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# MySQL/Databases manipulation
## Creation
``` sql
CREATE DATABASE database;
```
Require? Privilege.
`mysqladmin create` is a command-line wrapper for this function.
NB: in MySQL, `CREATE SCHEMA` is a perfect synonym of `CREATE DATABASE`,
contrarily to some other DBMS like Oracle or SQL Server.
## Deletion
``` sql
DROP DATABASE database;
```
Require ? privilege.
`mysqladmin drop` is a command-line wrapper for this function. The `-f`
option can be used to suppress the interactive confirmation (useful for
unattended scripts).
## Rename
In some 5.1.x versions there was a `RENAME DATABASE db1 TO db2;`
command, but it has been removed because renaming databases via SQL
caused some data loss problems[^1].
However, in the command-line, you can create/export/import/delete:
``` bash
mysqladmin create name2
mysqldump --opt name1 | mysql name2
mysqladmin drop -f name1
```
Another option, if you have root access, is to rename the database
directory:
``` bash
cd /var/lib/mysql/
/etc/init.d/mysql stop
mv name1/ name2/
/etc/init.d/mysql start
```
You also need to drop privileges on name1 and recreate them on name2:
``` sql
UPDATE mysql.db SET `Db`='name2' WHERE `Db`='name1';
FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
```
## Copy
There is no direct copy command in MySQL. However, this can easily be
done using some tools.
### With mysqldump
The mysqldump command-line can be used to generate a complete flat-file
copy of the database. You can then reinject this copy in another
database.
This requires a direct access to the database; if you do not have it,
you may need to use phpMyAdmin instead.
``` bash
# First, clean-up the target database:
mysqladmin drop -f base2
mysqladmin create base2
# Copy base1 to base2:
mysqldump --opt base1 | mysql base2
```
#### Backup
To set an automatic backup every day at midnight[^2], in Linux:
``` bash
$ crontab -e
0 0 * * * /usr/local/bin/mysqldump -uLOGIN -PPORT -hHOST -pPASS base1 | gzip -c > `date “+\%Y-\%m-\%d”`.gz
```
### With phpMyAdmin
left\|thumb\|upright=3
## Restoration
- With Linux:
`mysql -h localhost -u root MaBase < MaBase.sql`
- With Windows, the program may not be into the environment variables:
`"C:\Program Files (x86)\EasyPHP\binaries\mysql\bin\mysql.exe" -h localhost -u root MyDB < MyDB.sql`
Contrarily to the PhpMyAdmin importations, there is no limit. For
example, we can load a 2 GB database in five minutes.
## Migration from other databases
{{\...}}
Tools: MySQL Migration
Toolkit
## Tools for data modeling
- MySQL Query Browser apparently includes a *MySQL Table Editor*
module.
- Kexi (wikipedia:
Kexi)
### DB Designer 4 and MySQL Workbench
DBDesigner begins to be old. It is released under the GNU GPL, but it
cannot be fully considered as free software since it requires the
non-free Kylix compiler to build.
But MySQL AB acquired fabFORCE [^3], who
distributed DB Designer, and MySQL
Workbench is the next version.
For now the project is still Alpha and not ready for use yet.
Meanwhile, if you use the latest release of DBDesigner, you\'ll find
that it cannot connect to MySQL, with the \"unable to load
libmysqlclient.so\" error. To workaround this,
- Install the MySQL \"Shared compatibility libraries\" (from
<http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/mysql/5.0.html#downloads> for
version 5.0, generic RPMS aka MySQL-shared-compat.i386 will do).
- Replace DBDesigner\'s version of libmysqlclient.so with the newly
installed one:
`sudo ln -sf /usr/lib/libmysqlclient.so.10 /usr/lib/DBDesigner4/libmysqlclient.so`
- Find and install `kylixlibs3-unwind-3.0-rh.4.i386.rpm`
- Find an old xorg (e.g. `xorg-x11-libs-6.8.2-37.FC4.49.2.1.i386.rpm`
from FC4) and extract it:
`rpm2cpio x.rpm | cpio -i`
- Get libXft.so.1.1 in that package and install it:
`sudo cp libXft.so.1.1 /usr/lib`\
`ldconfig`
You now can connect to your MySQL5 server from DBDesigner4. Consider
this a temporary work-around waiting for community (free) and commercial
(not free) versions MySQL Workbench.
### OpenOffice Base and ODBC
Typical configuration :
- MySQL database on a host machine (which name is `mysqlhost` below)
- OOo 2 on a client machine (Debian GNU/Linux for instance)
- Connection via ODBC.
It\'s a client configuration : we need `mysql-client`:
`aptitude install mysql-client`
Under Fedora/CentOS:
`yum install mysql`
Before installing ODBC, we can test the remote connexion locally:
`$ mysql -h mysqlhost -u user1 mysqldatabase -p`\
`Enter password: PassUser1`
You must have create the database `mysqldatabase` and the user `user1`
on `mysqlhost`. It seems there is no problem (hope there is not ;-)):
`Reading table information for completion of table and column names`\
`You can turn off this feature to get a quicker startup with -A`\
`Welcome to the MySQL monitor. Commands end with ; or \g.`\
`Your MySQL connection id is 33 to server version: 5.0.24a-Debian_5~bpo.1-log`\
`Type 'help;' or '\h' for help. Type '\c' to clear the buffer.`\
`mysql>`
Then, it\'s possible to test, through different queries :
`mysql> show databases;`\
`+--------------------+`\
`| Database |`\
`+--------------------+`\
`| information_schema |`\
`| mysqldatabase |`\
`+--------------------+`\
`2 rows in set (0.00 sec)`\
`....`\
`mysql> quit;`\
`Bye`
Fine ! Let\'s go with OOo and ODBC, on the client machine:
`aptitude install libmyodbc unixodbc`
For Fedora/CentOS:
`yum install mysql-connector-odbc unixODBC`
`/etc/odbc.ini` (empty file) and `/etc/odbcinst.ini` are created.
`odbcinst.ini` declares the available ODBC driver. Here\'s the MySQL
statement (paths to the .so files may vary depending on the
distribution); for Debian:
`[MySQL]`\
`Description = MySQL driver`\
`Driver = /usr/lib/odbc/libmyodbc.so`\
`Setup = /usr/lib/odbc/libodbcmyS.so`\
`CPTimeout =`\
`CPReuse =`\
`FileUsage = 1`
for CentOS:
`[MySQL]`\
`Description = ODBC for MySQL`\
`Driver = /usr/lib/libmyodbc3.so`\
`Setup = /usr/lib/libodbcmyS.so`\
`FileUsage = 1`
Now we can use `odbcinst` :
`# odbcinst -j`\
`unixODBC 2.2.4`\
`DRIVERS............: /etc/odbcinst.ini`\
`SYSTEM DATA SOURCES: /etc/odbc.ini`\
`USER DATA SOURCES..: /root/.odbc.ini`
For further options : `man odbcinst`
First of all, we have to create at least one DSN (Data Source Name or
Data Set Name), because every ODBC connection is initialized through an
existing DSN. It\'s true in every cases, so it is required for an ODBC
connection from OOo.
To create a DSN, one have different possibilities :
- Modify /etc/odbc.ini (concerns all users)
- Modify \~/.odbc.ini (concerns a specific user)
- Use graphical applications such as **ODBCConfig** (Debian:
`unixodbc-bin`, Fedora: `unixODBC-kde`). Finally, these graphical
applications modify **/etc/odbc.ini** or **\~/.odbc.ini**
For instance, a `/etc/odbc.ini` file (the name of the DSN is between
brackets \[\]):
`[MySQL-test]`\
`Description = MySQL ODBC Database`\
`TraceFile = stderr`\
`Driver = MySQL`\
`SERVER = mysqlhost`\
`USER = user1`\
`PASSWORD =`\
`DATABASE = mysqldatabase`
In that case, the DSN is called **MySQL-test**
Then we can test, using **isql** command:
`$ isql -v MySQL-test user1 PassUser1`\
`+---------------------------------------+`\
`| Connected! |`\
`| |`\
`| sql-statement |`\
`| help [tablename] |`\
`| quit |`\
`| |`\
`+---------------------------------------+`\
`SQL> show databases;`\
`+-------------------+`\
`| Database |`\
`+-------------------+`\
`| information_schema|`\
`| mysqldatabase |`\
`+-------------------+`\
`2 rows affected`\
`2 rows returned`\
`SQL> quit;`
And now, from OOo:
`-> File`\
` -> New`\
` -> Database`\
`-> Connecting to an existing database`\
` -> MySQL`\
` -> Next`\
`-> Connect using ODBC`\
` -> Next`\
`-> Choosing a Data Source`\
` -> MySQL-test`\
` -> Next`\
`-> Username : user1 (tick `*`password required`*`)`\
`-> Yes, register the database for me`\
`-> Finish`
At that step, one is connected to the **mysqldatabase** database, under
the user **user1**. Just before accessing the database, for example to
create tables, one will give user1 password. Then, through OOo, it is
now quite easy to access and manipulate the database. We can just notice
that Java is required in the following cases :
- Wizard to create a form (at the opposite, to create a form directly
don\'t need any JRE).
- Wizard to create reports.
- Wizard to create queries (at the opposite, to create a query
directly or through a view don\'t need any JRE).
- Wizard to create tables (at the opposite, to create a table directly
or to create a view don\'t need any JRE).
GNU/Linux distros usually ships OpenOffice with IcedTea
(`openjdk-6-jre`/`java-1.6.0-openjdk`) or GCJ
(`java-gcj-compat`/`java-1.4.2-gcj-compat`) so that these Java-based
features work.
## References
```{=html}
<references />
```
fr:MySQL/Manipulation de
base
[^1]: <https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.1/en/rename-database.html>
[^2]: <http://stackoverflow.com/questions/6645818/how-to-automate-database-backup-using-phpmyadmin>
[^3]: In the forums:
1 but we\'d
need something more official
|
# MySQL/Stored Programs
MySQL supports some procedural extensions to SQL. By using them, you can
manage the control flow, create loops and use cursors. These features
allow you to create stored programs, which may be of 3 kinds:
- Triggers - programs which are *triggered* before / after a certain
event involves a table (DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE);
- Events - programs which are executed regularly after some time
intervals;
- Stored Procedures - programs which can be called via the CALL SQL
command.
MySQL future versions will support stored program written in other
languages, not only SQL. You will have the ability to manage new
languages as PLUGINs. Also, the stored procedures will be compiled into
C code, and thus they will be faster.
## Triggers
### Managing Triggers
Triggers were added in MySQL 5.0.2. They work on persistent tables, but
can\'t be associated with TEMPORARY tables.
#### CREATE TRIGGER
To create a new trigger:
``` sql
CREATE TRIGGER `delete_old` AFTER INSERT ON `articles`
FOR EACH ROW BEGIN
DELETE FROM `articles` ORDER BY `id` ASC LIMIT 1
END
```
This example trigger defines a stored program (which is the simple
DELETE statement) called \`delete_old\`. It\'s automatically fired when
a new record is INSERTed into \`articles\`. It\'s called after the
INSERT, not before. If a single INSERT adds more than one row to the
table, \`delete_old\` is called more than once. The idea is simple: when
a new record is created, the oldest record is DELETEd.
A trigger may be executed BEFORE or AFTER a certain SQL statement. This
is important because a trigger may execute one or more statements which
activate other triggers; so, it may be important to decide their time
order, to ensure the database\'s integrity.
The statement which fires the trigger must be a basic DML command:
- **INSERT**, which includes LOAD DATA and REPLACE
- **DELETE**, which includes REPLACE, but not TRUNCATE
- **UPDATE**
A special case is INSERT \... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE. If the INSERT is
executed, both BEFORE INSERT and AFTER INSERT are executed. If the
INSERT is not executed, and thus an UPDATE is executed instead, the
order of events is the following: BEFORE INSERT, BEFORE UPDATE, AFTER
UPDATE.
You can also specify the table\'s name by using the following syntax:
`` ... ON `my_database`.`my_table` ... ``
Triggers\' names must be unique in a database. Two tables located in the
same database can\'t be associated to two different triggers with the
same name.
Unlike other DBMSs and standard SQL, all triggers are fired FOR EACH
ROW, and can\'t be executed for each statement.
A stored program must be specified between BEGIN and END reserved words.
You can\'t use dynamic SQL here (the PREPARE statement); use can call a
stored procedure, instead. If you execute only one statement, you can
omit the BEGIN and END words.
You can access to the old value of a field (the value it has before the
execution of the statement) and to the new value (the value it has after
the execution of the statement. Example:
``` sql
CREATE TRIGGER `use_values` AFTER INSERT ON `example_tab`
FOR EACH ROW BEGIN
UPDATE `changelog` SET `old_value`=OLD.`field1`, `new_value`=NEW.`field1` WHERE `backup_tab`.`id`=`example_tab`.`id`
END
```
#### DROP TRIGGER
To DROP a trigger you can use the following syntax:
``` sql
DROP TRIGGER `my_trigger`
```
Or:
``` sql
DROP TRIGGER `my_database`.`my_trigger`
```
Or:
``` sql
DROP TRIGGER IF EXISTS `my_trigger`
```
To alter an existing trigger, you must DROP and re-CREATE it.
### Metadata
#### SHOW CREATE TRIGGER
This command returns the CREATE TRIGGER statement used to create the
trigger and some information about the settings which may affect the
statement.
``` sql
SHOW CREATE TRIGGER delete_old;
```
- **Trigger** - Trigger name
- **sql_mode** - The value of SQL_MODE at the time of the execution of
the statement
- **SQL Original Statement**
- **character_set_client**
- **collation_connection**
- **Database Collation**
This statement was added in MySQL 5.1.
#### SHOW TRIGGERS
If you want to have a list of all the triggers in the current database,
you can type the following:
``` sql
SHOW TRIGGERS
```
If you want to have a list of the triggers contained in another
database, you can use:
``` sql
SHOW TRIGGERS IN `my_db`
SHOW TRIGGERS FROM `my_db` -- synonym
```
If you want to list the triggers whose name matches to a LIKE
expression:
``` sql
SHOW TRIGGERS FROM `my_db` LIKE 'my_%'
```
More complex filters:
``` sql
SHOW TRIGGERS WHERE table='users'
```
You can\'t use LIKE and WHERE together.
The columns returned by this statement are:
- **Trigger** - Trigger\'s name
- **Event** - The SQL command that fires the trigger
- **Table** - The table that is associated to the trigger
- **Statement** - The statement that is executed by the trigger
- **Timing** - BEFORE or AFTER
- **Created** - It\'s always NULL
- **sql_mode** - The SQL_MODE which was set when the trigger was
created
- **Definer** - The user who created the trigger
- **character_set_client** - The value of the \`character_set_client\`
variable when the trigger was created
- **collation_connection** - The value of the \`collation_connection\`
variable when the trigger was created
- **Database Collation** - The COLLATION used by the database (and the
trigger)
#### INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TRIGGERS
The INFORMATION_SCHEMA virtual database has a \`TRIGGERS\` table. It has
the following fields:
- **TRIGGER_CATALOG** - What catalog contains the trigger (not
implemented yet)
- **TRIGGER_SCHEMA** - What SCHEMA (DATABASE) contains the trigger
- **TRIGGER_NAME** - Trigger\'s name
- **EVENT_MANIPULATION** - INSERT / UPDATE /DELETE
- **EVENT_OBJECT_CATALOG** - Not implemented yet
- **EVENT_OBJECT_SCHEMA** - SCHEMA containing the table associated to
the trigger
- **EVENT_OBJECT_NAME** - Name of the table associated to the trigger
- **ACTION_ORDER** - Not implemented yet
- **ACTION_CONDITION** - Not implemented yet
- **ACTION_STATEMENT** - Statement(s) to be executed when trigger
activates
- **ACTION_ORIENTATION** - Not implemented yet
- **ACTION_TIMING** - BEFORE / AFTER
- **ACTION_REFERENCE_OLD_TABLE** - Not implemented
- **ACTION_REFERENCE_NEW_TABLE** - Not implemented
- **ACTION_REFERENCE_OLD_ROW** - Not implemented
- **ACTION_REFERENCE_NEW_ROW** - Not implemented
- **CREATED** - Creation time (not implemented yet)
- **SQL_MODE** - SQL_MODE valid for this trigger\'s execution
- **DEFINER** - User who created the trigger, in the form
\'user@host\'
- **CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT** - The value of the \`character_set_client\`
variable when the trigger was created
- **COLLATION_CONNECTION** - The value of the \`collation_connection\`
variable when the trigger was created
- **DATABASE_COLLATION** - The COLLATION used by the database (and the
trigger)
## Events
Events are also called Scheduled Events or Temporal Triggers. They are
planned events which are executed at certain times, or at specified time
intervals. They are similar to the UNIX
cron|crontab.
Once an Event is started, it must be completely executed. If it is
re-activated before it ends its execution, a new instance of the same
Event will be created. If this can happen, it may be a good idea to use
LOCKs to assure data consistence.
The Event Scheduler is a thread which is permanently in execution. It
starts the Events when they must be started. If you don\'t need Events,
you can disable the Event Scheduler. You can do this starting MySQL with
the following option:
`mysqld --event-scheduler=DISABLED`
Or you can add a line to the my.cnf configuration file:
`event_scheduler=DISABLED`
If the Event Scheduler is not disabled, you will be able to turn it
ON/OFF runtime. It is controlled by a global system variable:
``` sql
SELECT event_scheduler -- values: ON / OFF / DISABLED
SET GLOBAL event_scheduler = ON
SET GLOBAL event_scheduler = OFF
```
If the Event Scheduler is ON, you can check its status with SHOW
PROCESSLIST. It is shown like all other threads. Its \`User\` is
\'event_scheduler\'. When it is sleeping, the value for \`State\` is
\'Waiting for next activation\'.
### Managing Events
You can use the SQL commands CREATE EVENT, ALTER EVENT and DROP EVENT.
#### CREATE EVENT
The simplest case. We want a SQL command to be executed tomorrow:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent`
ON SCHEDULE AT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP + INTERVAL 1 DAY
DO
INSERT INTO `mydatabase`.`news` (`title`, `text`) VALUES ('Example!', 'This is not a reale news')
```
The event name must be specified after \"EVENT\".
If you want to create a task which will be executed only once at a
certain time, you need the AT clause. If you don\'t want to specify an
absolute time, but we want the task to be executed when a time interval
is passed, \"AT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP + INTERVAL \...\" is a useful syntax.
If you want to create a recurring task (which will be executed at
regular intervals) you need the EVERY clause:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
You can also specify a start time and/or an end time. The task will be
executed at regular intervals from the start time until the end time:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY INTERVAL 1 DAY
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
STARTS CURRENT_TIMESTAMP + 1 MONTH
ENDS CURRENT_TIMESTAMP + 3 MONTH
```
The allowed time units are:
``` sql
YEAR, QUARTER, MONTH, WEEK, DAY, HOUR, MINUTE, SECOND, YEAR_MONTH, DAY_HOUR, DAY_MINUTE, DAY_SECOND, HOUR_MINUTE, HOUR_SECOND, MINUTE_SECOND
```
The DO clause specify which statement must be executed.
If a task is composed by more than 1 statement, the BEGIN \... END
syntax must be used:
``` sql
delimiter |
CREATE EVENT `newevent`
ON SCHEDULE
EVERY 1 DAY
DO
BEGIN
DELETE FROM `logs`.`user` WHERE `deletion_time` < CURRENT_TIMESTAMP - 1 YEAR;
DELETE FROM `logs`.`messages` WHERE `deletion_time` < CURRENT_TIMESTAMP - 1 YEAR;
UPDATE `logs`.`activity` SET `last_cleanup` = CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
END |
delimiter ;
```
If an EVENT with the same name already exists you get an error from the
server. To suppress the error, you can use the IF NOT EXISTS clause:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
IF NOT EXISTS
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
After the EVENT is expired (when the timestamp specified in the AT
clause or in the ENDS clause), MySQL drops the event by default, as it
is no more useful. You may want to preserve it from deletion to ALTER it
someday and activate it again, or just to have its code somewhere. You
may do this with the ON COMPLETION clause:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
ON COMPLETION PRESERVE
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
Or, you can explicitly tell MySQL to drop it, even if it\'s not
necessary:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
ON COMPLETION NOT PRESERVE
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
If you don\'t tell MySQL to preserve the EVENT after it\'s expired, but
it is already expired immediatly after creation (which happens if you
specify a past TIMESTAMP in the AT / ENDS clause), the server creates
and drop it as you requested. However, in this case it will inform you
returning a 1588 warning.
You can also specify if an EVENT must be enabled. This is done by
specifying ENABLE, DISABLE or DISABLE ON SLAVES (used to execute the
event on the master and not replacate it on the slaves). The EVENT is
enabled by default.
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
ON COMPLETION NOT PRESERVE
DISABLE
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
To modify this behaviour, you will use ALTER EVENT.
You can specify a comment for the EVENT. Comments have a 64 characters
limit. The comment must be a literal, not an expression. Example:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
ON COMPLETION NOT PRESERVE
DISABLE
COMMENT 'let\'s optimize some tables!'
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
You can also specify which user must be used to check privileges during
the execution of the EVENT. By default, the CURRENT_USER is used. You
can specify that explicitly:
``` sql
CREATE DEFINER = CURRENT_USER
EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
To specify a different user, you must have the SUPER privilege. In that
case, you must specify both the username and the host:
``` sql
CREATE DEFINER = 'allen@localhost'
EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
#### ALTER EVENT
The ALTER EVENT statement can be used to modify an existing EVENT.
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2`
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 2 DAY
ON COMPLETION NOT PRESERVE
RENAME TO `example_event`
DISABLE
COMMENT 'let\'s optimize some tables!'
DO
OPTIMIZE TABLE `mydatabase`.`news`
```
RENAME TO is used to rename the EVENT.
You only need to specify the clauses that you want to change:
``` sql
CREATE EVENT `newevent2` ENABLE;
```
#### DROP EVENT
You need the EVENT privilege to drop an event. To drop an event you can
type:
``` sql
DROP EVENT `event_name`
```
If the EVENT does not exist, you get a 1517 error. To avoid this, you
can use the IF EXISTS clause:
``` sql
DROP EVENT IF EXISTS `event_name`
```
If the EVENT needs to be executed only once or just for a known time
period, by default MySQL drops it automatically when it is expired (see
the ON COMPLETE clause in CREATE EVENT).
### Metadata
#### SHOW CREATE EVENT
This command returns the CREATE EVENT statement used to create the
trigger and some information about the settings which may affect the
statement.
Syntax:
``` sql
SHOW CREATE EVENT newevent2;
```
- **Event** - Event name.
- **sql_mode** - SQL mode which was in effect when the CREATE EVENT
statement was executed.
- **time_zone** - Time zone that was used when the statement was
executed.
- **Create Event** - Statement used to create the event.
- **character_set_client**
- **collation_connection**
- **Database Collation**
#### SHOW EVENTS
The statement shows information about the EVENTs which are in the
current database or in the specified database:
``` sql
SHOW EVENTS
SHOW EVENTS FROM `my_nice_db`
SHOW EVENTS IN `my_nice_db` -- synonym
SHOW EVENTS LIKE 'my_%' -- name starts with 'my_'
SHOW EVENTS WHERE definer LIKE 'admin@%' -- filters on any field
```
- **Db** Database name.
- **Name** Event name.
- **Definer** User which created the EVENT and the host he used, in
the form user@host.
- **Time zone** Timezone in use for the EVENT. If it never changed, it
should be \'SYSTEM\', which means: server\'s timezone.
- **Type** \'ONE TIME\' for EVENTs which are executed only once,
\'RECURRING\' for EVENTs which are executed regularly.
- **Executed At** The TIMESTAMP of the moment the EVENT will be
executed. NULL for recursive EVENTs.
- **Interval Value** Number of intervals between EVENT\'s executions.
See next field. NULL for EVENTs which are executed only once.
- **Interval Field** Interval type to wait between EVENTs executions.
For example, if \`Interval Field\` is \'SECOND\' and \`Interval
Value\` is 30, the EVENT will be executed every 30 seconds. NULL for
EVENTs which are executed only once.
- **Starts** First execution DATETIME for recurring EVENTs. NULL for
events which are executed only once.
- **Ends** Last execution DATETIME for recurring EVENTs. NULL for
events which are executed only once.
- **Status** ENABLED, DISABLED, or SLAVESIDE_DISABLED. For ENABLED and
DISABLED, see above. SLAVESIDE_DISABLED was added in 5.1 and means
that the EVENT is enabled on the master but disabled on the slaves.
- **Originator** Id of the server where the EVENT was created. If it
has been created on the current server this value is 0. Added in
5.1.
