system or \"not having insurance\" is not one of them for any pregnant lady in the US. All pregnant women can get access here. I think that if anything, this illustrates that universal access isn't going to fix everything. I have my own model to fix or let everyone have access to healthcare, but I have rambled along long enough. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "there is a significant contribution from the way that infant mortality is defined. these are some excerpts from the wikipedia article on the topic:\n\n\"The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a live birth as any born human being who demonstrates independent signs of life, including breathing, voluntary muscle movement, or heartbeat. Many countries, however, including certain European states and Japan, only count as live births cases where an infant breathes at birth, which makes their reported IMR numbers somewhat lower and raises their rates of perinatal mortality.[24] In Germany and Australia, requirements for live birth are even higher.[25][26]\"\n\n\"The exclusion of any high-risk infants from the denominator or numerator in reported IMRs can be problematic for comparisons. Many countries, including the United States, Sweden and Germany, count an infant exhibiting any sign of life as alive, no matter the month of gestation or the size, but according to United States some other countries differ in these practices. All of the countries named adopted the WHO definitions in the late 1980s or early 1990s,[32] which are used throughout the European Union.[33] However, in 2009, the US CDC issued a report that stated that the American rates of infant mortality were affected by the United States' high rates of premature babies compared to European countries. It also outlined the differences in reporting requirements between the United States and Europe, noting that France, the Czech Republic, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Poland do not report all live births of babies under 500 g and/or 22 weeks of gestation.[34][35][dead link][36] The report concluded, however, that the differences in reporting are unlikely to be the primary explanation for the United States’ relatively low international ranking.[36]\"\n\nin other words, if you're born in some countries at 22-24 weeks (which have the highest rates of mortality) and show no respiratory efforts, you don't count toward their infant mortality rate. in the USA, these are counted and may falsely make it seem that other countries have much lower infant mortality rates, though this is likely not the only reason. access to care or lack thereof is likely another contributor", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, a large part of this that there are no global standards for how to report infant mortality. For example, France and the Netherlands only report on births > 22 weeks of gestation, and the Czech Republic and Poland base their data on certain weight restrictions ( > 500g). The US on the other hand, reports data based on all live births, regardless of gestational age or birth weight. This of course is in addition to our high rate of preterm births.\n\nSource: I'm a pediatrician\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Illinois found that it, specifically Cook County/Chicago, had one of the worst infant mortality rates in the nation. Especially with as many hospitals are available in Chicago, that's a bit of a shock. \n\nA study done by the state found several things led to that high figure but mostly women were not taking care themselves both leading up to and during the pregnancy, saying cost of services was a major factor. They also found that a large majority of these dying babies were the result of unintended pregnancies. \n\nTo combat the problem, they created the Illinois Healthy Women program. The \"Pink Card\" allowed low income women to get family planning and sexual health services at no cost to them. Not only was Planned Parenthood of Illinois a provider, but several private practices also opened their doors to women on this plan. The Pink Card didn't just get you free birth control pills, it also took care of your yearly exams and any treatment for problems found during the exams including breast issues. \n\n If you didn't want to have a baby, they did everything to not only keep you from having one but they also did everything to make sure your body was healthy when you decided to have one. If you were planning on having a baby, they not only would take care of your body but they also would put you in touch with any of the social service providers that would be able to help with WIC and things like that. \n\nI don't know that they've completed the numbers on what that program was able to do in dropping the mortality rate, but its interesting to find what they discovered to be the problem. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "At the most basic level, it comes down to birth weight and gestational period. [Lower birth weight and shorter gestational period means higher likelihood of infant death](_URL_0_) (US CDC).\n\nFactors affecting gestational period and birth weight are many, including everything from age (teenagers and very old women--those over 45--are more likely to pre-term birth) to socioeconomic status to nutrition to environment. Poor people are less likely to get proper nutrition during pregnancy (even the fat ones), which means smaller babies born earlier. And you have to consider smoking and use of other substances.\n\nUnhealthy babies are less likely to survive. Whether or not these are reported as \"live births\" is another factor. International comparisons in health areas are actually hard to do as the standards for reporting data are usually not the same. Nor are behaviors across cultures. A higher teen pregnancy rate in other countries or increase in planned pre-term births, for example, would likely have an adverse effect on infant mortality.\n\nNot only factor, but it is a big one.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A factor that hasn't been fully considered is we also have one of the highest rates of medical interventions in hospital births. While medical interventions are necessary in many cases, it saves lives in only 2% of cases. A good documentary that highlights some of this is the Business of Being Born. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I remember listening to an [Econ Talk](_URL_0_) where this was addressed. I wish I remember which one so I could link to it.\n\n1. Different nations measure infant mortality differently. US' measures create a higher rate in equal situations.\n2. In vitro fertilization is much higher in US and carries more risk.\n3. Women in US are more likely to carry trouble pregnancies instead of aborting.\n4. Pregnant women residing in US illegally are less likely to seek healthcare out of fear of deportation.\n\nWhen these factors were neutralized, the US had the lowest infant mortality rate on the globe. If I can dig up the podcast, I'll add the link.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How consistent is the definition of a live birth across the world?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "71617", "title": "Infant mortality", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 118, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 118, "end_character": 1333, "text": "In the 1850s, the infant mortality rate in the United States was estimated at 216.8 per 1,000 babies born for whites and 340.0 per 1,000 for African Americans, but rates have significantly declined in the West in modern times. This declining rate has been mainly due to modern improvements in basic health care, technology, and medical advances. In the last century, the infant mortality rate has decreased by 93%. Overall, the rates have decreased drastically from 20 deaths in 1970 to 6.9 deaths in 2003 (per every 1000 live births). In 2003, the leading causes of infant mortality in the United States were congenital anomalies, disorders related to immaturity, SIDS, and maternal complications. Babies born with low birth weight increased to 8.1% while cigarette smoking during pregnancy declined to 10.2%. This reflected the amount of low birth weights concluding that 12.4% of births from smokers were low birth weights compared with 7.7% of such births from non-smokers. According to the \"New York Times\", \"the main reason for the high rate is preterm delivery, and there was a 10% increase in such births from 2000 to 2006.\" Between 2007 and 2011, however, the preterm birth rate has decreased every year. In 2011 there was an 11.73% rate of babies born before the 37th week of gestation, down from a high of 12.80% in 2006.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71617", "title": "Infant mortality", "section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 734, "text": "Although the overall infant mortality rate was sharply dropping during this time, within the United States infant mortality varied greatly among racial and socio-economic groups. The change in infant mortality from 1915 to 1933 was, for the white population, 98.6 in 1,000 to 52.8 in 1,000, and for the black population, 181.2 in 1,000 to 94.4 in 1,000. Studies imply that this has a direct correlation with relative economic conditions between these populations. Additionally, infant mortality in southern states was consistently 2% higher than other states in the US across a 20-year period from 1985. Southern states also tend to perform worse in predictors for higher infant mortality, such as per capita income and poverty rate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38600542", "title": "History of medicine in the United States", "section": "Section::::Infant mortality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 468, "text": "Infant mortality was the major component of life expectancy. Infant mortality was lower in America compared to other parts of the world because of better nutrition. The rates were higher in urban areas, and in Massachusetts statewide the rates increased as the state urbanized. Public health provisions involving sanitation, water supplies, and control of tuberculosis started showing effects by 1900. Public health conditions were worse in the South until the 1950s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71617", "title": "Infant mortality", "section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 340, "text": "In the decades following the 1970s, the United States' decreasing infant mortality rates began to slow, falling behind China's, Cuba's, and other developed countries'. Funding for the federally subsidized Medicaid and Maternal and Infant Care was sharply reduced, and availability of prenatal care greatly decreased for low-income parents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71617", "title": "Infant mortality", "section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 851, "text": "In the United States, improving infant mortality in the early half of the 20th century meant tackling environmental factors. Improving sanitation, and especially access to safe drinking water, helped the United States dramatically decrease infant mortality, a growing concern in the United States since the 1850s. On top of these environmental factors, during this time the United States endeavored to increase education and awareness regarding infant mortality. Pasteurization of milk also helped the United States combat infant mortality in the early 1900s, a practice which allowed the United States to curb disease in infants. These factors, on top of a general increase in the standard of living for those living in urban settings, helped the United States make dramatic improvements in their rates of infant mortality in the early 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54694072", "title": "Maternal mortality in the United States", "section": "Section::::Comparisons with other countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 1264, "text": "In the 1950s, the maternal mortality rate in the United Kingdom and the United States was the same—1 in 1000 pregnant and new mothers died. By 2018, the rate in the UK was three times lower than in the United States, due to implementing a standardized protocol. In 2010, Amnesty International published a 154-page report on maternal mortality in the United States. In 2011, the United Nations described maternal mortality as a human rights issue at the forefront of American healthcare, as the mortality rates worsened over the years. According to a 2015 WHO report, in the United States the MMR between 1990 and 2013 \"more than doubled from an estimated 12 to 28 maternal deaths per 100,000 births.\" By 2015, the United States had a higher MMR than the \"Islamic Republic of Iran, Libya and Turkey\". In the 2017 NPR and ProPublica series \"Lost Mothers: Maternal Mortality in the U.S.\" based on a six-month long collaborative investigation, they reported that the United States has the highest rate of maternal mortality than any other developed country, and it is the only country where mortality rate has been rising. The maternal mortality rate in the United States is three times higher than that in neighboring Canada and six times higher than in Scandinavia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71617", "title": "Infant mortality", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 133, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 133, "end_character": 938, "text": "It was in the early 1900s that countries around the world started to notice that there was a need for better child health care services. Europe started this rally, the United States fell behind them by creating a campaign to decrease the infant mortality rate. With this program, they were able to lower the IMR to 10 deaths rather than 100 deaths per every 1000 births. Infant mortality was also seen as a social problem when it was being noticed as a national problem. American women who had middle class standing with an educational background started to create a movement that provided housing for families of a lower class. By starting this, they were able to establish public health care and government agencies that were able to make more sanitary and healthier environments for infants. Medical professionals helped further the cause for infant health by creating a pediatrics field that was experienced in medicine for children.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Purely anecdotal\n\nSpeaking to Australian Vietnam vets, many were denied admission to their local RSL's, many were told Vietnam 'wasn't a real war' by WW2 vets, and that the strongest condemnation they received was from veterans. I wish I had a source other than anecdote; these were guys from RSL's who came to talk to my class, so I'm inclined to believe them. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think your question might be a little too broad, veterans made up a pretty diverse cross section of society so its likely their views would reflect and change with society as a whole.\n\nIf anything, I'd imagine that American WWII veterans would follow the same trend as the American public during the Vietnam war. Namely, initial support followed by a growing recognition that the war was unwinnable. From the American perspective as well, domestic politics became intertwined with foreign affairs and being anti-Vietnam, at least initially, was associated with hippies, communism, and cowardice. \n\nThis is the extent of my knowledge on the topic but if you'd like to learn more about American attitudes towards Vietnam I'd recommend checking out *Nixonland* by Rick Perlstein.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My Grandfather fought in the Pacific and thought that the Vietnam war was incredibly important. Meanwhile, his sons dodged the draft by staying in college, and argued to him that the Soviet Union would collapse without US intervention.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is purely anecdotal, but my grandfather came out of WWII with strong pacifist views. When my uncle was graduating high school and eligible for the draft, there was some talk of sending him to college in Canada. That didn't become necessary, because US troops pulled out of South Vietnam around that time. \nSo, according to my mom and my uncle, he didn't believe in the Vietnam war or think it had a good purpose.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't have a good answer, but my grandfather was in the Army (he was a paratrooper) during WWII. He enlisted in the air force during the Korean War, though he never went overseas during that time. He did meet my grandma during that time. I would imagine he wouldn't have re-enlisted if he didn't support it to some degree, but what do I know?\n\nI'd ask him about this question, but I never got to meet him since he died when my dad was about twenty. It's really unfortunate because he never really told anyone much about his experiences, like a lot of veterans of that period. We found out bits and pieces from guys he was in the army with, which was interesting, but most have passed away at this point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5777566", "title": "Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War", "section": "Section::::Social attitudes and treatment of veterans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 998, "text": "As well as the negative sentiments towards returned soldiers from some sections of the anti-war movement, some Second World War veterans also held negative views of the Vietnam War veterans. As a result, many Australian Vietnam veterans were excluded from joining the Returned Servicemen's League (RSL) during the 1960s and 1970s on the grounds that the Vietnam War veterans did not fight a \"real war\". The response of the RSL varied across the country, and while some rejected Vietnam veterans, other branches, particularly those in rural areas, were said to be very supportive. Many Vietnam veterans were excluded from marching in Anzac Day parades during the 1970s because some soldiers of earlier wars saw the Vietnam veterans as unworthy heirs to the ANZAC title and tradition, a view that hurt many Vietnam veterans and resulted in continued resentment towards the RSL. In 1972 the RSL decided that Vietnam veterans should lead the march, which attracted large crowds throughout the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32594", "title": "Vietnam veteran", "section": "Section::::Stereotypes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 270, "text": "There are persistent stereotypes about Vietnam veterans as psychologically devastated, bitter, homeless, drug-addicted people, who had a hard time readjusting to society, primarily because of the uniquely divisive nature of the Vietnam War in the context of US history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43931503", "title": "Homecoming: When the Soldiers Returned from Vietnam", "section": "Section::::Genesis of the book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 679, "text": "One of the contentious issues of the Vietnam War and its aftermath was the American public's response to its returning military veterans. Even as the citizenry's opposition to the war mounted, tales began to spread of returning veterans being mistreated. The archetypical story became one of antiwar hippie protesters spitting upon returning veterans in an airport. Twelve years after the Vietnam War ended, on 20 July 1987, syndicated columnist Bob Greene of the \"Chicago Tribune\" proposed testing the truth of what he considered an urban legend. The headline of his column, syndicated in 200 papers, asked: \"\"If You're A Veteran, Were You Spat Upon?\"\" As he wrote in the text:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2943008", "title": "Social alienation", "section": "Section::::Among returning war veterans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 1210, "text": "The experience of the Vietnam veteran was distinctly different from that of veterans of other American wars. Once he completed his tour of duty, he usually severed all bonds with his unit and comrades. It was extremely rare for a veteran to write to his buddies who were still in combat, and (in strong contrast to the endless reunions of World War II veterans) for more than a decade it was even rarer for more than two or more of them to get together after the war. Korean War veterans had no memorial and precious few parades, but they fought an invading army and experienced a sense of resolution and accomplishment. The Vietnam War was a long, contentious conflict (1955–75) which in the mid to late 1960s started to lose political and domestic support, most notably in academia and film that often portrayed soldiers of this conflict as ignoble adding to their social alienation. That the Vietnam War was ultimately lost on April 30, 1975, furthered the sense of meaninglessness and malaise. It has been demonstrated that as the perception of community alienation increases, an individual's sense of confidence or mastery in decision making will decrease, and so too their motivation to socially engage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32594", "title": "Vietnam veteran", "section": "Section::::Stereotypes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 471, "text": "That social division has expressed itself by the lack both of public and institutional support for the former servicemen that would be expected by returning combatants of most conflicts in most nations. In a material sense also, veterans' benefits for Vietnam era veterans were dramatically less than those enjoyed after World War II. The Vietnam Era Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974, as amended, , was meant to try to help the veterans overcome the issues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50225228", "title": "Lydia (play)", "section": "Section::::Background of Setting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 359, "text": "At the same time, the Vietnam War was becoming an ever-bigger catalyst for anti-war sentiment in the United States, and it became evident that most war casualties came from the working class. Chicano youth in the movement viewed this from a racial perspective, arguing that the Mexican-Americans and other minorities were carrying the main burden of the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54018381", "title": "The Vietnam War (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 579, "text": "The San Jose \"Mercury News\" writer Tatiana Sanchez reported that some American and South Vietnamese veterans were \"angry, [and] disappointed\" with the documentary. They characterized it as a \"betrayal\". She writes: \"veterans of the South Vietnamese military say they were largely left out of the narrative, their voices drowned out by the film’s focus on North Vietnam and its communist leader, Ho Chi Minh. And many American veterans say that the series had several glaring omissions and focused too much on leftist anti-war protesters and soldiers who came to oppose the war.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Couple of reasons, since the invasion of the USSR in 1941 German treatment of Soviet prisoners had been horrendous, kept in wire enclosures until they starved, succumbed to disease, or were simply summarily executed (among the first victims gassed at Auschwitz were Russian PoWs). With no quarter given on the Eastern Front it could hardly be asked. Wehrmacht soldiers rightly feared Russian vengeance, after what had been done in the occupied territories of the USSR, and knew that capture would mean heading for forced labor in Siberian gulags, if they were not shot out of hand. Many, if they survived, weren't released until the '50s.\n\nTreatment of PoWs from the western allies was - comparatively speaking - much better, as was their treatment of German PoWs, although there were incidents of brutality on both sides they nominally adhered to the Geneva Conventions on treatment of PoWs (to which the USSR was not a signatory). A commander of the [352nd Volksgrenadier](_URL_0_) wrote to the families of six men MIA, *\"The Americans opposite us have been fighting fairly, they have treated German prisoners well and fed them. If your husband is a PoW, you will probably receive news of him through the Red Cross.\"* It got him in trouble with the party for suggesting that captivity was a tolerable state.\nCompare this to the Eastern Front, where the wretched prisoners taken by the Red Army were known as *Stalinpferd*, a Stalin horse.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The western Allies treated the surrendering forces MUCH better than the Soviets did. Surrendering to the Soviet forces meant years spent in Siberian prison camps and many German soldiers died before they got back to Germany 5-10 years later. They knew the Americans and British would put them in a decent camp, treat them well (remember many German prisoners had more privileges than African American soldiers) and the vast majority were released within weeks or months of the war being completed. Americans especially had a tendency to view Germans as the most \"American like\" of the enemies they faced during the war. So basically, better treatment, shorter time in \"prison\", and a less likely chance of dying.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "415242", "title": "Unconditional surrender", "section": "Section::::Examples.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 396, "text": "One reason for the policy was that the Allies wished to avoid a repetition of the stab-in-the-back myth that arose in Germany after World War I, which attributed Germany's loss to betrayal by Jews, Bolsheviks, and Socialists. The myth was used by the Nazis in their propaganda. It was felt that an unconditional surrender would ensure that the Germans knew that they had lost the war themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1359006", "title": "1st Belorussian Front", "section": "Section::::Post-war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 232, "text": "On 8 May, after a signing ceremony in Berlin, the German armed forces surrendered to the Allies unconditionally and the war in Europe was over. Following the war, the Front headquarters formed the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1020992", "title": "Bleiburg repatriations", "section": "Section::::Axis retreat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1079, "text": "On 7 May 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally to the Allied powers, marking the practical end of World War II in Europe. The German Instrument of Surrender applied to German Wehrmacht forces in Yugoslavia, as well as other armed forces under German control, such as the Croatian Armed Forces. This would ordinarily have meant that they too had to cease their activities on 8 May and stay where they found themselves. The military of NDH, however, came under the command of Pavelić, because as the Germans were about to surrender, General Alexander Löhr, Commander-in-Chief of Army Group E, handed command of the Croatian forces to Pavelić on 8 May. Pavelić issued an order from Rogaška Slatina for his troops not to surrender to the Partisans, but to escape to Austria, to implement the NDH government's decision of 3 May to flee to Austria. Following the capitulation of Germany, Tito issued an address via Radio Belgrade on 9 May calling upon all armed collaborators to surrender, threatening \"merciless response\" from the people and the army should they refuse to do so.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4891298", "title": "Soviet–Japanese War", "section": "Section::::Background and buildup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1781, "text": "On 9 May 1945 (Moscow time), Germany surrendered, meaning that if the Soviets were to honour the Yalta agreement, they would need to enter war with Japan by 9 August 1945. The situation continued to deteriorate for the Japanese, and they were now the only Axis power left in the war. They were keen to remain at peace with the Soviets and extend the Neutrality Pact, and they were also keen to achieve an end to the war. Since Yalta they had repeatedly approached, or tried to approach, the Soviets in order to extend the Neutrality Pact, and to enlist the Soviets in negotiating peace with the Allies. The Soviets did nothing to discourage these Japanese hopes, and drew the process out as long as possible (whilst continuing to prepare their invasion forces.) One of the roles of the Cabinet of Admiral Baron Suzuki, which took office in April 1945, was to try to secure any peace terms short of unconditional surrender. In late June, they approached the Soviets (the Neutrality Pact was still in place), inviting them to negotiate peace with the Allies in support of Japan, providing them with specific proposals and in return they offered the Soviets very attractive territorial concessions. Stalin expressed interest, and the Japanese awaited the Soviet response. The Soviets continued to avoid providing a response. The Potsdam Conference was held from 16 July to 2 August 1945. On 24 July the Soviet Union recalled all embassy staff and families from Japan. On 26 July the conference produced the Potsdam Declaration whereby Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Chiang Kai-shek (the Soviet Union was not officially at war with Japan) demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan. The Japanese continued to wait for the Soviet response, and avoided responding to the declaration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46929060", "title": "Soviet repressions against former prisoners of war", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 242, "text": "Some Soviet prisoners of war who survived German captivity during World War II were accused by the Soviet authorities of collaboration with the Nazis or branded as traitors under Order No. 270, which prohibited any soldier from surrendering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7926100", "title": "Hubert Zemke", "section": "Section::::World War II.:Prisoner of war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 410, "text": "As it became apparent that war was lost, the Germans became more cooperative, especially as Soviet armies approached from the east. When the prisoners of Stalag Luft I were ordered to leave the camp by the camp commandant, Zemke refused the order. Zemke and his staff negotiated an arrangement for the Germans to depart quietly at night, bearing only small arms, and turn the camp over to the Allied POW wing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28552142", "title": "Mass suicides in 1945 Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Reasons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 776, "text": "There were several reasons some Germans decided to end their lives in the last months of the war. First, by 1945, Nazi propaganda had created fear among some sections of the population about the impending military invasion of their country by the Soviets or Western Allies. Information films from the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda repeatedly chided audiences about why Germany must not surrender, telling the people they faced the threat of torture, rape, and death in defeat. These fears were not groundless, as many Germans were raped, mostly by Soviet soldiers, although many by Western Allied soldiers also. The number of rapes is disputed, but was certainly considerable – hundreds of thousands of incidents, according to most Western historians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The reason they want to go there is *because* it is dangerous and difficult and life threatening. They aren't going up there for the view and to get a tan. \n\nRegardless, standing at that altitude has seriously life threatening effects. Climbers need to acclimate for weeks to be able to survive it. Making it easier would mean people would be less prepared to go, and probably make it even more dangerous.