- **character_set_client**
- **collation_connection**
- **Database Collation**
#### INFORMATION_SCHEMA.EVENTS
The INFORMATION_SCHEMA virtual database has a \`EVENTS\` table. It\'s
non-standard and has been added in 5.1. EVENTS has the following fields:
- **EVENT_CATALOG** Always NULL (CATALOGs are not implemented in
MySQL).
- **EVENT_SCHEMA** Database name.
- **EVENT_NAME** Event name.
- **DEFINER** User which created the EVENT and the host he used, in
the form user@host.
- **TIME_ZONE** Timezone in use for the EVENT. If it never changed, it
should be \'SYSTEM\', which means: server\'s timezone.
- **EVENT_BODY** Language used to write the routine that will be
executed.
- **EVENT_DEFINITION** Routine that will be executed.
- **EVENT_TYPE** \'ONE TIME\' for EVENTs which are executed only once,
\'RECURRING\' for EVENTs which are executed regularly.
- **EXECUTE_AT** The TIMESTAMP of the moment the EVENT will be
executed. NULL for recursive EVENTs.
- **INTERVAL_VALUE** Number of intervals between EVENT\'s executions.
See next field. NULL for EVENTs which are executed only once.
- **INTERVAL_FIELD** Interval type to wait between EVENTs executions.
For example, if \`Interval Field\` is \'SECOND\' and \`Interval
Value\` is 30, the EVENT will be executed every 30 seconds. NULL for
EVENTs which are executed only once.
- **SQL_MODE** SQL mode which was in effect when the EVENT has been
created.
- **STARTS** First execution DATETIME for recurring EVENTs. NULL for
events which are executed only once.
- **ENDS** Last execution DATETIME for recurring EVENTs. NULL for
events which are executed only once.
- **STATUS** ENABLED, DISABLED, or SLAVESIDE_DISABLED. For ENABLED and
DISABLED, see above. SLAVESIDE_DISABLED was added in 5.1 and means
that the EVENT is enabled on the master but disabled on the slaves.
- **ON_COMPLETION** \'NOT PRESERVE\' (the EVENT will be deleted) or
\'PRESERVE\' (the EVENT won\'t be deleted\'.
- **CREATED** Creation DATETIME.
- **LAST_ALTERED** Last edit\'s DATETIME. If the EVENT has never been
altered, \`LAST_ALTERED\` has the same value as \`CREATED\`.
- **LAST_EXECUTED** Last execution TIMESTAMP. If the EVENT has never
been executed yet, this value is NULL.
- **EVENT_COMMENT** Comment associated to the EVENT. Is there is no
comment, this value is an empty string.
- **ORIGINATOR** Id of the server where the EVENT was created. If it
has been created on the current server this value is 0. Added in
5.1.
- **character_set_client**
- **collation_connection**
- **Database Collation**
## Stored Routines
Stored Routines are modules written in SQL (with some procedural
extensions) which may be called within another statement, using the CALL
command.
Stored Routines are called FUNCTIONs if they return a result, or
PROCEDUREs if they don\'t return anything. STORED PROCEDUREs must not be
confused with the PROCEDUREs written in C or LUA which can be used in a
SELECT statement; STORED FUNCTIONs must not be confused with UDF, even
if they both are created with a CREATE FUNCTION statement.
### Advantages of Stored Routines
- They reduce network traffic: they may contain many statements, but
only one statement need to be sent to invoke them.
- Ability to keep the logic within the database.
- Reusable modules which can be called from external programs, no
matter in what language they are written.
- You can modify the Stored Routines without changing your programs.
- The user which invokes a Stored Routine doesn\'t need to have access
to the tables which it reads / writes.
- Calling Stored Routines are faster than executing single statements.
### Managing Stored Routines
#### CREATE PROCEDURE
``` sql
CREATE DEFINER = `root`@`localhost` PROCEDURE `Module1` ( ) NOT DETERMINISTIC NO SQL SQL SECURITY DEFINER OPTIMIZE TABLE wiki1_page;
```
#### CALL
``` sql
CALL `Module1` ();
```
#### DROP PROCEDURE
``` sql
DROP PROCEDURE `Module1` ;
```
#### Modification
``` sql
DROP PROCEDURE `Module1` ;
CREATE DEFINER = `root`@`localhost` PROCEDURE `Module1` ( ) NOT DETERMINISTIC NO SQL SQL SECURITY DEFINER
BEGIN
OPTIMIZE TABLE wiki1_page;
OPTIMIZE TABLE wiki1_user;
END
```
### Metadata
#### SHOW FUNCTION / PROCEDURE STATUS
``` sql
SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS;
```
#### SHOW CREATE FUNCTION / PROCEDURE
``` sql
SHOW CREATE PROCEDURE Module1;
```
#### INFORMATION_SCHEMA.ROUTINES
The virtual database INFORMATION_SCHEMA has a table called \`ROUTINES\`,
with the functions and procedures information.
#### INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PARAMETERS
This table contains all the stored functions values.
## Procedural extensions to standard SQL
### Delimiter
MySQL uses a character as delimiter - MySQL knows that where that
character occurs a SQL statement ends and possibly another statement
begins. That character is \';\' by default. When you create a stored
program which contains more than one statements, you enter only one
statement: the CREATE command. However, it contains more then one
statements in its body, separated with a \';\'. In that case, you need
to inform MySQL that \';\' does not identify the end of the CREATE
statement: you need another delimiter.
In the following example, \'\|\' is used as a delimiter:
``` sql
delimiter |
CREATE EVENT myevent
ON SCHEDULE EVERY 1 DAY
DO
BEGIN
TRUNCATE `my_db`.`my_table`;
TRUNCATE `my_db`.`another_table`;
END
delimiter ;
```
### Flow control
The keywords are: `IF, CASE, ITERATE, LEAVE LOOP, WHILE, REPEAT`[^1].
### Loops
##### WHILE
``` sql
DELIMITER $$
CREATE PROCEDURE counter()
BEGIN
DECLARE x INT;
SET x = 1;
WHILE x <= 5 DO
SET x = x + 1;
END WHILE;
SELECT x; -- 6
END$$
DELIMITER ;
```
##### LOOP
``` sql
DELIMITER $$
CREATE PROCEDURE counter2()
BEGIN
DECLARE x INT;
SET x = 1;
boucle1: LOOP
SET x = x + 1;
IF x > 5 THEN
LEAVE boucle1;
END IF;
END LOOP boucle1;
SELECT x; -- 6
END$$
DELIMITER ;
```
##### REPEAT
``` sql
DELIMITER $$
CREATE PROCEDURE counter3()
BEGIN
DECLARE x INT;
SET x = 1;
REPEAT
SET x = x + 1; UNTIL x > 5
END REPEAT;
SELECT x; -- 6
END$$
DELIMITER ;
```
### Cursors
The Cursor (databases)|cursors allow to treat each
row differently, but it considerably slows the queries.
``` sql
DELIMITER $$
CREATE PROCEDURE cursor1()
BEGIN
DECLARE result varchar(100) DEFAULT "";
DECLARE c1 CURSOR FOR
SELECT page_title
FROM wiki1.wiki1_page
WHERE page_namespace = 0;
OPEN c1;
FETCH c1 INTO result;
CLOSE c1;
SELECT result;
END;$$
DELIMITER ;
```
They should be declared and open before the loop which should treat
every records differently. To know the table end, we should create a
handler after the cursor:
``` sql
-- Concatenate all a table column values on a row
DELIMITER $$
CREATE PROCEDURE cursor2()
BEGIN
DECLARE result varchar(100) DEFAULT "";
DECLARE total text DEFAULT "";
DECLARE done BOOLEAN DEFAULT 0;
DECLARE c2 CURSOR FOR
SELECT page_title
FROM wiki1.wiki1_page
WHERE page_namespace = 0;
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND SET done = TRUE;
OPEN c2;
REPEAT
FETCH c2 INTO result;
set total = concat(total, result);
UNTIL done END REPEAT;
CLOSE c2;
SELECT total;
END;$$
DELIMITER ;
```
### Error handling
A handler declaration permits to specify a treatment in case of
error[^2]:
``` mysql
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLEXCEPTION
```
Moreover, the error type can be indicated:
``` mysql
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLSTATE [VALUE] sqlstate_value
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR SQLWARNING
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND
```
## References
```{=html}
<references/>
```
fr:MySQL/Procédures stockées
[^1]: <http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.0/en/flow-control-statements.html>
[^2]: <http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.7/en/declare-handler.html>
|
# MySQL/Table types
Every table is a logical object in a database; but it also needs to
physically store its data (records) on the disk and/or in memory. Tables
use a Storage Engine to do this. SE are plugins which can be installed
or uninstalled into the server (if they\'re not builtin).
Many operations are requested by the server but physically done by the
SE. So, from the SE we choose for a table affects performance,
stability, LOCKs type, use of the query cache, disk space required and
special features.
In some future versions of MySQL, partitioned tables will be able to use
different SE for different partitions.
Let\'s see which Storage Engine is good for which uses.
## Storage Engines
### MyISAM and InnoDB
MyISAM does table level locking, while InnoDB does row level locking. In
addition to foreign keys, InnoDB offers transaction support, which is
absolutely critical when dealing with larger applications. Speed may
suffer, particularly for inserts with full transaction guarantees,
because all this Foreign Key / Transaction stuff adds overhead.
The default table type for MySQL on Linux is MyISAM, on Windows,
normally InnoDB. MyISAM uses table level locking, which means during an
UPDATE, nobody can access any other record of the same table. InnoDB
however, uses Row level locking. Row level locking ensures that during
an UPDATE, nobody can access that particular row, until the locking
transaction issues a COMMIT. Many people use MyISAM if they need speed
and InnoDB for data integrity.
#### MyISAM
- **Pros**
- Fulltext search is currently only available with MyISAM tables
- Geometric datatypes
- Sometimes faster reads
- All numeric key values are stored with the high byte first to
allow better index compression
- Internal handling of one AUTO_INCREMENT column per table is
supported. MyISAM automatically updates this column for INSERT
and UPDATE operations. This makes AUTO_INCREMENT columns faster
(at least 10%)
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Cons**
- Table (not row) level locking only
- No foreign keys constraints (but planned for MySQL 6.x)
- Slower table checking and restarts after power loss, an issue
for those who need high availability
#### InnoDB
- **Pros**
- Provides MySQL with a transaction-safe (ACID compliant) storage
engine that has commit, rollback, and crash recovery
capabilities
- XA transactions
- Foreign keys
- Row level locking
- Maintains its own buffer pool for caching data and indexes in
main memory
- Faster for some workloads, particularly those where physical
ordering by primary key helps or where the automatically built
hash indexes speed up record lookups
- Tables can be of any size even on operating systems where file
size is limited to 2GB.
- Fast and reliable recovery from power loss.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Cons**
- Data takes more space to store
- ACID guarantee requires full sync to disk at transaction commit,
can be turned off where speed is more important than full ACID
guarantees.
- Data Versioning and transactions add overhead to table
management.
- They can lead to high memory requirements to manage large
numbers of locks used in row locking.
- Indexes are slow to build when they\'re added after a table has
been created. Indexes should therefore be created when data is
bulk-loaded.
Overall, InnoDB should be used for with applications that rely highly on
data integrity or need transactions, while MyISAM can be used where that
is not required or where fulltext indexing is needed. Where speed is
more important, both should be tried because which is faster depends on
the application.
Drizzle, a MySQL\'s fork supported by Sun Microsystems, uses InnoDB as
its default engine and doesn\'t support MyISAM.
### Merge Table
Synonyms: Merge, MRG_MYISAM
- A MERGE table is a collection of identical MyISAM tables that can be
used as one.
- Identical means that all tables have identical column and index
information, no deviation of any sort is permitted.
`CREATE TABLE mumbai (first_name VARCHAR(30), amount INT(10)) TYPE=MyISAM`\
`CREATE TABLE delhi (first_name VARCHAR(30), amount INT(10)) TYPE=MyISAM`\
`CREATE TABLE total (first_name VARCHAR(30), amount INT(10)) TYPE=MERGE UNION=(mumbai,delhi)`
Merges can be used to work around MySQL\'s or system\'s filesize limits.
In fact those limits affect single MyISAM datafiles, but don\'t affect
the whole Merge table, which doesn\'t have a datafile.
In the past, in some cases Merge and MyISAM could be used to replace
views, which were not supported by MySQL. Merge could be used as a base
table and MyISAM tables could be used as views containing part of the
base table data. A SELECT on the Merge table returned all the effective
data. View support was added in MySQL 5.0, so this use of Merge tables
is obsolete.
### MEMORY / HEAP
HEAP is the name of this table type before MySQL 4.1. MEMORY is the new,
preferred name.
This engine is introduced in version 3.23.
### BDB
Synonyms: BDB, BerkleyDB
**BDB has been removed from version 5.1 and later** due to lack of use.
BerkeleyDB is a family of free software embeddable DBMS\'s developer by
SleepyCat, a company which has been acquired by Oracle. SleepyCat
provided a Storage Engine for MySQL called BDB.
BDB supports transactions and page-level locking, but it also has many
limitations within MySQL.
### BLACKHOLE
Discards all data stored in it but does still write to the binary log,
so it is useful in replication scale-out or secure binlog-do filtering
situations where slaves aren\'t trustworthy and for benchmarking the
higher layers of the server.
### Miscellaneous
For completeness, other storage engines include:
- CSV: simple Comma-Separated Values engine, that uses the CSV format
to store data. Used to share database with other CSV-aware
applications maybe? Due to the simple nature of its format, indexing
is not available.
- EXAMPLE (a stub for developers)
- ISAM (for pre-3.23 backward compatibility, removed in 5.1)
## Metadata about Storage Engines
You can get metadata about official MySQL Storage Engines and other
Storage Engines which are present on your server, via SQL.
#### SHOW STORAGE ENGINES
Starting from MySQL 5.0, you can get information about the Storage
Engine which you can use using the SHOW STORAGE ENGINES statement.
`SHOW STORAGE ENGINES`
The STORAGE word is optional. This command returns a dataset with the
following columns:
- **Engine** - Name of the Storage Engine.
- **Support** - Wether the Storage Engine is supported or not.
Possible values:
- \'DEFAULT\' - it\'s supported and it\'s the default engine;
- \'YES\' - supported;
- \'DISABLED\' - it has been compiled, but MySQL has been started
with that engine disabled (possibly with options like
\--skip-engine-name);
- \'NO\' - not supported.
- **Comment** - Brief description of the engine.
- **Transactions** - Wether the engine supports SQL transactions.
Added in MySQL 5.1.
- **XA** - Wether the engine supports XA transactions. Added in MySQL
5.1.
- **Savepoints** - Wether the engine supports savepoints and
rollbacks. Added in MySQL 5.1.
#### INFORMATION_SCHEMA \`ENGINES\` table
\`ENGINES\` is a virtual table within the INFORMATION_SCHEMA database.
It can be used to get information about Storage Engines. Its columns are
the came which are returned by the SHOW ENGINES statement (see above).
ENGINES has been added in MySQL 5.1.5.
#### HELP statement
If you want more info about an official MySQL Storage Engine, you can
use the HELP command:
`HELP 'myisam'`
If you are using the command line client, you can omit the quotes:
`help myisam \g`
## Changing the Storage Engine
### SQL
When you want to create a table using a given Storage Engine, you can
use the ENGINE clause in the CREATE TABLE command:
`CREATE TABLE ... ENGINE=InnoDB`
If the ENGINE clause is not specified, the value of the storage_engine
variable will be used. By default it\'s MyISAM, but you can change it:
`SET storage_engine=InnoDB`
Or you can modify the value of default-storage-engine in the my.cnf
before starting the MySQL server.
You can also change the Storage Engine of an existing table:
`` ALTER TABLE `stats` ENGINE=MyISAM ``
### mysql_convert_table_format
mysql_convert_table_format is a tool provided with MySQL, written in
Perl. It converts all the tables contained in the specified database to
another Storage Engine.
The syntax is:
`mysql_convert_table_format [options] database`
database is the name of the database in which the program will operate.
It\'s mandatory.
Options are:
**\--help** Print a help and exit.
**\--version** Print version number and exit.
**\--host=host** The host on which MySQL is running. Default: localhost.
**\--port=port** TCP port.
**\--user=user** Specify the username.
**\--password=password** Specify the password. As it is insecure (it\'s
visible with the coomand top, for example), you can use an option file,
instead.
**\--type=storage_engine** The storage engine that the tables will use
after conversion.
**\--force** Don\'t stop the execution if an error occurs.
**\--verbose** Print detailed information about the conversions.
Example:
`mysql_convert_table_format --host=localhost --user=root --password=xyz970 --force --type=InnoDB test`
This command specifies access data (localhost, username, password) and
converts all tables within database \`test\` into InnoDB. If some tables
can\'t be converted, the script skips them and converts the others
(\--force).
*Italic text*
|
# MySQL/Administration
## Installation
### Debian packages
The package name is usually *mysql-server*, either directly or as a
transitional package for the latest version.
#### Stable
There are two Debian packages in the current *stable* release:
- mysql-server:
depends on latest MySQL version
- mysql-server-5.0:
MySQL 5.0
You can install it using this command:
`apt-get install mysql-server`
or by installing the package you want using the Synaptic GUI.
#### Backports
Backports.org may also offer more recent versions.
To install it, you need to add the backports source in your
`/etc/apt/sources.list`:
`deb ``http://www.backports.org/debian`` lenny-backports main`
and then use aptitude:
`apt-get install -t lenny-backports mysql-server-5.1`
#### Uninstall
To simply remove the program:
`apt-get remove mysql-server`
To remove the configuration files as well, resulting in a clean
environment:
`apt-get remove --purge mysql-server`
Debconf will ask you if you want to remove the existing databases as
well. Answer wisely!
### Fedora Core 5
The package name is
mysql-server.
You can install it using this command:
`yum install mysql-server`
which will take care of installing the needed dependencies.
Using *pirut* (Applications-\>Add/Remove Software), you can also server
*MySQL Database* in the *Servers* category:
### Gentoo
MySQL is available in the main Portage tree as \"dev-db/mysql\". You
must use the fully qualified ebuild name as \"mysql\" is made ambiguous
by \"virtual/mysql\"
Command:
`emerge dev-db/mysql`
### FreeBSD
The stable FreeBSD port is version
5.0, and beta
version 5.1 is also available.
You can install it using this command:
`cd /usr/ports/databases/mysql50-server/ && make install clean`
This command will install the MySQL 5.0 server as well as all necessary
dependencies (which includes the MySQL client). t
## Start the service
### Debian
In Debian, you use the `mysql` init script.
`/etc/init.d/mysql start`\
`/etc/init.d/mysql stop`\
`/etc/init.d/mysql restart`
If you need to do so in scripts, prefer the `invoke-rc.d` command, which
only restarts the service if it is launched on system startup. That way,
you do not launch a service if it wasn\'t meant to be run:
`invoke-rc.d mysql start|stop|restart`
If you want to control whether to launch MySQL on startup, you can use
the `rcconf` package, or update-rc.d:
`cp /usr/local/mysql/support-files/mysql.server /etc/init.d/anysqlservernamehere`\
`chmod +x /etc/init.d/anysqlservernamehere`\
`update-rc.d anysqlservernamehere defaults`
### Fedora Core
Fedora Core suggests that you use the `service` wrapper, which cleans
the environment before to run the service, so that all services run in
the same standard environment (for example, the current directory is set
to the system root `/`).
`service mysqld start|stop|restart`\
`service mysqld --full-restart # means stop, then start - not a direct restart`
You can also use the `/etc/init.d/mysqld` if needed.
FC5 displays useful hints the first time you launch the MySQL server
(i.e. when launching /usr/bin/mysql_install_db):
`$ service mysqld start`\
`[...]`\
`PLEASE REMEMBER TO SET A PASSWORD FOR THE MySQL root USER !`\
`To do so, start the server, then issue the following commands:`\
`/usr/bin/mysqladmin -u root password 'new-password'`\
`/usr/bin/mysqladmin -u root -h localhost password 'new-password'`\
`[...] `
See the next section about changing passwords.
To control whether to launch MySQL on startup, you can use the `ntsysv`
tool: 
## Client connection
There are two ways to connect to a MySQL server, using Unix sockets and
TCP/IP.
The default TCP/IP port is 3306:
`# grep mysql /etc/services`\
`mysql 3306/tcp # MySQL`\
`mysql 3306/udp # MySQL`\
`mysql-cluster 1186/tcp # MySQL Cluster Manager`\
`mysql-cluster 1186/udp # MySQL Cluster Manager`\
`mysql-im 2273/tcp # MySQL Instance Manager`\
`mysql-im 2273/udp # MySQL Instance Manager`
As a client, MySQL interprets \'localhost\' as \'use the Unix socket\'.
This means that MySQL won\'t connect to 127.0.0.1:3306, but will use
`/var/run/mysqld/mysqld.sock`:
`$ mysql -h localhost`\
`mysql> \s`\
`--------------`\
`mysql Ver 14.12 Distrib 5.0.22, for redhat-linux-gnu (i386) using readline 5.0`\
`[...]`\
`Current user: sylvain@localhost`\
`[...]`\
`Connection: Localhost via UNIX socket`\
`[...]`\
`UNIX socket: /var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock`
If you really need to connect to MySQL via TCP/IP to the local host
without using Unix sockets, then specify \'127.0.0.1\' instead of
\'localhost\':
`$ mysql -h 127.0.0.1`\
`mysql> \s`\
`--------------`\
`mysql Ver 14.12 Distrib 5.0.22, for redhat-linux-gnu (i386) using readline 5.0`\
`[...]`\
`Current user: sylvain@localhost`\
`[...]`\
`Connection: 127.0.0.1 via TCP/IP`\
`[...]`\
`TCP port: 3306`
In both cases, MySQL will understand your machine name as \'localhost\'
(this is used in the privileges system).
## Configuration
Configure /etc/mysql/my.cnf - for heavily loaded databases, for fat
databases\...; different kinds of connections (Unix sockets, TCP/IP w/
or w/o SSL, MySQL+SSL licensing issues)
### Change the root password
`$ mysql -u root`\
`mysql> SET PASSWORD = PASSWORD('PassRoot');`
For more information, see the #SET_PASSWORD
section.
### Network configuration
`--bind-address=127.0.0.1 # localhost only`\
`--bind-address=0.0.0.0 # listen on all interfaces`\
`--bind-address=192.168.1.120 # listen on that IP only`
#### skip-networking
When you specify `skip-networking` in the configuration, then MySQL will
not listen on any port, not even on localhost (127.0.0.1). This means
that only programs running on the same machine than the MySQL server
will be able to connect to it. This is a common setup on dedicated
servers.
The only way to contact MySQL will be to use the local *Unix socket*,
such as `/var/run/mysqld/mysqld.sock` (Debian) or
`/var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock` (FC5). You can specify where the socket is
located using the `socket` parameter in the `[mysqld]` section of the
configuration:
`[mysqld]`\
`...`\
`socket=/var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock`
## Privileges
The MySQL privileges system.
### Introduction
MySQL requires you to identify yourself when you connect to the
database. You provide the following credentials:
- an identity, composed of:
- a username
- a machine name or IP address (detected automatically by the
server)
- a password, to prove your identity
Usually, MySQL-aware applications also ask you for a database name, but
that\'s not part of the credentials, because this does not relate to who
you are.
MySQL then associates privileges to these credentials; for example, the
right to query a given database, add data to another one, create
additional databases or remove existing ones, etc.
### Who am I?
Once connected, it is not necessarily obvious who MySQL thinks you are.
CURRENT_USER() provides this information:
`mysql> SELECT CURRENT_USER();`\
`+----------------+`\
`| CURRENT_USER() |`\
`+----------------+`\
`| root@localhost |`\
`+----------------+`\
`1 row in set (0.00 sec)`
### SHOW GRANTS
Prototype:
`SHOW GRANTS FOR user`\
`SHOW GRANTS --current user`
SHOW GRANTS allow you to check the current privileges for a given user.
For example, here are the default privileges for user root:
`mysql> SHOW GRANTS FOR 'root'@'localhost';`\
`+---------------------------------------------------------------------+`\
`| Grants for root@localhost |`\
`+---------------------------------------------------------------------+`\
`| GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'root'@'localhost' WITH GRANT OPTION |`\
`+---------------------------------------------------------------------+`\
`1 row in set (0.00 sec)`
You also use use `SHOW GRANTS;` to check the privileges for the current
user.
### GRANT
The GRANT command allows you to give (GRANT) privileges to a given user.
`GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE, DROP, REFERENCES, database.* `\
`TO 'user'@'localhost';`
### DROP USER
`DROP USER 'mediawiki';`\
`DROP USER 'mediawiki'@'host';`
Starting with v5.0.2, this removes the associated privileges as well.
With earlier versions, you also need to REVOKE its PRIVILEGES manually.