\n\nAlso, the area is a nature preserve and of great cultural and religious importance to the people who live nearby. There are monasteries and shrines around it and many areas on Everest are considered some of the most important sites of Tibetan and Indian Buddhism. \n\nOn top of that there is the issue of just how *remote* Everest is. It is many, many miles away from running water, electricity, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42929378", "title": "Normal route", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 303, "text": "Sometimes the normal route is not the easiest ascent to the summit, but just the one that is most used. There may be technically easier variations. This is especially the case on the Watzmannfrau, the Hochkalter and also Mount Everest. There may be many reasons these easier options are less well-used:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43048099", "title": "1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 739, "text": "The 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition set off to explore how it might be possible to get to the vicinity of Mount Everest, to reconnoitre possible routes for ascending the mountain, and – if possible – make the first ascent of the highest mountain in the world. At that time Nepal was closed to foreigners, so any approach had to be from the north, through Tibet. A feasible route was discovered from the east up the Kharta Glacier and then crossing the Lhakpa La pass north east of Everest. It was then necessary to descend to the East Rongbuk Glacier before climbing again to Everest's North Col. However, although the North Col was reached, it was not possible to climb further before the expedition had to withdraw.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43972827", "title": "Tut Braithwaite", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 449, "text": "On the 1975 ascent of Mount Everest by its Southwest Face, he and Nick Estcourt climbed the Rock Band at about setting up fixed ropes that allowed other expedition members to reach the summit of Everest for the first time by a route up one of its faces. Not only was this a key aspect of the climb of the face but, by expending their efforts on this part of the climb, they made it unlikely that they themselves would be able to attempt the summit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42179", "title": "Mount Everest", "section": "Section::::History of expeditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 327, "text": "Because Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. A set of climbing routes has been established over several decades of climbing expeditions to the mountain. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29044571", "title": "Three Pinnacles", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 614, "text": "Almost all the mountaineering challenges on Mount Everest have now been overcome, but there remain two routes with extraordinary difficulties: a direttissima climb up the avalanche-prone East Face – the only yet unclimbed direct route on Everest, and ascent of the north pillar on the East Face over the (according to George Mallory) so-called \"Fantasy Ridge\". This ridge ends at the centre of the northeast ridge – below the Three Pinnacles. A climber wishing to climb up the Fantasy Ridge on his way to the summit would have to negotiate the east ridge and then climb the Three Pinnacles on the northeast ridge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "361977", "title": "George Mallory", "section": "Section::::Assessments by other climbers.:Chris Bonington's assessment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 611, "text": "If we accept the fact that they were above the Second Step, they would have seemed to be incredibly close to the summit of Everest and I think at that stage something takes hold of most climbers ... And I think therefore taking all those circumstances in view ... I think it is quite conceivable that they did go for the summit ... I certainly would love to think that they actually reached the summit of Everest. I think it is a lovely thought and I think it is something, you know, gut emotion, yes I would love them to have got there. Whether they did or not, I think that is something one just cannot know.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31920237", "title": "Indonesia Seven Summits Expedition", "section": "Section::::Another Indonesia Seven Summits Expedition Team.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 324, "text": "The team from the north (Iwan Irawan and Nurhuda) has reached the top of Mount Everest on May 19, 2012. South team ended the expedition without reached the summit of Mount Everest due to Ardeshir Yafftebbi got laryngitis and Fadjri al Lufhfi could not continue the attempt with wind of 50 meter/second (180 kilometer/hour).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You seem to be asking 2 different questions. 1.) \"Why were Islam and Christianity unsuccessful in getting converts in India\" and 2.) \"Why wasn't Hinduism completely eradicated by a monotheistic religion.\" These are two different things, and let me first say that Historians can't exactly explain why something *didn't* happen. That's not within our capacity, but I'll gladly share some relevant insight with you. \n\nFor one thing, your first question is based on a bad premise. Islam and Christianity were both successful in penetrating India. As of today, roughy 1/3 of the global Muslim population either lives in the Indian Subcontinent or is of that heritage. Indian subcontinent because, as Im sure you are probably aware, prior to the British Raj there was no cohesive Indian nation. Just a sub-continent of various independent polities. While they most likely had a cultural understanding of being a part of the Hindustani fabric, they were all in practice nations independent of each other. Even when united under one of several Empires such as the Maurya of Mughal, these nations would not have seen each other as the same people. Prior to the advent of Islam or Christianity, these would all have also fallen under a Dharmic tradition- either Hinduism or Buddhism. Anyways, fast forward a couple thousand years, and the modern States of Pakistan and Bangladesh (which emerged from 2 of India's most prominent states) exist at all because of how deeply Islam penetrated India. And even with that being the case, the Indian Republic is still most likely home to the 2nd largest Muslim population in the world. I can't see how Islam failed to penetrate India with these things being the case. As far as Christianity, while it is less prevalent in India, so too is the amount of time that India was under rule by Christians significantly less than the time India was under the rule of Muslims. Even then, [there are states in East India today that are more Christian per capita than the American South](_URL_0_), with Christianity being the 3rd largest religion in the Indian Republic. So, again, i would stop short of calling that 'unsuccessful'. \n\nBut this is a good point to pivot to your next question. Why didn't Hinduism get eradicated completely? Truthfully, I cant answer this question. Dont know that anyone can. But for one thing, look at how despite being home to so many Muslims (almost half the Arab World even), the Muslim population of the Indian Republic is only 14% of the overall population. INDIA IS HUGEEEEEEE. Both geographically and demographically, and naturally this has had an effect on how thoroughly these lands have been proselytized. In fact, there is only one macro-region with a comparable population, China, and that region mind you hasn't totally adopted monotheism either. \n\nAnother point of consideration though, is that Hinduism was in a sense created by the British. What I mean by this is, prior to the Raj, there was no centralized or universal 'Hindu' religion/identity. There still isn't. Rather, there were hundreds of Dhramic traditions that were indigenous to the sub-continent, traditions that would vary wildly from region to region. The British took all of these and compartmentalized them under a catch-all term: Hinduism. Prior to this, there really was not a universal Hindu identity or sense of nationhood, going back to the earlier commentary on how the Indian states saw each-other as different nations and peoples. If there was, a tiny Muslim minority would not have been able to rule the 'Hindu' super-majority for so long, no way. Rather, the Islamic rule of India as well as the spread of Islam in India happened at a state by state basis. No one went in looking at the whole of India as one nation or land to conquer/convert but rather a region of a bunch of disjointed nations (and rightfully so). Contrast this for example with the Ottoman incursions into Europe, which was rebuffed with a united Christian front. It was understood that that was a Muslim vs Christian ideological alongside the physical conflict. This was not always the case in India. \n\nFor this reason, there wasn't a campaign or push to conquer/convert India all at once. That would have been akin to the notion of trying to conquer/convert \"Asia\" or \"Africa\" in one breath, simply unheard of. So as a result of this, we can see that Islam spread more or less in an unorganized manner from state to state, 'nation to nation'. SO my point is, if you look at it in terms of \"the spread of Islam in Bengal/Punjab/Sindh/Hyderabad/Tamil/Kerala\" as opposed to \"the spread of Islam in India at large\", you have a better framework of understanding how the Muslim conquerers themselves saw it. And in this regard, some nations/regions/states were fully engulfed by Islam. Its all about perspective. \n\nIm sorry if that doesn't fully answer your question, but I don't think there is any single answer to why Hindusim wasn't completely eradicated in India. But in summary, Im sure the incredible size and scale of Hindustani civilization was a factor. But alongside the point about perspective, keep in mind that both Islam and Christianity in fact did successfully penetrate India, at least to some extent. \n\nSources:\n\nInscribing the Other, Inscribing the Self: Hindu-Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India\nCynthia Talbot\nComparative Studies in Society and History\nVol. 37, No. 4 (Oct., 1995), pp. 692-722\nCambridge University Press\n\n[Read Here](_URL_2_)\n\n\n\nWho Invented Hinduism?\nDavid N. Lorenzen\nComparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 41, No. 4 (Oct., 1999), pp. 630-659\nCambridge University Press \n\n[Read here](_URL_1_)\n\nPennington, Brian. The Invention of Hinduism: Britons, Indians, and Construction of Religion in Colonial Bengal. New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.\n\nKing, Richard. Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and \"The Mystic East\" New York: Routledge, 1999. Print.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24493019", "title": "Islamic missionary activity", "section": "Section::::In South Asia.:During the colonial era (1750–1947).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 748, "text": "With the decline of the Mughals and a vast majority of the Muslim lands coming under the rule of the European colonial powers, Islamic missionary activity faced a new challenge, vis-a-vis Christian missionaries that arrived along with the colonial rulers. It was said that much of Muslim missionary zeal in India arose to counteract the anti-Muslim tendencies of Christian missionaries and thus, Islamic missionary effort was defense rather than direct proselytizing. The influence of Christian schools has caused significant interest among younger Indian and South Asian Muslims to study their faith, consequently sparking religious zeal. Moreover, some Muslims have adopted propagation methods of Christian missionaries such as street preaching.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24493019", "title": "Islamic missionary activity", "section": "Section::::In South Asia.:Early missionary activity (750–1550).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 1088, "text": "Muslim missionaries played a key role in the spread of Islam in India with some missionaries even assuming roles as merchants or traders. For example, in the 9th century, the Ismailis sent missionaries across Asia in all directions under various guises, often as traders, Sufis and merchants. Ismailis were instructed to speak potential converts in their own language. Some Ismaili missionaries traveled to India and employed effort to make their religion acceptable to the Hindus. For instance, they represented Ali as the tenth avatar of Vishnu and wrote hymns as well as a Mahdi purana in their effort to win converts. At other times, converts were won in conjunction with the propagation efforts of rulers. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khaljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it a custom to have the convert presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and award him with bracelets of gold. During Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji's control of the Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success, in terms of number of converts to Islam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47826238", "title": "Spread of Islam", "section": "Section::::By region.:Indian subcontinent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 1106, "text": "Muslim missionaries played a key role in the spread of Islam in India with some missionaries even assuming roles as merchants or traders. For example, in the 9th century, the Ismailis sent missionaries across Asia in all directions under various guises, often as traders, Sufis and merchants. Ismailis were instructed to speak potential converts in their own language. Some Ismaili missionaries traveled to India and employed effort to make their religion acceptable to the Hindus. For instance, they represented Ali as the tenth avatar of Vishnu and wrote hymns as well as a mahdi purana in their effort to win converts. At other times, converts were won in conjunction with the propagation efforts of rulers. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khaljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it a custom to have the convert presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and award him with bracelets of gold. During Delhi Sultanate's Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji's control of the Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success, in terms of number of converts to Islam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59486992", "title": "Islam in South Asia", "section": "Section::::Conversions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 362, "text": "The Islamic ambitions of the sultans and Mughals had concentrated in expanding Muslim power, not in seeking converts. Evidence of the absence of systematic programs for conversion is the concentration of South Asia's Muslim populations outside the main core of the Muslim polities, in East Bengal and West Punjab, which were on the peripheries of Muslim states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24493019", "title": "Islamic missionary activity", "section": "Section::::In South Asia.:During the Mughal Empire (1550–1750).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 554, "text": "Muslim missionaries across India received a significant moral boost with the formation of the Mughal Empire in Northern India in the sixteenth century. However, the empire evolved into a mixed blessing for Islamic missionary work, with its two most powerful rulers taking a somewhat diametrically opposite view of religion. Initially, Akbar the Great chose to follow a form of inter-faith dialogue somewhat contrary to the views of the traditional clergy, a stratagem that was to be totally reversed by his great-grandson Aurangzeb half a century later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1335219", "title": "Batak", "section": "Section::::Religions.:Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 608, "text": "Christian missionaries had been active among the northern Mandailing from 1834 onwards, but their progress was restricted by the Dutch government, who feared conflict between newly converted Christians and Muslims. In addition, the lingua franca of the government was Malay, associated with Muslims, as were government civil servants, creating the perception that Islam was the religion of modernity and progress. Missionaries determined that resistance among the Muslim Mandailing to Christianity was strong, and the missionaries abandoned them as 'unreachable people', moving north to evangelize the Toba.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29646465", "title": "Christianity and colonialism", "section": "Section::::Asia and the Far East.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 538, "text": "Christian missionaries had mixed success in the Far East. Early Christian missionaries had very mixed success in countries in Asia. In countries like Japan, the first Christian missionaries arrived in Kyushu in 1542 and came from Portugal and brought gunpowder and Christianity with them. Jesuit priest, Francis Xavier, arrived in Japan in 1550 and was a key figure in his attempts to spread Christianity in Japan. Xavier’s mission in Japan was to spread peace and forgiveness to people of Japan who followed Shinto belief and Buddhism. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "_URL_1_\n\n > In a speech to the Strasbourg assembly, Mr Cameron said the whole concept of human rights laws was in danger of becoming \"distorted\" and \"discredited\" because of the court's decisions.\n\n > \"We do have a real problem when it comes to foreign national who threaten our security,\" he said.\n\n > **\"The problem today is that you can end up with someone who has no right to live in your country, who you are convinced – and have good reason to be convinced – means to do your country harm. And yet there are circumstances in which you cannot try them, you cannot detain them and you cannot deport them.\"**\n\n > \"So having put in place every possible safeguard to ensure that (human rights) rights are not violated, we still cannot fulfil our duty to our law-abiding citizens to protect them.\"\n\n > **Mr Cameron's comments come just a week after the European Court of Human Rights ruled that radical Islamic cleric Abu Qatada cannot be deported for fear he will not get a fair trial in Jordan.**\n\nHe believes the HRA goes too far and threatens the national security of the UK. So he wants to put in place human rights, but still keep the country safe.. in his eyes. You can have known terrorists in your country, but who have not violated any UK laws. And with that you cannot deport them because they cannot receive a \"fair\" trial in their wanted countries for their crimes. So you just keep terrorists on your soil, protected from the courts and deportation. This is just one example of the inconsistencies he sees with the HRA and protecting the UK. He wants to take control back from the EU and allow the UK to determine how to handle such situations.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > “This is the country that wrote Magna Carta, the country that time and again has stood up for human rights, whether liberating Europe from fascism or leading the charge today against sexual violence in war.\n\n > “Let me put it very clearly: We do not require instruction from judges in Strasbourg on this issue.\n\n > “So at long last, with a Conservative government after the next election, this country will have a new British Bill of Rights to be passed in our Parliament, rooted in our values.”", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "because the human rights act can stop the UK government from deporting foreign criminals/terrorists, or at least, will make it considerably more difficult than necessary. for example, \"the right to a family life\" has sometimes caused criminals from abroad to be allowed to stay in this country because they happened to have a wife in this country, or even a wife that they travelled to the UK with. basically, the human rights act (which is basically the codification of the ECHR rights) is very restrictive to what most people who call common sense justice. it has its ups and downs, but it can be resolved simply for having a british bill of rights which removes these kinds of flaws.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47078809", "title": "Proposed British Bill of Rights", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 747, "text": "Prior to the 2010 general election, Conservative party leader David Cameron proposed replacing the Human Rights Act with a new \"British Bill of Rights\". After forming a coalition with the Liberal Democrats, these plans were shelved and reinstated only after the Conservative party won an overall majority in the 2015 general election. Former Prime Minister David Cameron then vowed to put right what he termed the \"complete mess\" of Britain's human rights laws, on the 800th anniversary of the passage of the Magna Carta by the Kingdom of England, one of the predecessor states to the United Kingdom. Tensions have arisen between those on the political right in the UK, and the European Court of Human Rights, over issues such as prisoner voting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12260748", "title": "Political positions of David Cameron", "section": "Section::::Constitutional issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 180, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 180, "end_character": 342, "text": "Cameron has announced that he would scrap the Human Rights Act 1998 which came into force in 2000. Instead, it would be replaced with a Bill of Rights, based on \"British needs and traditions\". However, he has said that the country would remain a signatory of the European Convention on Human Rights, upon which the Human Rights Act is based.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "639628", "title": "Human Rights Act 1998", "section": "Section::::Planned replacement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 372, "text": "In 2007, Howard's successor as Leader of the Opposition, David Cameron, vowed to repeal the Human Rights Act if he was elected, instead replacing it with a \"Bill of Rights\" for Britain. The human rights organisation JUSTICE released a discussion paper entitled \"A Bill of Rights for Britain?\", examining the case for updating the Human Rights Act with an entrenched bill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3944198", "title": "Philippe Sands", "section": "Section::::Legal career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 464, "text": "Sands and Kennedy expressed concern that support for a UK Bill of Rights was motivated by a desire for the UK to withdraw from the European Convention of Human Rights. Writing in \"The Guardian\" in May 2015, Sands argued that plans for a British Bill of Rights could leave some people in the UK with more rights than others and that this would be \"inconsistent with the very notion of fundamental human rights, in which every human being has basic minimum rights.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20182467", "title": "Scottish Human Rights Commission", "section": "Section::::Emerging human rights issues.:Defending the Human Rights Act.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 417, "text": "In 2009, the Conservative party, then the main UK opposition party, announced that, if elected, it would repeal the Human Rights Act 1998 and replace it with a Bill of Rights. In March 2010 the Commission published two statements, including one co-signed with the NIHRC, calling for the preservation of the Act and emphasising that human rights would be best protected by building on the Act instead of replacing it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32113", "title": "Conservative Party (UK)", "section": "Section::::Policies.:British constitution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 158, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 158, "end_character": 215, "text": "There was also a split on whether to introduce a British Bill of Rights that would replace the Human Rights Act 1998; David Cameron expressed support, but Ken Clarke described it as \"xenophobic and legal nonsense\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2920221", "title": "Murder of Philip Lawrence", "section": "Section::::Chindamo deportation controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 240, "text": "The decision was severely criticised by Frances Lawrence, Philip Lawrence's widow. David Cameron, as leader of the opposition, argued that the case showed the Human Rights Act 1998 'has to go' and be replaced by a \"British Bill of Rights\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When Germany was defeated in the First World War (in 1918) it caused a period of chaos which would eventually lead to Hitler. The defeat created a revolutionary situation and forced the Kaiser out of power. A new and very unstable democracy was created- the Weimar Republic. Germany's economy and society had been devastated by the war and this was greatly exacerbated by the peace treaty which it was forced to sign by the victorious allied powers (called the Versailles Treaty). Versailles forced Germany to pay huge reparations to the allied powers and also to give up quite a bit of territory and to limit its army. The treaty was economically damaging and politically humiliating and created huge resentment within Germany. At one point, when Germany could not afford to pay reparations, France even occupied part of the country. The currency totally collapsed and people literally had to take wheelbarrows of money to the shop to buy bread. So the new Weimar republic was always very unstable. There were 3 attempted communist revolutions from 1918-1923 and 2 attempted coups by the far right (one of them led by Hitler). \n\nIn the mid 20s the Weimar republic was able to stablize itself, and this created what is called the \"golden age\" of Weimar Germany (which only lasted a few years). It achieved stability by taking huge loans from the US which it could then use to pay the reparations. But in 1929 the Wall Street Crash happened, and this economic strategy was shattered forcing Germany into an even more terrible economic collapse than after WW1. Germany was the country most affected by the Great Depression. Unemployment was around 25% and the entire economy was collapsing. This situation caused a rise in popularity for both the far left (represented mainly by the Communist Party) and the far right (represented mainly by the Nazi party) which both proposed revolutionary solutions to the situation. \n\nThe Nazis were an extreme nationalist, facist party which had grown from being a really tiny party (of about 40 members when Hitler first joined) to a huge political force. In Hitler they had a very charismatic leader and adopted new methods of campaigning and propaganda. They argued for massive government intervention in the economy and promised that they would end unemployment by actively creating work (as Roosevelt would later do in the US). They also appealed to national sentiment. They condemned the Versailles treaty and argued that it was illegitimate and that they would entirely reject it. They openly argued that they wanted to expand Germany, win back the territory taken from it by the treaty and win more space (Lebensraum) in the east which would help build the German economy further. The Germans had only lost the first war, they claimed, because they had been betrayed by Jews and Communists who had undermined the country from within and were still doing so now. These arguments gained mass appeal and the Nazis did very well in elections. In the 1930 election the Nazis rose from about 3% to around 19% of the vote becoming the second party. The Communist Party also did well and got about 13%, they were the third party. \n\nSo as a result the traditional ruling parties of Germany lost their majority and were forced into increasingly unstable coalition governments which kept collapsing due to internal differences. None of these governments could find any solution to the economic crisis. Now the way the Weimar political system worked, there was a parliamentary system and the government was headed by a Chancellor (like a prime minister). But there was also a president who was meant to be mostly ceremonial but had powers which could be used in an emergency. The president at this time was a man called Hindenburg, a very old man, a conservative who was popular because he had been the head of the German army in WW1 and was seen as a war hero. Hindenburg now used his authority and appointed chancellors from the traditional parties to head minority governments and gave them emergency powers so they could rule by decree even though they did not have a majority in parliament. \n\nThis still did not stop the crisis however and the Nazi party was becoming more and more popular. In May 1932 Hindenburg appointed a conservative Franz Von Pappen to be chancellor who had almost no support in parliament (he did not even have a party) and resigned after only three days prompting new elections. Then in the July 1932 election The Nazis became the largest party almost doubling their support and winning around 38% of the vote. There was another election because parliament was so split in November 32 and the Nazis again became the largest party (although they lost around 4% mainly to the Communists). At this point the Left Wing were still stronger than the Nazis but they were split into two parties who could not collaborate- The Social Democratic Party and The Communist Party. The Nazis were openly committed to building a fascist dictatorship but it now became difficult to imagine any conservative government without their participation. Now Franz Von Pappen developed a plan and tried to convince Hindenburg. He believed that they could appoint Hitler as chancellor, use him to crush the left wing, but control him. He thought that if they gave Hitler some power, the conservatives could make him moderate his demands and bring him under their control. He seriously underestimated Hitler in part because he was an educated, upper class natural leader whereas he saw Hitler as an uneducated impostor. At first, he could not persuade Hindenburg who personally hated Hitler and did not trust him to bring him into the government. But by January 1933 Von Pappen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler chancellor. This was partly motivated by personal motives and Von Pappen's desire for revenge against his former friends who he thought had destroyed his government. \n\nSo Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933. At first it was part of a coalition government and the majority were conservatives like Von Pappen (who became Vice Chancellor). But Hitler and the Nazis quickly marginalized them, gaining control of the key institutions (like the police) and pushing through repressive legislation allowing people to arrested without charge. Then in February 1933, only a month after Hitler had been named chancellor, an event happened which helped him greatly in building his dictatorship. A communist militant set fire to the German Parliament. Hitler argued that this was intended as the signal for a Communist revolution and used the public outcry to blame the Communist Party in general (in reality the Communist Party had nothing to do with the fire). He persuaded Hindenburg to pass an emergency decree criminalizing the Communist Party. This allowed the Nazis to destroy their one major competitor (the communists were the third party) and to become, overnight a majority in the German parliament. In March Hitler passed the Enabling Act which granted him emergency powers allowing him to rule by decree, essentially as a dictator. By this point Hitler's power was complete. He used the conservatives to destroy the Left Wing- criminalising the socialists, communists and trade unions. But once the left wing was destroyed there was no opposition and the conservatives themselves could do nothing to stop him. \n\nThe last independent source of power in Germany was Hindenburg but in 1934 he died. Hitler then abolished the role of president and appointed himself Reichsfuhrer, which combined the role of Chancellor and President. He now ruled basically unopposed and was free to build the Nazi dictatorship. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44551490", "title": "European interwar economy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 453, "text": "In 1919 a new democracy was formed in a German town known as the Weimar Republic. This new government was thought to be doomed from the start and after the hyperinflation of 1923, “money became so worthless that children could play with stacks of it.” Despite civil unrest in Germany and elsewhere in Western Europe, there was still hope that world peace could be maintained. This hope was all but lost after Adolf Hitler came to power in January 1933.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34613", "title": "1930s", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 743, "text": "Meanwhile, authoritarian regimes emerged in several countries in Europe and South America, in particular the Third Reich in Germany. Germany elected Adolf Hitler, who imposed the Nuremberg Laws, a series of laws which discriminated against Jews and other ethnic minorities. Weaker states such as Ethiopia, China, and Poland were invaded by expansionist world powers, the last of these attacks leading to the outbreak of the World War II on September 1, 1939, despite calls from the League of Nations for worldwide peace. World War II helped end the Great Depression when governments spent money for the war effort. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of intercontinental aviation, radio, and film.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32747511", "title": "Political violence in Germany (1918–33)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 300, "text": "Substantial political violence existed in Germany from the fall of the House of Hohenzollern and the rise of the Weimar Republic through the German Revolution of 1918–19 until the rise of the Nazi Party to power in 1933 when a Nazi totalitarian state was formed and opposition figures were arrested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26625885", "title": "Racism in Germany", "section": "Section::::19th and early 20th centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 269, "text": "When Germany struggled to become a belated colonial power in the 19th century, several atrocities were committed, most notably the Herero and Namaqua Genocide in what is now Namibia. The German authorities forced the survivors of the genocide into concentration camps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "765642", "title": "Causes of World War II", "section": "Section::::Specific developments.:Nazi dictatorship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 245, "text": "Hitler and his Nazis took full control of Germany in 1933–34 (Machtergreifung), turning it into a dictatorship with a highly hostile outlook toward the Treaty of Versailles and Jews. It solved its unemployment crisis by heavy military spending.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22798493", "title": "States of the Weimar Republic", "section": "Section::::States under Nazi Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 592, "text": "The states of the Weimar Republic were effectively abolished after the establishment of Nazi Germany in 1933 by a series of \"Reichsstatthalter\" decrees between 1933 and 1935, and autonomy was replaced by direct rule of the National Socialist German Workers' Party in the \"Gleichschaltung\" process. The states continued to formally exist as \"de jure\" rudimentary bodies, but from 1934 were superseded by \"de facto\" Nazi provinces called \"Gaue\". Many of the states were formally dissolved at the end of World War II by the Allies, and ultimately re-organised into the modern states of Germany.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19799784", "title": "German Colonial Society", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 231, "text": "When the Nazi party seized power in Germany, it was decided that a new Society under its direct control was to be created. On 13 June 1936, the German Colonial Society was dissolved and colonial propaganda became the task of the .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Anytime there has been something of that description, Britain was always the motivator. \n\nIn Canada's position there are a few things discouraging it from picking a fight with its neighbor. \n\n1.) Canada has always had a population dearth relative to the United States. Less people means less resources for industry, research, and, most importantly, the military. It has been perennially outnumbered. \n\n2.) It does not control trade routes that are critical to US trade. With the exception of the Great Lakes, Canada has never had the geographic advantage to just sever a trade line. \n\n2b.) Canada is a modern military, but like many other nations, does not have the Navy to match the US Navy. If they are going to project power over a coastline, you have to be able to go toe-to-toe with the people you are trying to restrict. \n\n3.) The Canadian border, de-militarized as it is, is near impossible to hold without giving you plans. Either side of the border would have to deploy an unreasonable number of units along that border. \n\n4.) The US and Canada share a very similar heritage. A product of British colonialism, a \"frontier legacy\", and a people who know each others culture well enough on friendly terms. For instance, the NHL has teams from both sides of the border. Our cultures are inter-twined enough that making the other seem like a true enemy would take a lot of propaganda work. \n\nThose are all I can think of off the top of my head. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "King Walnut has covered most of it in his post, but I'd like to add a little:\n\nThere was a war, the war of 1812(-16). The Americans were angry with several British policies, such as arming Native Americans and press-ganging suspected British-born Americans into the Navy to fight Napoleon. The reason Britain was arming Native Americans was that they were worried that western expansion of the USA would lead it to become powerful enough to be a threat to Britain, perhaps conquering Canada. \n\nSo, President Madison and his advisors decided to invade Canada, while Britain was engaged in the Napoleonic War and so unable to muster its full forces to defend Canada.\n\nHowever, the war didn't go as well as expected. While the Americans did occupy a fair bit of territory, the war wasn't very popular at home, particularly in the north-east industrial areas, the areas most needed to support the nearby war. \nIn addition, the British allied with a federation of allied native American tribes, led by the famous Tecumseh.\n\nIn 1815, the Napoleonic War ended. This meant Britain was, in theory, able to turn its full attention to America, and some Americans feared they could be reconquered. On the other hand, after a long, brutal and expensive war, the British frankly didn't have the appetite for another war in America (especially as their previous war in America hadn't gone that well).\n\nSo, the two countries signed an armistice. They promised to respect each other's borders, and not to sponsor forces opposed to each other (such as Native Americans). \nSo, both sides got what they wanted: America no longer had Britain trying to stymy it's westward expansion, Britain felt security that its Canadian territories wouldn't be invaded by America.\n\nAfter this, it was in neither Britain nor America's interests to fight a war. Trade was much more profitable. Now, resources could be seized by force... but why should either side want to attack a powerful, industrial country, one with legal standing in the world community, and a similar culture and religion? Why do that, when there was also this land to the west full of untapped resources, guarded by non-industrialised, low-population forces with essentially no international legal standing? For America, their military was too busy taking the West to want to invade icy Canada. For Britain, there was western Canada, but more importantly India and Africa to conquer (and the local Canadian forces lacked the population to attack America by themselves).\nBy the time Canada became fully independent, we get to the era of the World Wars, where America and Britain ended up as allies. This was then followed by membership of NATO. In the modern era, cultural, trade and political ties are just too extensive for armed conflict, nor, as KingWalnut covered, is there any particular motivations to wage such a conflict.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21215", "title": "Northwest Passage", "section": "Section::::International waters dispute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 358, "text": "The dispute between Canada and the United States arose in 1969 with the trip of the U.S. oil tanker SS \"Manhattan\" through the Arctic Archipelago. The prospect of more American traffic headed to the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field made the Canadian government realize that political action was required should it decide to consider the archipelago as internal waters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14434416", "title": "Canada–Latin America relations", "section": "Section::::Trudeau years 1968–1984.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 933, "text": "By the mid-1970s Canada's national policy toward Latin America – and other regions of the globe – had almost completely diverged from that of the United States. This was an especially momentous time in Canadian foreign politics because, until this point, Canada had been under the vast political and economic influence of her neighbour to the South. This incredible divergence was essentially manifested in Mitchell Sharp's \"Options for the Future\" (otherwise known as the 'Third Option Paper'), which reaffirmed the tenets of \"Foreign Policy for Canadians\", but considered U.S.–Canada relations in greater detail. Sharp's paper advocated the growth of Canadian economic, political and cultural 'distinctiveness', but did not encourage alienation from America. Ultimately, Sharp's ideas had a profound and lasting effect on Canadian policy and were central to the outward growth of Canada in the international sphere for many years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5075488", "title": "History of Canada (1945–1960)", "section": "Section::::Cold War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 571, "text": "Meanwhile, Canadian foreign relations were beginning to focus on the United States, which had eclipsed Britain as a world power. During World War II, Canada was a minor partner in the alliance between the United States and Britain, and the US had pledged to help defend Canada if necessary. Canada was one of the founding members of the United Nations in 1945, and also of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, but was largely overshadowed in world affairs by the United States. Canada remained a close ally of the United States throughout the Cold War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5192", "title": "Geography of Canada", "section": "Section::::Political geography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 626, "text": "Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada's Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5199", "title": "Canada–United States relations", "section": "Section::::History.:Dominion of Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1156, "text": "Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "212429", "title": "Goldwin Smith", "section": "Section::::Political views.:Anglo-Saxonism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 581, "text": "Smith thought that Canada was destined by geography to enter the United States. In his view, separated as it is by north-south barriers, into zones communicating naturally with adjoining portions of the United States, it was an artificial and badly-governed nation. It would break away from the British Empire, and the Anglo-Saxons of the North American continent would become one nation. These views are most fully stated in his \"Canada and the Canadian Question\" (1891). Donald Creighton writes that Smith was most ably rebutted by George Monro Grant in the \"Canadian Magazine\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5268590", "title": "History of monarchy in Canada", "section": "Section::::Confederation and the Early Dominion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1117, "text": "Prior to the confederation of Canada, in which Queen Victoria took personal interest, a number of issues were of prime concern in the deliberations on the amalgamation of the four Canadian provinces into a country, most notably, the threat of invasion by the United States. It was the explicit intention of the Fathers of Confederation to unite the disparate British entities in North America into a single state under a constitutional monarchy, the men seeing that form of government as a balance between the autocracy of the Russian Empire and the popular sovereignty of the United States, the latter having just led to the American Civil War, which was seen as \"the final stage in the discredit of [American] democracy and republicanism.\" A Canadian crown, the Fathers thought, would ensure diversity and racial harmony in Canada, thereby strengthening its legal and cultural sovereignty, especially considering the presence of the United States and its policy of Manifest Destiny. At the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates agreed unanimously that the new federation should be a constitutional monarchy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a broad questions, and as a result there's a lack of definitive statistics, but there seems to be a fair degree of consensus that for the most part European (and by extension early American) sailors were comparatively poor swimmers. For much of the period at least into the 19th century, moreover, a clear distinction was drawn between \"bathing\" (which essentially meant going into water where it was possible to stand, if need be, and which was relatively popular) and \"swimming\" (meaning in open water where it was not possible to stand, which was not.)\n\nSeveral authorities have attempted estimates of the proportion of sailors who could swim. Overall, it seems to be agreed that as late as 1900 a high proportion of sailors – significantly more than half – were not able to swim.\n\n* Nicholas Orme, in his *Early British Swimming, 55 BC to AD 1719*, comments that early swimming in Britain was confined largely to ponds and rivers, and almost never done in the sea; the practice also \"virtually excluded the whole female sex\" (p.107). He also usefully discusses the relatively late development of \"scientific\" swimming and efforts to maximise efficiency in the water, noting that up to the 17th century at least side-stroke was considered the fastest stroke available, modern strokes had not been invented, and swimmers in general were \"weak in the efficiency and speed of their basic propulsive strokes.\"\n \n* It's estimated that only about one in seven Dutch sailors in the first half of the 17th century could swim (Mike Dash, *Batavia's Graveyard* p.110)\n\n* Little, in *The Buccaneer's Realm*, notes that, in the Caribbean, swimming was a common ability among the indigenous peoples of the West Indies and adds that \"many whites ... swam and dived, and the notion that European sailors could not swim was false. Nonetheless, one captain observed 'how deficient our common seamen in general are.' Europeans who fell overboard generally drowned, even if they landed uninjured in the water.... Perhaps only one in four to one in six common sailors could swim.\"\n\n* Compton, in *Why Sailors Can't Swim* p.18, notes that a contemporary newspaper estimated in 1910 that 40% of US Navy sailors could not swim.\n\nAs to the reasons why this was so, they probably combine culture and geography. It seems it was at least in part because the skill was not regarded as a natural one for \"civilised\" white men to possess, and that status (and fear of ridicule) was a factor here. In *Haunts of the Black Masseur: The Swimmer as Hero,* Charles Sprawson comments on the disinclination of British colonists in India to swim, despite the hot weather - \"It was as though the English had taken to heart George Borrow's precept that a 'gentleman' should avoid swimming, 'for to swim you must be naked, and how would many a genteel person look without his clothes.'\" Similarly Blackmore, in his *Manifest Perdition: Shipwreck Narrative and the Disruption of Empire*, pp.91-2, argues that \"the human form in water... foregrounds the civilized/barbaric binarism... because natatorial ability is, in expansionist thinking, a 'barbaric' skill\" - one that was beneath European sailors and which they expected other people to perform for them. Blackmore cites the Dutch navigator Jan van Linschoten's *Itinerary* (late C16th), which stresses how useful Arab men \"infected\" with Islam could be in this context. Where European gentlemen swam, it was generally in private and where they were not likely to be seen by either women or by their social inferiors.\n\nWhile Sprawson also explores lots of other odd cultural tangents, noting that Rupert Brooke swam as a celebration of youth, Goethe as a declaration of freedom and beauty, and Baron Corvo as an expression of his homosexuality, it's also rather noticeable that there's almost no evidence in western sources for people learning to swim as a precaution or because it was seen as a useful skill until some way into the nineteenth century.\n\nThat said, I would guess that opportunity and conditions played at least as much a part in determining who could and who could not swim. One obvious factor is that facilities and conditions for teaching swimming safely were lacking. No swimming pools, and cold and uninviting local waters, probably help to explain why Europeans were less likely to be able to swim than the locals on Caribbean islands (and Darcy, in his *The People of the Sea*, p.31, a book about Oceania, similarly notes that the ability to swim was commonplace among Fijians, even those who lived well inland). Bruseth and Turner, in *From a Watery Grave*, p.116, attribute the deficiency to the fact that \"swimming was not the recreational sport that it is today.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1599194", "title": "HMY Iolaire", "section": "Section::::Sinking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 536, "text": "The sailors were wearing their uniforms including heavy boots, which made swimming from the wreck difficult — indeed many men of that time had never had the opportunity to learn. Many songs and poems, such as \"An Iolaire\", describe the women of these men finding their men washed up on the shore the next day. The sinking is the worst maritime disaster (for loss of life) in United Kingdom waters in peacetime, since the wreck of the off Rockall in 1904 and the worst peacetime disaster involving a British ship since on 15 April 1912.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "376837", "title": "Grog", "section": "Section::::Origin and history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 508, "text": "Sailors require significant quantities of fresh water on extended voyages. Since desalinating sea water was not practical, fresh water was taken on board in casks but quickly developed algae and became slimy. Stagnant water was sweetened with beer or wine to make it palatable, which involved more casks and was subject to spoilage. As longer voyages became more common, the task of stowage became more and more difficult and the sailors' substantial daily ration of water plus beer or wine began to add up.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1474511", "title": "Pearl hunting", "section": "Section::::Pearl hunting in colonial Latin America.:Process.:Venezuela.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 702, "text": "The divers were locked in their quarters at night by the Spaniards, who believed that if the divers (who were mostly male) compromised their chastity, they would not be able to submerge but rather float on the water. The divers who either had a small catch or rebelled were beaten with whips and tied in shackles. The working day lasted from dawn till dusk and being underwater, along with bruises, could affect the health of some divers. Furthermore, it is well known that the coastal waters were often infested with sharks, so shark attacks were quite frequent as well. As the fisheries continued to diminish, slaves hid some of the valuable pearls and exchanged them for clothing with their bosses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3020440", "title": "Pierre Fauchard", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Early years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 441, "text": "During that time, Fauchard learned that sailors who were on long voyages suffered severely from dental ailments, scurvy in particular. Eventually Major Poteleret inspired and encouraged him to read and carefully investigate the findings of his predecessors in the healing arts. He said he wanted to disseminate the knowledge he learned at sea based on actual practice. This idea led Fauchard to become a combat medic as Poteleret's protégé.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32722234", "title": "Grigory Butakov", "section": "Section::::Naval science.:Boat races.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 765, "text": "Throughout his naval career, Grigory Butakov extensively enjoyed boat racing, and adopted the sport as his chief pastime while on leave from the navy. Butakov enjoyed races involving both steamboats and sailboats. He believed that boat racing was not only a good pastime for sailors, it was also good for their training and military skill. He said: \"I believe [boat racing] is by far one of the best and most appropriate means available for our young sailors to try their wings, start strengthening their will, nerves and stamina, train their faultless eye and prepare themselves to face any unforeseen circumstances which are so frequent throughout our service…Besides, the boat race is a wonderful and effective way to find out what metal each of us is made of\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2856052", "title": "Haenyeo", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 648, "text": "By the 18th century, female divers, at this point commonly referred to as haenyeo, outnumbered male divers. Several possible explanations exist for this shift. For instance, in the 17th century, a significant number of men died at sea due to war or deep-sea fishing accidents, meaning that diving became the work of women. Another explanation is that physiologically, women have more subcutaneous fat and a higher shivering threshold than men, making them more equipped to withstand cold waters. An 18th-century document records that taxes of dried abalone were imposed on ordinary people, forcing many women to dive in cold waters while pregnant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "166452", "title": "Chesapeake and Ohio Canal", "section": "Section::::Boats on the Canal.:Boatmen and boat families.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 168, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 168, "end_character": 348, "text": "Many of the men, particularly boat captains, said they knew nothing else [except boating]. One woman said, \"The children are brought up on the boat and don't know nothin' else, and that is the only reason they take up 'boating'. Boys work for their fathers until they are big enough to get a boat of their own, and it's always easy to get a boat.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The thing scientists are most worried about is a positive feedback loop in the climate, where if you pass some tipping point, you have runaway warming. I'm not a climate expert, but a positive feedback loop would put the upper limit quite high. \n\nHere's a fake example made up off the top of my head - say at some temperature, the CO2 in limestone (CaCO3) decides it prefers not to be in limestone anymore and prefers to be in a gaseous state. Then, lets say our CO2 takes the temperature right up to this point - then CO2 starts pouring out of the global sources of limestone and then we have more heating and its a runaway positivefeedback loop. It's hard to predict these kinds of things but we want to be safe :D. \n\nEdit: Fixed being stupid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Considering how vastly hotter the world was in various other time periods, I don't think we are in any danger at all of a runaway to Venus-level temperatures. \n\nIn the late Cretaceous, deciduous forests extended all the way to the poles, and this has happened at other times as well. In fact, having ice at the poles at all isn't the default for Earth. We are very fortunate to be starting in an ice age. Now, living through a change from current climate to a Cretaceous hothouse world might get a bit hairy. And anything which destabilizes civilization will probably put an end to large amounts of fossil fuel burning. There's a negative feedback. Anything else which gets people off of fossil fuels (running out, finding a better technology, wising up to the ecological implications, or most likely a combination of those) would do the trick as well.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This study was done in the context of comparing oil sands to coal, but the result was that burning all of the world's coal would raise global average temperatures by 15 degrees Celsius. That's not taking into account possible runaway feedback, so it should give you an idea of a lower limit on the worst-case temperature.\n\n[Nature article (behind pay wall)](_URL_0_), and [CBC news coverage](_URL_1_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2119179", "title": "Climate change mitigation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 763, "text": "In 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level. With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed, but was revised with a new target laying down \"parties will do the best\" to achieve warming below 1.5 °C. The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 °C. Other mitigation policies have been proposed, some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 °C limit. In 2019, after 2 years of research, scientists from Australia, and Germany presented the \"One Earth Climate Model\" showing how temperature increase can be limited to 1.5 °C for 1.7 trillion dollars a year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11588774", "title": "Coal-fired power station", "section": "Section::::Carbon dioxide emissions causing global warming.:Mitigation.:Phase out.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 222, "text": "The most cost effective way to limit global warming to 1.5°C, a target of the Paris Agreement, includes EU and OECD countries closing all coal-fired power stations by 2030, China by 2040 and the rest of the world by 2050.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24458151", "title": "Planetary boundaries", "section": "Section::::History of the framework.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1165, "text": "A 2018 study, co-authored by Rockström, calls into question the international agreement to limit warming to 2 degrees above pre-industrial temperatures set forth in the Paris Agreement. The scientists raise the possibility that even if greenhouse gas emissions are substantially reduced to limit warming to 2 degrees, that might be the \"threshold\" at which self-reinforcing climate feedbacks add additional warming until the climate system stabilizes in a hothouse climate state. This would make parts of the world uninhabitable, raise sea levels by up to , and raise temperatures by to levels that are higher than any interglacial period in the past 1.2 million years. Rockström notes that whether this would occur \"is one of the most existential questions in science.\" Study author Katherine Richardson stresses, \"We note that the Earth has never in its history had a quasi-stable state that is around 2 °C warmer than the preindustrial and suggest that there is substantial risk that the system, itself, will ‘want’ to continue warming because of all of these other processes – even if we stop emissions. This implies not only reducing emissions but much more.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58691342", "title": "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C", "section": "Section::::Main Statements.:Limiting the temperature increase.:Necessary emission reductions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 249, "text": "Limit global warming to 1.5°C with no or limited overshoot would require reducing emissions to below 35 GtCOeq per year in 2030, regardless of the modelling pathway chosen. Most fall within 25–30 GtCOeq per yer, a 40–50% reduction from 2010 levels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52478608", "title": "California Senate Bill 32", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 433, "text": "Climate science dictates that global warming of more than 2 °C would have serious consequences, beyond those already being experienced, such as an increase in the number of extreme climate events. In order to avoid a global average surface temperature increase of 2 °C, global GHG emissions need to be reduced by 40–70% by 2050 and carbon neutrality (i.e. zero emissions) needs to be reached by the end of the century at the latest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11544231", "title": "Fossil fuels lobby", "section": "Section::::Criticisms.:Global influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 276, "text": "Publicly, fossil-fuel corporations say that they support the Paris Agreement aiming to limit global warming below 2 °C in 2100. Internal reports of BP and Shell show that they have made contingency business models plans for warming of more than 3°C of global warming in 2050.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8864153", "title": "Energy policy of the European Union", "section": "Section::::Earlier proposals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 719, "text": "Many underlying proposals are designed to limit global temperature changes to no more than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, of which 0.8 °C has already taken place and another 0.5–0.7 °C is already committed. 2 °C is usually seen as the upper temperature limit to avoid 'dangerous global warming'. Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target. The EU might then not only be forced to accept a less ambitious global target. Because the planned emissions reductions in the European energy sector (95% by 2050) are derived directly from the 2 °C target since 2007, the EU will have to revise its energy policy paradigm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Governance before the civil war is tricky. The easy answer, of course, is that the Spanish government (whether the left or right was in power) was still in place prior to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, so areas with significant anarchist (or other leftist) presence were being governed by the government. It's not like a village could get away with declaring itself to be an anarchist commune, expropriate the local landlords and stop paying taxes - the Civil Guards existed basically to stop this happening, and were fairly brutal and efficient at stamping this kind of thing out. This does however gloss over the extent to which the Spanish state could often be rather absent in rural areas in the early twentieth century. Indeed, one convincing argument I've seen made about why Spanish anarchism became so strong was that they were the only ones actually making an effort in rural Spain aside from the Catholic Church - they set up local organisations, libraries and education facilities long before the government made any serious effort to provide these kind of services. So, in this sense, 'governance' is a bit of a mixed bag - the government could exert control, but weren't performing many of the 'normal' functions of governance in many of the areas that the anarchists were particularly strong. Particularly in pre-Republican Spain, this was a key driver of anti-clerical feeling - for all intents and purposes, the Church was the only institution of the Spanish state that was actually present across much of rural Spain. This meant that Church institutions and representatives were inevitably politicised, and seen as legitimate targets for political violence in a way that was just about unknown across much of the rest of Europe.\n\nThis picture obviously changes after the outbreak of the civil war, and the launch of what is often called the 'Spanish Revolution' in response. This revolution is quite distinctive, as participants were not that concerned with the big institutions of government like parliament, which generally continued to exist as before (albeit without much influence over events in the early weeks and months), but concentrated on seizing local land and means of production, as well as more functional aspects of government like barracks, armouries and telephone exchanges, particularly in Barcelona. This reflected, of course, the ideological preferences of the revolutionaries. But an inevitable result is that it's very hard to speak of a singular experience of the Spanish Revolution, as the methods and aims of different groups varied so widely.