### REVOKE
`REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES ON database.* FROM 'user'@'host';`\
`REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES, GRANT OPTION FROM 'user'@'host';`
### SET PASSWORD
Prototype:
`SET PASSWORD [FOR user] = PASSWORD('your_password')`
If *user* is not specified, the current user is used (this is useful
when you connect to mysql using the command line).
Example with an explicit user:
`SET PASSWORD FOR 'mediawiki'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('ifda8GQg');`
There is a command-line synonym:
`mysqladmin password 'your_password'`
(with the usual connection options `-h` `-u` and `-p`)
However, using passwords on the command line presents a security risk.
For example, if root changes his MySQL password:
`root# mysqladmin password 'K2ekiEk3'`
Then another user can spy on him by looking at the process list:
`user$ ps aux | grep mysqladmin`\
`root 7768 0.0 0.1 7044 1516 pts/1 S+ 16:57 0:00 mysqladmin password K2ekiEk3`
Conclusion: don\'t user `mysqladmin password`.
If you are looking for a way to generate passwords, either secure or
easy to remember, try the `pwgen` program (there is a Debian package
available):
`$ pwgen`\
`ooGoo7ba ir4Raeje Ya2veigh zaXeero8 Dae8aiqu rai9ooYi phoTi6gu Yeingo9r`\
`tho9aeDa Ohjoh6ai Aem8chee aheich8A Aelaeph3 eu4Owudo koh6Iema oH6ufuya`\
`[...]`\
`$ pwgen -s # secure`\
`zCRhn8LH EJtzzLRE G4Ezb5BX e7hQ88In TB8hE6nn f8IqdMVQ t7BBDWTH ZZMhZyhR`\
`gbsXdIes hCQMbPE6 XD8Owd0b xitloisw XCWKX9B3 MEATkWHH vW2Y7HnA 3V5ubf6B`\
`[...]`
Very handy if you manage a lot of accounts :)
### MySQL 4.1 password issues
As of version 4.1, MySQL introduced a password-related change.
You\'ll experience this via errors such as: *Client does not support
authentication protocol requested by server; consider upgrading MySQL
client*. [^1]
If you wish to support older client programs, you need to define the
MySQL account password this way:
`SET PASSWORD [FOR user] = OLD_PASSWORD('your_pass');`
There is apparently no way to use old passwords with the
`GRANT ... IDENTIFIED BY 'password'` syntax.
Alternatively, you can use the `old_passwords` configuration option in
your server\'s `my.cnf`. This means that new passwords will be encoded
using the old-style, shorter, less secure format. For example, in Debian
Sarge and FC5, the MySQL default configuration enforces old-style
password for backward compatibility with older clients:
`[mysqld]`\
`...`\
`old_passwords=1`
```{=html}
<references />
```
## Processes
MySQL provides a Unix-like way to show the current server threads and
kill them.
### SHOW PROCESSLIST
Here is a peaceful MySQL server:
`mysql> SHOW PROCESSLIST;`\
`+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+------+-------+------------------+`\
`| Id | User | Host | db | Command | Time | State | Info |`\
`+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+------+-------+------------------+`\
`| 34 | monddprod | localhost | monddprod | Sleep | 1328 | | NULL |`\
`| 43 | root | localhost | NULL | Query | 0 | NULL | SHOW PROCESSLIST |`\
`+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+------+-------+------------------+`\
`2 rows in set (0.00 sec)`
`mysqladmin` provides a command-line synonym:
`$ mysqladmin processlist`\
`+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+------+-------+------------------+`\
`| Id | User | Host | db | Command | Time | State | Info |`\
`+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+------+-------+------------------+`\
`| 34 | monddprod | localhost | monddprod | Sleep | 1368 | | |`\
`| 44 | root | localhost | | Query | 0 | | show processlist |`\
`+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+------+-------+------------------+`
### KILL
If a heavy, nasty query is consuming too many resources on your server,
you need to shut it down.
`TODO: Add a sample SHOW PROCESSLIST output here`
The brute force way is to restart the server:
`/etc/init.d/mysql restart`
A more subtle way is to use SHOW PROCESSLIST to identify the nasty query
and kill it independently of other server threads.
`mysql> KILL 342;`\
`Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)`
There is also a command-line synonym:
`$ mysqladmin kill 342`
## Security
Basic security: firewall (iptables), SELinux? also, some words about: do
not store passwords as cleartext
## Backup
Backup/recovery and import/export techniques.
### mysqldump
`` mysqldump --opt -h 192.168.2.105 -u john -p'****' mybase | gzip > mybase-`date +%Y%m%d`.sql.gz ``
This creates the `mybase-20061027.sql.gz` file.
`--opt` is the magical option that uses all the options that are
generally useful. In recent versions of mysqldump, it is even enabled by
default, so you need not type it. `--opt` means
`--add-drop-table --add-locks --create-options --disable-keys --extended-insert --lock-tables --quick --set-charset` -
so it will lock tables during the backup for consistency, add DROP TABLE
statements so the dump can be applied without cleaning the target
database, will use the most efficient ways to perform the INSERTs and
specify the charset (latin1, Unicode/UTF-8\...) used.
If you don\'t provide a database to mysqldump, you\'ll get a backup
containing all databases - which is less easy to use for restoring a
single database later on.
### Daily rotated mysqldump with logrotate
We\'re using logrotate in a slightly non-standard way to keep a batch of
dumps. Each day, logrotate will cycle the dumps to keep the last N
dumps, removing old backups automatically, and generating the new one
immediately through a postrotate hook.
The following configuration keeps 2 months of daily backups:
`/dumps/mybase.sql.gz {`\
` rotate 60`\
` dateext`\
` dateyesterday`\
` daily`\
` nocompress`\
` nocopytruncate`\
` postrotate`\
` HOME=/root mysqldump --opt mybase | gzip > /dumps/mybase.sql.gz`\
` endscript`\
`}`
Cf. logrotate(8) in the GNU/Linux man pages for more information.
Variant to backup all databases at once:
`/dumps/*/*.sql.gz {`\
` daily`\
` rotate 20`\
` dateext`\
` dateyesterday`\
` nocompress`\
` sharedscripts`\
` create`\
` postrotate`\
` export HOME=/root`\
` for i in $(mysql --batch --skip-column-names -e 'SHOW DATABASES' | grep -vE '^information_schema|performance_schema$'); do`\
` if [ ! -e /dumps/$i ]; then mkdir -m 700 /dumps/$i; fi`\
` mysqldump --events $i | gzip -c > /dumps/$i/$i.sql.gz`\
` done`\
` endscript`\
`}`
Setup:
- Create your `~/.my.cnf` for password-less database access
- Place the logrotate configuration file above in the
`/etc/logrotate.d/` directory
- Bootstrap the first dump:
- `mkdir -m 700 /dumps`
- `mkdir -m 700 /dumps/mybase`
- `touch /dumps/mybase/mybase.sql.gz`
- `logrotate -f /etc/logrotate.d/mysql-dumps`
- Check the dump using `zcat /dumps/mybase.sql.gz`.
Comments on the code: `HOME=/root` is needed for systems (such as FC5)
that set `HOME=/` in their cron, which prevents mysqldump from finding
the `.my.cnf` configuration. We also use `| gzip` instead of
logrotate\'s `compress` option for disk I/O efficiency (single-step).
In production, you\'ll get something like this:
`# ls -lt /dumps`\
`total 16520`\
`-rw-r----- 1 root clisscom 2819533 mar 2 06:25 clisscom.sql.gz`\
`-rw-r----- 1 root clisscom 2815193 mar 1 06:25 clisscom.sql.gz-20100302`\
`-rw-r----- 1 root clisscom 2813579 fév 28 06:26 clisscom.sql.gz-20100301`\
`-rw-r----- 1 root clisscom 2812251 fév 27 06:25 clisscom.sql.gz-20100228`\
`-rw-r----- 1 root clisscom 2810803 fév 26 06:25 clisscom.sql.gz-20100227`\
`-rw-r----- 1 root clisscom 2808785 fév 25 06:25 clisscom.sql.gz-20100226`\
`...`
Beware that the date in the filename is the date of the rotation, not
the date of the dump. Using `dateext` helps with remote backups, because
filenames don\'t change daily, not you avoid re-downloading all of
`/dumps` each time.
### Remote mysqldump using CGI
mysqldump can be found sometimes in shared-hosting facilities. You can
use a simple CGI script to get a direct dump:
`#!/bin/sh`\
\
`echo "Content-Type: application/x-tar"`\
`echo "Content-Encoding: x-gzip"`\
`echo ""`\
\
`mysqldump --host=mysql.hosting.com --user=john --password=XXXXX my_base | gzip 2>&1`
You can then get it with your browser or wget:
`$ wget -O- --quiet ``http://localhost/~sylvain/test2.cgi``` > base-`date +%Y%m%d`.sql.gz ``
You can even re-inject it on-the-fly in your local test database:
`$ wget -O- --quiet ``http://localhost/~sylvain/test2.cgi`` | gunzip | mysql test_install -u myself -pXXXX`
Protect the script with a `.htaccess`, write a `.netrc` for wget to use,
and you\'ll have a simple, unattended way to grap a backup even without
command-line access. This allows to gain time when grabing a dump
(compared to using phpMyAdmin) and to setup remote automated backups (no
interaction is needed).
Something similar should be feasible in PHP provided you have access to
exec().
### Exporting a single table
If you need to import/export a table, not a complete database, check
MySQL/Language#Import\_.2F_export.
## Binary logs
Binary logs are a mechanism to keep track of everything that happens on
the MySQL server (forensics), allowing to replay the same sequence of
commands on a different computer (master/slave replication), or at a
later time (crash recovery).
On Debian they are stored in `/var/log/mysql/mysql-bin.0*`.
To view the SQL commands in a binary log, you use the `mysqlbinlog`
command:
`mysqlbinlog /var/log/mysql/mysql-bin.000001`
For the crash recovery to be useful, binary logs are usually stored on a
different computer (via a NFS mount, for example). Note that it is meant
to recover the *full* mysql server, not just one database. You could
attempt to filter the log by database, but this isn\'t straightforward.
So in order use binary logs as a recovery plan, you usually combine them
with a full standard backup:
`mysqldump -A | gzip > all.sql.gz`
To flush/reset the logs at the same time (TODO: test):
`mysqldump -A --master-data --flush-logs | gzip > all.sql.gz`
To recover you\'ll just combine the two sources (preferably, disable
binary logging in the server configuration during the recovery, and
re-enable it right after.):
`(zcat all.sql.gz && mysqlbinlog /var/log/mysql/mysql-bin.0*) | mysql`
## Logs
Where interesting logs are located, common errors to look at. For
example:
`tail -f /var/log/mysql.log`
## Admin Tools
Various third-party graphical interfaces and utilities.
### Web interfaces
- phpMyAdmin (wikipedia:
phpMyAdmin)
- eSKUeL: an alternative to
phpMyAdmin
- MySQL on Servers
Support
### Desktop GUI
- MySQL
Administrator: from
MySQL AB. If you want to create real backups, though, do not use
this, since it runs backups using `at` on the client machine - which
is likely not to be online every day.
[^1]: For example, you can get this error on Debian Sarge\'s
apache+libapache_mod_php4+php4-mysql, the latter depends on
libmysqlclient12 aka MySQL 4.0
(`ldd /usr/lib/php4/20020429/mysql.so` gives
`libmysqlclient.so.12 => /usr/lib/libmysqlclient.so.12`). If you
rely and libmysqlclient14 or later, then your application supports
both the old and the new password formats.
|
# MySQL/Replication
## What is replication
Replication means that data written on a master MySQL will be sent to
separate server and executed there.
Applications:
- backups
- spread read access on multiple servers for scalability
- failover/HA
Replication types:
- Asynchronous replication (basic master/slave)
- Semi-asynchronous replication (asynchronous replication + enforce 1
slave replication before completing queries)
Replication configurations:
- standard: master-\>slave
- dual master: master\<-\>master
In Master-Master replication both hosts are masters and slaves at the
same time. ServerA replicates to serverB which replicates to serevrA.
There are no consistency checks and even with
auto_increment_increment/auto_increment_offset configured both servers
should not be used for concurrent writes.
## Asynchronous replication
That\'s the most simple replication. A master writes a binary log file,
and slaves can read this log file (possibly selectively) to replay the
query statements. It\'s asynchronous, which mean the master and slaves
may have different states at a specific point of time; also this setup
can survive a network disconnection.
### Configuration on the master
In `/etc/mysql/my.cnf`, in the `[mysqld]` section:
- Define a server identifier (detects loops?); customarily we\'ll use
`1` for the server, but it can be different:
`server-id = 1`
- Replication is based on binary
logs, so enable them:
`log-bin`\
`# or log-bin = /var/log/mysql/mysql-bin.log`
Create a new user for the slave to connect with:
``` sql
CREATE USER 'myreplication';
SET PASSWORD FOR 'myreplication' = PASSWORD('mypass');
GRANT REPLICATION SLAVE ON *.* to 'myreplication';
```
Verify your server identifier:
``` sql
SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'server_id';
```
### Configuration on each slave
In `/etc/mysql/my.cnf`, in the `[mysqld]` section:
- Define a server identifier, different than the master (and different
than the other slaves):
`server-id = 2`
- Verify with:
``` sql
SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'server_id';
```
- You can also declare the slave hostname to the master (cf.
`SHOW SLAVE HOSTS` below):
`report-host=slave1`
Declare the master:
``` sql
CHANGE MASTER TO MASTER_HOST='master_addr', MASTER_USER='myreplication', MASTER_PASSWORD='mypass';
```
If setting up replication from backup, specify start point (add to
previous command):
``` sql
MASTER_LOG_FILE='<binary_log_from_master>', MASTER_LOG_POS=<master_binary_log_position>;
```
Start the replication:
``` sql
START SLAVE;
```
This will create a file named `master.info` in your data directory,
typically `/var/lib/mysql/master.info`; this file will contain the slave
configuration and status.
TODO:
`Oct 15 21:11:19 builder mysqld[4266]: 101015 21:11:19 [Warning] Neither --relay-log nor --relay-log-index were used; so`\
` replication may break when this MySQL server acts as a slave and has his hostname changed!! Please use`\
` '--relay-log=mysqld-relay-bin' to avoid this problem.`
### Check the replication
#### On the slave
On a slave, type:
``` sql
SHOW SLAVE STATUS;
```
Or more for a more readable (line-based) output:
``` sql
SHOW SLAVE STATUS\G
```
Example:
`*************************** 1. row ***************************`\
` Slave_IO_State: `\
` Master_Host: master_addr`\
` Master_User: myreplication`\
` Master_Port: 3306`\
`...`
Check in particular:
` Slave_IO_Running: Yes`\
` Slave_SQL_Running: Yes`
You can inspect the asynchronous nature of the replication:
` Seconds_Behind_Master: 0`
See also:
`mysql> SHOW GLOBAL VARIABLES LIKE "%SLAVE%";`
#### On the master
You can see a connection from the slave in the process list.
`mysql> SHOW PROCESSLIST\G`\
`[...]`\
`*************************** 6. row ***************************`\
` Id: 14485`\
` User: myreplication`\
` Host: 10.1.0.106:33744`\
` db: NULL`\
`Command: Binlog Dump`\
` Time: 31272`\
` State: Has sent all binlog to slave; waiting for binlog to be updated`\
` Info: NULL`
If you enabled `report-host`, the slave is also visible in:
`mysql> SHOW SLAVE HOSTS;`\
`+-----------+---------+------+-------------------+-----------+`\
`| Server_id | Host | Port | Rpl_recovery_rank | Master_id |`\
`+-----------+---------+------+-------------------+-----------+`\
`| 2 | myslave | 3306 | 0 | 1 | `\
`+-----------+---------+------+-------------------+-----------+`\
`1 row in set (0.00 sec)`
### Consistency
Note that this replication is a simple replay, similar to feeding a
`mysqldump` output to the `mysql` client. Consequently, to maintain the
consistency:
- Avoid writing critical data on the slave
- Start the replication with identical initial data on both the master
and the slave
- To test: we suspect it would be best to use the same version of
MySQL on the master and slaves
### Fixing
By default, replicate will stop if it meets an error. This can happen if
your master and slaves were not consistent in the beginning, or due to a
network error causing a malformed query.
In this case, you\'ll get a trace in the system log (typically
`/var/log/syslog`):
`Oct 15 21:11:19 builder mysqld[4266]: 101015 21:11:19 [ERROR] Slave: Error 'Table 'mybase.form'`\
` doesn't exist' on query. Default database: 'mybase'. Query:`\
`` 'INSERT INTO `form` (`form_id`,`timestamp`,`user_id`) VALUES ('abed',1287172429,0)', ``\
` Error_code: 1146`
The best way is to reset the replication entirely.
You can also fix the mistake manually, and then ask MySQL to skip `1`
statement this way:
`STOP SLAVE;`\
`SET GLOBAL SQL_SLAVE_SKIP_COUNTER = 1;`\
`START SLAVE;`
You can set `SQL_SLAVE_SKIP_COUNTER` to any number, e.g. `100`. Beware
that in this case, it will skip both valid and invalid statements, not
only errors.
Another way to fix broken replication is to use Maatkit tools.
- mk-slave-restart (to restart replication on slave if there are more
errors and `SQL_SLAVE_SKIP_COUNTER` can\'t help)
- mk-table-checksum (to perform checksumming of tables on master and
slave)
- mk-table-sync (to sync slave with master based on stats generated by
mk-table-checksum)
### Uninstalling
To erase the replication:
- Type:
`mysql> RESET SLAVE;`
- Note: at this point, MySQL paused the slave and replaced the
configuration with default values. The `master.info` file was also
removed.
- Restart MySQL to clear all configuration.
**Warning:** `STOP SLAVE` will stop replication. It can be started
manually again or (by default) it will automatically resume if you
restart the MySQL server. To avoid auto start of replication during
process of startup, add to your configuration file:
`slave-skip-start `
If you want to stop the replication for good (and use the server for
another purpose), you need to reset the configuration as explained
above.
At this point your slave configuration should be completely empty:
`mysql> SHOW SLAVE STATUS;`\
`Empty set (0.00 sec)`
## SQL Hints
Some hints can be placed in comment before each request concerning the
replication. For example via the PHP Mysqlnd plugin (for *native
driver*).[^1]
- MYSQLND_MS_MASTER_SWITCH: forces the request execution on the
master.
- MYSQLND_MS_SLAVE_SWITCH: forces the request execution on the slave.
- MYSQLND_MS_LAST_USED_SWITCH: forces the request execution on the
last used server.
## Federated tables
As an alternative to the replication and clustering, the
storage engine allows to create a
table on a server which synchronizes with the same on another one.
## References
fr:MySQL/Réplication
[^1]: <https://dev.mysql.com/doc/connectors/en/apis-php-mysqlnd-ms.quickstart.sqlhints.html>
|
# MySQL/Optimization
## Before Starting To Optimise
When the database seems to be \"slow\" first consider all of the
following points as e.g. making a certain query absolutely unnecessary
by simply using a more sophisticated algorithm in the application is
always the most elegant way of optimising it :)
1. Finding the bottleneck (CPU, memory, I/O, which queries)
2. Optimising the application (remove unnecessary queries or cache PHP
generated web pages)
3. Optimising the queries (using indices, temporary tables or different
ways of joining)
4. Optimising the database server (cache sizes etc)
5. Optimising the system (different filesystem types, swap space and
kernel versions)
6. Optimising the hardware (sometimes indeed the cheapest and fastest
way)
To find those bottlenecks the following tools have been found to be
helpful:
vmstat
: to quickly monitor cpu, memory and I/O usage and decide which is the
bottleneck
top
: to check the current memory and cpu usage of mysqld as well as of
the applications
mytop
: to figure out which queries cause trouble
mysql-admin (the GUI application, not to confuse with mysqladmin)
: to monitor and tune mysql in a very convenient way
**mysqlreport**
: which output should be use as kind of step by step check list
Using these tools most applications can also be categorised very broadly
using the following groups:
- I/O based and reading (blogs, news)
- I/O based and writing (web access tracker, accounting data
collection)
- CPU based (complex content management systems, business apps)
## Optimising the Tables
Use the following command regularly to reorganize the disk space which
reduces the table size without deleting any record[^1]:
``` sql
OPTIMIZE TABLE MyTable1
```
Moreover, when creating the tables, their smallest types are preferable.
For example:
- if a number is always positive, choose an `unsigned` type to be able
to store twice more into the same number of bytes.
- to store the contemporaneous dates (from 1970 to 2038), it\'s better
to take a `timestamp` on four bytes, than a `datetime` on 8.[^2]
## Optimising the Queries
### Comparing functions with BENCHMARK
The BENCHMARK() function can be used to compare the speed of MySQL
functions or operators. For example:
`mysql> SELECT BENCHMARK(100000000, CONCAT('a','b'));`\
`+---------------------------------------+`\
`| BENCHMARK(100000000, CONCAT('a','b')) |`\
`+---------------------------------------+`\
`| 0 |`\
`+---------------------------------------+`\
`1 row in set (21.30 sec)`
However, this cannot be used to compare queries:
`` mysql> SELECT BENCHMARK(100, SELECT `id` FROM `lines`); ``\
`ERROR 1064 (42000): You have an error in your SQL syntax;`\
`check the manual that corresponds to your MySQL server version for`\
`` the right syntax to use near 'SELECT `id` FROM `lines`)' at line 1 ``
As MySQL needs a fraction of a second just to parse the query and the
system is probably busy doing other things, too, benchmarks with
runtimes of less than 5-10s can be considered as totally meaningless and
equally runtimes differences in that order of magnitude as pure chance.
### Analysing functions with EXPLAIN
When you precede a SELECT statement with the keyword EXPLAIN, MySQL
explains how it would process the SELECT, providing information about
how tables are joined and in which order. This allows to place some
eventual hints in
function.
Using and understanding EXPLAIN is essential when aiming for good
performance therefore the relevant chapters of the official
documentation are a mandatory reading!
#### A simple example
The join of two table that both do not have indices:
``` mysql
mysql> explain SELECT * FROM a left join b using (i) WHERE a.i < 2;
+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+-------------+
| id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | key | key_len | ref | rows | Extra |
+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+-------------+
| 1 | SIMPLE | a | ALL | NULL | NULL | NULL | NULL | 4 | Using where |
| 1 | SIMPLE | b | ALL | NULL | NULL | NULL | NULL | 3 | |
+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+-------------+
2 rows in set (0.01 sec)
```
Now the second table gets an index and the explain shows that MySQL now
knows that only 2 of the 3 rows have to be used.
``` mysql
mysql> ALTER TABLE b ADD KEY(i);
Query OK, 3 rows affected (0.01 sec)
Records: 3 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0
mysql> explain SELECT * FROM a left join b using (i) WHERE a.i < 2;
+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+----------+------+-------------+
| id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | key | key_len | ref | rows | Extra |
+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+----------+------+-------------+
| 1 | SIMPLE | a | ALL | NULL | NULL | NULL | NULL | 4 | Using where |
| 1 | SIMPLE | b | ref | i | i | 5 | test.a.i | 2 | |
+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+----------+------+-------------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)
```
Now the first table also gets an index so that the WHERE condition can
be improved and MySQL knows that only 1 row from the first table is
relevant before even trying to search it in the data file.
``` mysql
mysql> ALTER TABLE a ADD KEY(i);
Query OK, 4 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Records: 4 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0
mysql> explain SELECT * FROM a left join b using (i) WHERE a.i < 2;
+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+------+---------+----------+------+-------------+
| id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | key | key_len | ref | rows | Extra |
+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+------+---------+----------+------+-------------+
| 1 | SIMPLE | a | range | i | i | 5 | NULL | 1 | Using where |
| 1 | SIMPLE | b | ref | i | i | 5 | test.a.i | 2 | |
+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+------+---------+----------+------+-------------+
2 rows in set (0.02 sec)
```
## Optimising The MySQL Server
### Status and server variables
MySQL can be monitored and tuned by watching the **status-variables**
and setting the **server-variables** which can both be global or per
session. The status-variables can be monitored by *SHOW
\[GLOBAL\|SESSION\] STATUS \[LIKE \'%foo%\'\]* or *mysqladmin
\[extended-\]status*. The server-variables can be set in the
*/etc/mysql/my.cnf* file or via *SET \[GLOBAL\|SESSION\] VARIABLE foo :=
bar* and be shown with *mysqladmin variables* or *SHOW
\[GLOBAL\|SESSION\] VARIABLES \[LIKE \'%foo%\'\]*.
Generally status variables start with a capital letter and server
variables with a lowercase one.