\n\nSo, even looking at somewhere like Catalonia where this revolutionary process went the furthest in collectivising land and factories, it wasn't like parts of Spain became homogenously anarchist. Some locales, for instance, might have both a socialist and an anarchist collective farm. Even among these collectives, there was a great deal of variance in scale (one collective might have 5,000 inhabitants, another 50) and context (different crops, locations, climate, rules etc). Broadly speaking, collectives were established by local trade unionists (UGT, CNT or both), and delegates were appointed to manage various aspects of the new enterprise, from different types of production (crops, cattle etc) to administration, and the delegates together formed a general council, often responsible in turn to a general assembly of the collective's workers (not, I suspect, including the women), which were sometimes regularly consituted and played a guiding role, and sometimes were irregular gatherings with less of a day to day role. Joining collectives was nominally voluntary for smallholding farmers (and many did indeed choose to do so), but there may have been some coercion involved, and restrictions placed upon those who remained independent, such as not allowing them to employ anyone. How far these collectives remained true to their basic democratic principles, or became small fiefdoms of local dictators, is a more difficult question that is inevitably tainted by wider ideological debates. Individual collectives were also, naturally, variably successful, with some seeing defections, others the participation of self-interested individuals who sought to profit from accumulating goods and produce. Similarly, whether or not production increased as a result of collectivisation tended to rest on local contexts and factors, as well as the wider pressures of the war on the agricultural sector. While I have less direct information about law enforcement as per your question, I suspect it reflects this picture as well - rules and laws would likely have been established and enforced differently, depending on how collectivisation proceeded locally.\n\nThe militias themselves were also a bit of a mixed bag. While they did well against often disorganised and confused opponents in the mainly urban battles of the early civil war, the transition to more traditional warfare exposed their lack of training, equipment and organisation, leading to heavy losses and eventually the regularisation of the militias into more traditional military units. In theory at least, the anarchist militias were supposed to be democratic entities. The Durruti Column, one of the earliest anarchist militias formed in Catalonia, was described by one historian as being:\n\n > organised on an anarchist basis, with ten men forming a group, ten groups a *centuria*, all electing their leaders, and five groups an *agrupación*. The leaders of these bodies formed the war committee of the column, which had to approve the decisions of the Technical Military Council, consisting of the few officers who accompanied the militia.\n\nThough the basic formula varied, the election of delegates in this manner appears to have been common. Democracy went beyond the election of leaders. Some anarchist militias refused to participate in what was seen as pointless militarism, such as drilling or being confined to barracks at night. Military orders, particularly in the early months, were often written more as persuasive arguments and justifications than as direct commands, in the knowledge that the latter might be refused on principle. Yet as with collectivisation, there was little conformity or regularity at play here, and some anarchist columns were doubtless little better than bandits. This meant that depending on who the local militia were, the standards of justice you might expect would vary considerably - and if your crime was a political one, even the most principled would not hesitate to use violence.\n\nYour last question about the conflict with communism is a whole other can of worms, which I'll continue below!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60164235", "title": "Women in the Second Spanish Republic", "section": "Section::::Start of the Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 320, "text": "At the start of the Civil War, there were two primary anarchist organizations: Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI).  Representing working-class people, they set out to prevent the Nationalists from seizing control while also serving as reforming influences inside Spain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60062476", "title": "Feminists and the Spanish Civil War", "section": "Section::::Second Spanish Republic (1931 - 1937).:Start of the Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 319, "text": "At the start of the Civil War, there were two primary anarchist organizations: Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI). Representing working class people, they set out to prevent the Nationalists from seizing control while also serving as reforming influences inside Spain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60164544", "title": "Women in the Spanish Civil War", "section": "Section::::Start of the Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 319, "text": "At the start of the Civil War, there were two primary anarchist organizations: Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI). Representing working class people, they set out to prevent the Nationalists from seizing control while also serving as reforming influences inside Spain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60062481", "title": "Milicianas in the Spanish Civil War", "section": "Section::::Second Spanish Republic (1931 - 1937).:Start of the Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 321, "text": "At the start of the Civil War, there were two primary anarchist organizations: Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI).  Representing working class people, they set out to prevent the Nationalists from seizing control while also serving as reforming influences inside Spain. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261062", "title": "Participatory democracy", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern Era.:19th and 20th Centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 739, "text": "During the Spanish civil war, from 1936–1938, the parts of Spain controlled by anarchist members of the Spanish Republican faction was governed almost totally by participatory democracy. In 1938 the anarchists were displaced after betrayal by their former Republican allies in the Communist party and attacks from the Nationalist forces of General Franco. The writer George Orwell, who experienced participatory democracy in Spain with the anarchists before their defeat, discusses it in his book \"Homage to Catalonia\", and says participatory democracy was a \"strange and valuable\" experience where one could breathe \"the air of equality\" and where normal human motives like snobbishness, greed, and fear of authority had ceased to exist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1063286", "title": "History of anarchism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 805, "text": "Anarchism played a historically prominent role during the Spanish Civil War, when anarchists established an anarchist territory in Catalonia. Revolutionary Catalonia was organized along anarcho-syndicalist lines, with powerful labor unions in the cities and collectivized agriculture in the country, but the war ended in the defeat of the anarchists and their allies and the solidification of fascism in Spain. Anarchism struggled to recover in Europe after World War II, and the second red scare in the United States kept American anarchist activity low in the post-war years, but some anarchist organizing continued. In the United States, anarchists were involved in the burgeoning beat literary movement, and some anarchist artists around the world were involved in the emerging avant-garde art scene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47246185", "title": "History of socialism", "section": "Section::::The inter-war era and World War II.:Spain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 233, "text": "During the Spanish Civil War, anarchists set up different forms of cooperative and communal arrangements, especially in the rural areas of Aragon and Catalonia. However, these communes were disbanded by the Popular Front government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, to start, Hitler was chancellor of Germany in 1933: he was running the show in 1933. You want to talk to him in the 1920s, it seems, so:\n\nDo some research on the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 - that's his first grab for power, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. And while serving his ridiculously lenient jail sentence, he wrote Mein Kampf. I might ask him about the up-and-coming Nazi Party - what he plans to do with it. Ask him about the end of World War I and how he feels about Weimar - he had very strong feelings about these. Ask him about race and struggle - those were the cornerstones of Nazi ideology. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There seems to be a bit of a spread on this (anywhere from 1920 onward), so I'll provide two possibilities:\n\n**If in the 1920s:** What is Hitler's opinion of [Houston Chamberlain](_URL_0_), a famous English scholar who defected to the Kaiser's Germany during the First World War and subsequently penned numerous works of anti-British propaganda (as married Wagner's daughter, for what it's worth). He's also famous for having devised certain theories about the basically Germanic origin of all that was good in European art and culture over the last several centuries -- given Hitler's interests, I'd imagine he'd have much to say about this, one way or another.\n\n**If in the 1930s:** Ask him what he thinks of [Oswald Mosley](_URL_1_) and his attempts to bring Fascism into the mainstream in England. Hitler will know exactly whom you're talking about, have no fear - the British Union of Fascists exploded onto the scene in 1932, and by 1936 the two men would be on such familiar terms that Hitler was happy to attend Mosley's wedding. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1033852", "title": "Political views of Adolf Hitler", "section": "Section::::\"Mein Kampf\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1356, "text": "Beginning in February 1924, Hitler was tried for high treason before the special People's Court in Munich. He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his message throughout Germany. At one point during the trial, Hitler discussed political leadership, during which he stated that leading people was not a matter of political science (\"Staatswissenschaft\") but an innate ability, one of statecraft (\"Staatskunst\"). He further elaborated by claiming that out of ten thousand politicians only one Bismarck emerged, subtly implying that he too had been born with this gift. Continuing, he declared that it was not Karl Marx who stirred the masses and ignited the Russian Revolution but Vladimir Lenin, not making his appeal to the mind but to the senses. His rousing speeches during the trial made Hitler famous, but they did not exonerate him. In April 1924, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment in Landsberg Prison, where he received preferential treatment from sympathetic guards and received substantial quantities of fan mail, including funds and other forms of assistance. During 1923 and 1924 at Landsberg, he dictated the first volume of \"Mein Kampf\" (\"My Struggle\") to his deputy Rudolf Hess. Originally entitled \"Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice\", his publisher shortened the title to \"Mein Kampf\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18172201", "title": "Karl Wahl", "section": "Section::::Life.:Nazi era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 499, "text": "He met Hitler for the last time on 25 February 1945 in Berlin. Wahl was well aware then that the war was lost. The latter issued on this occasion in front of a large number of \"Gauleiter\" the statement that \"the German people did not have the inner strength they were perceived to have\" and therefore were losing the war. Wahl attributed this harsh statement to the stress the \"Führer\" was in and perceived him to be mortally ill. Nevertheless, he could not understand why Hitler continued the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21736", "title": "Nazi Party", "section": "Section::::History.:Origins and early years: 1918–1923.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1087, "text": "Hitler's talent as an orator and his ability to draw new members, combined with his characteristic ruthlessness, soon made him the dominant figure. However, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin in June 1921, a mutiny broke out within the party in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Upon returning to Munich on 11 July, Hitler angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that his resignation would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3,680. Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP, as his opponents had Hermann Esser expelled from the party and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser to thunderous applause.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "291145", "title": "Battle of Berlin", "section": "Section::::Encirclement of Berlin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 372, "text": "On 22 April 1945, at his afternoon situation conference, Hitler fell into a tearful rage (famously dramatized in the 2004 German film \"Downfall\") when he realised that his plans, prepared the previous day, could not be achieved. He declared that the war was lost, blaming the generals for the defeat and that he would remain in Berlin until the end and then kill himself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2731583", "title": "Adolf Hitler", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 804, "text": "Hitler was born in Austria—then part of Austria-Hungary—and was raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. In 1919, he joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), the precursor of the NSDAP, and was appointed leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted to seize power in a failed coup in Munich and was imprisoned. In jail, he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto \"Mein Kampf\" (\"My Struggle\"). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, anti-semitism and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as part of a Jewish conspiracy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57538", "title": "Beer Hall Putsch", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 912, "text": "Hitler remained in the army, in Munich, after World War I. He participated in various \"national thinking\" courses. These had been organised by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Army, under Captain Karl Mayr, of which Hitler became an agent. Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army lance corporal, to infiltrate the tiny \"Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\", abbreviated DAP (German Workers' Party). Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919. He soon realised that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and he rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler assumed the political leadership of a number of Bavarian \"patriotic associations\" (revanchist), called the \"Kampfbund\". This political base extended to include about 15,000 Sturmabteilung (SA, lit. \"Storm Detachment\"), the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2348175", "title": "The Meaning of Hitler (book)", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Achievements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 365, "text": "Haffner argues that on gaining office in 1933, Hitler achieved many 'miracles' in economic and military policy.. 90% of Germans approved. Had he died in 1938, he would have been remembered as 'one of the greatest Germans ever'. Few people noticed that he had dismantled the state and concealed the resultant chaos. In the long run, his achievement came to nothing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "~~I'm not sure which \"other people\" you are referring to.~~ The Romans thought that Latin was a dialect of Greek. Modern linguists believe that they are both part of the Indo-European language family and therefore have a common linguistic ancestor. [This article](_URL_0_) will probably interest you", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27698", "title": "Sanskrit", "section": "Section::::History.:Origin and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 321, "text": "Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language; both in its vocabulary and grammar; to the classical languages of Europe. It suggested a common root and historical links between some of the major distant ancient languages of the world. William Jones remarked:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3110015", "title": "Ancient Greek phonology", "section": "Section::::Dialects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 307, "text": "The pluricentric nature of Ancient Greek differs from that of Latin, which was composed of basically one variety from the earliest Old Latin texts until Classical Latin. Latin only formed dialects once it was spread over Europe by the Roman Empire; these Vulgar Latin dialects became the Romance languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1705121", "title": "Numeral prefix", "section": "Section::::Occurrences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 330, "text": "Because of the common inheritance of Greek and Latin roots across the Romance languages, the import of much of that derived vocabulary into non-Romance languages (such as into English via Norman French), and the borrowing of 19th and 20th century coinages into many languages, the same numerical prefixes occur in many languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4138268", "title": "Modern Greek grammar", "section": "Section::::General characteristics.:Morphology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 860, "text": "Greek is a largely synthetic (inflectional) language. Although the complexity of the inflectional system has been somewhat reduced in comparison to Ancient Greek, there is also a considerable degree of continuity in the morphological system, and Greek still has a somewhat archaic character compared with other Indo-European languages of Europe. Nouns, adjectives and verbs are each divided into several inflectional classes (declension classes and conjugation classes), which have different sets of endings. In the nominals, the ancient inflectional system is well preserved, with the exception of the loss of one case, the dative, and the restructuring of several of the inflectional classes. In the verbal system, the loss of synthetic inflectional categories is somewhat greater, and several new analytic (periphrastic) constructions have evolved instead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9562687", "title": "Eligibility of international words in Interlingua", "section": "Section::::Productive and receptive spheres.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 469, "text": "In classical antiquity, Latin and Greek were the languages of the dominant political and cultural forces. Afterward, these languages acted for two millennia as essential lingua francas in Western science and religion. As a result, the Western languages have imported many thousands of Greek and Latin words, either through ancestry or through transfer and loan. Many of these same words are found in non-Western languages, such as Arabic, Hindi, Swahili, and Japanese.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1078791", "title": "Black Athena", "section": "Section::::The thesis.:The origins of Ancient Greek civilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 367, "text": "Bernal proposes instead that Greek evolved from the contact between an Indo-European language and culturally influential Egyptian and Semitic languages. He believes that many Greek words have Egyptian or Semitic roots. Bernal places the introduction of the Greek alphabet (unattested before 750 BC) between 1800 and 1400 BC, and the poet Hesiod in the tenth century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4138268", "title": "Modern Greek grammar", "section": "Section::::Verbs.:Grammatical voice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 231, "text": "Greek is one of the few modern Indo-European languages that still retains a morphological contrast between the two inherited Proto-Indo-European grammatical voices: active and mediopassive. The mediopassive has several functions: \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hi! You might enjoy the answer I gave to this question [here](_URL_0_). My view is that we need to be thinking about these numbers less in terms of \"true or false\" and more in terms of \"plausible or implausible in a world without written records\". In the context of his own work, Herodotos made a lot of effort to justify his numbers, which he probably couldn't have lowered without losing credibility in the eyes of his audience.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1259246", "title": "Battle of Greece", "section": "Section::::German invasion.:Withdrawal and surrender of the Greek Epirus Army.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 1087, "text": "General Papagos rushed Greek units to the Metsovon pass where the Germans were expected to attack. On 14 April a pitched battle between several Greek units and the LSSAH brigade—which had by then reached Grevena—erupted. The Greek 13th and Cavalry Divisions lacked the equipment necessary to fight against an armoured unit, and on 15 April were finally encircled and overwhelmed. On 18 April, General Wilson in a meeting with Papagos, informed him that the British and Commonwealth forces at Thermopylai would carry on fighting till the first week of May, providing that Greek forces from Albania could redeploy and cover the left flank. On 21 April, the Germans advanced further and captured Ioannina, the final supply route of the Greek Epirus Army. Allied newspapers dubbed the Hellenic army's fate a modern-day Greek tragedy. Historian and former war-correspondent Christopher Buckley – when describing the fate of the Hellenic army – stated that \"one experience[d] a genuine Aristotelian catharsis, an awe-inspiring sense of the futility of all human effort and all human courage.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3232443", "title": "Pat Pattle", "section": "Section::::Second World War.:Battle for Greece.:Death over Piraeus Harbour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 381, "text": "On this very morning, at roughly 05:00, large formations appeared over the capital, Athens. The remaining Allied fighter units in the area committed themselves to defending the Allied ships in what became known as \"the Battle of Athens\". Barely 15 Hawker Hurricanes, the entire Allied air presence in Greece at the time, participated in a series of defensive missions over Athens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4448743", "title": "Battle of Vevi (1941)", "section": "Section::::Battle.:Final phase.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 514, "text": "In the west, the positions of the Greek 88th Regiment were assaulted at 18:30. After a brief uneven clash at close quarters, the Germans overran the 88th, which reeled back toward Aetos. According to Greek sources, an attempted counterattack was aborted when the 88th Regiment's commander was killed; however, German sources mention repulsing a Greek attack against the German right flank at 19:00 (which conforms to the actual disposition of forces, with the Greek regimental HQ south-west of the German attack).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1720745", "title": "Ten Thousand", "section": "Section::::Campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 406, "text": "The \"ten thousand\" marched inland and fought the Battle of Cunaxa and then marched back to Greece during the years 401 BC to 399 BC. Xenophon stated in \"The Anabasis\" that the Greek heavy troops scattered their opposition twice during the battle; only one Greek was even wounded. Only after the battle did they hear that Cyrus had been killed, making their victory irrelevant and the expedition a failure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20198436", "title": "Second Persian invasion of Greece", "section": "Section::::August 480 BC: Thermopylae and Artemisium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 859, "text": "When the Allies received the news that Xerxes was clearing paths around Mount Olympus, and thus intending to march towards Thermopylae, it was both the period of truce that accompanied the Olympic games, and the Spartan festival of Carneia, during both of which warfare was considered sacrilegious. Nevertheless, the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they despatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard (the \"Hippeis\") of 300 men (in this case, the elite young soldiers in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had sons). Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Peloponnesian cities allied to Sparta, and other forces that were picked up \"en route\" to Thermopylae. The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass, and waited for Xerxes's arrival.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36117331", "title": "Ioannis Zisis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 449, "text": "Prior to and during the German invasion of Greece, Major General Zisis was commander of the Evros Brigade (Ταξιαρχία Έβρου) deployed in Western Thrace and consisting of 2,100 men. In the Battle of Metaxas Line (April 6–9, 1941), the numerically and technically superior German Army invaded Greece from the Bulgarian border. However, the Greek fortifications at Nymfaia, near Komotini were able to provide a two-day resistance against enemy attacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2185538", "title": "Battle of Phaleron", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 280, "text": "The Battle of Phaleron took place on April 24 (6 May Gregorian ), 1827. The Greek rebel forces were being besieged inside the Acropolis of Athens by Ottoman forces under the command of Mehmed Reshid Pasha. Greek forces outside the city were desperately trying to break the siege.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Lets see. Why would you start a fight?\n\nYou want something that other guy has.\n\nYou really hate that guy for whatever reason.\n\nA couple of other reasons exist, but the concept is the same.\n\nNow, if that guy has something that will instantly kill or severely hurt you if you attack him, even if you disable him quickly, you wouldn't start that fight.\n\nYou won't be able to use that thing you wanted to have and having acted on your hate is probably less valuable then your life.\n\nNo rational decisionmaker would decide to attack an opponent who can with near certainty annihilate him if he tried (unless he has a way to circumvent or disable whatever allows his opponent to do this).\n\nNuclear weapons make pretty sure that you can't win anything by launching an attack.\n\n#EDIT:\n\nAbout the second part of your question: It would continue to do so until someone develops a way to prevent his own destruction like a reliable defense system or a way to disable the opposing nation so quickly that it can't launch.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45959", "title": "Nuclear strategy", "section": "Section::::Nuclear deterrent composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 338, "text": "The doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD) assumes that a nuclear deterrent force must be credible and survivable. That is, each deterrent force must survive a first strike with sufficient capability to effectively destroy the other country in a second strike. Therefore, a first strike would be suicidal for the launching country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "242883", "title": "History of nuclear weapons", "section": "Section::::Weapons improvement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 410, "text": "According to game theory, because starting a nuclear war was suicidal, no logical country would shoot first. However, if a country could launch a first strike that utterly destroyed the target country's ability to respond, that might give that country the confidence to initiate a nuclear war. The object of a country operating by the MAD doctrine is to deny the opposing country this first strike capability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10125582", "title": "Nuclear peace", "section": "Section::::Argument.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 224, "text": "Nuclear weapons may also lessen a state's reliance on allies for security, thus preventing allies from dragging each other into wars (a phenomenon known as chain ganging, frequently said to be a major cause of World War I).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21785", "title": "Nuclear weapon", "section": "Section::::Nuclear strategy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 430, "text": "Critics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "735661", "title": "Deterrence theory", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 1168, "text": "First, it is argued that suicidal or psychotic opponents may not be deterred by either forms of deterrence. Second, if two enemy states both possess nuclear weapons, Country \"X\" may try to gain a first-strike advantage by suddenly launching weapons at Country \"Y\", with a view to destroying its enemy's nuclear launch silos thereby rendering Country \"Y\" incapable of a response. Third, diplomatic misunderstandings and/or opposing political ideologies may lead to escalating mutual perceptions of threat, and a subsequent arms race that elevates the risk of actual war, a scenario illustrated in the movies \"WarGames\" (1983) and \"Dr. Strangelove\" (1964). An arms race is inefficient in its optimal output, as all countries involved expend resources on armaments that would not have been created if the others had not expended resources, a form of positive feedback. Fourth, escalation of perceived threat can make it easier for certain measures to be inflicted on a population by its government, such as restrictions on civil liberties, the creation of a military–industrial complex, and military expenditures resulting in higher taxes and increasing budget deficits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53140", "title": "Nuclear utilization target selection", "section": "Section::::Limited countervalue strikes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 604, "text": "Some NUTS theorists hold that a mutually assured destruction-type deterrent is not credible in cases of a small attack, such as one carried out on a single city, as it is suicidal. In such a case, an overwhelming nuclear response would destroy every enemy city and thus every potential hostage that could be used to influence the attacker's behavior. This would free up the attacker to launch further attacks and remove any chance for the attacked nation to bargain. A country adhering to a NUTS-style war plan would likely respond to such an attack with a limited attack on one or several enemy cities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6118377", "title": "Countervalue", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 379, "text": "One view argues that countervalue targeting upholds nuclear deterrence because both sides are more likely to believe in each other's no first use policy. The line of reasoning is that if an aggressor strikes first with nuclear weapons against an opponent's countervalue targets, then, by definition, such an attack does not degrade the opponent's military capacity to retaliate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " During a star's lifetime, the outward pressure exerted from all of the thermal energy being created by fusion in the core holds the volume of the star up against the force of gravity created by all of that mass. When a star uses up its nuclear fusion fuel supply, there's a number of end scenarios that can play out, and which one happens generally depends on the mass of the star.\n\nOne of the possible end results is something called a white dwarf. The fusion has shut down, and so that thermal pressure stops, and the star begins to contract due to gravity. This continues and the star gets increasingly dense until something called [electron degeneracy pressure](_URL_0_) stops it. Long story short, at a quantum level, mass resists getting smashed together even denser, and the force of this resistance is called Electron degeneracy pressure.\n\nSo in a white dwarf, electron degeneracy pressure holds the star at a particular volume, and assuming no other significant celestial bodies influence it, the white dwarf just sort of hangs out in the universe, slowly radiating away all its residual heat.\n\nBut that only happens to most stars. Some stars have so much mass, and create so much gravity, that that inward collapsing is stronger than electron degeneracy pressure. That amount of mass is called the Chandraskhar Limit. If a dying star has more mass than that limit, then it'll contract past the white dwarf stage, and proceed on to a neutron star, or maybe a quark star (we're not sure if those exist), or even a black hole if it's massive enough. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5678338", "title": "Flux limiter", "section": "Section::::How they work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 624, "text": "The limiter function is constrained to be greater than or equal to zero, i.e., formula_11. Therefore, when the limiter is equal to zero (sharp gradient, opposite slopes or zero gradient), the flux is represented by a \"low resolution scheme\". Similarly, when the limiter is equal to 1 (smooth solution), it is represented by a \"high resolution scheme\". The various limiters have differing switching characteristics and are selected according to the particular problem and solution scheme. No particular limiter has been found to work well for all problems, and a particular choice is usually made on a trial and error basis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9465910", "title": "Zero one infinity rule", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 563, "text": "The Zero one or infinity (ZOI) rule is a rule of thumb in software design proposed by early computing pioneer Willem van der Poel. It argues that arbitrary limits on the number of instances of a particular entity should not be allowed. Specifically, an entity should either be forbidden entirely, only one should be allowed, or any number of them should be allowed. Although various factors outside that particular software could limit this number in practice, it should not be the software itself that puts a hard limit on the number of instances of the entity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19216956", "title": "(ε, δ)-definition of limit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 695, "text": "In calculus, the (ε, δ)-definition of limit (\"epsilon–delta definition of limit\") is a formalization of the notion of limit. The concept is due to Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who never gave an (formula_1) definition of limit in his \"Cours d'Analyse\", but occasionally used formula_1 arguments in proofs. It was first given as a formal definition by Bernard Bolzano in 1817, and the definitive modern statement was ultimately provided by Karl Weierstrass. It makes rigorous the following informal notion: the dependent expression \"f\"(\"x\") approaches the value \"L\" as the variable \"x\" approaches the value \"c\" if \"f\"(\"x\") can be made as close as desired to \"L\" by taking \"x\" sufficiently close to \"c\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "285773", "title": "Limit of a sequence", "section": "Section::::Definition in hyperreal numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 409, "text": "The definition of the limit using the hyperreal numbers formalizes the intuition that for a \"very large\" value of the index, the corresponding term is \"very close\" to the limit. More precisely, a real sequence formula_2 tends to \"L\" if for every infinite hypernatural \"H\", the term \"x\" is infinitely close to \"L\", i.e., the difference \"x\" − \"L\" is infinitesimal. Equivalently, \"L\" is the standard part of \"x\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5871034", "title": "Schottky group", "section": "Section::::Limit sets of Schottky groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 400, "text": "A similar argument implies that the limit set has Lebesgue measure zero. For it is contained in the complement of union of the images of the fundamental region by group elements with word length bounded by \"n\". This is a finite union of circles so has finite area. That area is bounded above by a constant times the contribution to the Poincaré sum of elements of word length \"n\", so decreases to 0.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19216956", "title": "(ε, δ)-definition of limit", "section": "Section::::Comparison with infinitesimal definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 1284, "text": "Keisler proved that a hyperreal definition of limit reduces the quantifier complexity by two quantifiers. Namely, formula_140 converges to a limit \"L\" as formula_3 tends to \"a\" if and only if for every infinitesimal \"e\", the value formula_161 is infinitely close to \"L\"; see microcontinuity for a related definition of continuity, essentially due to Cauchy. Infinitesimal calculus textbooks based on Robinson's approach provide definitions of continuity, derivative, and integral at standard points in terms of infinitesimals. Once notions such as continuity have been thoroughly explained via the approach using microcontinuity, the epsilon–delta approach is presented as well. Karel Hrbáček argues that the definitions of continuity, derivative, and integration in Robinson-style non-standard analysis must be grounded in the ε–δ method in order to cover also non-standard values of the input. Błaszczyk et al. argue that microcontinuity is useful in developing a transparent definition of uniform continuity, and characterize the criticism by Hrbáček as a \"dubious lament\". Hrbáček proposes an alternative non-standard analysis, which (unlike Robinson's) has many \"levels\" of infinitesimals, so that limits at one level can be defined in terms of infinitesimals at the next level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40645", "title": "Haar measure", "section": "Section::::Construction of Haar measure.:A construction using compactly supported functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 477, "text": "The fact that the limit exists takes some effort to prove, though the advantage of doing this is that the proof avoids the use of the axiom of choice and also gives uniqueness of Haar measure as a by-product. The functional formula_64 extends to a positive linear functional on compactly supported continuous functions and so gives a Haar measure. (Note that even though the limit is linear in formula_57, the individual terms formula_59 are not usually linear in formula_57.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You can orgasm without physical stimuli while awake as well. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All physical sensation is just impulses interpreted by the brain. No need for the actual stimuli, just need the part of the brain that responds to the stimuli to activate.\n\nSame idea as starting a car. The conventional way is to use a key to start the engine. You can bypass the key by hot wiring it (or so movies have led me to believe). Your brain is hot wiring your sexy time centers, bypassing the physical stimulation. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Arousal, Erection (or lubrication), orgasm, and ejaculation are all distinct operations and EACH of them can happen independently of any others. Usually, experiencing orgasm in isolation or ejaculation in isolation is strange, but they CAN happen. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't really feel comfortable explaining orgasms to a 5-year-old.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Reminds me of the Jackie Treehorn scene in The Big Lebowski:\n\n TREEHORN\n People forget that the brain is the \n biggest erogenous zone--\n\n DUDE\n On you, maybe.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22546", "title": "Orgasm", "section": "Section::::Achieving orgasm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 466, "text": "In addition to physical stimulation, orgasm can be achieved from psychological arousal alone, such as during dreaming (nocturnal emission for males or females) or by forced orgasm. Orgasm by psychological stimulation alone was first reported among people who had spinal cord injury. Although sexual function and sexuality after spinal cord injury is very often impacted, this injury does not deprive one of sexual feelings such as sexual arousal and erotic desires.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22546", "title": "Orgasm", "section": "Section::::Achieving orgasm.:Males.:Variabilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 525, "text": "In men, the most common way of achieving orgasm is by physical sexual stimulation of the penis. This is usually accompanied by ejaculation, but it is possible, though also rare, for men to orgasm without ejaculation (known as a \"dry orgasm\"). Prepubescent boys have dry orgasms. Dry orgasms can also occur as a result of retrograde ejaculation, or hypogonadism. Men may also ejaculate without reaching orgasm, which is known as anorgasmic ejaculation. They may also achieve orgasm by stimulation of the prostate (see below).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22546", "title": "Orgasm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 299, "text": "Human orgasms usually result from physical sexual stimulation of the penis in males (typically accompanying ejaculation) and of the clitoris in females. Sexual stimulation can be by self-practice (masturbation) or with a sex partner (penetrative sex, non-penetrative sex, or other sexual activity).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "922804", "title": "Edging (sexual practice)", "section": "Section::::In masturbation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 472, "text": "Orgasm control is most easily learned through solitary masturbation, although many individuals enjoy including elements of orgasm control in sex with a partner. Masturbation provides the individual with the opportunity of learning about their bodies and the amount of pleasure they can experience without reaching orgasm. Self-stimulation can help both men and women acknowledge the limits of their body and the techniques that may help them in controlling their orgasms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "403653", "title": "Sexual stimulation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 267, "text": "Sexual stimulation is any stimulus (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances and maintains sexual arousal, and may lead to orgasm. Although sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation, achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22546", "title": "Orgasm", "section": "Section::::Definitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1096, "text": "There is some debate whether certain types of sexual sensations should be accurately classified as orgasms, including female orgasms caused by G-spot stimulation alone, and the demonstration of extended or continuous orgasms lasting several minutes or even an hour. The question centers around the clinical definition of orgasm, but this way of viewing orgasm is merely physiological, while there are also psychological, endocrinological, and neurological definitions of orgasm. In these and similar cases, the sensations experienced are subjective and do not necessarily involve the involuntary contractions characteristic of orgasm. However, the sensations in both sexes are extremely pleasurable and are often felt throughout the body, causing a mental state that is often described as transcendental, and with vasocongestion and associated pleasure comparable to that of a full-contractionary orgasm. For example, modern findings support distinction between ejaculation and male orgasm. For this reason, there are views on both sides as to whether these can be accurately defined as orgasms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "922804", "title": "Edging (sexual practice)", "section": "Section::::In masturbation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 450, "text": "Many individuals assert that orgasm control is more often possible with masturbation. This is a direct result of the fact that one is then able to control the intensity and duration of stimulation without having to rely on the partner stopping or changing the type of stimulation in order to postpone the orgasm. Masturbation is then the easy way to learn one's limits and could also be seen as the starting point in the technique of orgasm control.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hew Strachan tackles Africa in his \"The First World War,\" volume 1. I believe you can buy those sections as one unit on Amazon. He'd be a good place to start. I suggest mining the references and going from there. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6311212", "title": "Charles Miller (author)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 233, "text": "Charles Miller (1918 – 1986) was an American author of popular history books on East Africa such as \"The Lunatic Express, An Entertainment in Imperialism\" (1971) and \"Battle for the Bundu, The First World War in East Africa\" (1974).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4971457", "title": "African theatre of World War I", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 435, "text": "The African Theatre of World War I describes campaigns in North Africa instigated by the German and Ottoman empires, local rebellions against European colonial rule and Allied campaigns against the German colonies of Kamerun, Togoland, German South West Africa and German East Africa. The campaigns were fought by German \"Schutztruppe\", local resistance movements and forces of the British Empire, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3133697", "title": "African literature", "section": "Section::::Colonial African literature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 346, "text": "During this period, African plays written in English began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, \"\" in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, \"The Black Hermit\", a cautionary tale about \"tribalism\" (discrimination between African tribes).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2390617", "title": "African Writers Conference", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 550, "text": "In an essay entitled \"The Dead End Of African Literature\", published in \"Transition\" in 1963, Obiajunwa Wali stated: \"Perhaps the most important achievement of the last Conference of African Writers of English Expression held in Makerere College, Kampala, in June 1962, is that African literature as now defined and understood leads nowhere. The conference itself marked the final climax on the attack on the Negritude school of Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire... Another significant event in the Conference, is the tacit omission of Amos Tutuola.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23730852", "title": "Gaius Considius Longus", "section": "Section::::Literature.:Primary sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 822, "text": "Our chief source is the anonymous \"Bellum Africum\" (\"The African War\"), also known as \"De Bello Africo\" (\"On the African War\"), an anonymous account of Julius Caesar's African campaign, which supplements Caesar's own account of the civil war and seems to have been written by a soldier who had served under Caesar on the campaign. It is usually included in a larger text along with other accounts of the last stages of the civil war, the \"Bellum Hispaniense\" (War in Spain) and \"Bellum Alexandrinum \" (War in Alexandria). For Considius' earlier career we have some information from Cicero's speech \"Pro Quinto Ligario\" (\"On behalf of Quintus Ligarius\") and the ancient commentary to this, first edited by Jakob Gronovius and so known as the \"Scholia Gronoviana\", but now generally cited from the edition of Thomas Stangl.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4966980", "title": "Sam Ukala", "section": "Section::::References.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 215, "text": "BULLET::::- \"African Theatre: Playwrights and Politics\". Editor: Martin Banham, James Gibbs, Femi Osofisan. The second volume in the annual African Theatre series that focuses on playwrights and politics in Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7901082", "title": "John Thornton (historian)", "section": "Section::::Works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 301, "text": "His studies of Africa in the slave trade led him, at the urging of English historian Jeremy Black to write a systematic study of African wars and military culture in the period of the slave trade, which appeared in 1999 as \"Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800\" (University College of London, 1999).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well they use specific programs designed to augment sound waves. It started out with having the change the actual circuitry of the physical device to produce such sounds, now you can literally just layer loops and press play, if your a lazy fuck. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "230004", "title": "Scratching", "section": "Section::::Basic techniques.:Non-vinyl scratching.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 463, "text": "BULLET::::- Vinyl emulation software allows a DJ to manipulate the playback of digital music files on a computer via a DJ control surface (generally MIDI or a HID controller). DJs can scratch, beatmatch, and perform other turntablist operations that cannot be done with a conventional keyboard and mouse. DJ software performing computer scratch operations include Traktor Pro, Mixxx, Serato Scratch Live & Itch, Virtual DJ, M-Audio Torq, DJay, Deckadance, Cross.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "230004", "title": "Scratching", "section": "Section::::Basic techniques.:Digital vinyl systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 289, "text": "BULLET::::4. By manipulating the turntables' platters, speed controls, and other elements, the DJ thus controls how the computer plays back digitized audio and can therefore produce \"scratching\" and other turntablism effects on songs which exist as digital audio files or computer tracks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18935160", "title": "Plunderphonics", "section": "Section::::Works by other artists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1146, "text": "Both Oswald and Negativland made their recordings by cutting up magnetic tape (or later using digital technology), but several DJs have also produced plunderphonic works using turntables; in fact, \"digging\" for samples plays a large part in DJ culture. Christian Marclay is a turntablist who has been using other people's records as the sole source of his music making since the late 1970s. He often treats the records in unusual ways, for example, he has physically cut up a group of records and stuck them together, making both a visual and aural collage. Sometimes several spoken-word or lounge music records bought from thrift stores are mashed together to make a Marclay track, but his \"More Encores\" album cuts up tracks by the likes of Maria Callas and Louis Armstrong in a way similar to Oswald's work on \"Plunderphonics\". Marclay's experimental approach has been taken up by the likes of Roberto Musci & Giovanni Venosta, Otomo Yoshihide, Philip Jeck and Martin Tétreault, although in these artist's works the records used are sometimes heavily disguised and unrecognisable, meaning the results cannot properly be called plunderphonics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8683", "title": "Disc jockey", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:DJ controllers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 537, "text": "DJ software can be used to mix audio files on the computer instead of a separate hardware mixer. When mixing on a computer, DJs often use a DJ controller device that mimics the layout of two turntables plus a DJ mixer to control the software rather than the computer keyboard & touchpad on a laptop, or the touchscreen on a tablet computer or smartphone. Many DJ controllers have an integrated sound card with 4 output channels (2 stereo pairs) that allows the DJ to use headphones to preview music before playing it on the main output.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36974846", "title": "Cross/CrossDJ", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Cross.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 225, "text": "The software allows manipulation and playback of digital audio sources using traditional vinyl and turntables. This provides DJs with a platform to scratch or beat match their tracks without losing the genuine vinyl/CD feel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18839", "title": "Music", "section": "Section::::Media and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 167, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 167, "end_character": 718, "text": "Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also \"become\" performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2688507", "title": "DJ mixer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1065, "text": "A DJ mixer is a type of audio mixing console used by Disc jockeys (DJs) to control and manipulate multiple audio signals. Some DJs use the mixer to make seamless transitions from one song to another when they are playing records at a dance club. Hip hop DJs and turntablists use the DJ mixer to play record players like a musical instrument and create new sounds. DJs in the disco, house music, electronic dance music and other dance-oriented genres use the mixer to make smooth transitions between different sound recordings as they are playing. The sources are typically record turntables, compact cassettes, CDJs, or DJ software on a laptop. DJ mixers allow the DJ to use headphones to preview the next song before playing it to the audience. Most low- to mid-priced DJ mixers can only accommodate two turntables or CD players, but some mixers (such as the ones used in larger nightclubs) can accommodate up to four turntables or CD players. DJs and turntablists in hip hop music and nu metal use DJ mixers to create beats, loops and \"scratching\" sound effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hotels have ridiculous tankless water heaters that flash heat water in-line, so they don't retain a huge tank of water like most household water heaters. If your house is older, it probably isn't plumbed very well and/or you have a small/inefficient water heater.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your home probably has older shower controls without a pressure balancing valve.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4739063", "title": "Shanghai Detention Center", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Sanitation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 359, "text": "Detainees generally are subject to a daily shower convention: shower takes place by the sink in each cell (sink provides only cold water). Showers are typically allowed after dinner without regard for seasonality. This daily shower is considered a “cell” rule. The detention center provides weekly hot shower but such showers are at the mercy of the furnace.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10353651", "title": "Night auditor", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 284, "text": "In the smallest hotels and some bed and breakfast establishments, the front desk may close entirely overnight. Guests in such facilities are typically given a contact number for an employee or manager, who may be sleeping on the premises or live nearby, for use in case of emergency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "258839", "title": "Capsule hotel", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 417, "text": "Like a hostel, many amenities are communally shared, including toilets, showers, wireless internet, and dining rooms. In Japan, a capsule hotel may have a communal bath and sauna. Some hotels also provide restaurants, snack bars or bars (or at least vending machines), pools, and other entertainment facilities. There may be a lounge with upholstered chairs for relaxing, along with newspapers and reading material. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2446831", "title": "Clermont Lounge", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 246, "text": "In December 2009, the health department ordered the hotel to close for numerous health-code violations, including dirty linen, old bedding, bed bug stains, mold growing on the walls, black water spilling from faucets, and broken toilet fixtures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1026872", "title": "SchwabenQuellen", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 456, "text": "It is a member of the European Waterparks Association (EWA), and provides saunas, steamrooms, and various kinds of baths. There are also what are referred to as \"adventure showers\". A small room full of snow, kept at , is also available, so that participants can roll in the snow naked (this often follows use of a sauna or other type of steam room). Like many German bathing areas, people are expected to be nude throughout the sauna part of the resort. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2776063", "title": "Banya (sauna)", "section": "Section::::Bathing ritual.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 289, "text": "After each sweat, cooling off is repeated and patrons use the break to drink beer, tea, or other beverages, play games or relax in good company in an antechamber to the steam room. Commercial \"banyas\" often have only a steam room or a steam room and a dry room, depending on local custom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "75649", "title": "Sauna", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 489, "text": "Cooling down is a part of the sauna cycle and is as important as the heating. Among users it is considered good practice to take a few moments after exiting a sauna before entering a cold plunge, and to enter a plunge pool by stepping into it gradually, rather than immediately immersing fully. In summer, a session is often started with a cold shower. Therapeutic sauna has been shown to aid adaptation, reduce stress hormones, lower blood pressure and improve cardiovascular conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In areas where natural copper could be found the nuggets were cold worked by natives into a variety of tools including arrowheads. One of these areas was located around the Great Lakes and is called the Old Copper Complex. Copper arrowheads and other tools were also used in Alaska and the Yukon. \n\nThe use of copper was completely dependent on the availability of naturally occurring copper that did not need to be smelted. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24595491", "title": "Lamoka projectile point", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 397, "text": "Lamoka projectile points are stone projectile points manufactured by Native Americans what is now the northeastern United States, generally in the time interval of 3500-2500 B.C. They predate the invention of the bow and arrow, and are therefore not true \"arrowheads\", but rather atlatl dart points. They derive their name from the specimens found at the Lamoka site in Schuyler County, New York.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "143830", "title": "Projectile point", "section": "Section::::History in North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 536, "text": "A large variety of prehistoric arrowheads, dart points, and spear points have been discovered. Flint, obsidian, quartz and many other rocks and minerals were commonly used to make points in North America. The oldest projectile points found in North America were long thought to date from about 13,000 years ago, during the Paleo-Indian period, however recent evidence suggests that North American projectile points may date to as old as 15,500 years. Some of the more famous Paleo-Indian types include Clovis, Folsom and Dalton points.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24591014", "title": "Levanna projectile point", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 336, "text": "Levanna projectile points are stone projectile points manufactured by Native Americans what is now the northeastern United States generally in the time interval of 700-1350 AD. They are true \"arrowheads\" rather than atlatl dart points, and they derive their name from the specimens found at the Levanna site in Cayuga County, New York.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1870925", "title": "Cooleemee", "section": "Section::::Archaeology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 522, "text": "About 175 arrowheads that were found on the western side of the Yadkin River at Cooleemee Plantation were classified by Dr. Joffre L. Coe of the University of North Carolina, and Dr. James Bingham, former President of the North Carolina Archaeological Society. The arrowheads which were from different peoples and of different times were dated from approximately 7000 BCE to the 18th century. Several specimens exist which date from 8000 to 8500 years old with the eldest, a Hardaway Point, being dated at 9000 years old.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28071694", "title": "Rossville points", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 355, "text": "Rossville points are a type of arrowhead first recognized as a unique Native American cultural indicator in 1909 by archaeologists of the American Museum of Natural History. They were named by archaeologist Alanson Skinner after the Rossville section of Staten Island, New York where they were found in the vicinity of the old U.S. Post Office building. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7813222", "title": "Military of ancient Egypt", "section": "Section::::Projectile Weapons.:The Composite Bow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 271, "text": "The first arrow-heads were flint, which was replaced by bronze in the 2nd millennium. Arrow-heads were mostly made for piercing, having a sharp point. However, the arrow heads could vary considerably, and some were even blunt (probably used more for hunting small game).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24702052", "title": "Arrowhead, British Columbia", "section": "Section::::Name origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 738, "text": "Although the most obvious origin of the name is that Arrowhead is at the head of the Arrow Lakes, another version claims that it relates to the finding of arrowheads in the ground during construction of buildings in the area, left from an ancient battle between First Nations peoples. Another version says that it is because of the arrowhead-shaped appearance of the lake from high ground in the vicinity. The name of the Arrow Lakes is credit to \"Arrow Rock\", a large cliffside pictograph shot through with clusters of arrows, again relating to an ancient battle (in this case known to be between the Sinixt and the Ktunaxa), which stood above \"the Narrows\", a stretch of fast-flowing channel connecting Upper Arrow to Lower Arrow Lake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The main reason is that electricity usage is highest during heat waves, because everyone's air conditioning is running at full blast.\n\nThere's a second less important reason, which is that fossil fuel and nuclear power plants are less efficient in hot weather. They use outside air and/or water to cool their steam back to water to recycle back into the plant, and that doesn't work as well on a hot day.\n\nIn fact, it turns out there's a theorem of thermodynamics that says that the maximum possible efficiency of both heat engines (power plant) and refrigerators (air conditioners) is worse when the outside air is warmer.