When dealing with the above mentioned per-session system variables it
should always be considered that those have to be multiplied by
*max_connections* to estimate the maximal memory consumption. Failing to
do so can easily lead to server crashes at times of load peaks when more
than usual clients connect to the server! A quick and dirty estimation
can be made with the following formular:
` min_memory_needed = global_buffers + (thread_buffers * max_connections)`
` global_buffers:`\
` key_buffer`\
` innodb_buffer_pool`\
` innodb_log_buffer`\
` innodb_additional_mem_pool`\
` net_buffer`
` thread_buffers:`\
` sort_buffer`\
` myisam_sort_buffer`\
` read_buffer`\
` join_buffer`\
` read_rnd_buffer`
**Note:** Especially when dealing with server settings, all information
should be verified in the respective chapters of the official
documentation as these are subject of change and the authors of this
text lack confirmed knowledge about how the server works internally.
### Index / Indices
Indices are a way to locate elements faster. This works for single
elements as well as range of elements.
#### Experiment
Note: when you make your time tests, make sure the query cache is
disabled (`query_cache_type=0` in my.cnf) to force recomputing your
queries each time you type them instead of just taking the pre-computed
results from the cache.
Let\'s run the following Perl program:
``` perl
#!/usr/bin/perl
use strict;
print "DROP TABLE IF EXISTS weightin;\n";
print "CREATE TABLE weightin (
id INT PRIMARY KEY auto_increment,
line TINYINT,
date DATETIME,
weight FLOAT(8,3)
);\n";
# 2 millions records, interval = 100s
for (my $timestamp = 1000000000; $timestamp < 1200000000; $timestamp += 100) {
my $date = int($timestamp + rand(1000) - 500);
my $weight = rand(1000);
my $line = int(rand(3)) + 1;
print "INSERT INTO weightin (date, line, weight) VALUES (FROM_UNIXTIME($date), $line, $weight);\n";
}
```
What does it do? It simulate the data feeds from an industrial lines
that weight stuff at regular intervals so we can compute the average
material usage. Over time lots of records are piling up.
How to use it?
``` sql
mysql> CREATE DATABASE industrial
$ perl generate_huge_db.pl | mysql industrial
real 6m21.042s
user 0m37.282s
sys 0m51.467s
```
We can check the number of elements with:
``` sql
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM weightin;
+----------+
| count(*) |
+----------+
| 2000000 |
+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
```
The size must be important:
``` bash
$ perl generate_huge_db.pl > import.sql
$ ls -lh import.sql
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 189M jun 15 22:08 import.sql
$ ls -lh /var/lib/mysql/industrial/weightin.MYD
-rw-rw---- 1 mysql mysql 35M jun 15 22:17 /var/lib/mysql/industrial/weightin.MYD
$ time mysqldump industrial > dump.sql
real 0m9.599s
user 0m3.792s
sys 0m0.616s
$ ls -lh dump.sql
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 79M jun 15 22:18 dump.sql
$ time mysqldump industrial | gzip > dump.sql.gz
real 0m17.339s
user 0m11.897s
sys 0m0.488s
$ ls -lh dump.sql.gz
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 22M jun 15 22:19 dump.sql.gz
```
Incidentally restoring from the dump is way faster, because it uses
extended inserts!
``` bash
# time zcat dump.sql.gz | mysql industrial
real 0m31.772s
user 0m3.436s
sys 0m0.580s
```
This SQL command will scan all records to get a total sum:
``` sql
mysql> SELECT SUM(*) FROM weightin;
```
Let\'s say we need to compute the total material used during January 1st
2008:
``` sql
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*), SUM(poids) FROM pesee WHERE date >= '2008-01-01' AND date < '2008-01-02';
```
MySQL will also need to browse the entire database, even for this tiny
number of records. This is because records can be anywhere: at the
bottom, at the end, in the middle, nothing guarantees that the records
are ordered.
To improve this, we can add an index to the \'date\' field. This means
MySQL will create a new hidden table with all the date sorted
chronologically, and store their offset (position) in the \'weightin\'
table to retrieve the full record.
Because the index is sorted, it\'s way faster for MySQL to locate a
single record (using a binary search algorithm) or even a range of data
(find the first and last element, the range is in-between).
To add the index:
``` sql
ALTER TABLE weightin ADD INDEX (date);
```
The index doesn\'t work if the query needs computer on the field (e.g.
`TIME(date)`) but works for ranges (e.g. `WHERE date < '2008-01-02'`).
You can notice that the .MYD file grew:
``` bash
$ ls -lh /var/lib/mysql/industrial/
-rw-rw---- 1 mysql mysql 49M jun 15 22:36 weightin.MYI
```
That\'s were MySQL stores the indices. Initially there was an index for
the \'id\' field, which the case for all primary keys.
#### Another example
Another example: let\'s say we want to optimise this query:
``` sql
mysql> SELECT DISTINCT line FROM weightin;
```
We can do so by adding an index on the \'line\' field, in order to group
the doubles together, which will avoid the query to rescan the whole
table to localize them:
``` sql
ALTER TABLE weightin ADD INDEX (line);
```
The index file grew:
``` bash
-rw-rw---- 1 mysql mysql 65M jun 15 22:38 weightin.MYI
```
#### General considerations
The first and foremost question that is always asked for SELECT queries
is always if indices (aka \"keys\") are configured and if they are,
whether or not they are actually be used by the database server.
1\. Check if the indices are actually used
Individual queries can be checked with the \"EXPLAIN\" command. For the
whole server the \"Sort\_%\" variables should be monitored as they
indicate how often MySQL had to browse through the whole data file
because there was no usable index available.
2\. Are the indices buffered
Keeping the indices in memory improves read performance a lot. The
quotient of \"Key_reads / Key_read_requests\" tells how often MySQL
actually accessed the index file on disk when it needed a key. Same goes
for Key_writes, use mysqlreport to do the math for you here. If the
percentage is too high, key_buffer_size for MyISAM and
innodb_buffer_pool_size for InnoDB are the corresponding variables to
tune.
The Key_blocks\_% variables can be used to see how much of the
configured key buffer is actually used. The unit is 1KB if not set
otherwise in key_cache_block_size. As MySQL uses some blocks internally,
key_blocks_unused has to be checked. To estimate how big the buffer
should be, the sizes of the relevant .MYI files can be summed up. For
InnoDB there is innodb_buffer_pool_size although in this case not only
the indices but also the data gets buffered.
3\. Further settings
sort_buffer_size (per-thread) is the memory that is used for ORDER BY
and GROUP BY. myisam_sort_buffer_size is something completely different
and should not be altered.
read_buffer_size (per-thread) is the size of memory chunks that are read
from disk into memory at once when doing a full table scan as big tables
do not fit into memory completely. This seldomly needs tuning.
### Query cache
The main reason not to use any MySQL version below 4.0.1 if you have
read-based applications is that beginning with that version, MySQL has
the ability to store the result of SELECT queries until their tables are
modified.
The Query Cache can be configured with the **query_cache\_%** variables.
Most important here are the global **query_cache_size** and
**query_cache_limit** which prevents single queries with unusual big
results larger than this size to use up the whole cache.
Note that the Query Cache blocks have a variable size whose minimum size
is query_cache_min_res_unit, so after a complete cache flush the number
of free blocks is ideally just one. A large value of Qcache_free_blocks
just indicates a high fragmentation.
Worth monitoring are the following variables:
- **Qcache_free_blocks**
: If this value is high it indicates a high fragmentation which does
not need to be a bad thing though.
- **Qcache_not_cached**
: If this value is high there are either much uncachable queries (e.g.
because they use functions like now()) or the value for
query_cache_limit is too low.
- **Qcache_lowmem_prunes**
: This is the number of old results that have been purged because the
cache was full and not because their underlying tables have been
modified. query_cache_size must be increased to lower this variable.
Examples:
An empty cache:
`mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'query_cache_type';`\
`+------------------+-------+`\
`| Variable_name | Value |`\
`+------------------+-------+`\
`| query_cache_type | ON |`\
`+------------------+-------+`\
`1 row in set (0.00 sec)`\
\
`mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'query_cache_size';`\
`+------------------+-------+`\
`| Variable_name | Value |`\
`+------------------+-------+`\
`| query_cache_size | 0 |`\
`+------------------+-------+`\
`1 row in set (0.00 sec)`\
\
`mysql> SHOW STATUS LIKE 'Qcache%';`\
`+-------------------------+-------+`\
`| Variable_name | Value |`\
`+-------------------------+-------+`\
`| Qcache_free_blocks | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_free_memory | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_hits | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_inserts | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_lowmem_prunes | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_not_cached | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_queries_in_cache | 0 |`\
`| Qcache_total_blocks | 0 |`\
`+-------------------------+-------+`\
`8 rows in set (0.00 sec)`
A used cache (savannah.gnu.org):
`mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE "query_cache_size";`\
`+------------------+----------+`\
`| Variable_name | Value |`\
`+------------------+----------+`\
`| query_cache_size | 33554432 |`\
`+------------------+----------+`\
`1 row in set (0.00 sec)`
`mysql> SHOW STATUS LIKE "Qcache%";`\
`+-------------------------+----------+`\
`| Variable_name | Value |`\
`+-------------------------+----------+`\
`| Qcache_free_blocks | 1409 |`\
`| Qcache_free_memory | 27629552 |`\
`| Qcache_hits | 7925191 |`\
`| Qcache_inserts | 3400435 |`\
`| Qcache_lowmem_prunes | 2946778 |`\
`| Qcache_not_cached | 71255 |`\
`| Qcache_queries_in_cache | 4546 |`\
`| Qcache_total_blocks | 10575 |`\
`+-------------------------+----------+`\
`8 rows in set (0.00 sec)`
The matching `my.cnf` configuration parameter is:
`query_cache_size = 32M`
To clear the cache (useful when testing a new query\'s efficiency):
`mysql> RESET QUERY CACHE;`\
`Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)`
### Waiting for locks
The **Table_locks\_%** variables show the number of queries that had to
wait because the tables they tried to access where currently locked by
other queries. These situations can be caused by \"LOCK TABLE\"
statements and also by e.g. simultaneous write accesses to the same
table.
### Table cache
MySQL needs a certain time just to \"open\" a table and read its meta
data like column names etc.
If many threads are trying to access the same table, it is opened
multiple times.
To speed this up the meta data can be cached in the **table_cache**
(alias **table_open_cache** since MySQL 5.1.3).
A good value for this setting is the number of max_connections
multiplied with the number of usually used tables per SELECT.
Using mysqlreport or by looking at the currently **Open_tables** and
ever since **Opened_tables** as well as the **Uptime** the number of
necessary table opens per second can be calculated (consider the
off-peak times like nights though).
### Connections and threads
For every client connection (aka session) MySQL creates a separated
thread under the main mysqld process. For big sites with several hundred
new connections per second, creating the threads itself can consume a
significant amount of time. To speed things up, idle threads can be
cached after their client disconnected. As a rule of thumb not more than
one thread per second should be newly created. Clients that send several
queries to the server should use **persistent connections** like with
PHPs mysql_pconnect() function.
This cache can be configured by **thread_cache_size** and monitored with
the **threads\_%** variables.
To avoid overloads MySQL blocks new connections if more than
**max_connections** are currently in use. Start with
**max_used_connections** and monitor the number of connection that were
rejected in **Aborted_clients** and the ones that timed out in
**Aborted_connections**. Forgotten disconnects from clients that use
persistent connections can easily lead to a denial of service situation
so be aware! Normally connections are closed after **wait_timeout**
seconds of being idle.
### Temporary tables
It is perfectly normal that MySQL creates temporary tables while sorting
or grouping results. Those tables are either be held in memory or if too
large be written to disk which is naturally much slower. The number of
disk tables among the **Created_tmp\_%** variables should be neglectible
or else the settings in **max_heap_table_size** and **tmp_table_size**
be reconsidered.
### Delayed writes
In situations like writing webserver access log files to a database,
with many subsequent INSERT queries for rather unimportant data into the
same table, the performance can be improved by advising the server to
cache the write requests a little while and then send a whole batch of
data to disk.
Be aware though that all mentioned methods contradicts ACID compliance
because INSERT queries are acknowledged with OK to the client before the
data has actually be written to disk and thus can still get lost in case
of an power outage or server crash. Additionally the side effects
mentioned in the documentation often reads like a patient information
leaflet of a modern medicament\...
MyISAM tables can be given the **DELAY_KEY_WRITE** option using CREATE
or ALTER TABLE. The drawback is that after a crash the table is
automatically marked as corrupt and has to be checked/repaired which can
take some time.
InnoDB can be told with **innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit** to delay
writing the data a bit. In case of a server crash the data itself is
supposed to be still consistent, just the indices have to be rebuilt.
**INSERT DELAYED** works on main Storage Engines on a per query base.
## Further reading
Useful links regarding optimisation of MySQL servers:
- Various newsgroups and the MySQL mailing lists
- A guide to mysqlreport
- The book High Performance
MySQL
- Tuning tips from the company
EZ
- MySysop A php script for mysql optimisation and tuning, demo :
MySysop
## References
fr:MySQL/Optimisation
[^1]: <http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.1/en/optimize-table.html>
[^2]: <http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.1/en/datetime.html>
|
# MySQL/APIs
## Security
Please, remember that the internet has been created by persons who
don\'t want us to have any sort of secrets. Also remember that a lot of
people are payd to learn our secrets and register them somewhere.
Paranoia is a form of intelligence.
### Connection parameters
Sometimes, connection parameters (including username and password) are
stored in a plain text file, for example a .ini file. This is insecure:
if a user guesses how it is called, he can read it. If it\'s located
outside the web server\'s WWW directory it\'s more secure, but it\'s a
better practice to store it as a constant in a program file.
It\'s always possible that a user manages to get your FTP password or
other passwords. So the username and the password you use to connect to
MySQL should be different from other usernames / passwords.
MySQL passwords must be secure. You don\'t need to remember them. They
should contain lowercase letters, uppercase letters, numbers and symbols
(like \'\_\'); they should not contain existing words or your birth
date; they should never be sent via email (if they are, there must be
some way to modify them); they should not be stored where it is not
absolutely necessary to store them.
### SQL Injections
#### What are SQL Injections?
In a perfect world, you would know that values contained in \$\_POST are
values that you can insert into a SQL statement. But in a perfect world
there are no poverty or proprietary softwares, so this is not the case.
Those values may contain attacks called \"SQL Injections\". When you
expect values like \"\'42\'\", you may find values like \"\'42\' OR 1\".
So, when you try to make a statements like this:
`` DELETE FROM `articles` WHERE `id`=42 ``
you may create statements like this instead:
`` DELETE FROM `articles` WHERE `id`=42 OR 1 ``
which DELETEs all records.
Also in some cases, you try to make a query like this:
`` SELECT * FROM `my_nice_table` WHERE title='bla bla' ``
And a user may turn it to something like this:
`` SELECT * FROM `my_nice_table` WHERE title='bla bla'; TRUNCATE TABLE `my_nice_table` ``
These are just examples. It\'s easy to realize if all records are
disappeared from your tables. If the tables are properly backed up, you
can repopulate them. But there are worst cases. If a user learns how to
manipulate your database, he can create an administration account for
himself, or he can make modifications to your site\'s contents that
you\'ll never see, or he can even register payments he has not made.
#### How to prevent that
Simply, inputs that must represent a value, should not be accepted if
they contain something more.
- String values
They are enclosed by \'quotes\'. Every quote present in them should be
converted into \'\' or \\\'. PHP recommends using
`mysql_real_escape_string` to substitute these special characters.
- Numbers (integer, float)
They must be numeric input. If they contain something like OR or spaces,
they are not numeric.
- Dates
Enclose them within \'quotes\' and manage them as if they were strings.
- NULL / UNKNOWN / TRUE /FALSE
These values should never be entered by the user, but should created
programmatically.
- SQL names
In some cases, SQL names could be contained in user input. A common case
are column names to be used in the ORDER BY clause, which may come from
\$\_GET. Enclose them within \`backquotes\` and replace every
occurrences of \` with \`\`. Of course, generally speaking, this is a
very bad practice if the SQL names are not used ONLY in the ORDER BY
clause.
- Comments
User input should never be inserted in SQL comments.
### Passwords
When passwords are stored in a database, they are usually encrypted. The
encryption should be done by the script and not by MySQL. If it is done
via SQL, the passwords are written by the statements as plain text. This
means that they are visible through:
- possibly, some system logs, if the communications with the db are
done through a network and is not encrypted
- MySQL logs
- SHOW PROCESSLIST
So, one should never send a query like this:
`` SELECT 1 FROM `users` WHERE `password`=MD5('abraxas') ``
But, in PHP, you should write:
`` $sql = "SELECT 1 FROM `users` WHERE `password`=MD5('".md5('abraxas')."')"; ``
You should never use insecure encryption functions like PASSWORD().
Also, you should not use 2-way encryption. Only cryptographic hashs,
such as SHA256 are secure, and don\'t use older hash algorithms like
MD5.
Passwords, even if they are safely encrypted, should never be retrieved
by a SELECT. It\'s insecure and 1-way encryption does not require that.
### SSL
If all contents of your databases are public, there is no reason to use
encryption for communications. But generally, this is not the case. Even
so, there may be a restricted set of people authorized to submit new
content to the site, and this will require the use of passwords.
So often it\'s a good idea to use SSL encryption. See your driver\'s
documentation to see how to do this (it\'s always a simple connection
option).
Not only will SSL encrypt the network traffic containing the users
password, but it can also validates to the user the site as being the
correct one using a certificate. One possible attack has a site created
to look like the victim site, attempting to get you to submit your
username and password.
## Optimization
### API Calls
#### Persistent connections
By using persistent connections, we keep the connection with the server
open, so that several queries can be executed without the overhead of
closing and reopening a connection each time a script is run.
Note that this is not always a good optimization. Try to imagine how
many persistent connections a server\'s RAM should store with a shared
hosting setup, if every hosted sites use only persistent connections:
there will be too many at once.
Persistent connections are available through many languages.
#### Free memory
When you execute a query, you get a recordset and put it into a
variable. To keep it in memory when you don\'t need it anymore is a
waste of ram. That\'s why, generally, you should free the memory as soon
as possible. If it is possible only few lines before the end of the
script, this makes no sense. But in some cases, it is good.
#### Fetch rows
Many APIs support two ways for fetching the rows: you can put them into
a normal array, into an object, or into an associative array. Putting
the rows into an object is the slowest way, while putting them into a
normal array is the fastest. If you are retrieving a single value per
row, putting it into an array may be a good idea.
#### API vs SQL
Usually, the APIs support some methods which create an SQL statement and
send it to the MySQL server. You may obtain the same effects by creating
the statement by hand, but it\'s a slowest way. APIs\' methods are
generally more optimized.
### Reduce client/server communications
- Some scripts use two queries to extract a Pivot table.
Client/server communications are often a bottleneck, so you should try
to use only one JOIN instead.
- If you need to use more than one query, you should use only one
connection, if possible.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Only retrieve the fields you really need.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Try to not include in the SQL command too many meaningless
characters (spaces, tabs, comments\...).
#### CREATE \... SELECT, INSERT \... SELECT
When you create a new table from an existing table, you should using
CREATE \... SELECT. When you want to populate an existing table from a
query, you should use INSERT \... SELECT or a REPLACE \... SELECT. This
way, you will tell the server to perform all the needed operations by
sending only one SQL statement.
#### INSERT DELAYED
Many scripts don\'t check if the INSERTs are successful. If this is the
case, you should use INSERT DELAYED instead. So, the client won\'t wait
a confirm from the server before proceeding.
#### REPLACE
If you run a DELETE and then an INSERT, you need to communicate two SQL
commands to the server. Maybe you may want to use REPLACE instead.
Possibly, use REPLACE DELAYED.
### Other Techniques
#### Storing data in cookies
Sometimes, session data are stored into a database. This requires at
least one UPDATE and one SELECT every time a user loads a page. This can
be avoided by storing session data into cookies.
Browsers allow users to not accept cookies, but if they don\'t accept
them, they can\'t visit many important modern sites.
The only data that can\'t be securely stored into cookie are passwords.
You may set a brief lifetime for cookies though, so the user\'s privacy
is hardly compromised by your cookies. Or you can do the following:
- when a user successfully logs in your site, create a record with
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() and a random ID;
- set a cookie with the ID;
- when the user tries to do something, check if he\'s logged in:
`` SELECT FROM `access` WHERE `id`=id_from_cookie AND `tstamp`>=CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() - login_lifetime ``
- UPDATE the tstamp
#### Creating static contents
When a user browses an article or other dynamic contents (which means,
contents stored into a database), a HTML document needs to be generated.
Often, the page has not variable contents, but just contents which are
INSERTed once, and rarely (or never) updated. An article or a list of
links are a good example.
So, it may be a good idea creating a program which generates a static
HTML page when an article is INSERTed into the database. The page may be
deleted and re-generated if the article is UPDATEd. This saves a lot of
SQL statements and work for the DBMS.
Of course this requires some privileges which you may not have. If you
are using a hosting service, you may need to talk to technical support
team about this.
## PHP
### Drivers
PHP has the following official drivers for MySQL:
- mysql - Older, so it\'s still used by many web applications; it\'s a
procedural PHP module
- mysqli - faster; can be used as a set of classes or as a normal
procedural library
- PDO (PHP Data Objects) - uses PDO, an abstraction layer for
interaction with databases which has drivers for MySQL and ODBC.
- PDO_MYSQL support some advanced MySQL features and emulates them if
not present.
The functions in the above drivers the extensions recall the methods in
the C API. They can use the MySQL Client Library or mysqlnd, a Native
Driver for PHP.
Sometimes, enabling both mysql and mysqli may cause some problems; so,
if you use only one of them, you should disable the other one.
Also, PHP has a ODBC extension which may be used with MySQL.
PEAR is an important set of PHP
classes which supports MySQL.
### register_globals and \$\_REQUEST
PHP has an environment variables called register_globals. Since PHP 4.2
it\'s set to false by default, and you shouldn\'t set it. In PHP 5.3
this variable is also deprecated and in PHP 6 has been removed.
However, if your version of PHP supports register_globals, you can
verify if it\'s set to true by calling the function ini_get(). If it\'s
true, thought, you can\'t modify it with ini_set(). There are two ways
to set it off:
- editing php.ini
(impossible if you\'re using a hosting service)
- adding one line to .htaccess:
`php_flag register_globals off`
(sometimes possible in hosting)
The reason is that if register_globals is true, a user can arbitrary add
variables to your script by calling them like this:
`your_script.php?new_variable=new_value`
You should never user the \$\_REQUEST superglobal array. It can be used
to retrieve variables from:
- \$\_ENV
- \$\_GET
- \$\_POST
- \$\_COOKIE
- \$\_SERVER
This is the order followed by PHP (may be modified by the
variables_order environment variable). This means that if your script
set a server variable called \"userid\" and you try to read it via
\$\_REQUEST, the user can prevent that by adding a variable to the query
string.
Also, you should never blindly trust the validity of HTTP variables.
fr:MySQL/API
|
# MySQL/Debugging
## Logging
There a a few ways to debug a MySQL script. For example, if can become
necessary to log every SQL request. To do so:
``` mysql
SET GLOBAL general_log = 'ON';
SET GLOBAL log_output = 'TABLE';
```
Then it will record every request of the server into the system database
`mysql`, table *general_log*.
## Exceptions handling
In MySQL, the anomalies like \"division by zero\" don\'t return any
error, but NULL.
However, some exceptions may occur when manipulating tables, for example
to avoid that a list of insertions stops in its middle, because of a
\"UNIQUE\" constraint. The following example functions on an InnoDB
table (and not MyISAM)[^1]:
``` mysql
ALTER TABLE `MyTable1` ADD UNIQUE(`id`);
INSERT INTO MyTable1 (id) VALUES('1');
START TRANSACTION;
INSERT INTO MyTable1 (id) VALUES('2');
INSERT INTO MyTable1 (id) VALUES('3');
INSERT INTO MyTable1 (id) VALUES('1');
IF condition THEN
COMMIT;
ELSE
ROLLBACK;
END IF;
```
Here, an error rises when inserting a second id=1. But according to one
condition, the script can cancel the insertions of 2 and 3, or commit
them anyway.
By default, MySQL is set to autocommit, it means that a `COMMIT` is
automatically done after each operation (making the `ROLLBACK` useless).
To deactivate it, launch `SET autocommit = 0;`
Attention: when several `COMMIT` are executed before one `ROLLBACK` (for
instance in a loop), it will only cancel the operations consecutive to
the last `COMMIT`.
## Errors
### 1130: Host \'example.com\' is not allowed to connect to this MySQL server
When connecting from a remote computer, the account used is not
authorized. It should be set so:
`GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'MyUser1'@'%' WITH GRANT OPTION;`
instead of or in addition to:
`GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'MyUser1'@'localhost' WITH GRANT OPTION;`
### 1093 - You can\'t specify target table \'\...\' for update in FROM clause
It occurs when trying to delete some lines according to a selection of
these same lines.
It just needs to use some intermediary `CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE`.
### 2003: Can\'t connect to MySQL server
Change the parameter \"host\".
### Invalid use of group function
- In the case of a `SELECT`, use `HAVING` instead of `WHERE` to modify
the record in function of some others.
- For an `UPDATE` or a `DELETE`, the fields compared by `IN` may not
belong to the same type.
### SQLSTATE\[42000\]: Syntax error or access violation
Use phpMyAdmin to find the exact syntax error location.
### This version of MySQL doesn\'t yet support \'LIMIT & IN/ALL/ANY/SOME subquery\'
Replace the \"IN\" by some joins.
[^1]: <http://stackoverflow.com/questions/2950676/difference-between-set-autocommit-1-and-start-transaction-in-mysql-have-i-misse>
|
# MySQL/CheatSheet
### Connect/Disconnect
`mysql -h ``<host>`{=html}` -u ``<user>`{=html}` -p``<passwd>`{=html}\
`mysql -h ``<host>`{=html}` -u ``<user>`{=html}` -p`\
`Enter password: ********`\
`mysql -u user -p`\
`mysql`\
`mysql -h ``<host>`{=html}` -u ``<user>`{=html}` -p ``<Database>`{=html}
### Query
``` mysql
SELECT * FROM table
SELECT * FROM table1, table2, ...
SELECT field1, field2, ... FROM table1, table2, ...
SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE condition
SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE condition GROUP BY field
SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE condition GROUP BY field HAVING condition2
SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE condition ORDER BY field1, field2
SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE condition ORDER BY field1, field2 DESC
SELECT ... FROM ... WHERE condition LIMIT 10
SELECT DISTINCT field1 FROM ...
SELECT DISTINCT field1, field2 FROM ...
SELECT ... FROM t1 JOIN t2 ON t1.id1 = t2.id2 WHERE condition
SELECT ... FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 ON t1.id1 = t2.id2 WHERE condition
SELECT ... FROM t1 JOIN (t2 JOIN t3 ON ...) ON ...
SELECT ... FROM t1 JOIN t2 USING(id) WHERE condition
```
### Conditionals
``` mysql
field1 = value1
field1 <> value1
field1 LIKE 'value _ %'
field1 IS NULL
field1 IS NOT NULL
field1 IN (value1, value2)
field1 NOT IN (value1, value2)
condition1 AND condition2
condition1 OR condition2
```
### Data Manipulation
``` mysql
INSERT INTO table1 (field1, field2, ...) VALUES (value1, value2, ...)
INSERT table1 SET field1=value_1, field2=value_2 ...
LOAD DATA INFILE '/tmp/mydata.txt' INTO TABLE table1
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ',' OPTIONALLY ENCLOSED BY '"' ESCAPED BY '\\'
DELETE FROM table1 / TRUNCATE table1
DELETE FROM table1 WHERE condition
-- join:
DELETE FROM table1, table2 WHERE table1.id1 = table2.id2 AND condition
UPDATE table1 SET field1=new_value1 WHERE condition
-- join:
UPDATE table1, table2 SET field1=new_value1, field2=new_value2, ...
WHERE table1.id1 = table2.id2 AND condition
```
### Browsing
``` mysql
SHOW DATABASES
SHOW TABLES
SHOW FIELDS FROM table / SHOW COLUMNS FROM table / DESCRIBE table / DESC table / EXPLAIN table
SHOW CREATE TABLE table
SHOW CREATE TRIGGER trigger
SHOW TRIGGERS LIKE '%update%'
SHOW PROCESSLIST
KILL process_number
SELECT table_name, table_rows FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES WHERE TABLE_SCHEMA = '**yourdbname**';
$ mysqlshow
$ mysqlshow database
```
### Create / delete / select / alter database
``` mysql
CREATE DATABASE [IF NOT EXISTS] mabase [CHARACTER SET charset] [COLLATE collation]
CREATE DATABASE mabase CHARACTER SET utf8
DROP DATABASE mabase
USE mabase
ALTER DATABASE mabase CHARACTER SET utf8
```
### Create/delete/modify table
``` mysql
CREATE TABLE table (field1 type1, field2 type2, ...)
CREATE TABLE table (field1 type1 unsigned not null auto_increment, field2 type2, ...)
CREATE TABLE table (field1 type1, field2 type2, ..., INDEX (field))
CREATE TABLE table (field1 type1, field2 type2, ..., PRIMARY KEY (field1))
CREATE TABLE table (field1 type1, field2 type2, ..., PRIMARY KEY (field1, field2))
CREATE TABLE table1 (fk_field1 type1, field2 type2, ...,
FOREIGN KEY (fk_field1) REFERENCES table2 (t2_fieldA)
[ON UPDATE] [CASCADE|SET NULL|RESTRICT]
[ON DELETE] [CASCADE|SET NULL|RESTRICT])
CREATE TABLE table1 (fk_field1 type1, fk_field2 type2, ...,
FOREIGN KEY (fk_field1, fk_field2) REFERENCES table2 (t2_fieldA, t2_fieldB))
CREATE TABLE table IF NOT EXISTS (...)
CREATE TABLE new_tbl_name LIKE tbl_name
[SELECT ... FROM tbl_name ...]
CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE table (...)
CREATE TABLE new_table_name as SELECT [ *|column1, column2 ] FROM table_name
DROP TABLE table
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS table
DROP TABLE table1, table2, ...
DROP TEMPORARY TABLE table
ALTER TABLE table MODIFY field1 type1
ALTER TABLE table MODIFY field1 type1 NOT NULL ...
ALTER TABLE table CHANGE old_name_field1 new_name_field1 type1
ALTER TABLE table CHANGE old_name_field1 new_name_field1 type1 NOT NULL ...
ALTER TABLE table ALTER field1 SET DEFAULT ...
ALTER TABLE table ALTER field1 DROP DEFAULT
ALTER TABLE table ADD new_name_field1 type1
ALTER TABLE table ADD new_name_field1 type1 FIRST
ALTER TABLE table ADD new_name_field1 type1 AFTER another_field
ALTER TABLE table DROP field1
ALTER TABLE table ADD INDEX (field);
ALTER TABLE table ADD PRIMARY KEY (field);
-- Change field order:
ALTER TABLE table MODIFY field1 type1 FIRST
ALTER TABLE table MODIFY field1 type1 AFTER another_field
ALTER TABLE table CHANGE old_name_field1 new_name_field1 type1 FIRST
ALTER TABLE table CHANGE old_name_field1 new_name_field1 type1 AFTER another_field
ALTER TABLE old_name RENAME new_name;
```
### Keys
``` mysql
CREATE TABLE table (..., PRIMARY KEY (field1, field2))
CREATE TABLE table (..., FOREIGN KEY (field1, field2) REFERENCES table2 (t2_field1, t2_field2))
ALTER TABLE table ADD PRIMARY KEY (field);
ALTER TABLE table ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (field, field2);
```
### create/modify/drop view
``` mysql
CREATE VIEW view AS SELECT ... FROM table WHERE ...
```
### Privileges
``` mysql
CREATE USER 'user'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';
GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON base.* TO 'user'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, DELETE ON base.* TO 'user'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';
REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES ON base.* FROM 'user'@'host'; -- one permission only
REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES, GRANT OPTION FROM 'user'@'host'; -- all permissions
SET PASSWORD = PASSWORD('new_pass')
SET PASSWORD FOR 'user'@'host' = PASSWORD('new_pass')
SET PASSWORD = OLD_PASSWORD('new_pass')
DROP USER 'user'@'host'
```
### Main data types
``` mysql
TINYINT (1o: -127+128)
SMALLINT (2o: +-65 000)
MEDIUMINT (3o: +-16 000 000)
INT (4o: +-2 000 000 000)
BIGINT (8o: +-9.10^18)
Precise interval: -(2^(8*N-1)) -> (2^8*N)-1
/!\ INT(2) = "2 digits displayed" -- NOT "number with 2 digits max"
INT NOT NULL auto_increment PRIMARY KEY -- auto-counter for PK
FLOAT(M,D) DOUBLE(M,D) FLOAT(D=0->53)
/!\ 8,3 -> 12345,678 -- NOT 12345678,123!
TIME (HH:MM) YEAR (AAAA) DATE (AAAA-MM-JJ) DATETIME (AAAA-MM-JJ HH:MM; années 1000->9999)
TIMESTAMP (like DATETIME, but 1970->2038, compatible with Unix)
VARCHAR (single-line; explicit size)
TEXT (multi-lines; max size=65535)
BLOB (binary; max size=65535)
Variants for TEXT&BLOB: TINY (max=255) MEDIUM (max=~16000) LONG (max=4Go)
Ex: VARCHAR(32), TINYTEXT, LONGBLOB, MEDIUMTEXT
ENUM ('value1', 'value2', ...) -- (default NULL, or <nowiki>''</nowiki> if NOT NULL)
```
## Forgot root password?
`$ /etc/init.d/mysql stop`\
`$ mysqld_safe --skip-grant-tables &`\
`$ mysql # on another terminal`\
`mysql> UPDATE mysql.user SET password=PASSWORD('nouveau') WHERE user='root';`\
`## Kill mysqld_safe from the terminal, using Control + \`\
`$ /etc/init.d/mysql start`
### Repair tables after unclean shutdown
`mysqlcheck --all-databases`\
`mysqlcheck --all-databases --fast`
### Loading data
`mysql> SOURCE input_file`\
`$ mysql database < filename-20120201.sql`\
`$ cat filename-20120201.sql | mysql database`
fr:MySQL/Syntaxe
|
# Guitar/Different Types of Guitars
Playing different guitars in a music shop is a great way of
familiarising yourself with each model\'s unique qualities but don\'t
forget to take off any objects that could scratch the guitar. A music
salesman will let you try as many guitars as you like but may not be too
happy about the little scratch your coat button left. Your choice of
guitar will usually be based on the type of music you wish to play and
the aesthetic appeal of the colour and design.
## Acoustic Guitars
thumb\|right\|160px\|Di Giorgio Amazonia classical
guitar
There are two types of acoustic guitar: namely, the steel-string
acoustic guitar and the classical guitar. Steel-string acoustic guitars
produce a metallic sound that is a distinctive component of a wide range
of popular genres. Steel-string acoustic guitars are sometimes referred
to as flat tops. The word top refers to the face or front of the guitar,
which is also called the table. Classical guitars have a wider neck than
steel-string guitars and are strung with nylon strings. They are
primarily associated with the playing of the solo classical guitar
repertoire. Classical guitars are sometimes referred to as Spanish
guitars in recognition of their country of origin.
The acoustic guitar lends itself to a variety of tasks and roles. Its
portability and ease of use make it the ideal songwriter\'s tool. Its
gentle harp-like arpeggios and rhythmic chordal strumming has always
found favor in an ensemble. The acoustic guitar has a personal and
intimate quality that is suited to small halls, churches, and private
spaces. For larger venues some form of amplification is required. An
acoustic guitar can be amplified by placing a microphone in front of the
sound hole or by installing a pickup. There are many entry-level
acoustic guitar models that are manufactured to a high standard, and
these are entirely suitable as a first guitar for a beginner.
## Electric Guitars
Electric guitars are solid-bodied
guitars that are designed to be plugged into an amplifier. The electric
guitar when amplified produces a sound that is metallic with a lengthy
decay. The shape of an electric guitar is not determined by the need for
a deep resonating body and this had led to the development of contoured
and thin bodied electric guitars. The two most popular designs are the
Fender Stratocaster and the Gibson Les
Paul.
Electric guitar strings are thinner than acoustic guitar strings and
closer to the neck and therefore less force is needed to press them
down. The ease with which you can bend strings, clear access to the
twelfth position, the use of a whammy bar and the manipulation of pots
and switches whilst playing has led to the development of a lead guitar
style that is unique to the instrument. Fret-tapping is a guitar
technique for creating chords and melody lines that are not possible
using the standard technique of left-hand fretting and right-hand
strumming. The sustain, sensitive pick-ups, low action and thin strings
of the electric guitar make it an ideal instrument for fret-tapping.
## Electro-acoustic Guitars
Electro-acoustic guitars are commonly referred to as semi-acoustic
guitars. Electro-acoustic guitars have pickups that are specifically
designed to reproduce the subtle nuances of the acoustic guitar timbre.
Electro-acoustic pickups are designed to sound neutral with little
alteration to the acoustic tone. The Ovation range of Electro-acoustic
guitars have under-the-saddle piezo pickups and a synthetic bowl-back
design. The synthetic bowl-back ensures a tough construction that stands
up to the rigours of the road while offering less feedback at high
volumes. Ovation were the first company to provide on-board Equalization
and this is now a standard feature. The Taylor Electro-acoustic range
uses the traditional all-wood construction and the necks of these
guitars have a reputation for superb action and playability. Yamaha,
Maton and many other companies manufacture Electro-acoustic guitars and
the buyer is advised to test as many models and makes as they can while
taking note of the unplugged and amplified sound.
## Twelve-string Guitars
The twelve-string guitar is a
simple variation of the normal six string design. Twelve-string guitars
have six regular strings and a second set of thinner strings. Each
string of the second set corresponds to the note of its regular string
counterpart. The strings form pairs and therefore you play a
twelve-string guitar in the same manner as you would a standard
six-string.
Twelve-string guitars produce a brighter and more jangly tone than
six-string guitars. They are used by guitarists for chord progressions
that require thickening. The twelve-string is mainly used as a rhythm
instrument due to the extra effort involved in playing lead guitar using
paired strings. Twelve-string guitars have twelve tuning pegs and double
truss rods and are slightly more expensive than their corresponding
six-string version.
## Archtop Guitars
!Epiphone Emperor archtop
guitar{width="160"}
The archtop is a hollow or semi-hollow
steel-string acoustic or electric guitar. The carved top, combined with
violin-style f-holes and internal sound-block, creates a timbre that is
acoustic and mellow. These two factors have made archtops a firm
favourite with jazz guitarists.
Acoustic and electric archtops are identical in design with the only
difference being the addition of electro-magnetic pickups and pots.
Archtops can either be full-bodied or thinline. The full-bodied archtop
retains good volume and acoustic resonance when played unplugged, though
feedback may be an issue when amplified. The thinline body minimizes
feedback by sacrificing acoustic volume and resonance.
The archtop is one of the most aesthetically pleasing guitar designs,
and makers usually adhere to very high standards of construction and
playability. These factors ensure its continuing popularity with
guitarists.
## Steel Guitars
The steel guitar is unusual in that it
is played horizontally across the player\'s lap. The steel guitar
originates from Hawaii where local musicians, newly introduced to the
European guitar, developed a style of playing involving alternative
tunings and the use of a slide. The Hawaiian guitarists found that by
laying the guitar flat across the lap they could better control the
slide. In response to this new playing style some Hawaiian steel guitars
were constructed with a small rectangular body which made them more
suitable for laying across the lap.There are two types of steel guitar
played with a steel, the solid metal bar from which the guitar takes its
name, namely the lap steel guitar and the pedal steel guitar with its
extra necks. The pedal steel guitar comes on its own stand with a
mechanical approach similar to the harp. Pedals and knee-levers are used
to alter the pitch of the strings whilst playing thereby extending the
fluency of the glissandi technique.
## Touch Guitars
The first Touch Guitar Invention started in 1959 with the filing of
patent #2,989,884 issued in 1961 as the first touch tapping instrument
which could be played on two separated necks Simultaneously by muting
the strings at the distal end of the neck along with numerous other
claims. Until 1974 it was known as the DuoLectar and with a new patent
\"the \"Electronic Mute\" has been known as the \"Touch Guitar. It is
held in the normal way over the shoulder and design with the left hand
playing the lower bass neck in a traditional way and the right hand
playing over the top on a neck which has a wider string spacing allowing
the hand to be used in both vertical and horizontal angles to the
strings. It is absolutely off at all times, until Touched or picked.
## Resonator Guitars
Resonator guitars are distinctive
for not having a regular sound hole instead they have a large circular
perforated cover plate which conceals a resonator cone. The cone is made
from spun aluminum and resembles a loudspeaker. The bridge is connected
to either the center or edge of the cone by an aluminum spring called
the spider. The vibrations from the spider are projected by the cone
through the perforated cover plate. The most common resonator guitars
have a single cone although the original model patented in 1927 by John
Dopyera had three and was called a tricone resophonic guitar. Resonator
guitars are loud and bright. They are popular with blues and country
guitarists and can be played with a slide or conventionally.
Some resonator guitars possess metal bodies and these are called steel
guitars. This can lead to some confusion with the Hawaiian guitar of the
same name. They are two distinct instruments. The Hawaiian steel guitar
takes its name from the steel bar used to create the glissandi and the
Resonator steel guitar refers to the material used for the construction
of the body.
## Bass Guitars
The bass guitar has a long neck
(scale-length) and thick strings. The open strings of the bass guitar
corresponds to the four lowest strings of the guitar and are pitched an
octave lower. The standard bass has four strings though five and six
string basses are available which extends the range of the instrument.
Because the bass guitar is the bass instrument of the guitar family and
the double-bass is the bass instrument of the orchestral string family,
their similar roles have drawn bass players to both instruments.
## Double-neck Guitars
The double-neck guitar is designed so that two guitar necks can share
one body. This design allows the guitarist to switch between either neck
with ease. The double-neck guitar will normally have a standard
six-string neck and a twelve-string neck. Other combinations, such as a
six-string neck and a fretless neck, are available. The double-neck
guitar may be used in live situations when a guitarist needs a
twelve-string guitar for the rhythm part and a six-string guitar for the
solo break.
|
# Guitar/Anatomy of a Guitar
This chapter presents an overview of the different parts most commonly
found on the three main types of guitar.
## Overview of Components
{width="300"}
{width="250"}
-------------------
1 Head
2 Nut
3 Tuning pegs
4 Frets
5 Truss rod
6 Inlays
7 Neck
8 Neck joint/Heel
9 Body
10 Pickups
11 Pots
12 Bridge
13 Pick guard
14 Back
15 Sound board
16 Sides
17 Sound hole
18 Strings
19 Saddle
20 Fretboard
-------------------
\
## On Acoustics and Electrics
### Body
The body of a guitar consists of a treble or upper bout (the half of the
guitar closest to the neck), the bass or lower bout (the wider half of
the guitar), and the waist bout (the narrow section between the treble
and bass bouts).
The body is one of the most important factors in shaping the overall
tone of a guitar. It provides the resonance that shapes the tonal
qualities. It determines the volume of acoustic guitars and affects the
sustain of electric guitars.
Resonance is affected by:
- the types of wood used
- whether the body is made from layered woods (ply) or single pieces
- whether the body is hollow or solid
- the shape and size of the body
The woods listed below are used in the construction of both acoustic and
electric guitars.
#### Tone wood
- **Agathis** (also known as **Commercial Grade Mahogany** or **Poor
Man\'s Mahogany**) is a tropical pine commonly found throughout
south-east Asia. It is a plantation-wood used mainly for building
cabinets. Agathis is cheap and usually used in the construction of
budget guitars. Its tone is similar to mahogany but more bland
sounding with a less complex response.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Alder** is a lightweight wood that provides a clean balanced tonal
response and good resonance. Its soft and tight porous structure is
similar to basswood but with a bolder hard grain pattern that adds
to the stiffness making it more robust. Alder has a medium light tan
color and provides a balanced tone across the frequency range with a
slight upper mid-range producing a clean sound. Its resonance
provides a good dynamic range.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Ash** has an open grain pattern which requires a lot of lacquer to
seal and this can have a marked affect on the length of the sustain.
Ash is typically used in mid-range priced guitars. Ash offers two
varieties for guitar construction and they differ in tone:
: \(1\) **Northern hard ash** (also known as **Baseball Bat Ash**) is
hard, heavy and dense. This gives it a bright tone and long sustain.
:
: \(2\) **Swamp Ash** (also known as **Southern Soft Ash**) comes from
swamps in the Southern USA. Swamp Ash grows underwater which makes
the wood lightweight and porous. Many Fender guitars from the 1950s
were built with Swamp Ash. It has hard grain lines between its
softer layers and a creamy light tan color with bold darker grain
patterns. Its tonal qualities are a balance between brightness,
warmth and dynamic range with clear bell-like highs, slightly
scooped mids and strong lows. Swamp Ash has good resonance across
the whole frequency spectrum and therefore can sound quite complex.
- **Basswood** is a lightweight (lighter than Alder) close-grained
wood with a consistent and tight grain pattern. Its very soft with
light colors that range from almost white to medium tan. It requires
a hard finish, such as polyester, for protection and good
engineering to allow the screws and screw-holes to hold the parts.
The installation of a tremolo system on such a softwood also means
the body needs to be thicker to prevent cracking. Tonally, basswood
has a warm soft tone which attenuates both the high and extreme low
frequencies. It also creates a pronounced midrange fundamental
frequency response and a reduced smoother high-end response. The
tonal response compared with other softwoods such as ash and alder
is less complex with a narrower dynamic range. Basswood doesn\'t
excel in clean sounds though when coupled with distortion and
overdriven amplifier produces a metal-lead sound much favoured by
some rock guitarists. It is used in the construction of budget
guitars and expensive guitars.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Cedar** became popular in the mid-twentieth century after master
luthier Jose Ramirez III of Madrid pioneered the use of red cedar as
a substitute for the increasingly scarce European spruce. It is now
considered one of the world\'s premier tone woods.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Mahogany** is a highly dense, heavy wood with a fine, open grain
and large pores. The color is reddish brown. Tonally, it provides
good low frequencies, a compressed mid-range and smooth sounding
highs. Overall, its tone is mellow, soft and warm with a full and
thick quality. Its density provides excellent sustain and also makes
it less susceptible to dents and scratches. Its density and weight
have led some manufacturers to experiment with a thinner body as
seen on the Ibanez S series.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Nato** (also known as **Eastern Mahogany**) is a native wood from
the Caribbean and South America. Nato is not a mahogany though its
appearance and tonal similarities to mahogany has led to it being
used on guitars as a mahogany substitute. It is also a commercial
grade wood used in cabinet building. It has a bright tone with
pronounced midrange but lacks in sensitivity and punch compared with
mahogany. Nato is used by the manufacturer B.C. Rich for their
Assassin range.
!North-American
Spruce.jpg "North-American Spruce")
- **Maple** is used for the backs and sides of more expensive
acoustics like the J200 series by Gibson. Though not generally used
as a table for flat-topped instruments; it is the wood of choice for
arched top guitars, mandolins, and the violin family of instruments.
Its usually white in color with tight pores and thin grain lines.
There are two main types of American maple:
: \(1\) **Eastern Hard Maple** (also known as **Hard Rock Maple** or
**Sugar Maple** and usually associated with maple syrup) is an
excellent tonewood. As named, it is very hard and dense with a
medium weight which makes it difficult to work and therefore it is
usually reserved for necks. When used for the body, it provides a
bright sound with very strong highs and upper mid-range but quieter
bass frequencies. Overall, hard maple has a very long sustain.
Eastern hard maple can exhibit a figure (grain pattern) called the
*bird\'s eye* whose aesthetic appeal has led to it being used for
guitar tops and backs usually bookmatched.
:
: \(2\) **Western Soft Maple** (also known as **Big Leaf Maple**) is
much lighter in weight than Hard Maple. It has a bright tone with
good bite and attack though not as brittle as hard maple. Its tonal
qualities produce singing highs with a tight low-end. This kind of
maple is often seen with a figure called *flame* or *curl* and less
commonly a figure called *quilt*.
:
- **Rosewood** is used for the backs and sides of acoustics and also
for fingerboards. It possesses an extremely high density which makes
for an acoustically reflective tone wood. Its color is dark brown
with reddish, purple or orange streaks running through it. There are
many varieties of rosewood that are suitable for guitar
construction.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Poplar** is a wood used by manufacturers of budget guitars most
notably Danelectro who use masonite (top and back) glued to a poplar
frame (sides). Its a closed grain wood with a greyish-green color
and similar to alder in weight and tone. Due to the resurgence of
interest in budget guitars from the 1950s onwards some modern
reissues that use poplar are relatively expensive.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **European Spruce** is a premium tonewood used in the design of many
stringed instruments including the violin, viola and lute.
Increasing scarcity has resulted in the use of substitutes such as
the North American species of spruce and red cedar.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Walnut** is a medium hard wood with a strong grain pattern. Its
body has a constant density. Walnut is harder, heavier and more
dense than mahogany and therefore closer to maple. Tonally, it is
warmer than maple with a solid low-end. The mid-range is relatively
complex and the high-end is smooth and bright. Due to its density it
provides good sustain.
#### Body top
Some electric guitars have an extra top added to the body to blend the
tonal qualities of different types of wood together. Maple with figuring
is a popular top and produces a pronounced look and tone (adds
brightness). Body tops are not used on acoustics since the layering of
two pieces of wood for the table would inhibit the resonance and dull
the tone.