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "69902", "title": "Extreme weather", "section": "Section::::Extreme temperatures.:Heat waves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 219, "text": "Power outages can also occur within areas experiencing heat waves due to the increased demand for electricity (i.e. air conditioning use). The urban heat island effect can increase temperatures, particularly overnight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25494567", "title": "December 2009 North American blizzard", "section": "Section::::Impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 576, "text": "Thousands of power outages were reported in Virginia, Kentucky, and North Carolina, reportedly caused by snow weighing down on power lines. By midnight Saturday morning, when the storm had just begun to strike the area, reported power outages had already exceeded 40,000. In Kentucky, 107,000 power outages were reported. A snow emergency was declared in Washington, D.C., where Mayor Adrian Fenty asked residents to avoid venturing onto the roads. States of emergency were declared in Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and New Castle and Kent counties in Delaware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2222635", "title": "Atmospheric electricity", "section": "Section::::Description.:Variations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 205, "text": "Even away from thunderstorms, atmospheric electricity can be highly variable, but, generally, the electric field is enhanced in fogs and dust whereas the atmospheric electrical conductivity is diminished.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244601", "title": "Effects of nuclear explosions", "section": "Section::::Indirect effects.:Radar blackout.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 560, "text": "A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of beta particles from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two megaton H-bomb, will create enough beta radiation to black out an area across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar-blanking effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6455551", "title": "Northeast blackout of 2003", "section": "Section::::Immediate impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 335, "text": "It was a hot day (over ) in much of the affected region, and the heat played a role in the initial event that triggered the wider power outage. The high ambient temperature increased energy demand, as people across the region turned on fans and air conditioning. This caused the power lines to sag as higher currents heated the lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27718961", "title": "Global storm activity of 2010", "section": "Section::::February.:February 5–11.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 166, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 166, "end_character": 697, "text": "February 7 saw yet more major power outages in the Washington, D.C. region. At least 420,000 homes were under a blackout as the snow felled trees and cut power lines. Some 300,000 homes were without electricity in Maryland and neighboring Virginia, while Washington, D.C. was reporting an initial figure of 100,000 power outages for that day. Emergency workers struggled to restore power as of snow and a record snowfall of fell on Maryland. Transport was badly disrupted from West Virginia to southern New Jersey. Washington, D.C., Virginia and Maryland have declared a short term state of emergency, allowing them to activate the National Guard in order to help cope with the storm's onslaught.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51792139", "title": "2016 South Australian blackout", "section": "Section::::December blackouts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 871, "text": "Further widespread blackouts occurred beginning late on Tuesday 27 December 2016, with areas losing power for upwards of twelve hours following severe storms causing damage to over 300 powerlines in the electricity distribution network. The storms also caused flooding and wind damage, including property destruction due to fallen trees. A total of 155,000 properties lost power at the peak of the storms, requiring over 1200 repair jobs resulting from over 350 powerlines being damaged. As of 7.30pm on Thursday 29 December, there were more than 11 500 households still without power across the state, some for up to forty-six hours, in regions including the Adelaide Hills, Mid-North, Flinders Ranges, and Murraylands. By 9am on Saturday 31 December, there were still more than 1600 households without power for more than 80 hours, primarily across the Adelaide Hills.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > how does the government get away with race-based financial aid? (affirmative action)\n\nIt's a social construct, but the harm done to those communities was social, and still real. Let's say we make up a category \"ABCers\", and said you were a part of it, so you should be abused. Even if that category doesn't have any rational basis, you are still recognized as having faced the harm that came with being placed in that group.\n\nThe group might not have a completely scientific basis, but people treated it like it did, and affirmative action is an effort to help balance out some of those harms that still linger today. As long as racism exists, it's worth analyzing the impact race has.\n\nIn short, even though race is a social construct, it's still a social construct, which means it impacts society, and it's historical impact is still relevant.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are no sociological characteristics that correspond 1:1 with skin color, which is how \"race\" is determined in the United States. That is not to say that skin color is not a biological trait that is passed from generation to generation. Rather, it simply means that behavioral traits we associate with certain races are not genetically linked to the phenotypical traits we use to define those races.\n\nIt may be true that the genes that facilitate becoming a violin virtuoso are disproportionately found among people whose ancestors come from Asia. But these genes are not linked in any way to something like epicanthic folds. Also, genes for dark skin are dominant over genes for fair skin, but other, invisible genes from a white parent may be dominant over those from a black parent. Thus, we see Barack Obama as the first black President because we key in on what we can see, but he's just as white as he is black. We call Tiger Woods a great black golfer, but investigate his racial heritage. I think he is actually 1/4 black. These are the kinds of things that sociologists mean when they say race is a social construction. \n\nMany sociology professors articulate this poorly, partly because it is a very abstract concept, and partly because they aren't in the business of explaining abstract concepts, but rather in political indoctrination. But I'm a sociologist and I don't want to indoctrinate anyone and I assure you that skin color is not a primary characteristic that geneticists use to identify haplogroups.\n\nNEVERTHELESS, lumping people together into a social group will cause them to behave in reaction to society as if they are a \"real\" group. Affirmative action is not an attempt to ameliorate problems caused by skin color. These policies are designed to ameliorate problems caused by people who think that skin color means something more than how far from the equator your ancestors were when they evolved.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The reason there is pro-minority legislation is because of segregation and minorities being excluded from admittance to college or hiring at many companies. Pro-minority legislation was a way to force companies to diversify their staff and college to accept minority students. Slavery had been abolished by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, but Racial Segregation in legislation in many states continued until 1965 under the Jim Crow laws.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Race is a well defined construct that can be scientifically measured.\n\nThe idea that race is a societal construct comes from a paper by Lewontin, where he showed no *single* genetic marker can determine a person's race. I.e., in any individual trait, the variation *within* a race is much larger than the variation *between* races, where \"race\" in this case is just a set of arbitrary tags. (I.e., samples were labelled \"black\", \"white\", etc, and then he ran statistical tests to see if any genetic marker was correlated with those labels.)\n\nIn mathematical terms, he showed that for a set of factors x1, x2, ..., xn, you cannot differentiate between races based on any individual factor. He concluded that race must not exist as a meaningful scientific quantity. This is a great story and fits popular narratives. \n\nUnfortunately, it is also a mathematical fallacy, now labelled \"Lewontin's Fallacy\". To illustrate the fallacy, lets do some (over)simple(ified) geometry. \n\nImagine people have 3 traits, and can be represented as vectors (x1,x2,x3). Suppose one group of people (say whites) are clustered around the point (0,0,0) in a sphere of radius 0.86. Suppose a second group of people (say blacks) are clustered around the point (1,1,1) in a sphere of radius 0.86. In any individual trait (say x1), whites are located in the region [-0.86, 0.86] while blacks are located in the region [.13, 1.86]. There is substantial overlap in these regions, i.e. variation within races is larger than variation between races.\n\nHowever, in 3 dimensions, these two spheres don't overlap at all. They are located a distance sqrt(3) apart from each other, and have radius slightly smaller than sqrt(3)/2. They are distinct subpopulations. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's also worth emphasizing that races defined this way are merely an empirical description of populations. If the populations change, races can split or vanish. I.e., if a third population existed near the point (0.5, 0.5, 0.5), then there would be no separation between (0,0,0) and (1,1,1). We would have 3 overlapping balls forming a single solid, not 2 solids with an air gap between them. \n\nAlso, it's worth noting that actual genetic racial subpopulations don't necessarily correlate with US census categories. If I remember right, there are something like 9 separate races in Africa, 3 in Europe (Caucasians, Gypsies, Ashkenazi Jews) and 2 in the Americas (Andean, non-Andean). Caucasians are one gigantic racial category which includes everyone from Britain to India. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is one of those areas of human knowledge that clashes too much with our politics. Considering the progress that's been made over the last 50 odd years in regards to civil rights and racial politics re minorities, its very touchy and sensitive to talk about race scientifically. Because a lot of the attitudes towards race that are now outdated and taboo, were closely connected to the scientific study of race, or scientific racism. \n\nNevertheless, race is a biological reality, facts are facts no matter how we feel about them or how much trouble it causes humans to encounter them. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Is race a completely societal construct or is this just a sort of liberal well-wishing?\n\nA little bit of both.\n\nSociology and anthropology has a dark and uncomfortably recent history of trying to put various races and ethnic groups into to neat little boxes of varying characteristics and abilities. These social biases let to a lot of bad science.\n\nThese days, they have swung the other way with the who social construct thing. For some definitions of \"race\" and \"social construct\", this holds true, but it mask the reality that there are biological differences, and it is useful to understand them. Pretending that Asians aren't lactose intolerant and blacks don't have high incidences of heart disease doesn't help anyone.\n\nIt is also interesting to know the increasing tendancy to consider gender a social construct.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4816797", "title": "Race and society", "section": "Section::::Social interpretation of physical variation.:Race as a social construct and populationism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 923, "text": "Through this small sampling of experts, it is clear that race as a social construction is a common theory. All of the experts in this sampling say that biological race is non-existent. Race therefore must have been created by societies. They were created to do what humans do, to serve the purposes of the majority. The hierarchies created by race have kept the majority \"race\" in control of everything from public policy to the workforce to law enforcement. They benefit from this construction of race. Yet, the minorities, who are just the same genetically, suffer under this system. Most of the points made by the experts expose this issue, yet none truly suggest a way to fix the problem. Bill Nye weighs in on the issue on the same side as the experts in the sample. He says that humans are humans, we are all one species. We have to fix it. If society created the problem, society has to take it on itself to fix it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25614", "title": "Race (human categorization)", "section": "Section::::Defining race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 478, "text": "In the social sciences, theoretical frameworks such as racial formation theory and critical race theory investigate implications of race as social construction by exploring how the images, ideas and assumptions of race are expressed in everyday life. A large body of scholarship has traced the relationships between the historical, social production of race in legal and criminal language, and their effects on the policing and disproportionate incarceration of certain groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25614", "title": "Race (human categorization)", "section": "Section::::Political and practical uses.:Law enforcement.:Forensic anthropology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 142, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 142, "end_character": 521, "text": "Similarly, forensic anthropologists draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. In a 1992 article, anthropologist Norman Sauer noted that anthropologists had generally abandoned the concept of race as a valid representation of human biological diversity, except for forensic anthropologists. He asked, \"If races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?\" He concluded:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2072213", "title": "Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy", "section": "Section::::Response to Edwards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 723, "text": "Similarly, biological anthropologist Jonathan Marks agrees with Edwards that correlations between geographical areas and genetics obviously exist in human populations, but goes on to note that \"What is unclear is what this has to do with 'race' as that term has been used through much in the twentieth century—the mere fact that we can find groups to be different and can reliably allot people to them is trivial. Again, the point of the theory of race was to discover large clusters of people that are principally homogeneous within and heterogeneous between, contrasting groups. Lewontin's analysis shows that such groups do not exist in the human species, and Edwards' critique does not contradict that interpretation.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25613", "title": "Racism", "section": "Section::::Etymology, definition and usage.:Social and behavioral sciences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 383, "text": "Sociologists, in general, recognize \"race\" as a social construct. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25614", "title": "Race (human categorization)", "section": "Section::::Views across disciplines over time.:Anthropology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 356, "text": "Wagner et al. (2017) surveyed 3,286 American anthropologists' views on race and genetics, including both cultural and biological andthropologists. They found a consensus among them that biological races do not exist in humans, but that race does exist insofar as the social experiences of members of different races can have significant effects on health.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26494", "title": "Race and intelligence", "section": "Section::::Validity of race and IQ.:Race.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 983, "text": "The majority of anthropologists today consider race to be a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one, a view supported by considerable genetics research. The current mainstream view in the social sciences and biology is that race is a social construction based on folk ideologies that construct groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics. state, \"Race is a socially constructed concept, not a biological one. It derives from people's desire to classify.\" The concept of human \"races\" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the American Anthropological Association. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it \"clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups\" and that \"any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"e-\" stands for \"electronic\". \n\nRegular mail is sent on physical paper, but \"e-mail\" is sent *electronically*. It's \"e(lectronic) mail\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41440", "title": "Online and offline", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 652, "text": "\"Online\" has come to describe activities performed on and data available on the Internet, for example: \"online identity\", \"online predator\", \"online gambling\", \"online shopping\", \"online banking\", and \"online learning\". Similar meaning is also given by the prefixes \"cyber\" and \"e\", as in the words \"cyberspace\", \"cybercrime\", \"email\", and \"ecommerce\". In contrast, \"offline\" can refer to either computing activities performed while disconnected from the Internet, or alternatives to Internet activities (such as shopping in brick-and-mortar stores). The term \"offline\" is sometimes used interchangeably with the acronym \"IRL\", meaning \"in real life\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19312", "title": "Meme", "section": "Section::::Internet culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 354, "text": "An \"Internet meme\" is a concept that spreads rapidly from person to person via the Internet, largely through Internet-based E-mailing, blogs, forums, imageboards like 4chan, social networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter, instant messaging, social news sites or thread sites like Reddit, and video hosting services like YouTube and Twitch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14539", "title": "Internet", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 810, "text": "When the term \"Internet\" is used to refer to the specific global system of interconnected Internet Protocol (IP) networks, the word is a proper noun that should be written with an initial capital letter. In common use and the media, it is often not capitalized, viz. \"the internet.\" Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, but not capitalized when used as an adjective. The Internet is also often referred to as \"the Net\", as a short form of \"network\". Historically, as early as 1849, the word \"internetted\" was used uncapitalized as an adjective, meaning \"interconnected\" or \"interwoven\". The designers of early computer networks used \"internet\" both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3686796", "title": "Capitalization of Internet", "section": "Section::::The Internet versus generic internets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 541, "text": "The Internet standards community historically differentiated between \"the\" Internet and \"an\" internet (or internetwork), treating the former as a proper noun with a capital letter, and the latter as a common noun with lower-case first letter. An internet is any internetwork or set of inter-connected Internet Protocol (IP) networks. The distinction is evident in Request for Comments documents from the early 1980s, when the transition from the ARPANET to the Internet was in progress, although it was not applied with complete uniformity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22112928", "title": "Internet 0", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 468, "text": "Internet 0 is a low-speed physical layer designed to route 'IP over anything.' It was developed at MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms by Neil Gershenfeld, Raffi Krikorian, and Danny Cohen. When it was invented, a number of other proposals were being labelled as \"internet 2.\" The name was chosen to emphasize that this was designed to be a slow, but very inexpensive internetworking system, and forestall \"high-performance\" comparison questions such as \"how fast is it?\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19950428", "title": "ELinks", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 404, "text": "It began in late 2001 as an experimental fork by Petr Baudiš of the Links Web browser, hence the \"E\" in the name. Since then, the \"E\" has come to stand for Enhanced or Extended. On 1 September 2004, Baudiš handed maintainership of the project over to Danish developer Jonas Fonseca, citing a lack of time and interest and a desire to spend more time coding rather than reviewing and organising releases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12057519", "title": "Internet of things", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 340, "text": "The term \"Internet of things\" was likely coined by Kevin Ashton of Procter & Gamble, later MIT's Auto-ID Center, in 1999, though he prefers the phrase \"Internet \"for\" things\". At that point, he viewed Radio-frequency identification (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things, which would allow computers to manage all individual things.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "hi! always room for more info on this, but you can get started on this earlier post\n\n* [Why are trophies often cups?](_URL_0_) - featuring responses from /u/TheJucheisLoose and /u/ConventionalAlias\n\nif you have follow-up questions on this locked post, ask them here & page the relevant user by including their username", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45690321", "title": "Breal's Silver Cup", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 451, "text": "The Cup is made of pure silver. On the top part of the Cup there is the inscription \"OLYMPIC GAMES 1896, MARATHON TROPHY DONATED BY MICHAEL BREAL\". The remaining surface of the Cup had a relief decoration depicting birds and aquatic plants, which were known to exist in the swamp lands of Marathon in ancient times. With this reference, Breal wanted to give the Cup a symbolic significance and connect the ancient Olympic Games with the modern ones. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38974774", "title": "Cups (song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 430, "text": "\"Cups\" is a version of the 1931 Carter Family song \"When I'm Gone\", usually performed a cappella with a cup used to provide percussion, as in the cup game. It was first performed this way in a YouTube video by Luisa Gerstein and Heloise Tunstall-Behrens as Lulu and The Lampshades in 2009 (under the title \"You're Gonna Miss Me\"). Composition of the song is credited to A. P. Carter and Luisa Gerstein of Lulu and the Lampshades.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2158250", "title": "Anthora", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 622, "text": "The cup was originally designed by Leslie Buck of the Sherri Cup Co. in 1963, to appeal to Greek-owned coffee shops in New York City, and was later much copied by other companies. The original Anthora depicts an image of an Ancient Greek amphora, a Greek key design on the top and bottom rim, and the words \"WE ARE HAPPY TO SERVE YOU\" in an angular typeface resembling ancient Greek, for example with an E resembling a capital sigma (\"Σ\", a letter pronounced like English \"s\"). The blue and white colors were inspired by the flag of Greece. The cup subsequently became the metropolitan area's definitive coffee-to-go cup.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25191565", "title": "International Polo Cup", "section": "Section::::Winner.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 214, "text": "The cup has been won a total of 10 times by the United States and 6 times by England, including the initial 1876 match. The match was suspended in the 1940s due to World War II and was not revived until the 1990s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27141150", "title": "Copa Libertadores (trophy)", "section": "Section::::Trophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 497, "text": "The concept of having a standard Cup awarded to the winner was thought of by Teófilo Salinas, a boardmember of CONMEBOL, and it was his initiative that led to the creation of one of the most prized awards of the world. The original trophy was created in 1959 by Alberto de Gasperi, an Italian immigrant, who owned an artisan shop in Lima, Peru; the prestigious memento was forged in the Camusso Jewelry workshop, located on Colonial Avenue of the same forementioned city. Gasperi later commented:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17541912", "title": "Fill the Cup", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 584, "text": "The symbol of the Red Cup originates from the many plastic, red cups, usually filled with porridge and other meals, used to feed school children in WFP School feeding programmes. When WFP Executive Director Josette Sheeran began working at the World Food Programme, she was given one of these red cups with the name ‘Lily’ scratched onto the bottom (having been discarded by Lily upon receiving her new cup). Seeing that the cup was a powerful visual tool to help show the world how little food it takes to make a huge difference to a child’s life, Sheeran never travels without it. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "170491", "title": "America's Cup", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 426, "text": "The cup was originally awarded in 1851 by the Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom, which was won by the schooner \"America\". Originally known as the 'R.Y.S. £100 Cup', the trophy was renamed the 'America's Cup' after the yacht and was donated to the New York Yacht Club (NYYC) under the terms of the Deed of Gift, which made the cup available for perpetual international competition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are large empty spaces between galaxies that have almost no matter in them at all. Except maybe dark matter, but we still don't understand that well", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you left the Milky Way, you'd be floating out in deep space. The galaxies are not all touching each other. There's staggeringly huge distances of empty space between them, usually. \n\nGranted, if you wait about 4 billion years and *then* leave, you could find yourself moving out of the Milky Way and into the Andromeda galaxy, since Andromeda and the Milky Way are currently on a collision course.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You're in a big lot of nothing.\n\nConsider how much it took to get to the Moon from Earth. If you scale up the Earth to the Milky Way (100 light years), there's about the same amount of relative space between the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies. It's mostly nothing out there.\n\nPut another way, you are more likely to be in sight of a boat from a random point in the ocean as you are to be in a galaxy in a random part of the universe. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Space is called space for a reason. Even inside galaxies, there's more empty vacuum than you can shake a telescope at.\n\nFor an example- here's a graphic of the solar system to scale including empty space. The planets aren't as perfectly packed as one might assume looking at a textbook.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2589714", "title": "Milky Way", "section": "Section::::Environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 375, "text": "In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19757699", "title": "Local Void", "section": "Section::::Location and dimensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 324, "text": "Astronomers have previously noticed that the Milky Way sits in a large, flat array of galaxies called the Local Sheet, which bounds the Local Void. The Local Void extends approximately , beginning at the edge of the Local Group. It is believed that the distance from Earth to the centre of the Local Void must be at least .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3093514", "title": "Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 609, "text": "There are 59 small galaxies confirmed to be within of the Milky Way, but not all of them are necessarily in orbit, and some may themselves be in orbit of other satellite galaxies. The only ones visible to the naked eye are the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, which have been observed since prehistory. Measurements with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2006 suggest the Magellanic Clouds may be moving too fast to be orbiting the Milky Way. Of the galaxies confirmed to be in orbit, the largest is the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, which has a diameter of or roughly a twentieth that of the Milky Way.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28149", "title": "Serpens", "section": "Section::::Features.:Deep-sky objects.:Head objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1175, "text": "As the galactic plane does not pass through this part of Serpens, a view to many galaxies beyond it is possible. However, a few structures of the Milky Way Galaxy are present in Serpens Caput, such as Messier 5, a globular cluster positioned approximately 8° southwest of α Serpentis, next to the star 5 Serpentis. Barely visible to the naked eye under good conditions, and is located approximately 25,000 ly distant. Messier 5 contains a large number of known RR Lyrae variable stars, and is receding from us at over 50 km/s. The cluster contains two millisecond pulsars, one of which is in a binary, allowing the proper motion of the cluster to be measured. The binary could help our understanding of neutron degenerate matter; the current median mass, if confirmed, would exclude any \"soft\" equation of state for such matter. The cluster has been used to test for magnetic dipole moments in neutrinos, which could shed light on some hypothetical particles such as the axion. Another globular cluster is Palomar 5, found just south of Messier 5. Many stars are leaving this globular cluster due to the Milky Way's gravity, forming a tidal tail over 30000 light-years long.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29389753", "title": "UDF 2457", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 356, "text": "The Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, and the Sun is about 25,000 light-years from the galactic center. The small common star UDF 2457 may be one of the farthest known stars inside the main body of the Milky Way. Globular clusters (such as Messier 54 and NGC 2419) and stellar streams are located further out in the galactic halo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8406253", "title": "Astrology in medieval Islam", "section": "Section::::Medieval understanding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 215, "text": "Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as \"a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars\" and thus argued that \"it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6012554", "title": "Cosmology in medieval Islam", "section": "Section::::Cosmology in the medieval Islamic world.:Refutations of astrology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 215, "text": "Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as \"a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars\" and thus argued that \"it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the physical degeneration thought to be involved in CTE can only be observed in autopsies. It doesn't really show readily or conclusively is regular brain scans which look for neuron activity or chemical processes. Cracking open a living person's skull soley for research or diagnosis purposes in a very risky surgery is a rather tough sell for an ethical comittee.