### Bridge
!Bridge The bridge is found on
the lower bout of the body and forms one one end of the vibrating length
of the strings, the other end being the *nut*, which
is located at the end of the fretboard. On most electric guitars, the
height of the bridge is adjustable by screws, allowing the guitars
*action* -- distance that the strings sit above the frets -- to be
raised or lowered. On most electrics, the horizontal position of the
bridge saddles is also screw-adjustable, allowing the guitar\'s
intonation to be set by the user. These adjustments are discussed
further in the Adjusting the
Guitar section.
Depending on the guitar, the strings may terminate at the bridge or just
pass over it.
The bridge of an acoustic consists of two parts: a saddle and the tie
block. Saddles are either a piece of plastic or polished bone. Acoustic
guitar saddles are made with a smooth top edge (no notches) and the base
of the saddle is seated in a groove cut into the tie block. The wood tie
block of a classical guitar is glued to the lower bout and acts as a
string terminator. A classical guitar string is pushed through the hole
in the tie block and the string is then brought back under itself three
or four times and pulled tight to form a knot. Once the saddle is seated
in the groove of the tie block the tension of the strings clamp it.
Steel string acoustics also have a saddle and tie block though due to
the strings having terminating end balls there is no need to knot. The
ball end of the string is thrust into a vertical hole in the tie block
and secured with a pin. The position and height of the saddle and tie
block on acoustics are set by the manufacturer, and usually do not
require user adjustment. Adjustments to the height of the acoustic
saddle are possible by shaving (lowering) the saddle though this job is
best left to a luthier since if too much is taken off, a new saddle will
required unless one resorts to the temporizing measure of shims.
The design of bridges varies between manufacturers and the above generic
descriptions may not apply to some guitars.
### Fretboard and Frets
The fretboard is a piece of wood that is glued to the front of the neck.
These are commonly made of rosewood though other hard woods such as
ebony may also be used. Embedded in the fretboard are a number of metal
*frets* (fret-wire) usually numbering twenty one to twenty-four. Strings
are pressed down behind a fret which changes the length that is left
free to vibrate thereby producing a different note. A simple
demonstration is to be found on the twelfth fret. On all guitars this is
the fret that divides the string exactly in half and produces a note an
octave higher than the open note. Any open string that maintains its
original tension and is halved produces its octave. This applies to all
stringed instruments including the piano and violin.
There are a variety of fret designs. Jumbo frets are higher and wider
than normal frets and require less fretboard contact to sound a clear
note. Medium frets are closer to the board and must be firmly in contact
with the fretboard to sound a clear note. Some guitarist prefer jumbo
frets due to the ease with which you can bend strings and the faster
play offered by less fretboard contact. As with many design elements of
the guitar this is a subjective area that is more personal preference
rather than advantage. Good technique is not dependent on fret size
The first fret is the one nearest the nut. Some manufacturers place a
zero fret immediately after the nut and the strings sit on the zero
fret. This brings the sound of the open strings nearer to the quality of
a fretted note.
A fretboard may have decorative inlays at the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th and
12th frets which serve as markers for the positions of the guitar.
Fretboard inlays can be highly decorative or simple shapes and on
expensive guitars may be made from exotic material like mother of pearl
or abalone.
### Head
!Headstock The headstock lies at
the end of the guitar\'s neck. The purpose of the headstock is to
support the tuners, which terminates the strings of the instrument. The
tuners are attached to tuning pegs and this allows the guitarist to
lower or raise the pitch of the string. A secondary purpose of the
headstock is identification and many guitar manufacturers choose to use
a distinctive headstock shape often in combination with the name of the
model and a trademark logo. On some guitars the model name and trademark
logo may be created using inlaid materials though decals are also
commonly used.
### Neck
The neck can be a single piece of wood or several pieces glued together
and cut to shape. The fretboard is a separate piece of wood that is
attached to the neck. Necks can be glued to the body (set neck) or
bolted on. Set necks are usually found on acoustic guitars and many
other instruments including the violin, lute and cello. The bolt-on neck
is a design feature more commonly associated with electric guitars. Most
necks are wood though alternative materials such as carbon fibre
composites have been used.
### Nuts
All strings pass through a *nut* at the headstock end of the fretboard.
Its function is to maintain correct string spacing and alignment so that
the strings feed into their respective tuning pegs. On acoustic guitars
the nut and saddle are usually made of the same material. Electric
guitars commonly use plastic or synthetic nuts though sometimes metal is
used. As tremolo bars can cause tuning problems, guitars equipped with
them usually have some manner of locking nut, where the strings are
clamped down.
**Tip:** Some guitarists lubricate the nut grooves so that the strings
move more smoothly. You can do this at home with a soft graphite pencil.
There\'s no need for excessive marking with the pencil just a few swipes
through the groove should deposit enough graphite.
### Pick Guard
!Tuning Pegs.jpg "Tuning Pegs"){width="100"}
Guitars, in common with all wood instruments, are prone to dents,
scratches and wear. A pick guard (also known as a scratch plate)
protects the body of the guitar at the point of most contact. Some
electric guitars have raised pick guards so your pick is directed out
and away from the pots and strings. Pick guards sometimes need replacing
due to wear or damage. In the case of an expensive or rare guitar, which
may have a tortoise shell pick guard, the guitar will have to be sent to
an experienced luthier.
### Sound Hole
Sound holes are found on all acoustics. Their purpose is to allow the
air pressure to stay equalized so that the soundboard can vibrate.
Archtop guitars have f-shaped sound holes - a design feature they share
with the violin, viola, cello and double bass. Round sound holes usually
have a decorated edge based on a geometrical design known as a rosette.
On modern guitars these decorations are machine-made though some
luthiers of expensive guitars still use the traditional method of laying
by hand small pieces of exotic material like mother of pearl.
### Truss Rod
Steel-strung guitars, whether acoustic or electric, have a metal truss
rod that runs the length of the neck under the fretboard. Strengthening
the neck with a truss rod counteracts the tension exerted by the strings
and allows the curvature of the neck to be adjusted. Classical guitars
do not require a truss rod due to the lower tension of nylon strings.
Some less expensive steel-string acoustics do not have a truss rod.
Adjusting the truss rod can have a marked impact on the tuning and
playability of a guitar.
Truss rod adjustments should be performed with great care as it is
possible to damage the neck or the truss rod. Overtightening is
especially to be avoided because if the truss rod snaps or its threads
strip, a very involved repair job will be necessitated. For this reason,
the truss rod nut should only be tightened one quarter turn at a time.
It should then be left alone for a day so the neck has time to assume
the new shape. If further adjustment is necessary, repeat the process --
a quarter turn, max. If one is not mechanically inclined, truss rod
adjustment should be deferred to someone who is, including perhaps a
guitar repair-person.
### Tuning Pegs
The strings are tensioned by means of tuning pegs, also known as tuners,
tuning machines, or machine heads. A high gear ratio gives smoother,
easier tuning but is not essential. A guitar can be tuned successfully
even with fairly cheap tuners. Most guitar tuning problems originate in
other areas, especially string sticking in the nut slots, and dirty or
worn strings.
Due to the tension of the strings and the constant turning of the pegs
the screws that secure the tuners to the headstock may loosen. It is
recommended that you check that they are screwed in tightly though avoid
over-tightening which may cause alignment problems or damage the screw
head or the wood.
## Electric Guitar
### Pickup
!Three magnetic pickups on an electric guitar. From left to right they
are a humbucker and two single
coils.
A pickup is a magnet wrapped in a coil of wire. When a string is plucked
the vibration of the string causes the magnetic flux to vary, inducing a
voltage in the coil. This is then amplified and played through a
speaker.
*Humbucking pickups* use two coils having opposite polarity, placed in
magnetic fields of opposite direction. The result is that the signal
from the strings is doubled, while electromagnetic noise from other
sources is cancelled. Thus humbucking pickups, or \"humbuckers\", have
less hum and other objectionable noise pickup than single-coil pickups.
However, having two coils in series, their inductance is generally
higher, which decreases their high-frequency response so they sound less
bright than single-coils. Humbuckers are also less able to reproduce
very high harmonic frequencies of the string because their magnetic
field is less localised than the field of a single coil pickup.
*Active pickups* are pickups with a built in preamplifier. This can
reduce noise pickup and reduce signal losses in the guitar cord. Against
these advantages must be weighed cost and the fact that a power source
must be provided for the preamplifier. The power source can be a 9 volt
battery on the guitar, or \"phantom power\" piped in via the guitar
cord.
Passive single coils are the standard pickup for Fender Stratocasters.
They have a bright and twangy clean sound but traditionally have a
relatively low output voltge. They are susceptible to noise pickup from
transformers -- including the transformer in your amp --, neon signs,
and other AC electrical equipment. This may or may not be a critical
problem, depending on your physical location, and on whether you use a
clean sound or a sound with a lot of amplifier compression/distortion
which will make electromagnetic noise pickup more noticeable and more of
a problem. Some single coils, such as the P-90, are larger than regular
single coils, and thus warmer than a standard single coil. However they
still retain more of a single coil sound and still can pick-up
background hum. Another single coil design is the Lipstick, commonly
found on Danelectro Guitars, where the entire pickup is placed in a
metal enclosure with a small gap left between the two metal halves.
Lipstick pickups tend to be bright sounding and the metal case results
in some reduction of hum. Active single-coils can have higher output and
enhanced sensitivity.
Humbuckers provide a warm and fat sound. They typically have a higher
output voltage than single-coils which suits them to overdriving an
amplifier so as to create a heavy sound with lots of sustain and
distortion. Some humbuckers allow coil tap (using only one of the coils)
or parallel connection which provides a sound similar to a single coil.
Pickups of every type are found in all genres of music, although
single-coils, with their bright, twangy sound are often associated with
country; and humbuckers producing thick, warm sounds with the rhythm
playing in rock. In heavy metal music, humbuckers are the norm because
of the necessity of having a low-noise pickup when the amplifier gain is
so high.
### Pickup Arrangements
There are many different arrangements for pickups. The most basic is a
single pickup near the bridge.
- **S + S** - the original Telecaster design uses two single coils.
Telecasters have a percussive twang with lots of treble. Even when
using thick single coils, as found on the Fender Jazzmaster and
Gibson Les Paul P90, the tone is more emphasized on the treble side.
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```
- **S + S + S** - three single coils are standard on Fender
Stratocasters and Stratocaster copies.
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```
- **H + S + S** - used on Stratocasters which are often called Fat
Strats to distinguish them from the standard three single coil
Stratocaster. The pick-up at the bridge is replaced by a humbucker.
A favourite with guitarists who want the clean tone of single coils
and the hum-free fat tone of a humbucker.
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```
- **H + H** - the standard configuration for the Gibson Les Paul. Also
known as the Double Fat Strat configuration when mounted on a
Stratocaster body.
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```
- **H + S + H** - found on the Steve Vai signature model by Ibanez and
a favourite pickup arrangement for metal guitarists. Stratocasters
using this configuration are called Super Strats.
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```
- **H + H + H** - the standard pickup arrangement for the Gibson
Firebird VII, SG Custom and Les Paul
### Pickup Selector
Every electric guitar, except those with a single pickup, has a pickup
selector. Guitars with two pickups have a three-way switch which allows
the guitarist to select either the neck pickup or the bridge pickup.
When the switch is in the middle position both pickups are used.
On guitars with three pickups there is usually a five way switch. The
positions are:
- neck pickup
- neck-middle
- middle pickup
- middle-bridge
- bridge pickup
### Tremolo Bar
A tremolo bar alters the pitch of the strings. Pushing down on the bar
lowers the pitch of the strings and pulling up raises the pitch. Rapidly
pushing and releasing will produce a modulation in pitch called
*vibrato*. Vibrato is often confused with tremolo, a volume modulation
effect found on amplifiers, hence the misnomer tremolo bar. Originally
used just for vibrato; the modern improvements in guitar design,
amplifiers and effects has allowed guitarists to create a new palette of
tremolo bar sound effects like the popular *dive bomb*.
!The Fender Stratocaster shown here has multiple pickups, a whammy bar
and volume and tone
controls.
There are four kinds of tremolo:
- **Bigsby tremolo** - fitted at the bottom end of the body and with a
limited pitch bend on both up and down. These distinctive looking
tremolos are normally found on archtop guitars. Because of its
limited range, it *holds* its tuning and is more stable than other
non-locking tremolos that allow wider pitch bends.
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- **Vintage synchronized tremolo** - (sometimes called the strat-type
tremolo) can only down bend. This type of tremolo is more stable
than the floating bridge tremolo though still prone to tuning
problems.
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```
- **Floating bridge tremolo** - this design allows wide bends of a
tone or more in either direction though this greatly affects tuning
stability. Poorly designed floating bridges on cheap guitars should
be avoided since the flexibility of the design demands the highest
quality in construction and components to ensure tuning stability.
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```
- **Floyd Rose locking tremolo** - this design locks the strings
therefore ensuring that the original tension of the strings are not
affected by the tremolo bar and the strings return to their original
tension after use. The locking tremolo makes changing strings and
tuning slightly more complicated though once in tune the locking
tremolo maintains tuning stability far better than non-locking
designs. You still need to check your tuning every time you play
since tuning is affected by other factors, such as moving from a
cold room to a hot room, and the locking tremolo does not negate
these factors.
### Pots
Almost all electric guitars have at least two pots (potentiometers) to
control the volume and tone. The usual tone control circuit uses the
inductance of the pickup\'s coil in conjunction with an additional
capacitor to reduce high frequencies when the pot is turned
counterclockwise. Near the minimum position (at about 2 or 3 out of 10)
there is usually a noticeable midrange peak or nasality resulting from
the capacitor and inductor resonating with each other. This is a
distinctive sound not easily achieved with the tone controls of the
amplifier alone.
A Fender Stratocaster will typically have one master volume pot and two
tone pots for the neck pickup and middle pickup.
### Electric Guitar Necks
!3-screw bolt-on neck
This section describes the different methods used for attaching the neck
to an electric guitar:
**Bolt-on neck** - the neck is attached to the body with bolts which are
held by a mounting plate for increased stability. The mounting plate can
make accessing the higher frets difficult so some manufacturers, notably
Ibanez, use a hidden plate. The bolt-on neck is a standard design used
by Fender.
**Set neck** - the neck is attached to the body with adhesive. This is
the method used on acoustics and rarely is it used for mass-produced
electrics. Electric guitars that feature a set neck have to be built to
a high standard since once glued on the neck is permanent and cannot be
adjusted. Set necks are commonly found on more costly electric guitars.
Gibson and Epiphone use set necks which is claimed to have these
advantages over a bolt-on neck:
- warmer tone
- more sustain
- better access to higher frets
**Thru-body neck** - the neck extends the entire length of the body. The
strings, fretboard, pickups and bridge are all mounted on the thru-body
neck. The ears or wings (the bouts) are attached or glued to the central
stick. The wings may be book-matched in order to give a symmetrical
appearance.
The thru-body neck is usually found on high-end guitars since the design
is not favoured by mass-production manufacturers. It is more common on
basses than guitars. The thru-body neck allows easier access to the
higher frets because there is no heel and is considered by some
guitarists to offer greater sustain.
he:גיטרה/הכרת מבנה הגיטרה
|
# Guitar/Buying a Guitar
A new guitar can be purchased for a moderate price. Modern manufacturing
techniques coupled with mass production keeps costs low while intonation
and playability are preserved by precise machining. Most manufacturers
offer a full range of guitars from budget to custom-shop.
## Acoustic or Electric
The first decision a buyer has to make is which type of guitar to
purchase. After deciding this the buyer should research the models
available within their price-range. Research avoids impulse buying and
allows an informed decision to be made. It is recommended that a first
guitar be bought from a guitar shop. Pawn-brokers and charity shops may
offer second-hand guitars but all decisions fall upon the buyer who may
not be experienced in spotting flaws or damage. Guitar shops will offer
a range of new guitars from established manufacturers and a selection of
second-hand guitars without faults. It is important that the buyer not
be swayed from their informed choice on the day of purchase. If you know
that you want to play electric guitar in a band then this is the correct
type of guitar to purchase. It is not uncommon that when faced with a
bewildering range of guitars in a shop a buyer may choose to purchase a
different type of guitar other than their original choice. If at anytime
a doubt arises whilst purchasing it is better to walk away and review
your aims and buying options.
Singer-songwriters favour the steel-string acoustic guitar as the
standard accompaniment for solo performance. The buyer should be aware
that acoustic guitars have no internal pickups for amplification so a
microphone must be placed in front of the sound-hole for recording. An
electro-acoustic guitar is an acoustic guitar with pickups and a quarter
inch jack output which allows the electro-acoustic guitar to be plugged
into an amplifier. Note that thin-line guitars are not true acoustics
and it is a common error that beginners raise the action in the belief
that there is something wrong with their thin-line guitar which despite
its obvious acoustic build has buzzing strings and produces a weak
volume when played unplugged. Thin-line guitars are electric guitars
with a body that imparts an acoustic resonance when amplified.
### Testing a guitar
!Martin D28 acoustic
guitar{width="130"}
- The height of the strings above the fretboard is called the action.
If the action is too low the strings will buzz and if the action is
too high more effort is required to push the strings down. Acoustic
guitars have their action set by the factory and should not need
further adjustment and therefore acoustics with a high action should
be avoided since this may be a sign of faulty construction or a
warped neck. You can test the action by playing barre chords at
different positions. If the barre chords are difficult to play then
the action may be set too high.
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- Intonation is a term used to describe accurate tuning over the range
of the guitar which is three octaves. A guitar with its intonation
set correctly ensures that an open C chord played on the first three
frets sounds the same as a C barre chord played at the eighth fret.
Guitarists use octaves to check intonation by striking an open
string then fretting its twelfth fret octave equivalent. The open
string and its octave should be in tune together with neither being
sharp or flat in relation to the other. On all electric guitars the
intonation can be adjusted at home by the player using an electronic
guitar tuner but for acoustic guitars any adjustments must be made
by a luthier since the nut and bridge need to be adjusted by filing
and shaving. Guitar manufacturers ensure that the intonation is set
at the factory and a further check is normally made by guitar
dealers before a guitar is put on display. A second-hand guitar must
be tested for intonation problems as sometimes a warped neck will
render accurate intonation impossible though the guitar may sound in
tune in the first position. Intonation depends on the straightness
of the neck, whether the nut allows correct spacing and seating of
the strings, the height of the bridge, and the scale of the frets.
Intonation and tuning are two related but different concepts.
Setting the intonation is about preparing the guitar so that it can
be accurately tuned across its complete range.
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- The guitar should be played from its first to last fret on all
strings to check for fret buzz and wolf notes. Fret buzz may be
present when the truss rod is not properly adjusted or the action
has been set too low. Worn fretboards or incorrectly shaped
fret-wire can also cause fret buzz. Wolf notes sound dull and lack
sustain and in some cases they can affect the tuning stability of a
guitar. It is common to find a wolf note on the G string in the
first position though they can occur anywhere on the neck where
string contact to the fret is impeded or incorrect. The problematic
wolf note can be corrected by sending the guitar to a luthier for
setting-up and adjustment. The luthier will ask you which make of
guitar strings you use and will adjust the guitar for that gauge.
The guitar must be restrung every time with that particular string
brand and gauge to preserve the set-up. Re-grooving nuts, adjusting
necks and permanent bridge alterations are best left to a luthier
whose traditional skills coupled with modern tools like the
oscilloscope and precision calipers ensures a stable match between
the strings and the guitar.
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- Look for misaligned screws on electric guitars as these may be a
sign of wear or previous adjustments. On acoustic guitars glue spots
may point to flaws though in most cases they are just residue that
wasn\'t wiped off the guitar and generally don\'t affect the tone or
playability. Loose switches on electric guitars are common and if
dirt has accumulated then the familiar crackling of reduced contact
will be heard when a pot or switch is moved. Pots, switches and
wiring can be replaced so a good electric guitar with these problems
should not be dismissed though the price should reflect the cost of
replacing the damaged parts. Look down the sight of the neck to
check for a warped neck and to ensure that the guitar strings are
all at the same height. The thickness (gauge) of the low E string
may not allow it to sit in the nut groove correctly and it may be
slightly higher than the other strings. This may be a sign that you
need thinner gauge strings or that the guitar needs to be set-up.
Run your finger along the neck edges where the fret-wire ends.
Fret-wire is tapped into a fretboard and then cut flush with the
neck edge. As you run your finger along you should not feel any
fret-wire protruding and this is an indication that the manufacturer
has ensured a degree of quality control.
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- The intonation tuners located on the bridge of most electric guitars
should be in a neat staggered row with the high E string intonation
tuner nearest to the neck and the low E string intonation tuner
furthest away from the neck. If testing a guitar you notice that the
intonation tuners are not in a diagonal line from the high E to low
E than this is a sign that someone has attempted to adjust the
bridge and intonation tuners to set the action and has probably
rendered the guitar unplayable. This is not a construction fault and
the intonation tuners can be adjusted so that the guitar can be
tuned correctly. It is common when you see misaligned intonation
tuners that the bridge has also been raised to its highest position.
The only time a bridge should be deliberately raised to its highest
position is when a guitarist chooses to set-up a guitar permanently
for use with a slide.
### Buying a guitar that suits your playing style
- Try as many different necks as you can until you find a guitar neck
that you feel comfortable with. Gibson favours a flat wide neck and
Fender a thinner neck. Some guitarists find that bending strings on
a Gibson neck is more stable and precise due to the extra surface
while others prefer the thinner neck of a Fender and the ease with
which you can bend strings an octave or more. Try different necks
until you find one that responds to your playing style.
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```
- The guitar should be comfortable to hold. Some guitarists like the
heavier weight of Gibsons while others prefer the thinner and
lighter bodies of Stratocasters. More important is the sound
characteristics of a guitar. Telecasters are not as comfortable to
hold as Stratocasters but many guitarists are drawn to their
distinctive sound.
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```
- The majority of new guitars have a medium action either set at the
factory or adjusted by the dealer. Lead guitarists sometimes prefer
a very low action which sacrifices a small amount of tone for speed
and ease. Slide guitarists will raise the action up to a height that
renders normal fretting very difficult though this does ensure
clarity of tone when using a metal or glass slide with alternative
tunings. A medium action is ideal for a beginner as it maintains
tuning stability while providing a clear tone.
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```
- Test as many models and price-ranges as you can. You should test
guitars in the price range above your budget to familiarise yourself
with the differences. Dealers are quite happy to give potential
customers a long time to test different guitars without any sales
pressure. Note that not all sales assistants are guitarists since a
shop that sells both keyboards and guitars may prefer to hire a
pianist to demonstrate their keyboard range. In this situation the
buyer must rely on their own knowledge.
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- Do not be distracted. Testing guitars involves all the mental
faculties. It is during these moments that a buyer may make a wrong
decision. If at any time during testing you feel as though
distractions are affecting your concentration then walk away and
refocus.
### Where to buy a guitar
- Buying a guitar from a friend or relative who plays is an ideal way
to avoid some of the common pitfalls of a first purchase. Relatives
and friends may also help you search for a good guitar if they do
not have one that they want to sell. It is recommended that the
final choice should be made by the purchaser since guidance is never
fool-proof.
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```
- A local guitar or music store that has an established reputation.
Many guitarists return to the same local shop to buy strings and
other extras though a larger dealer should be sought if the range of
guitars offered by your local dealer is too small. Second-hand
guitars need to tested thoroughly before purchasing. If the buyer is
unsure of what faults to look for then a new guitar might be the
better option.
|
# Guitar/Buying an Amplifier
Amplifiers come in a wide variety of designs and your choice of
amplifier should be based on the type of music you wish to play. Your
local guitar dealer will let you test the different amplifiers they
stock though they may only offer a limited range due to space
restrictions. Its always a good idea to visit many dealers including
pro-audio outlets to test amplifiers across the entire price range
before committing yourself. This chapter will explain the difference
between a tube amplifier and a solid state amplifier as well as
exploring the variations on these two basic designs.
## Tube, Solid State and Hybrid Amplifiers
### Tube
Tube amplifiers produce a warm and fat tone that is popular with
guitarists. New models are available from Marshall, Fender and Vox as
well as other manufacturers which range in quality and price. Vintage
tube amplifiers from the 1960s and 1970s are available to buy, though
maintaining them can be expensive especially with regards to the cost of
replacement parts. The continuing popularity of vintage amplifiers from
earlier decades has resulted in a market for reissues.
!Mesa Boogie Mark IV Combo tube
amplifier
There are three operating modes for tube technology: Class A, Class B
and Class AB.