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not that it's impossible, it's just that doctors currently have no way to do it. There are apparently some promising leads towards testing for it non-invasively through blood tests or brain scans, but those are still in the trial phase.\n\nUntil then, the only way to definitively diagnose it is to dissect the person's brain. Obviously that can't be done to a living person.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "70980", "title": "Appendicitis", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.:Computed tomography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 312, "text": "Where it is readily available, computed tomography (CT) has become frequently used, especially in people whose diagnosis is not obvious on history and physical examination. Concerns about radiation tend to limit use of CT in pregnant women and children, especially with the increasingly widespread usage of MRI.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59675887", "title": "Boston University CTE Center and Brain Bank", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 411, "text": "Symptoms from CTE do not typically appear in a subject until many years after the initial injuries, and a conclusive diagnosis of the disease can only be achieved through autopsy. In the years since its inception, the BU CTE Center and Brain Bank has devoted the majority of its time and effort into researching methods for diagnosing CTE in living subjects and developing potential treatments for the disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2166658", "title": "Hemothorax", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Other forms of imaging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 395, "text": "Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scans may be useful for diagnosing retained hemothorax as this form of imaging can detect much smaller amounts of fluid than a plain chest X-ray. However, CT is less used as a primary means of diagnosis within the trauma setting, as these scans require a critically ill person to be transported to a scanner, are slower, and require the subject to remain supine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16996257", "title": "Pulmonary contusion", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Computed tomography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1083, "text": "Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a more sensitive test for pulmonary contusion, and it can identify abdominal, chest, or other injuries that accompany the contusion. In one study, chest X-ray detected pulmonary contusions in 16.3% of people with serious blunt trauma, while CT detected them in 31.2% of the same people. Unlike X-ray, CT scanning can detect the contusion almost immediately after the injury. However, in both X-ray and CT a contusion may become more visible over the first 24–48 hours after trauma as bleeding and edema into lung tissues progress. CT scanning also helps determine the size of a contusion, which is useful in determining whether a patient needs mechanical ventilation; a larger volume of contused lung on CT scan is associated with an increased likelihood that ventilation will be needed. CT scans also help differentiate between contusion and pulmonary hematoma, which may be difficult to tell apart otherwise. However, pulmonary contusions that are visible on CT but not chest X-ray are usually not severe enough to affect outcome or treatment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31954379", "title": "Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis", "section": "Section::::Conclusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 724, "text": "Multiphase CT examinations are very important for the detection and characterization of certain clinical conditions, but should not be generalized for every patient undergoing CT of the abdomen and pelvis. A recent survey demonstrated that many physicians are routinely performing multiphase CT for the majority of patients in an attempt to prospectively characterize potential lesions detected during the scan. However, unindicated multiphase CT examinations are an important source of medical radiation that does not contribute to the care of patients. Adherence to published standards such as the ACR appropriateness criteria can both decrease medical radiation and optimize imaging for the specific clinical indication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16806609", "title": "Circulating tumor cell", "section": "Section::::Frequency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 276, "text": " The detection of CTCs may have important prognostic and therapeutic implications but because their numbers can be very small, these cells are not easily detected. It is estimated that among the cells that have detached from the primary tumor, only 0.01% can form metastases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7251223", "title": "Chronic traumatic encephalopathy", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 357, "text": "Currently, CTE can only be definitively diagnosed by direct tissue examination after death, including full and immunohistochemical brain analyses. Abnormal p-tau accumulation in \"neurons, astrocytes, and cell processes in an irregular pattern at the depths of the cortical sulci\" is the most specific feature of CTE and required for pathological diagnosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Let me try to put this in a 5YO level of understanding. \n\nRemember when it was December and you went outside and you could see your breath? That was water vapor. The water inside you was not boiling. If it was, you would have been boiling, and we don't want that to happen. \n\nRemember in the summer when you felt that cold water pipe and there was water droplets on it? The pipe was cold, but there was cold water drops on it. \n\nThen in the fall when I took you camping and you saw the mist over the lake when I woke you up to go fishing. You saw the mist even though it was too cold for you to get out of your sleeping bag. \n\nClouds work the same way. The cold air can hold water vapor. For reasons that will have to wait until you get into a good college, warm air can hold more water vapor. The thing is that the water vapor wants to hang out together in colder areas. If the air gets full enough of this water vapor, you see clouds. The warmer the air is, the higher the clouds will have to be, usually. \n\nThere is still a lot of stuff about atmospheric pressure and transference of heat that you will have to ask your mother about, but why not, it's Mother's Day. Go wake her up while I make breakfast. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "water is always evaporating (except when its really cold, like close to freezing) evaporating just means that a water molecule had enough energy to escape from a glass of water. The reason why clouds exist has to do with air pressure and dirt. water evaporates into the sky, due to the fact that water is always evaporating (increasingly so when the air pressure is low and it's a hot day or the sun is shinning down), then as the water molecules rise (in a state known as water vapor, or water in a gas state) and condense (go from gas to liquid) into clouds. The clouds themselves are a mixture of liquid and gaseous water, sometimes even solid if it is hailing, and dirt. Dirt is very important in holding together water molecules in clouds.\n\nI took a lot of liberties in this to try to make it LI5 material, but this is the basic gist. \n\nThis has a nice visual and further 5 year old reading on the matter:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "89547", "title": "Water vapor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 490, "text": "Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less dense than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32505", "title": "Vapor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 288, "text": "For example, water has a critical temperature of , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist. In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures, therefore, gaseous water (known as water vapor) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213088", "title": "RBMK", "section": "Section::::Design flaws and safety issues.:High positive void coefficient.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 659, "text": "In the case of evaporation of water to steam, the place occupied by water would be occupied by water vapor, which has a density vastly lower than that of liquid water (the exact number depends on pressure and temperature; at standard conditions, steam is about as dense as liquid water). Because of this lower density (of mass, and consequently of atom nuclei able to absorb neutrons), light water's neutron-absorption capability practically disappears when it boils. This allows more neutrons to fission more U-235 nuclei and thereby increase the reactor power, which leads to higher temperatures that boil even more water, creating a thermal feedback loop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16742858", "title": "Liquid water content", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Relation to classification of clouds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 430, "text": "Clouds that have low densities, such as cirrus clouds, contain very little water, thus resulting in relatively low liquid water content values of around .03 g/m. Clouds that have high densities, like cumulonimbus clouds, have much higher liquid water content values that are around 1-3 g/m, as more liquid is present in the same amount of space. Below is a chart giving typical LWC values of various cloud types (Thompson, 2007).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "731795", "title": "Cloud physics", "section": "Section::::Cloud formation: how the air becomes saturated.:Supersaturation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 538, "text": "Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in supersaturation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47525", "title": "Contrail", "section": "Section::::Distrails.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 393, "text": "Clouds form when invisible water vapor ( in gas phase) condenses into microscopic water droplets ( in liquid phase) or into microscopic ice crystals ( in solid phase). This may happen when air with a high proportion of gaseous water cools. A distrail forms when the heat of engine exhaust evaporates the liquid water droplets in a cloud, turning them back into invisible, gaseous water vapor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "731795", "title": "Cloud physics", "section": "Section::::Cloud formation: how the air becomes saturated.:Supersaturation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 245, "text": "Supersaturation of more than 1–2% relative to water is rarely seen in the atmosphere, since cloud condensation nuclei are usually present. Much higher degrees of supersaturation are possible in clean air, and are the basis of the cloud chamber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If it just says x86 then it is probably 32-bit. It will still work just fine, but unless you have a reason otherwise, you should typically get the 64-bit version, which should be labeled x86_64.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "BiPolah is right, x86 means 32 bit, a 64 bit OS can run 32 or 64 bit code, however a 32 bit can't run 64 bit code.\n\nIf you have a 64 bit OS then get the 64 version of what you download, it will be slightly faster than 32, although rarely it can be more buggy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Microsoft's terms for 32-bit and 64-bit software are x86 and x64, respectively.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34198", "title": "X86", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 477, "text": "Modern x86 is relatively uncommon in embedded systems, however, and small low power applications (using tiny batteries) as well as low-cost microprocessor markets, such as home appliances and toys, lack any significant x86 presence. Simple 8-bit and 16-bit based architectures are common here, although the x86-compatible VIA C7, VIA Nano, AMD's Geode, Athlon Neo and Intel Atom are examples of 32- and 64-bit designs used in some \"relatively\" low power and low cost segments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244374", "title": "X86-64", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1488, "text": "x86-64 (also known as x64, x86_64, AMD64 and Intel 64) is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It introduces two new modes of operation, 64-bit mode and compatibility mode, along with a new 4-level paging mode. With 64-bit mode and the new paging mode, it supports vastly larger amounts of virtual memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors, allowing programs to store larger amounts of data in memory. x86-64 also expands general-purpose registers to 64-bit, as well extends the number of them from 8 (some of which had limited or fixed functionality, e.g. for stack management) to 16 (fully general), and provides numerous other enhancements. Floating point operations are supported via mandatory SSE2-like instructions, and x87/MMX style registers are generally not used (but still available even in 64-bit mode); instead, a set of 32 vector registers, 128 bits each, is used. (Each can store one or two double-precision numbers or one to four single precision numbers, or various integer formats.) In 64-bit mode, instructions are modified to support 64-bit operands and 64-bit addressing mode. The compatibility mode allows 16- and 32-bit user applications to run unmodified coexisting with 64-bit applications if the 64-bit operating system supports them. As the full x86 16-bit and 32-bit instruction sets remain implemented in hardware without any intervening emulation, these older executables can run with little or no performance penalty,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80733", "title": "32-bit", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 845, "text": "On the x86 architecture, a 32-bit application normally means software that typically (not necessarily) uses the 32-bit linear address space (or flat memory model) possible with the 80386 and later chips. In this context, the term came about because DOS, Microsoft Windows and OS/2 were originally written for the 8088/8086 or 80286, 16-bit microprocessors with a segmented address space where programs had to switch between segments to reach more than 64 kilobytes of code or data. As this is quite time-consuming in comparison to other machine operations, the performance may suffer. Furthermore, programming with segments tend to become complicated; special \"far\" and \"near\" keywords or \"memory models\" had to be used (with care), not only in assembly language but also in high level languages such as Pascal, compiled BASIC, Fortran, C, etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "148285", "title": "64-bit computing", "section": "Section::::64-bit applications.:Software availability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 1158, "text": "x86-based 64-bit systems sometimes lack equivalents of software that is written for 32-bit architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible device drivers for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a compatibility mode, also termed an emulation mode, e.g., Microsoft WoW64 Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit NTDLL.DLL, which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the trend has since moved toward 64-bit computing, more so as memory prices dropped and the use of more than 4 GB of RAM increased. Most manufacturers started to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers for new devices, so unavailability of 64-bit drivers ceased to be a problem. 64-bit drivers were not provided for many older devices, which could consequently not be used in 64-bit systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244374", "title": "X86-64", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 256, "text": "The x86-64 architecture is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly IA-64), which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. Operating systems and applications written for one cannot be run on the other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34198", "title": "X86", "section": "Section::::x86 registers.:64-bit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 994, "text": "Starting with the AMD Opteron processor, the x86 architecture extended the 32-bit registers into 64-bit registers in a way similar to how the 16 to 32-bit extension took place. An R-prefix identifies the 64-bit registers (RAX, RBX, RCX, RDX, RSI, RDI, RBP, RSP, RFLAGS, RIP), and eight additional 64-bit general registers (R8-R15) were also introduced in the creation of x86-64. However, these extensions are only usable in 64-bit mode, which is one of the two modes only available in long mode. The addressing modes were not dramatically changed from 32-bit mode, except that addressing was extended to 64 bits, virtual addresses are now sign extended to 64 bits (in order to disallow mode bits in virtual addresses), and other selector details were dramatically reduced. In addition, an addressing mode was added to allow memory references relative to RIP (the instruction pointer), to ease the implementation of position-independent code, used in shared libraries in some operating systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2572877", "title": "48-bit", "section": "Section::::Addressing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 203, "text": "The minimal implementation of the x86-64 architecture provides 48-bit addressing encoded into 64 bits; future versions of the architecture can expand this without breaking properly written applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You can tell how much charge is in an enclosed space by looking at the electric field along the boundary.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21462", "title": "Normal distribution", "section": "Section::::Related distributions.:Extensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 167, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 167, "end_character": 373, "text": "One of the main practical uses of the Gaussian law is to model the empirical distributions of many different random variables encountered in practice. In such case a possible extension would be a richer family of distributions, having more than two parameters and therefore being able to fit the empirical distribution more accurately. The examples of such extensions are:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74964", "title": "Gauss's law", "section": "Section::::Qualitative description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 439, "text": "Gauss's law has a close mathematical similarity with a number of laws in other areas of physics, such as Gauss's law for magnetism and Gauss's law for gravity. In fact, any inverse-square law can be formulated in a way similar to Gauss's law: for example, Gauss's law itself is essentially equivalent to the inverse-square Coulomb's law, and Gauss's law for gravity is essentially equivalent to the inverse-square Newton's law of gravity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9633335", "title": "Gauss–Codazzi equations", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 559, "text": "In the classical differential geometry of surfaces, the Gauss–Codazzi–Mainardi equations consist of a pair of related equations. The first equation, sometimes called the Gauss equation (named after Carl Friedrich Gauss), relates the \"intrinsic curvature\" (or Gauss curvature) of the surface to the derivatives of the Gauss map, via the second fundamental form. This equation is the basis for Gauss's theorema egregium. The second equation, sometimes called the Codazzi–Mainardi equation, is a structural condition on the second derivatives of the Gauss map. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1191101", "title": "Electric displacement field", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 205, "text": "Gauss's law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not published until 1867, meaning that the formulation and use of D were not earlier than 1835, and probably not earlier than the 1860s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6125", "title": "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "section": "Section::::Career and achievements.:Algebra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 616, "text": "Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" (Latin, Arithmetical Investigations), which, among other things, introduced the symbol for congruence and used it in a clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, stated the class number problem for them, and showed that a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. It appears that Gauss already knew the class number formula in 1801.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "259906", "title": "Theorema Egregium", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 607, "text": "Gauss's Theorema Egregium (Latin for \"Remarkable Theorem\") is a major result of differential geometry proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss that concerns the curvature of surfaces. The theorem is that Gaussian curvature can be determined entirely by measuring angles, distances and their rates on a surface, without reference to the particular manner in which the surface is embedded in the ambient 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In other words, the Gaussian curvature of a surface does not change if one bends the surface without stretching it. Thus the Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant of a surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "368328", "title": "Electrostatics", "section": "Section::::Electric field.:Gauss' law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 268, "text": "Gauss' law states that \"the total electric flux through any closed surface in free space of any shape drawn in an electric field is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed by the surface.\" Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If this question isn't relevant, feel free to remove mods.\n\nGiven the nicknames M3 Lee, M3 Stuart, M3 Grant, and M4 Sherman, why were Union and Confederate general names given to tanks, or any modern weapons for that matter?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow-up question: Was it common knowledge among Americans that the M4 medium tank was nicknamed the Sherman by the British?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It was never commonly called the Sherman by American forces during the war, it wasn't until after the war that the name was adopted by the Americans. To the Americans the Sherman was the M4 or M4 Medium for much of the war.\n\nIt was the British who gave the Sherman that name^1 and used it in official documents, so for the British an M4A1 was a Sherman II while an M4A4 was a Sherman V. \n\nThe Americans in general did not name their tanks until late in the war. Names like ~~Wolverine for the M10~~ and Priest for the M7 were all inventions of the British and in the case of the ~~M10 it was not a popular name~~. If I recall correctly the M24 Chaffee was the first American tank to officially have a name attached to it by the Americans.\n\n^1 Steven Zaloga - Armored Thunderbolt, pg. 34\n\nEdit: According to [this](_URL_0_) post by solipsistnation the name Wolverine for the M10 was a post war invention, I was always under the impression that it was a name invented by the British but it was one that never stuck. I have edited my post to reflect that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/u/TheHIV123's answer is correct from my research but many Southerners still hold a lot of resentment towards Union Generals and Military Governors. Some southerners still dislike Sherman, for his march to the sea and destroying Atlanta, and Benjamin Butler, Political Governor of New Orleans and Union General, calling him Beast Butler because of declaration of slaves as contrabands of war during the Civil War. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25658417", "title": "Tanks of the United States", "section": "Section::::World War II.:Medium and heavy tanks.:M4 Sherman tank.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 585, "text": "The M4 was the best known and most used American tank of World War II. Christened \"Sherman\" by the British, it was named for the famous US Civil War General, William Tecumseh Sherman. The M4 Sherman was a medium tank that proved itself in the Allied operations in North Africa, Europe and the Pacific theaters of war in World War II. The Sherman was a relatively inexpensive, easy to maintain and produce combat system. Similar to production efforts on the part of the Soviet Union with their T-34 tank system, the M4 Sherman was the same class of tank weapon under an American guise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5673768", "title": "Lend-Lease Sherman tanks", "section": "Section::::Service history.:Britain.:North Africa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 1488, "text": "The first Shermans to see battle in World War II were M4A1s (Sherman IIs) with the British Eighth Army at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. The tanks had been supplied in a hurry from the USA, which had removed them from their own army units. They were then hastily modified to meet British military requirements and for desert and hot-weather conditions, such as the addition of sandshields over the tracks. Over 250 of these US-supplied Shermans, which were divided among 12 regiments, participated in the battle. They formed the so-called \"heavy squadrons\" (16 tanks in each) of one brigade in each division of X Corps and some other squadrons of the other units taking part in the battle, with the other heavy squadrons still being equipped with M3 Lee/Grant tanks and light squadrons possessing M3 Stuart 'Honey' light tanks and Crusader cruiser tanks. The British Shermans were able to tackle enemy rearguard units and defending troops by using high-explosive (HE) shells which were fired indirectly at them whilst the German 5 cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun was only effective against the Sherman if it could engage it from the more-vulnerable sides. More of the British armoured units in North Africa were converted to increasingly-larger quantities of Shermans over time from their successful outcome at El Alamein, including the addition of Sherman IIIs (M4A2s) aside from the previous Sherman II, although the infantry tank units retained use of their Churchill tanks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27247561", "title": "Tanks of the U.S. in the World Wars", "section": "Section::::Medium tanks.:M4 Sherman.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 365, "text": "The M4 Sherman served with the U.S. Army and Marine Corps during World War II. The U.S. also supplied large numbers to the various Allied countries. Shermans were used during the war by British and Commonwealth armies, the Soviet Union's Red Army, Free French forces, the Polish army in exile, China's National Revolutionary Army, and Brazil's Expeditionary Force.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46720", "title": "William Tecumseh Sherman", "section": "Section::::Strategies.:Total warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 714, "text": "Sherman's advance through Georgia and South Carolina was characterized by widespread destruction of civilian supplies and infrastructure. Although looting was officially forbidden, historians disagree on how well this regulation was enforced. Union soldiers who foraged from Southern homes became known as bummers. The speed and efficiency of the destruction by Sherman's army was remarkable. The practice of heating rails and bending them around trees, leaving behind what came to be known as \"Sherman's neckties,\" made repairs difficult. Accusations that civilians were targeted and war crimes were committed on the march have made Sherman a controversial figure to this day, particularly in the American South.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65574", "title": "M4 Sherman", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 436, "text": "The M4 Sherman, officially Medium Tank, M4, was the most widely used medium tank by the United States and Western Allies in World War II. The M4 Sherman proved to be reliable, relatively cheap to produce, and available in great numbers. Thousands were distributed through the Lend-Lease program to the British Commonwealth and Soviet Union. The tank was named by the British for the American Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46720", "title": "William Tecumseh Sherman", "section": "Section::::Historiography.:Sherman name in the military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 331, "text": "BULLET::::- Sherman lent his name to the Sherman tank. Formally named the Medium Tank, M4, it acquired the name \"Sherman\" from the British Army, who received M4 tanks under the Lend-Lease Act. The combined name \"M4 Sherman\" or just \"Sherman\" spread to American personnel and it has since become common to refer to it by that name.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4124170", "title": "M46 Patton", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 203, "text": "The M46 was the first tank to be named after General George S. Patton Jr., commander of the U.S. Third Army during World War II and one of the earliest American advocates for the use of tanks in battle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Maya records do give us a good look at the nature of (and possible motivations for) a variety of military endeavors. Let's take a look at a few.\n\n* Palenque and Calakmul were two of the many pairs of constantly competing city states, located just south of the Tabasco region in southern Mexico. Sometime around 608 AD, Palenque, led by Ajen Yol Mat, began expanding it's control to the northeast, towards the direction of Calakmul. Calakmul's rulers, who styled themselves \"snake lords,\" did not take very kindly to this. The Lord Scroll Serpent retaliated in 610 AD and for months sacked (the Mayan verb is literally \"axed\") cities on his route to Palenque itself. In these battles, Ajen Yol Mat and and brother/second in command Janab' Pakal the Elder were killed, and Palenque would be in its darkest days.\n\n* During this troublesome period, in 603, a fellow named K'inich Janaab' Pakal 1 (\"Sacred Flower Shield the First\") was born. The aforementioned deaths of so many royals left him as the next best candidate for succession, even if it was a matrilineal claim. His mother, Ix Sak K'uk', effectively ruled from 615 until the young king was capable. K'nicich Janaab' Pakal 1 would become Palenque's greatest ruler, reigning 68 years, constructing its most impressive monuments, and, of course, executing successful military campaigns. Around 650, Janaab' Pakal began reasserting Palenque's northern and eastern frontiers. Yet again, Calakmul got cranky and marched towards Palenque, \"axing\" it once more in 654. But it was not the same degree of blow as before, and Palenque quickly retaliated, capturing Calakmul's allied city Pomona, sacrificing its leaders, and installing member\ns of Palenque's own dynasty on the throne.\n\n* Yaxchilan, to the southwest of Palenque, was one of the first sites to have a mostly complete timeline of rulers established. One anomaly, though, sticks out. One ruler, Shield Jaguar 1, died on December 1, 741. The next ruler would not be seated on the throne until May 3, 752. This man called himself Bird-Jaguar IV, was the sun of a \"Lady Eveningstar,\" and, curiously, appears nowhere in the records until his accession. Even curioser: we know that Lady Eveiningstar was from Calakmul and a secondary wife of Shield Jaguar 1, most likely a political marriage. But Shield Jaguar's Queen consort, Lady Xoc, was an incredibly popular and powerful woman; why should her son not rule? Well, if we look at Bird Jaguar IV's activities, it's clear that he was purveying an enormous amount of propaganda: inserting himself into historical scenes, showing him and his mother alongside important individuals doing rituals, and comminsioning images of him capturing all varieties of enemies. Bird Jaguar IV's name is also frequently followed by numerous titles: \"Captor of Lord Jeweled Skull,\" \"He of 20 Captives,\" and \"Captor of Aj Uk.\" (A rather common tradition) He uses these titles from the very beginning of his reign, before he could have led many military campaigns. And over at Piedras Negras, a rival of Yaxchilan, we find an inscription showing a captured noble from between 741 and 752, a noble many consider to be the missing son of Lady Xoc. Put this together, and we have a picture of a Classic Maya *Game of Thrones*: queens, brothers, and some opportunist neighbors vying for succession after the death of a highly successful king.\n\nAs you can see, military efforts in the Classic Maya lowlands were often quite political. Kingdoms were competing over land and influence over surrounding, smaller towns. Nobles were competing for thrones when succession was unsure. And in each situation, the victors were taking important figures captive and sacrificing them, and then gracing themselves with titles of \"Captor.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18449273", "title": "Maya civilization", "section": "Section::::Warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 1338, "text": "Warfare was prevalent in the Maya world. Military campaigns were launched for a variety of reasons, including the control of trade routes and tribute, raids to take captives, scaling up to the complete destruction of an enemy state. Little is known about Maya military organization, logistics, or training. Warfare is depicted in Maya art from the Classic period, and wars and victories are mentioned in hieroglyphic inscriptions. Unfortunately, the inscriptions do not provide information upon the causes of war, or the form it took. In the 8th–9th centuries, intensive warfare resulted in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Petexbatún region of western Petén. The rapid abandonment of Aguateca by its inhabitants has provided a rare opportunity to examine the remains of Maya weaponry \"in situ\". Aguateca was stormed by unknown enemies around 810 AD, who overcame its formidable defences and burned the royal palace. The elite inhabitants of the city either fled or were captured, and never returned to collect their abandoned property. The inhabitants of the periphery abandoned the site soon after. This is an example of intensive warfare carried out by an enemy in order to completely eliminate a Maya state, rather than subjugate it. Research at Aguateca indicated that Classic period warriors were primarily members of the elite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19432379", "title": "Maya warfare", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 708, "text": "Although the Maya were once thought to have been peaceful (see below), current theories emphasize the role of inter-polity warfare as a factor in the development and perpetuation of Maya society. The goals and motives of warfare in Maya culture are not thoroughly understood, but scholars have developed models for Maya warfare based on several lines of evidence, including fortified defenses around structure complexes, artistic and epigraphic depictions of war, and the presence of weapons such as obsidian blades and projectile points in the archaeological record. Warfare can also be identified from archaeological remains that suggest a rapid and drastic break in a fundamental pattern due to violence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19432379", "title": "Maya warfare", "section": "Section::::Depiction of Warfare in Maya Epigraphy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 227, "text": "Scholars have identified four examples of Maya hieroglyphs that refer to different kinds of Maya warfare. There is considerable variation and other glyphs also relate to violence, but these are the most generally identifiable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1916598", "title": "Spanish conquest of Guatemala", "section": "Section::::Guatemala before the conquest.:Native weapons and tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1059, "text": "Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder. The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows, fire-sharpened poles, flint-headed spears and two-handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian, similar to the Aztec \"macuahuitl\". Pedro de Alvarado described how the Xinca of the Pacific coast attacked the Spanish with spears, stakes and poisoned arrows. Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish. The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic, and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans. In response to the use of cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads, lining them with fire-hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds, a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4979116", "title": "Maya religion", "section": "Section::::Ritual domains.:Warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 950, "text": "In Maya narrative, warfare includes the warriors' transformation into animals (wayob) and the use of black magic by sorcerers. In the pre-Hispanic period, war rituals focused on the war leaders and the weapons. The jaguar-spotted War Twin Xbalanque counted as a war deity in the Alta Verapaz; preceding a campaign, rituals were held for him during thirty days, so that he might imbue the weapons with his power. The Yucatec ritual for the war chief (\"nakom\") was connected to the cult of a puma war god, and included a five-day residence of the war leader in the temple, \"where they burned incense to him as to an idol.\" In Classic war rituals, the Maya jaguar gods were prominent, particularly the jaguar deity associated with fire (and patron of the number Seven), whose face commonly adorns the king's war shield. The Palenque Temple of the Sun, dedicated to war, shows in its sanctuary the emblem of such a shield, held up by two crossed spears.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19432379", "title": "Maya warfare", "section": "Section::::Ancient Maya warfare in popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 555, "text": "Maya warfare was a major theme in \"Apocalypto\" (2006), directed by Mel Gibson. The film depicts the attack on a small village by warriors from a larger polity for the purpose of capturing men to be sacrificed atop a pyramid during a solar eclipse. The warfare depicted in the film, like most other aspects of Late Postclassic Maya society, should not be taken as factual. Richard Hansen, who acted as the historical consultant for the film, has worked mostly on early Maya civilization, more than a millennium before the time period depicted in the film.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21110575", "title": "Spanish conquest of the Maya", "section": "Section::::Weaponry, strategies and tactics.:Native weapons and tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1682, "text": "Maya armies were highly disciplined, and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills; every able-bodied adult male was available for military service. Maya states did not maintain standing armies; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders. There were also units of full-time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders. Most warriors were not full-time, however, and were primarily farmers; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare. Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder. Maya warriors entered battle against the Spanish with flint-tipped spears, bows and arrows and stones. They wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves. The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows, fire-sharpened poles, flint-headed spears and two-handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian, similar to the Aztec \"macuahuitl\". Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish. Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins. The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic, and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans. In response to the use of cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads, lining them with fire-hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds, a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In pure numbers the Army of South Vietnam was of a similar size to that of the North. However the tactical position they were faced with in 73 could not have been more dissimilar. The North had good control of it's territory, an experienced army with a stable command structure, and a large groundswell of support in the regions it was moving into. The South lacked all of those. The distinction between North Vietnam and South Vietnam hides the fact that it was not two states at war, but a civil war, with civilians having mixed loyalties on both sides of the border*.\n\nWhile by 1973 it is true that a large number of the communist aligned troops operating in South Vietnam were North Vietnamese the first decade of the conflict was characterised by South Vietnamese fighters on both sides engaging in irregular conflict in the areas south of the Cambodia-Laos border, and a somewhat more conventional war in the North-South border regions. \n\nThe result of this continuous engagement in South Vietnam resulted in a far greater number of casualties of in South Vietnam (both sides of the conflict) than in the North, leading to an Army that was accepting a far wider range of recruits (including actively courting non-Viet Cong aligned militia/warlords). This ongoing guerilla conflict also meant that by the time the Americans withdrew there were significant portions of South Vietnam that were not under direct control of the Government in Saigon.\n\n*The 63 coup saw the end of any significant support for the Saigon Government in North Vietnam, but even before that the social strata each group drew their support from as well as the rhetoric by which they constructed their legitimacy meant that loyalists in the North were more likely to migrate/flee than leftists in the South. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[I've answered this previously in this thread.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe period we're going to speak about is completely focused on conventional warfare, as opposed to the asymmetrical warfare in which the Vietnam War (the American portion of it) had largely been fought. With the exception of two major occasions, the Tét offensive in 1968 and the Nguyen Hue (Easter) Offensive in 1972, the People's Army of (North) Vietnam and the Army of the Republic of (South) Vietnam (henceforth abridged as PAVN and ARVN) had never truly faced of against each other in a conventional battle. In fact, one of the main reasons for the ARVN's failure in conducting proper counterinsurgency is that it had been trained since 1955 to repel an expected invasion from the North. When the time came for the PAVN to face off against ARVN in the Easter Offensive of 1972, the PAVN suffered several losses and was ultimately beaten back by the ARVN with help from American fire support. The PAVN had yet to perfect combined arms tactics and suffered greatly because of it. The ordinary ARVN soldier, who is usually the scorn of popular history on the Vietnam War, labelled as nothing but incompetent and coward soldiers, showed remarkable courage and fighting ability in fighting the Tét offensive (alongside American troops) and the Easter Offensive (practically on their own with American advisors or special forces). \n\nSo if the ARVN had managed to fight off the PAVN in 1972, what went so disastrously wrong in 1975? \n\nThere are several reasons for this. \n\nThe Americans had left Vietnam two years previously and while all equipment and machinery had been left behind for the South Vietnamese to use, they were practically useless without ammunition or spare parts - items which the US were not prepared to supply. While President Gerald Ford tried to gain support in Congress to increase the money given to South Vietnam, the ARVN found itself in an ammunition shortage. Since the US were not prepared to help South Vietnam with fire support like in the previous two conventional encounters, it would be an increasingly difficult task to stem the tide of North Vietnamese crossing the DMZ. The PAVN was also superior in numbers, having increased in size and improved itself during late 1973, but which had been constantly developing since 1968. PAVN had several veteran units, and plenty of soldiers in the PAVN had combat experience and were of rather high quality. Unlike the 1972 offensive, combined tactics training had been carried out and improvement on collaboration had been achieved. Combine this with competent generals and commanders in the field as well as sound and proper preparation for the offensive (in particular when it came to logistics and transportation) as well as the successful use of deception tactics to disguise that Ban Me Thuot was the target of the initial 1975 offensive.\n\nThe ARVN by this time was unfortunately still plagued with the corruption of senior officers and with widespread lack of proper training. However, when put to the test, the average ARVN soldier could stand his ground. To say that the North crushed the South instantly is perhaps too much of an exaggeration. ARVN stood its ground on plenty of battlefields, right up to the end at Xuan Loc. However, we have to consider the human factor in this and many soldiers feared for possible reprisals. Considering the importance of family in Vietnamese culture, it was only natural for men to desert to seek up their family amongst the refugees, but there are also plenty of ARVN soldiers who used the thought of protecting their families as their prime motivations in fighting. \n\nIn the end, it was simply too much for an already weakened ARVN. Without fire support, without the necessary equipment, spare parts or ammunition and with the enemy close to their families, it became too much for them to bear. After the fall of Ban Me Thuot President Thieu decided to evacuate the Central Highlands and effectively cut South Vietnam in two. The final collapse came soon thereafter.\n\nTo read more on this and the 1975 offensive, I'd recommend Gorge J. Veith's *Black April: The Fall of South Vietnam 1974-75*.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26759074", "title": "1965 in the Vietnam War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 574, "text": "In 1965, the United States rapidly increased its military forces in South Vietnam, prompted by the realization that the South Vietnamese government was losing the Vietnam War as the communist-dominated Viet Cong gained influence over much of the population in rural areas of the country. North Vietnam also rapidly increased its infiltration of men and supplies to combat South Vietnam and the U.S.. The objective of the U.S. and South Vietnam was to prevent a communist take-over. North Vietnam and the insurgent Viet Cong sought to unite the two sections of the country. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "752072", "title": "History of the United States (1849–1865)", "section": "Section::::Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 1438, "text": "Each side had its relative strengths and weaknesses. The North had a larger population and a far larger industrial base and transportation system. It would be a defensive war for the South and an offensive one for the North, and the South could count on its huge geography, and an unhealthy climate, to prevent an invasion. In order for the North to emerge victorious, it would have to conquer and occupy the Confederate States of America. The South, on the other hand, only had to keep the North at bay until the Northern public lost the will to fight. The Confederacy adopted a military strategy designed to hold their territory together, gain worldwide recognition, and inflict so much punishment on invaders that the North would grow weary of the war and negotiate a peace treaty that would recognize the independence of the CSA. The only point of seizing Washington, or invading the North (besides plunder) was to shock Yankees into realizing they could not win. The Confederacy moved its capital from a safe location in Montgomery, Alabama, to the more cosmopolitan city of Richmond, Virginia, only 100 miles from the enemy capital in Washington. Richmond was heavily exposed, and at the end of a long supply line; much of the Confederacy's manpower was dedicated to its defense. The North had far greater potential advantages, but it would take a year or two to mobilize them for warfare. Meanwhile, everyone expected a short war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "161323", "title": "Military history of the United States", "section": "Section::::American Civil War (1861–1865).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 632, "text": "As the fighting between the two capitals stalled, the North found more success in campaigns elsewhere, using rivers, railroads, and the seas to help move and supply their larger forces, putting a stranglehold on the South—the Anaconda Plan. The war spilled across the continent, and even to the high seas. After four years of appallingly bloody conflict, with more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined, the North's larger population and industrial might slowly ground the South down. The resources and economy of the South were ruined, while the North's factories and economy prospered filling government wartime contracts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8453309", "title": "Role of the United States in the Vietnam War", "section": "Section::::Americanization.:Build-up.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 740, "text": "The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation \"Silver Bayonet\", better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese, began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19284932", "title": "Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support", "section": "Section::::Enter the Americans and the North Vietnamese.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 903, "text": "In 1965, both the United States and North Vietnam rapidly increased the numbers of their soldiers in South Vietnam. Communist forces totaled 221,000 including an estimated 105 Viet Cong and 55 PAVN battalions. American soldiers in Vietnam totaled 175,000 by the end of the year, and the South Vietnamese army numbered more than 600,000. Commanding General William Westmoreland rejected the use of the U.S. army to pacify rural areas, instead utilizing U.S. superiority in mobility and firepower to find and combat Viet Cong and PAVN units. Intensification of the conflict caused many peasants and rural dwellers to flee to the cities for safety. The number of internal refugees increased from about 500,000 in 1964 to one million in 1966. By December 1966, South Vietnam could only claim—optimistically in the U.S.'s view—to control 4,700 of the country's 12,000 hamlets and 10 of its 16 million people\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80058", "title": "Lê Duẩn", "section": "Section::::General Secretary leadership.:Vietnam War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 896, "text": "With the increased involvement of the United States military in 1965, the North's military strategy was forced to change. As Lê Duẩn noted in a letter to Nguyễn Chí Thanh, the war would become \"fiercer and longer\". He believed the fundamentals of the conflict had not changed; the South Vietnamese regime's unpopularity remained its \"Achilles' heel\" and he continued to advocate a combination of guerrilla warfare and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) offensives. The communist commanders in the South were to avoid large attacks on the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), but instead focus on many small attacks to demoralize the enemy. Lê Duẩn believed that the key to victory was for the PAVN to keep the initiative. He dismissed the possibility of an attack against North Vietnam by American forces, claiming that an attack on North Vietnam would be an attack on the entire socialist camp.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15819604", "title": "Viet Cong and Vietnam People's Army logistics and equipment", "section": "Section::::The infiltration south.:Trail movement and hardships.:Volume of infiltration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 306, "text": "Throughout a large portion of the War, North Vietnam denied that any of its soldiers were even \"in\" the south, but it is clear that the Communist forces were able to place tens of thousands of troops in the southern war zone, including complete units of regular NVA, rather than simply individual fillers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is a demand in terms of students who need teachers. But the lack is due to the budgets of the states, who tend to undervalue teachers, as is traditional.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a great demand for teachers, there is not a enough budget for them. Teachers in most places are extremely underpaid. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In economics, \"demand\" does not just mean \"desire\". It means \"desire with ability and willingness to pay\".\n\nIf I sure like almonds, but am not willing and able to pay for them, then that is not a \"demand\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hard to get people to take a job where they are under paid, under respected, and over worked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It seems to be a compounding problem, from a financial standpoint. \nEducation is funded from a fairly-localized tax base. \n\nIf unemployment goes up, people may try to move their families to where the jobs are, which leaves the schools with fewer students and therefore a need for fewer teachers. However, the funding available to the schools decreases significantly with fewer people paying taxes, but there are the same costs for facilities and maintenance, materials, busing, administration, and even perhaps increased costs for school programs to help the less-fortunate or struggling families (like before/after school programs, food programs, etc). Classes may be combined to save teacher salary costs, which both lowers achievement of the students and puts more teachers out of work. Teacher positions might sit vacant for years, in spite of a clear need, until the jobs come back in the community. That's one scenario.\n\nIf employment is high, and schools are filled with students from tax-paying families, they can be limited by the facilities themselves (not enough classroom space which makes overcrowding) and the expectation from parents and the public that the schools have the latest technology can overshadow the need for more teachers. It could be 10 years before another school is built and staffed, by which time the need for those teachers/schools may have graduated already. Current students often get lost in the shuffle and don't achieve to their potential, which basically results in the same scenario as the first one: overly-full classrooms, and the need for more teachers so students can get the attention and guidance they need to succeed.\n\nIn both cases, there is an educational need for more teachers, and a desire on the part of the students and parents for more teachers. However, school boards/tax-collecting bodies either may not want to put teacher positions high in their financial priorities even though they can afford it, or they want to pay for them but they can't.\n\n...plus what MOS95B said.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the governments of Mississippi or Idaho or whatever don't have the funds or the will to pay teachers and other professionals sufficiently to compensate them for the drain on their quality of life that comes with living in Mississippi or Idaho or whatever.\n\nUp here in Ontario the Province often gives huge incentives to doctors willing to practice in small towns. I'm not even talking remote communities 1000km inland from Hudson Bay. I'm talking places like Lindsay or Chatham, which have all the creature comforts of modernity. They'll give you a free house, a free car, all sorts of goodies for your kids, and a big bump in salary. Still no-one takes the offer up. A big house and some pretty scenery is not a worthwhile tradeoff to an educated professional for living amidst career stagnation surrounded by backwater hicks. Oh you're the best doctor in Penatanguishene? I hope the other guy doesn't mind you saying that, he'd get quite upset. Too bad about the neighbour kids calling you a towelhead and throwing rocks at your car. I'm sure they'll accept you as a human being one day. You're still stealing their jobs somehow though. Anyways, can't stick around to talk about the weather the head of the WHO is coming to meet the head of my department at Mt. Sinai.\n\nNow imagine instead of just some run-of-the-mill ignorants who don't know better you find a hundred million or so inbred methheads, all swarming across a vast swath of a continent, turning huge parts of it into a monotonous array of strip malls and parking lots and churches the size of stadiums, running you over with their roll-coal ballsack-adorned pickup trucks, shooting out the window at passing kids, voting and funding governments in 20 or 30 jurisdictions who cannot afford and are unwilling to pony up the huge incentives needed to make this sort of existence tolerable. Having to wear body armour to work because some religious fanatics are trying to kill you for prescribing birth control. Getting bricks through your window because Norma Jean and Billy Ray find your recommendation that their 17 kids eat food and drink water instead of a sack a' p'ttaytuh chups and 6 gallons of cacola \"uppity\".\n\nNow imagine that you work in education, which these people consider an existential threat, and on any given day some 4chan castoff can walk in and gun down your entire class and the whole town will turn on you and scream death threats at you for being a shill for the federal government, making up stories about kids being killed so Obama can take away their guns.\n\nNo thank you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In Finland, teachers are well paid and highly respected. In contrast, in the US, teachers are frequently attacked politically, and are often low paid (some states or districts do pay decently, but those often have a higher cost of living in general, which does offset it). \n\nIn several states, there was a decision to underfund public schooling in general after segregation was declared illegal. Which adds to the crisis. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26557458", "title": "Lack of physical education", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 247, "text": "Moreover, a lack of governmental legislation and intervention can be to blame. In parts of South America (with the exception of Chile and Colombia), there are no laws that make physical education compulsory: thus, it is omitted from many schools.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21005399", "title": "Education in Uttar Pradesh", "section": "Section::::History.:Post-independence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 261, "text": "The problems of state's education system are complex. Due to public apathy the public schools are run inefficiently. Privately run schools (including those run by Christian missionaries) are functional, but expensive and so beyond the reach of ordinary people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2727079", "title": "Women's shelter", "section": "Section::::Funding.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 912, "text": "Reports show that on any day over 5,000 women are unable to use services because of a lack of funding or space. Many states have also cut their funds for women's shelters. In 2009, Governor Schwarzenegger of California cut $16 million in state funding to domestic violence programs because of the state's budget deficit. In late 2011 Washington governor Christine Gregoire released a budget proposal stripping all state funding for domestic violence and women's shelters across Washington State. These types of budget cuts caused several shelters to close their doors, leaving women with no safe haven to escape Intimate partner violence. Local communities are now also taking it upon themselves to create a safe place for domestic violence refugees. In Grand Forks, British Columbia, a small community of less than 3,600, people organized the Boundary Women's Coalition, to support their local women's shelter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4665199", "title": "Intercultural competence", "section": "Section::::Education in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 512, "text": "Teachers and administrators in the public school systems of the United States come in contact with a wide variety of sub-cultures and are at the forefront of the challenge of bringing diverse groups together within a larger American society. Issues confronting teachers and administrators on a daily basis include student learning disabilities, student behavioral problems, child abuse, drug addiction, mental health, and poverty, most of which are handled differently within different cultures and communities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31615812", "title": "Education NGOs", "section": "Section::::United States Education Nonprofits.:Main Concerns with the U.S Education System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 742, "text": "The academic disparities in the United States are also caused by other factors. One is that qualified, effective teachers are often concentrated in school districts that offer higher salaries Yet these districts are inhabited mainly by wealthier families and less by students of color. Another cause is that impoverished circumstances prevent children from learning in school, increasing the achievement gap. Studies have also revealed that the trend of school choice is a hindrance to social mobility, as more affluent families have access to schools with greater resources that are often private. This tendency has generated greater school segregation not only amongst students of various races but also of different socioeconomic classes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57288543", "title": "2018 Colorado teachers' strike", "section": "Section::::Strike.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1355, "text": "The topic of educational funding in various states within the United States has become a controversial subject. In early 2018, teachers in the states of Arizona, Colorado, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia conducted strikes. In Colorado, the strikes occurred because of low teacher salaries and insignificant benefits. Colorado teachers were represented by the Colorado Education Association (CEA) and were opposed by officials of state government. The CEA demanded a two percent salary increase and a significant favorable adjustment to the Colorado Public Employees’ Retirement Association (PERA). In response, on April 20th, 2018, Colorado Senator Bob Gardner and Representative Paul Lundeen introduced Senate Bill 18-264. Gardner and Lundeen intended to discourage teachers from conducting protests. “The bill prohibits public school teachers and teacher organizations from directly or indirectly inducing, instigating, encouraging, authorizing, ratifying, or participating in a strike against any public-school employer” (SB18-264, n.d.). However, Senate Bill 18-264 was heavily criticized and was dismissed. Despite the threat of the bill, Colorado teachers began to strike on April 27th, 2018 and continued to do so until May 12th, 2018. Ultimately, the state government of Colorado agreed to give teachers a two percent salary increase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12007877", "title": "Infrastructural power", "section": "Section::::The modern territorial state.:Bureaucratic states.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 419, "text": "The government provides services throughout the entire US territory. As a result, the state is more politically and economically stable. In general, citizens have more time to concentrate on political and social activities because they do not have to worry about daily subsistence. Thus, civil society has a strong presence in the United States and provides an arena through which the government can affect daily life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]