- Pure Class A operates by having a full continuous current flowing
through the tubes. The tubes are still fully powered even when there
is no signal to divert to the speaker. This makes Pure Class A tubes
expensive to run; similar to a car idling in neutral with the
throttle pedal right down. Pure Class A responds very fast to an
input signal with a tube saturation (distortion) that many
guitarists find appealing. Many Pure Class A amplifiers use tubes
with a low wattage to offset their inefficient operating mode
thereby increasing the tubes lifespan and reducing running costs.
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- Class A refers to an output design that doesn\'t use a Pure Class A
single-ended output stage. Class A uses a pair of tubes or multiples
terminating in a push-pull output stage.
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```
- Class B is rarely used in guitar amplifiers due to crossover
distortion issues so manufacturers instead use a combination of
Class A and Class B known as Class AB.
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- Class AB operates by using a pair of tubes. Whereas Pure Class A
produces the entire waveform, positive and negative, with a
single-ended output, Class AB produces the entire waveform using two
tubes with one handling the positive voltage and the other the
negative voltage. In comparison to Pure Class A, which uses a full
continuous current to achieve a three hundred and sixty degree
waveform and is always on at full power even when there is no signal
present, Class AB uses a smaller amount of constant current to
achieve the same always on state for the two tubes. Class AB is
thereby more efficient with regards to power consumption and heat
dissipation and the operating life of the tubes are greatly
extended.
\
Tube amplifiers:
- A tube is based on vacuum technology and requires more energy than a
solid state amplifier with the same wattage.
- Vacuum tubes are expensive and require replacement every one to four
years depending on use.
- Amplifiers with tubes are generally heavier than solid state
amplifiers due to the need for an output transformer.
- Tube amplifiers are usually more expensive than a solid state
amplifier.
- Tubes require a warm-up period before they reach optimum
performance.
- Tube amps are more fragile and repair-prone than solid state amps.
### Solid state
!Roland Jazz Chorus JC-120 solid state
amplifier
Solid state amplifiers use transistors instead of tubes. They are
popular with beginners due to their affordability and lower weight.
Solid state amplifiers have a fast attack time and are immediately
available for use when switched on. Solid state circuitry allows more
volume to be applied to the output signal before clipping occurs which
makes the amplifiers appealing to amateur and professional jazz or
acoustic guitarists who may wish to retain a clean sound at high
volumes. A solid state amplifier matched with good quality speakers can
produce a wide frequency response. Some solid state amplifiers use field
effect transistors (FET) on the preamp stage which at high gain produces
a distortion similar to a tube amplifier.
Solid state amplifiers retain a tight low end while producing a full
harmonic distortion at high gain which is desirable for the metal genre.
This has resulted in a range of solid state amplifiers specifically
designed for metal guitarists. Solid state amplifiers tend to be smaller
and lighter than their equivalent tube amplifiers and these design
factors allows manufacturers to build amplifiers weighing less than
10lbs which are capable of 150w clean RMS sound. Root Mean Square refers
to continuous output as opposed to Peak measurement which is the wattage
of an amplifier measured in a short burst.
Solid state amplifiers:
- A solid state amplifier requires less energy to power than an
equivalent tube amplifier.
- Solid state circuitry needs minimum maintenance and there are no
tubes to replace.
- Solid state amplifiers are more robust than tube amplifiers.
- Solid state amplifiers are available in an affordable price range.
- A solid state amplifier requires no warm-up.
### Hybrid
All amplifiers have a preamp stage which boosts the signal from the
guitar before it is sent to the power amplifier stage. Hybrid amplifiers
are designed to utilize both tube and solid state technology and are
available in the following configurations:
- tube preamp coupled with a solid state power amplifier
- solid state preamp coupled with a tube power amplifier
A tube preamp coupled with a solid state power amplifier outputs a tube
tone with a fast attack. A solid state preamp coupled with a tube output
provides solid state high gain with the warmth of tubes.
Design variations may include digital modeling, integrated tube/solid
state stages or further additional tube or solid state stages in the
signal path:
- The Vox Valvetronix signal path starts with solid state effects and
preamp which sends the signal to a tube/solid state integrated
output stage.
- The Line 6 Spider Valve signal path starts with digital tone
processing followed by a tube preamp which sends the signal to a
tube power amplifier.
## Features
### Standard
- Input - accepts a quarter inch mono jack cable
- Power - off and on
- Volume - adjusts the volume
- Speaker - built-in or separate cabinet
### Additional
- Gain - the amount of boost applied at the preamp stage
- Overdrive or distortion
- Reverb
- Tone/equalizer - treble and bass tone knobs, sometimes three or more
(mid, or low mid and high mid may be added), or graphic equalizer
- Headphone socket - headphones can be used for private practice
- Channel selection - switch between clean and high gain/overdrive
(often with a footswitch)
### Extra
- Additional inputs - high sensitivity input for use with a low-output
pickup and low sensitivity input for use with a high-output pickup
- Modeling - digital emulations of popular amplifiers, speakers and
effects
- Onboard effects - built in proprietary effects such as chorus,
delay, echo and compression.
- Effect loop - external effects can be plugged into the amplifier
- Line in - the audio signal bypasses the preamp stage and is sent
directly to the power amplifier
- Line out - the output from the amplifier can be sent to another
power amplifier or mixing desk
- Speaker out - standard on a separate amplifier \"head\" and when
found on a combo amplifier allows a different speaker to be used, or
a second speaker. Adding a second speaker can increase the wattage
output and volume.
- Foot-switch plug input - an external foot-switch can be plugged in
to control overdrive, reverb, solo boost, or another feature.
- Impedance switch (on tube amplifiers only) - change the resistance,
measured in ohms, of the amplifier to match speaker impedance
- Standby switch (on tube amplifiers only) - the standby switch has
exactly the same function as the standby mode of a computer which
removes the need to cold boot when taking a short break. Any
technology that requires a time period to reach optimum working
state benefits from this idea. Components are powered down while
remaining in a ready state which saves energy and extends their
operating life.
## Wattage
### Amplifiers
The wattage rating is the maximum volume that an amplifier is designed
to output. A 10 watt amp is typically the first purchase for a beginner.
An amplifier in the 30 to 50 watt range is loud enough for band use and
home band rehearsals and is a common first performing amp. If you are
intending to buy a 100 watt amplifier you will need to consider using a
rehearsal studio for practice, as this will be too loud for a home. The
list below outlines possible uses based on the amplifier\'s wattage
rating.
The ratings below need to be interpreted differently for some genres of
music. A 30W amp that would only suffice for a rehearsal amp in a death
metal band might be entirely appropriate as a large-venue amp in a jazz
quartet, where all the other instrumrnts are acoustic.
Solid state amplifiers:
- 10-30W: home practice
- 30-50W: band practice, small club
- 50-100W: large venue
Tube amplifiers:
- 10-20W: home and band practice
- 20-30W: band practice, small to medium club
- 30-50W: small to medium club
- 50-100W: extremely loud in confined spaces or small clubs, though
diffuse in large halls
### Speakers
The function of a speaker is to convert an electrical signal into sound
waves. This is achieved using an electromagnet called the voice coil
which is attached to the speaker cone by a spring called the spider. The
vibrations from the voice coil are transferred via the spider to the
speaker cone.
A speaker cabinet will house either a single speaker or multiples. A two
speaker configuration may utilize smaller speakers than a single speaker
model e.g. 2x10″ instead of 1x12″. The main benefit of having multiple
speakers is an increase in volume and bass response without sacrificing
the higher frequencies. By having more speaker cones the speakers will
move more air. For example, two 10″ speakers have a combined surface
area of 157 sq.in. while one 12″ speaker has a surface area of 113
sq.in. A 4x10″ cab is often used for large combo amplifiers as it
provides most of the bass response you would get from a 1x15″, but
retains the high frequency that the 1x15″ cannot produce. Also, it will
have increased power-handling capability, or more precisely, they split
the amplifier output. Thus, given the same amplification head, a two
speaker configuration will have a louder volume but only half the power
to each speaker.
A low power speaker is louder at the same power than a high power
speaker. This is known as speaker efficiency or sensitivity. A 25 watt
speaker with a 10 watt amplifier will generally be louder than a 100
watt speaker with the same 10 watt amplifier. A cabinet with multiple
speakers allows the use of low power speakers with a high power
amplifier.
To avoid damaging speakers it is recommended that the speaker wattage
should exceed the amplifier wattage. Damaging transient peaks or spikes
that are the result of an amplifier outputting more wattage than the
stated rating are negated by the higher headroom. It is not unusual to
find a 150 watt speaker matched to a 100 watt amplifier or a 75 watt
speaker matched to a 50 watt amplifier. Multiple speakers achieve the
same effect by sharing the amplifier load between speakers which allows
low wattage speakers to be used with a high wattage amplifier. If you
are buying a combo amplifier the issue does not arise as the
manufacturer has ensured that the amplifier and speaker are matched.
### Impedance
The speaker-out socket of an amplifier will have an impedance rating.
You should only plug in speakers with the same impedance rating. Some
amplifiers are equipped with a switch or dial which allows the impedance
to be set at 4 ohm, 8 ohm or 16 ohm. Plugging in a speaker with a too
low impedance rating may cause damage to the amplifier.
Tube amplifiers are much more sensitive to speaker impedance. Any
mismatch between the speaker impedance and the impedance set on the
amplifier will cause a strain on the transformer and tubes. Never turn
on a tube amplifier with no speakers connected. This might cause severe
damage to the output transformer. Always turn off your tube amplifier
before disconnecting the speaker. Some amplifiers have shorting jacks,
e.g. Hiwatts, these may allow you to change speakers on the fly, but
always at the amplifier side of the cable, never at the speaker side.
## Types of Unit
!Marshall amplifier without the speaker cabinet plugged in. Commonly
referred to as the
head._1959SLP-01_firmy_Marshall.jpg "Marshall amplifier without the speaker cabinet plugged in. Commonly referred to as the head.")
### Micro/Headphone amplifiers
Micro amplifiers are small portable amplifiers that generally do not
exceed 10 watts. These low wattage solid state amplifiers do not utilize
FET circuitry so they tend to distort very quickly. The Danelectro
Honeytone and Vox amPlug respectively illustrates the differences
between a micro amplifier and a headphone amplifier. The Danelectro
Honeytone has a speaker and pots and resembles a miniature amplifier.
The matchbox shape Vox amPlug is a headphone amplifier with rotary dials
instead of pots and offers four model emulations including the Vox AC30.
### Busking amplifiers
These small portable battery powered amplifiers are designed for outdoor
use where no mains power is available. The battery will normally provide
up to six to ten hours use on one charge though buying a spare battery
or ensuring that the amplifier can also be used with AC power will
offset this limitation. Examples include the Pignose Hog 30 which has an
8″ speaker and a rating of 30 watts and the Vox DA5 which has a 6.5″
speaker and a rating of 5 watts.
### Practice amplifiers
Practice amplifiers are designed to be used at home and are not suitable
for concerts or band rehearsals. The Vox DA5 and Epiphone Valve Junior
are small practice amplifiers designed for home use and are easily
transported and stored.
### Small venue/recording amplifiers
Combo amplifiers are suitable for small venues. The standard combo
consists of a 50 watt amplifier combined with one 12″ speaker with both
components enclosed in a single cabinet. Some manufactures combine a 30
or 40 watt amplifier with two or four speakers. A tube or solid state
amplifier with a minimum of 30 watts and good tone would be acceptable
for professional use. Combo amplifiers are favored by many guitarists
because of their compact form and matched amplifier and speakers. The
Vox AC30 and Fender Twin are examples of combo amplifiers.
These combo amps are also used in the recording studio, as they are
easier to transport and one does not need high volume in a recording
setting. As well, a very loud stack may need too high a volume to get a
guitarist\'s preferred tone, to the point that there may be sound
leakage into other booths or microphones. A smaller combo can reach
desired overdrive levels at lower volumes.
### Large Venue amplifiers
Amplifiers that range from 50 to 100 watts are suitable for a large
venue. A half stack consists of a separate amplifier head connected to
one 4x12″ speaker cabinet and is a very common guitar rig. A full stack
consists of a separate amplifier head with two speaker outs and two
4x12″ cabinets stacked vertically. A Marshall head and full-size cabinet
are bulky and heavy items to transport. A full-sized Marshall cabinet
has two handles, one on either side, and requires two people to lift and
move it safely. Large 8x10\" cabinets are hard to transport, if you are
moving them yourself (touring rock bands have a road crew to move gear
like this from vehicles to the stage). Storage and transportation must
be considered when buying a large guitar rig.
### Heads, cabinets, and stacks
A half-stack consists of two components:
- head - amplifier
- cabinet - speakers
When purchasing the two components check that the impedance of the
cabinet matches the impedance of the head. Make sure the cabs RMS rating
is about the same as the head\'s power output at the impedance of the
cab. Generally a single guitar cabinet would have 4x12″ speakers though
1x12″ and 4x10″ cabinets are also available. Some players use 1x12\"
speakers for small clubs or 1x15\" for deeper bass response.
### What format to buy
Most beginners start by buying a small, lightweight practice amp. Then,
when they start jamming, they buy a more powerful, larger amp capable of
being used at a pub or nightclub show. As they progress, an amateur
guitarist may buy a bigger, more powerful stack for large venue shows
and one or more higher-quality, expensive combo amps for recording.
|
# Guitar/Tuning the Guitar
Advances in manufacturing have solved many of the tuning problems
associated with the budget guitars of yesteryear. Entry level guitars
are available from major manufacturers such as Yamaha and Fender which
are entirely suitable for beginners. All guitar stores sell tuning forks
and electronic tuners. A tuning fork provides a single reference note
for tuning and for this reason an electronic tuner will be more useful
to the complete beginner.
When new strings have been put on a guitar they often fall out of tune
very easily. New strings will stretch until they reach a point where
their elasticity diminishes and then they will remain at the correct
tension and frequency. Strings need to be broken in. It will take time
to work all the slack out of the strings but the process can be sped up.
Put on new strings and tune to just below concert pitch using an
electronic guitar tuner. Then pull each string an inch away from the
fretboard and this will instantly put them out of tune. Use your
electronic guitar tuner to retune the strings to just below concert
pitch and repeat the process. After a while the slack should be gone
from the strings and the guitar can be tuned to concert pitch and should
stay in tune.
## Tuning the Guitar
Sound is created by the disturbance of particles in the air. The
vibrations of a struck string causes the air particles to moves in waves
which the ear receives and the brain interprets. When a string is
attached to two points, as the strings on a guitar are, then striking it
causes a sound to be produced at a regular frequency. The length,
thickness and tension of the string determines the pitch of the note it
produces. If you have a string of a certain length and tension stretched
across a wooden board which produced a known frequency and you wished to
double the frequency to produce the note an octave above - you simply
halve the distance that it is stretched across and keep the same
tension. That is exactly what happens on a guitar when you fret any of
the open strings at the twelfth fret.
There are many different tunings for the open strings of the guitar but
the most common is known as standard tuning or E tuning. In standard
tuning the open strings should be tuned to the notes **E A D G B e**.
The diagram below illustrates the open strings and the twelfth fret.
Note that the upper case **E** represents the thickest string and the
lower case **e** represents the thinnest string. The diagram is
orientated towards the player\'s view.
{width="1400"}
`e|-----------------------|`\
`B|-----------------------|`\
`G|-----------------------|`\
`D|-----------------------|`\
`A|-----------------------|`\
`E|-----------------------|`
### Four-Five Tuning
Four-Five tuning uses the open A string as the first reference note. A
tuning aid is useful to ensure that the open A string is at concert
pitch.
Concert pitch is an Internationally agreed standard that assigns A = 440
Hz. The guitar is a transposing instrument and is notated an octave
higher than its actual pitch to avoid having to use the bass clef in
standard notation. The notated middle C is played on the third fret of
the A string though the pitched middle C is to be found on the first
fret of the B string. A = 440 Hz is the fifth fret of the high e string
but for convenience the open A string (110 Hz) is used as the reference
note.
The diagram below shows the notes to be fretted.
`e|-------------------0---|`\
`B|---------------0---5---|`\
`G|-----------0---4-------|`\
`D|-------0---5-----------|`\
`A|---0---5---------------|`\
`E|---5-------------------|`
Follow these six steps to tune your guitar using the Four-Five method:
**Step 1**
**Step 2**
**Step 3**
**Step 4**
**Step 5**
**Step 6**
It is recommended that strings be brought up to their correct pitch when
tuning. The Four-Five method has the disadvantage of progressively
increasing tuning inaccuracies by the use of multiple reference notes.
### Harmonic Tuning
This method of tuning uses harmonics. By lightly touching a string
directly above its fret-wire the fundamental of a note is silenced
leaving only a series of overtones. Any note played on any instrument
consists of a fundamental and a harmonic series of overtones. The
twelfth, seventh and fifth nodes are the easiest frets with which to
sound harmonics. After striking the string the finger should be removed
quickly to produce the harmonic.
The fretboard diagram below shows the pairs of harmonics that are used.
You start by tuning the harmonic on the 7th fret of the A string to the
harmonic on the low E string. Then the harmonic on the 7th fret of the D
string is tuned with the harmonic on the 5th fret of the A string.
Tuning the G string to the D string is done in the same manner. Tune the
harmonic on the B string to the harmonic on the 4th fret of the G
string. Tune the harmonic on the e string to the harmonic on the B
string.
`e|-------------7*------------|`\
`B|--------5*-----------------|`\
`G|------4*-----7*------------| * = Play a harmonic at this fret`\
`D|--------5*---7*------------|`\
`A|--------5*---7*------------|`\
`E|--------5*-----------------|`
{width="1400"}
Tuning with harmonics can progressively increase tuning errors due to
the use of multiple reference notes. The fundamental is the most
dominant frequency of the harmonic series and it is recommended that a
further tuning check be made using fretted notes.
### Tempered Tuning
This method is recommended because it applies equal temperament with the
use of a single reference note. This method uses the open high e string
as the reference note. You tune the unison and octave E notes that are
found on the other strings to the open high e string. Hold the fretted
note down as you turn the tuning peg and you will feel the string move
under your fingertip. This involves striking the strings with your right
hand and then using the right hand to turn the tuning pegs. If may feel
awkward at first but with practice it becomes familiar. The open low E
string is the only string to be tuned to the high e string without
fretting. The fretted note on the 5th fret of the B string should be
tuned wide by the amount of two beats per second in relation to the high
e string.
{width="1400"}
de:Gitarre: Stimmen fr:Apprendre la
guitare/Accorder sa
guitare
it:Chitarra/Accordatura
nl:Gitaar/Gitaarstemming
|
# Guitar/Tablature
Tablature and standard notation are two ways that musical information is
shared. Sight-reading of standard notation is a requisite skill for
teaching careers, session work, and the theater orchestra. Reading music
increases your knowledge of music and allows you to notate your musical
ideas. Each notation system has its advantages and disadvantages.
Tablature does not convey timing and pitch information as well as
standard notation does though it is more useful for showing bends and to
what degree (1/4, 1/2 or full) they should be executed and other worded
instructions such as pick scrapes and whammy bar effects. For these
reasons many guitar transcriptions for rock, jazz and blues, use both
standard notation and tablature.
## Tablature
You do not need to know how to read music to use tablature. Each string
is represented by a line and on those lines numbers are used to indicate
which fret to press down.
Below is a simple melody in tablature.
### Lower Section
In the lower section of the example above, the top line represents the
thinnest string of the guitar (high **e**) and the lowest line
represents the thickest string of the guitar (low **E**). Each number on
a line represents a fretted note on that string. The number zero is an
open string, the number one is the first fret, and so on.
The tab is divided into measures using bar-lines but the duration of the
notes is not indicated. You can figure out the duration of the notes
using the standard notation in the upper section. You can also work out
the note values using the time signature; which in this example is
four-four time. This means that there are four quarter-notes in each
measure. The tempo or style, which is given at the top of a piece of
sheet music, is also an indicator of how a song should be played.
The key signature is not shown in the example. Key signatures show which
sharps , naturals, and flats are to be used; represented by #\'s and
b\'s. Each sharp or flat is shown on their respective line and space
after the time signature.
### Upper Section
The upper section of the example above is in standard notation and shows
that the first bar has eight notes. Each note is represented by an oval
note-head which indicates which note pitch is to be played. A stem with
tails is used to indicate notes duration (how long the note is to be
held). In standard notation only the whole-note is written without a
stem. Because the notes in the first bar are all eighth notes with one
tail they are connected with a single beam as shown in the example. The
beaming of the same notes in a bar allows for easier reading. In a bar
of music with mixed note values a single eighth note would be shown with
a single tail. Sixteenth notes have two tails so a double beam is used
when grouping.
The vertical bar-line after the last eighth note marks the end of one
complete count of the time-signature. Bar-lines are used to show the
pulse of the music and taken overall allows us to describe the form of a
piece of music. The usefulness of using bar-lines to describe form is
self-evident in the twelve bar blues whose title states that a cyclic
group of twelve bars is to be performed. It is common to find musicians
describing one complete thirty-two bar cycle of a jazz standard as a
chorus. The term chorus is used to indicate how many times a song is to
be repeated. A vamp on the thirty-two bar Jazz standard \"Misty\",
written by the pianist Erroll Garner, would by convention start with all
the musicians stating the melody with the following choruses dedicated
to solo improvisation. The last chorus usually has the musicians stating
the melody again without improvisation. The convenience of using the
term chorus can be illustrated by imagining a four piece Jazz quartet
with piano, saxophone, double bass and drums. If each musician is given
a chorus to improvise over and the convention of all the musicians
stating the melody on the first and last chorus is utilized then the
song will have six choruses. The original hit recording of \"Misty\" as
sung by Sarah Vaughan consisted of only one chorus with a four bar
intro. Be aware that four and eight bar codas and intros are very common
in Jazz and Blues and need to be taken into account when working out how
many bars a chorus contains.
In some forms of music there is a strong emphasis placed on the first
beat of each bar. This is easily demonstrated by the Waltz time
signature where the first beat of a count of three is emphasized for the
dancers benefit in accord with the dance steps to be performed. If a
note is tied over the bar-line with a curved tie-line then the note
duration is held over to the next bar. Bars never have more notes in
them than is indicated by the time signature. In the next bar there is a
whole note which is a white oval with no stem. The two vertical black
lines at the end are called a double bar-line indicating that the piece
of music has ended.
## ASCII Tablature
There is a very informal and loose standard of \"Internet Tablature\"
using only ASCII characters. The above example would be written like
this:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
` e---0-1-3-5-3-1-0----|-----------------||`\
` B------------------3-|-1---------------||`\
` G--------------------|-----------------||`\
` D--------------------|-----------------||`\
` A--------------------|-----------------||`\
` E--------------------|-----------------||`
```{=html}
</div>
```
It has the same disadvantages of tab and contains much less information
than the standard notation of the upper section. Rhythm can only be
suggested by spacing or by adding symbols above each note (such as Q for
quarter note). Much Internet tablature does not even contain bar lines.
The timing must be discerned by listening to the original piece. This is
the major flaw of online tabs and this style of tab in general.
However, online tabs are often much more convenient than standard
notation for precisely conveying a specific finger positioning.
Especially with alternate tunings
this is a clear advantage.
Common Tab symbols:
Symbol Meaning
--------- ----------------------------------
h or \^ hammer on
p or \^ pull off
b bend string up
r release bend
/ slide up
\\ slide down
v or \~ vibrato
t right hand tap
x play \'note\' with heavy damping
Chords are often written in the form:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
` EADGBE EADGBE EADGBE`\
` xx0232 x32010 320003`
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Standard Notation
### Notes On The Staff
Here are the notes as they appear in standard notation. The set of lines
and spaces that run horizontally across the page is called the staff
(*plural* - staves). Notes can be written on the lines and in the
spaces. A common mnenomic for remembering the notes of the Treble Clef
is:
*\"**E**very **G**ood **B**oy **D**eserves **F**udge\" and the word
\"**FACE***
The musical alphabet starts at the letter **A** and ends on the letter
**G**. There are twelve sounds in music and seven letters to represent
them. The other five sounds are the sharps or flats of these seven
notes. Each step up the staff is the next letter, so it goes **A**,
**B**, **C**, etc. The first symbol on the staff is always the clef;
which in this case is the treble clef. The word *clef* is French for
*key* and gives you the position of the first note. The treble clef
shown here is also called the G clef. It is drawn so that the note **G**
is indicated as being on the second line.
!The notes on a classical guitar with standard
tuning
|
# Guitar/Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar
The terms **lead guitar** and **rhythm guitar** are mildly confusing,
especially to the beginner. Of course, a guitar should almost always
follow some sort of rhythm, whether loose or tight. Plus, many times,
guitars are very prominent in a song, where it drives the music, but
it\'s not quite lead. Plus, the lead guitarist doesn\'t even play a lead
part, and that happens almost all the time! How can we untangle this
mess?
The distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Many bands in contemporary music
have two guitarists, where usually one would specialize in \"lead\" and
the other in \"rhythm\". The Beatles, Dethklok, and Metallica are
examples of bands who use this combination. Lead guitar means melody
guitar, meaning that the lead guitarist must specialize in playing the
melody of the song, so any guitar playing a solo is not a lead. Sure, a
lead guitarist may get to solo, but someone cannot be called a lead
guitarist simply because he/she plays a solo in a song. A lead part
contributes entirely to melody (as lead guitar means melody guitar),
instead of to the foundation, which is carried by the rhythm guitar.
This means the rhythm guitarist is the driving source. Lead guitar uses
few or no chords, although sometimes it can be following a chord
structure, while rhythm guitar uses the chords to drive the music.
It is important to realize that lead guitar and rhythm guitar fit into
two different parts of a band, but it just happens that they are played
on the same instrument. Lead guitar provides a solo voice, and is
grouped with the lead vocals, lead piano, etc. Rhythm guitar is part of
the underlying rhythm section, along with instruments like bass, drums,
sometimes piano, background vocals, etc. Generally speaking, the rhythm
provides the groove of the song, while lead provides the melody.
However, these distinctions get fuzzy, especially when the so-called
lead guitarists play chords and double-stops in their riffs. In some
cases, a single guitar part provides both the melody and accompaniment
(especially power chord
riffs, commonly found
in rock and metal, and finger
picking, found in folk
guitar).
Some bands (often three piece bands) feature a single guitarist who can
act as either, by either assuming one role at a time or, in a recording
studio, recording a lead track over their own rhythm track. For example,
the band Dire Straits has been in both situations: in the early days,
David Knopfler played rhythm while Mark Knopfler played lead. When David
left, Mark usually played both parts on studio albums, and hired another
guitarist to play rhythm for live shows. Some guitarists reached such
technical proficiency that they were able to play both parts
\"simultaneously\". A famous example of this technique is Dimebag
Darrell, particularly on songs such like Walk or Breathing New Life
(using an harmonizing effect pedal). The bass plays a big part like in
songs such as Seven Nation Army by The White Stripes (even though there
is no bass guitar in the song, it\'s an electric acoustic) to set the
speed and tone for the song and that the lead guitarist (otherwise known
as melody guitarist) in the chorus follows the bass and drums not, the
bass follow the chorus player.
## Playing Lead Guitar
Very often, a lead guitar part is played on an electric guitar, using
moderate to heavy distortion (also known as drive or gain). For this
reason, many amplifier manufacturers refer to their distortion channel
as a lead channel. Distortion provides a more powerful sustain than a
clean channel, and this is often best represented in extreme techniques
like shredding and tapping, which some guitarists feel can only properly
be done with distortion. Of course, lead guitar can be played on an
acoustic guitar, but some techniques may not be as pronounced as on an
electric.
The most common techniques for creating lead parts are bending,
vibrato and
slides. These provide the basic means of
emphasizing notes, and allow for greater expression in the melody. Often
the lead guitarists may employ arpeggios or sweep
picking to add depth,
and the progression of the solo often mirrors the underlying rhythm
guitar part.
## Playing Rhythm Guitar
Rhythm guitar is characterized mostly by playing chords in patterns.
Some players criticize rhythm guitar as sounding \"chordy\", or not
being as interesting as the lead part. Although rhythm guitar does not
\"express\" as much as the lead guitar, there is so much to be learned
about chords, chord
progressions and rhythm
patterns, and a player is limited only by
their imagination.
Rhythm guitar is just as easily played on electric or acoustic, clean or
distorted. The technique is less about expressing individual notes, and
more about choosing chords or chord voicings that enrich the overall
sound, which may add its own expressive tone to the music.
|
# Guitar/The Basics
The guitar is, and has always been, a social instrument. In all its
forms, it has always been a portable, multi-stringed instrument made for
public hearing. Even today, there\'s nothing better than hanging out
with some friends and being able to strum a few songs on the guitar. And
if you\'ve just bought your first guitar, then you\'re in luck: you can
play literally hundreds of popular songs by learning just a handful of
chords. But playing the guitar is more than just struggling through a
half-recognizable version of some song, it also requires good technique.
In this section, you will learn the basics of how to hold the guitar,
use a pick, and other important fundamental techniques.
Never forget that instruction books are not a replacement for playing
with other guitarists, or learning from a teacher, who are excellent
sources of information and inspiration.
Also, this section, as with most guitar manuals, is written with right
handed players in mind. Left-handed players may simply reverse the
instructions as appropriate.
## Holding The Guitar
The guitar can be played in many positions, but some positions are
clearly more efficient than others. The choice of position is personal,
but clear guidelines exist. Some basic considerations in determining a
chosen playing position include:
- the physical stability of the instrument
- ensuring the freedom of both hands such that they have thorough
access to the instrument and can meet all technical demands without
having to support the instrument
- elimination of general muscular tension in the assumed body
position. While it is natural for a beginner to experience fatigue
in the muscles of his hands and arms, you must be careful to sit
straight and not cause damage to your spine and waist. If you do
experience pain in those regions it is possible that the position is
harmful and must be changed to prevent damage.
Many beginners try and turn the guitar towards themselves, so they can
look down at the frets and soundhole. Curling the guitar towards
yourself in such a way actually makes it more difficult to fret the
strings efficiently, because you have to curl your wrist more. This
tension can be harmful. Beginners are also often inclined to put their
elbow too high or low, which leads to cramping. Ideally your arm and
shoulder should be relaxed.
It may take a beginner several weeks until holding the guitar feels
comfortable and natural. By using efficient hand positions and not
straining, the muscles in the arm and hands will get stronger. If you
ever feel pain you should immediately stop and ascertain the cause of
pain before continuing. Sometimes discomfort is due merely to fatigue
and a period of rest will be all that is required.
### Sitting
#### Classical Style
Sit up straight on a chair or stool, with your left foot on a footrest
approximately 10-20 cm in height. Place the waist of your guitar on your
left thigh. Rest your right forearm on the top front edge of the
guitar\'s lower bout so that it is comfortable and allows you to easily
strum the strings over the soundhole. The guitar headstock should
approximately be at head level, which corresponds to an inclination of
the guitar neck of about 45 degrees. Your left hand should be presented
to the guitar neck and fretboard such that the thumb is behind the neck
and all three segments of the fingers are forward of the edge of the
fingerboard. Shoulders should be level and relaxed, and it helps to be
leaning forward slightly. Most people should feel comfortable and able
to stay in this position with little effort. If you cannot, something
may not be right. As an alternative to using a footstool, you can use
some sort of guitar support between your left leg and guitar. This also
allows for good alignment of the spine and an efficient playing posture.
With your left hand, put your thumb so that it is behind the second
fret. This is the most comfortable area for playing open chords. Your
thumb should not extend over the edge of the fretboard and touch the E
string.
#### Electric Guitar
Many rock performers hold the electric guitar lower than the classical
position. The neck is held horizontally, rather than at a 45 degree
angle. This allows bends to be more easily achieved and also allow the
same hand angle to be maintained when moving up the neck through box
positions. playing in extremely high fret positions is also facilitated
by this angle as the left hand twist to accommodate playing in the
cutaway in a way that would be straining and more difficult in the
classical position.
#### Lapsteel or Hawaiian guitar
With these styles, the guitar is played horizontally, so the frets and
strings point upwards. Some skilled players can fret notes and play
chords by pressing down on the strings, but more often these guitars are
played with a slide.
### Standing
If you have a guitar strap, available from any guitar store for a few
dollars, then you can also learn to play standing. This is useful if you
plan on playing in a band. If you have a heavy guitar a broad guitar
strap is often more comfortable than a thin strap. To attach a strap,
there should be a hole in each end that you can put over two pins,
usually fitted on the endblock of the guitar and where the neck meets
the body. Many acoustic guitars only have one pin on the end block, and
straps must be attached under the strings above the nut on the
headstock. However, this sometimes makes it difficult for keep the
guitar at an optimum height and can cause shoulder strain. You can
usually install a second pin where the neck meets the body, but you
should be careful or you might damage (and devalue) your guitar.
With the strap attached to the guitar, sling it so that it hangs around
your neck on your left shoulder. You can usually adjust the height of
the guitar, but the exact method depends on each strap. The length of
the strap depends on your preferences, but you can use the same
guidelines in found in the previous section. Some professionals have
their guitar hanging down at their knees, and others keep it under their
shoulders. Neither of these extremes are recommended for a beginner.
## Using the Picking Hand
!Various guitar picks. From top going clockwise: A standard Jim Dunlop
nylon pick; An imitation tortoise-shell pick; A plastic pick with high
friction coating (black areas); A stainless steel pick; A pick
approximating a Reuleaux triangle; and
a Jim Dunlop Tortex \"shark\'s fin\"
pick; A stainless steel pick; A pick approximating a Reuleaux triangle; and a Jim Dunlop Tortex "shark's fin" pick"){width="265"}
*Please see the Picking and
Plucking section for more
information.*
Much of the \"feel\" of a guitar style comes from the way the strings
are hit. Since there are many different techniques, and often they defy
explanation, it is difficult to explain all but the most basic
techniques. How a player hits the strings is something they must
discover for themselves.
In order to advance with the guitar, it is very important to properly
use your picking, or impact hand. This should almost always be your
dominant hand, so if you are right handed, you would use your right hand
for your picking hand, and vice versa for left handed people. This hand
should always be loose, because if it is not, the strings can sound
clunky.
Your hand should \"float\" at a comfortable height above the sound hole,
and you should be keeping your wrist straight or slightly bent. You
should always be ready for movement in either direction, and your wrist
should not touch the strings as you are strumming (unless you are doing
some sort of muting technique).
You can use your fourth finger to brace against your guitar, but this is
considered bad in the long term; this is like a crutch, and you are
limiting the potential you can get from practicing with your whole arm.
For example, even though the brace will let you pick notes faster, it
sometimes limit your ability to play complex rhythms using chords. While
it might be good to practice using your fourth finger for a brace
sometimes, you will become a better guitar player if you don\'t brace
yourself like that.
It doesn\'t matter if you are using a pick or just your fingernails,
whenever your impact hand hits the strings, the type of hit can be
changed based on the tension of your upper finger joints. This is the
area to pay attention, because slight variations in pressure and speed
can make distinctly different sounds.
### Fingers
The fingers can be used in two main ways, through finger picking or
strumming through chords like using a pick. There are several styles of
finger picking, such as Travis picking, where you only use the thumb and
first finger, and other styles where you use three, four or all five
fingers.
### Using a Pick
Hold the pick in between your first finger and your thumb. Don\'t pinch
it, hold it firm but loose, with the pick flat in between the side of
your first finger and the bottom of your thumb. Your thumb should be in
line with the first segment of the first finger, with the pick firmly
(but not tightly) between. When you pick, your wrist should be loose,
and the main motion comes from your wrist for picking on one string, and
you should use the Elbow for crossing strings. Similarly, when you
strum, make sure to use your forearm and not your wrist for strength.
Your wrist should be loose enough, but controlled, and the power should
come from your forearm.
It is helpful to imagine the pick like a small bird between your thumb
and finger; you do not want it to fly away, and you do not want to crush
it.
## Using the Fretboard
The most important things to remember when playing are to keep your hand
loose, avoid unnecessary movements and finger spreading, and not to
smother the strings. Having good flexibility in your hand is one thing,
but trying to reach too far can be exhausting. Keep your fingers tight
together, but not cramped. In general, when playing acoustic instruments
you should always use the tips of your left hand fingers and not the
pads to press the strings. If you use the pads, you risk muffling the
sound coming from adjacent strings, which may be required to be heard.
The greater sustaining properties of electric guitars often requires
that such strings be damped so this rule does not always apply. Ideally
your left elbow should be extended from your body, and your left hand
should curl in towards your body. Your fingers should be like little
hammers hitting down on the strings, and this way you will use the tips
to push the strings down into the frets.
Regardless of where you are playing on the fretboard, you always have to
make sure that you\'re pressing down in the best spot to get the best
sound. You should always be fretting down the string slightly behind the
fret of the note you want to play. Press the string down firmly to the
fretboard, close to the metal fret. If the finger is too far away from
the fret, then the pressure is not sufficient to press the string down
completely on the frets, and the note will buzz. If you are pressing too
close to the fret you will sometimes accidentally play a note too high.
You\'ll have to practice to get the right amount of pressure to use and
the right distance at which to hold your arm. Be careful on how you hold
strings
### Chords
*Please see the Chords section for more
information*
A chord is defined as three or more different notes sounded at the same
time. Ability to play chords is a basic requirement of most guitar
music. There are many different types of chords, and each type has its
own sound. Other things about the guitar affect how a chord sounds.
Generally, playing chords involve pressing several (and sometimes all)
the strings down on the frets. Sometimes this can be very tough for
beginners until their muscles develop. Often a beginner will find that
when playing a chord, not all the strings are being pressed down
properly, and some strings sound dead. It is important to make sure that
all the strings ring out, which can be tested by picking up and down a
chord, and adjust your fingers when needed. It doesn\'t matter how fast
or loud you can play, if your chords are not fretted properly you will
sound terrible.
Some players use their thumbs to play the low E string. They do this by
turning their fretting hand slightly out and squeezing the thumb down on
the string. Players with long thumbs can play on the low E and A
strings. This technique compromises efficient left hand function as the
wrist and hand have to undertake significant re-adjustment in order
present the thumb to the string in such a manner and then to return the
hand to its standard presentation. Additionally the tips of the fingers
can no longer be presented vertically to the strings. The technique is
not recommended for beginners who wish to maximise their technical
abilities.
Your hand is in a different position depending on whether you are
playing an open chord or a barre
chord.
### Melody
When a player is first starting out, it is not their ability to make
melodies causing problems, it is a lack of skill in their hands. Many
people can whistle or hum a melody, but have difficulty translating that
to the fretboard. Learning the sound of different intervals between
notes takes time and patience.
The best way to learn how to carry a melody on the guitar is simply to
keep practicing. Unfortunately there is no secret to being a good
player, you simply have to practice and learn for yourself. This is good
though, because even if there was some secret, if everyone did the same
thing, then all the music would sound the same. For general advice about
learning about melody, see the Lead Guitar and Rhythm
Guitar page
## Coordinating Your Hands
Truly great guitar playing comes from the unison of the left and right
hand. Unless both hands are connecting with the strings at the proper
time, your playing will sound sloppy. So it is very important to start
out slow and work your way up to playing faster.
## What\'s Next?
Now that you have some basic control over the guitar, you\'re ready to
start playing. A good place to begin is by exploring some of the other
styles and techniques listed on the main page. The
most important thing to remember is that you become a good player by
practising properly, and accurately. It is always better to learn and
practice a piece slowly, and then increase your speed as your increase
your skill and comfort, rather than struggling through it a few times
and just considering it \"learned\".
|
# Guitar/Open Chords
Open chords are chords that include unfretted strings of the guitar.
Open chords contain one or more open strings. For example the Em chord
diagram on this page shows 4 open strings but the D major chord diagram
only has 1 open string. They are both classed as \"open chords\".
Open chords are the easiest chords to play on the guitar and many famous
songs can be played using just 3 or 4 open chords. Learning a handful of
open chords at the first position (first four frets) and memorizing
their shape is an important step towards mastering barre
chords.
When you strum any chord, all of the strings (open and fretted) should
ring out clearly. If any of the strings cannot be heard; check to make
sure that you are not stopping any string from sounding. If you are
accidentally muting any strings, arch your hand more and curl your
fingers to ensure that it is the tip of the finger pressing the string
and not the flat of the finger.
## Major Chords
Major chords are defined by the major triad. The major triad consists of
three notes which are spaced at specific intervals. In ascending order:
the root, major third and perfect fifth. These intervals are also found
between the first note of a major scale and the third note (major 3rd),
and the first note and the fifth note (fifth). When combined they have a
bright happy tone, and are often used in upbeat music.
There are 6 major chords commonly used in the open position; A, C, D, E,
F and G. The standard tuning of a guitar is designed so that chords can
be easily played. Beginners often find the G major and the F major shape
challenging to play but a small amount of extra practice overcomes any
initial difficulties.
### E Major
<File:E> major chord for guitar (open).png
Many early blues songs are written with E major as the root chord. The
chord contains the notes E, G#, and B, and can be played with three
fingers.
Fingering 1: (o231oo)
First, place your second finger on the second fret of the fifth string.
The string now plays a B note. Then, place your third finger on the
second fret of the fourth string. This note is an E, which is an octave
higher than the open sixth string. Finally, place your first finger on
the first fret of the third string. You can alternatively switch the
second and third fingers.
When you strum this chord, all of the strings should ring out clearly.
If any string sounds dull or muffled, check to see that you are not
accidentally touching strings, and that all the strings are pressed
firmly against their frets. It is important to build good technique
early, as bad habits tend to linger. Make sure that your fingers are
arched on your left hand, and that your thumb is positioned to give you
a strong grip.
### A Major
<File:A> major chord for guitar (open).png
There are several ways to play A major. You should learn how to play all
of them, then use the most suitable to each musical context. In an A
major, the notes are A, C# and E. When playing an A, it is considered
good form not to let the low E string ring out. While an E is one of the
notes in the A major chord, playing an E below the other notes puts this
A major in second inversion. This changes the tone
of the chord, and may not achieve the desired effect.
Fingering: (xo123o)
Put your first, second, and third finger on the second fret of the
fourth, third and second strings respectively. When you strum, ensure
that all strings sound clear, except for the sixth string which should
be muted. This is probably the most popular fingering, but is tough for
people with thick fingers. (xo213o) is a variation by switching the
first and second finger, with the second on the third string, first for
fourth string, third for fifth string.
Alternatively you can finger this chord (xo112o), this requires that the
first finger fret two strings (using the finger\'s pad rather than the
tip). This leaves two fingers free and is often favoured by classical
and flamenco performers, depending on musical context.
(xo234o) fingering allows for easy transition into higher position barre
chords,
(xo231o) fingering allows for easy transition from open E, makes a
transition from A to Amin a breeze (great if A is the IV chord), and is
more comfortable for some with chubby fingers.
Finally, (xo111o) by using one of your fingers, most commonly the first
or third finger, and barre the aforementioned frets. This one is tough
for beginners, but easier for players with large hands. For more
information on barring, see the section on barre
chords.
### D Major
<File:D> major chord for guitar (open).png
Fingering: (xxo132)
Use your first finger on the third string, third finger on the second
string, and your second finger on the first string. Be careful not to
play the sixth and fifth strings, since they are not required for this
chord. At first this may feel awkward, but it will be comfortable to
play. Watch that you keep your thumb low when you play this chord. To
play D minor, try the most common fingering (xxo231), with your first
finger on the first fret of the first string, third finger on the third
fret of the second string, and your second finger on the second fret of
the third string. You can also try to finger the D major chord as
(xxo243), which will help you to later use this as a barred, movable
chord shape.
### G Major
<File:G> major chord for guitar (open).png\|three finger method <File:G>
major chord for guitar open position (no doubled third).png\|four finger
method
There are two common ways to play a G major, a three finger method
(Frets: 320003) and a four finger method (Frets: 320033), both with a
slight difference in sonority. In either way, the notes are a
combination of G, B and D. From this point forward, the fingerings will
be shown in parentheses for the sake of simplicity.
Fingering 1: (32ooo4)
Put your third finger on the sixth string, second finger on the fifth
string, and fourth finger on the first string. This is a favorite among
beginners, and it allows for easy change to the open C major chord.
Alternatively you can finger it (21ooo3), which may be easier for
players with small hands or guitars with small necks and is recommended
when changing to or from a open D7 chord.
Fingering 2: (21oo34)
This uses all four fingers and makes for an easy G to D major chord
change. This has a more \"stable\" sound than the first fingering
because the note played on the open B string is a D therefore avoiding
the doubling of the *third*. Don\'t worry if that explanation isn\'t
clear; just remember the difference between the two chords (one has a
doubled *third*). The theory of chords and how they are constructed from
the intervals of a scale is a subject that requires some
*off-the-guitar* learning but with applied study can be easily
understood.
### C Major
<File:C> major chord for guitar (open).png
Fingering: (x32o1o)
This is the most common fingering. Alternatively, you can use (x42o1o).
(x32o14) or (x32o13) provide C chords with different voicings.
### F Major
<File:F> major chord for guitar (open).png
Fingering: (xx3211)
To play this, use the pad of your first finger, and press the first and
second strings down at the first fret. You need to press firmly, or the
strings will not ring out properly. Then take your second finger and put
it on the third string, and put your third finger on the fourth string.
The fifth and sixth strings should not be played with this chord.
## Minor Chords
Minor chords use the first, third and fifth of the minor scale. They
have a dark, melancholic tone and are most often used in darker music.
### E Minor
<File:E> minor chord for guitar (open).png <File:Em> open chord for
guitar (doubled third on high e).png
Fingering: (o23ooo)
Alternatively you can finger this chord (o22ooo). For variation you can
also add a G on the high E string, and play the cord using these frets:
(o22oo3).
### A Minor
<File:A> minor chord for guitar (open).png
Fingering 1: (xo221o)
You can also finger this like (xo342o).
### D Minor
<File:D> minor chord for guitar (open).png
Fingering 1: (xxo231)
Also often fingered using the fourth finger in the place of the third.
Make sure your first finger does not \"fold\". If you are doing it, you
will know what I mean because your first finger will hurt around the
joints. The proper technique should apply to this chord just as much as
any other. Keep your thumb back.
## Other kinds of chords
There are a variety of other chords that can be played in open position,
and often it involves taking a chord you are already familiar with and
adding or removing a finger. Experimentation can yield a lot of
interesting sounds, and you are only limited by your imagination when it
comes to using them.
### Dominant-type seventh chords
Dominant-type seventh chords are notated as A7, C7 etc. They add an
extra note to a major chord. The extra note is found at an interval of a
minor seventh above the root note of the chord. For example, a D chord
major would contain a D, an F#, and an A making the intervals 1,3,5. A
D7 adds a C to these notes resulting in 1,3,5,minor7. The minor seventh
interval can be easily found by an alternative method. Take any chord,
and lower one of the root notes downwards in pitch by two frets (a whole
step) to locate the minor 7th. The chord will usually sound more settled
if the root remains as the bass note of the chord, so a root note higher
than the bass is the better choice to alter. The chords already shown
above all allow you to do this. Below are some chord shapes you should
know. These are only the open sevenths, which are easier than others
covered in the barre chords section.
**D7**
<File:D7> chord for guitar (open).png
Notice how we moved the octave D from the D major chord (third fret
second string) down two frets, making it the minor 7th. That\'s pretty
much what we are going to do with all the other 7th chords. You can take
any chord and, by moving one of the root notes down two frets, find the
minor 7th.
**E7**
<File:E7> chord for guitar (open).png
Easy, and again, we moved the octave E down two frets.
**A7**
<File:A7> chord for guitar (7th on high E).png <File:A7> chord for
guitar (open).png
Same again.
**G7**
<File:G7> chord for guitar (open).png
A bit unfriendly. Remember, it is not much different from a C chord
shape, except you stretch more.
**B7**
<File:B7> chord for guitar (open).png
This one looks funny, but you will use it a lot in songs in the key of E
major, which is the natural key of the guitar.
|
# Guitar/Intervals and Power Chords
An interval is the
distance between two notes.
Each interval has a distinctive sound.
Intervals are named with reference to scales. For example, the interval
from the root of the major scale to the second note of the major scale
is called a \"major second\"; the interval from the root to the third
note of that scale is a \"major third\", and so on. A \"minor third\" is
the interval from the root to the third of a minor scale, and is a
semitone (one fret) less than a major third.
`Major scale played on a single string:`\
\
` nut 12th fret`\
` `\
`O||-----|--●--|-----|--●--|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|--●--|----`\
`^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ `\
`root 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th octave`\
` (8th) `
`Natural minor scale played on a single string:`\
\
` nut 12th fret`\
` `\
`O||-----|--●--|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|----`\
`^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ `\
`root 2nd minor 4th 5th minor minor octave`\
` 3rd 6th 7th (8th) `
`Major 2nd interval played on one string (say, the 6th string): `\
\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`
`Same interval played on two strings (6th and 5th):`\
` `\
` ||-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
`Exception. If played on 2nd and 3rd strings, the shape of a major 2nd becomes this, because of the tuning irregularity:`\
\
` ||-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
`Major 3rd on two strings (but not 2nd to 3rd strings)`\
\
` ||-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` `
`Major 3rd on 2nd and 3rd strings:`\
\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
If the two notes are played at the same time, an interval is called a
harmonic interval. If they are played one after the other, it is called
a melodic interval. (Only melodic intervals can be played on a single
string.)
## Power chords
**Power chords** are simple chords consisting of root, fifth, and
possibly octave. An advantage to understanding power chords is their
shape can be used to quickly determine the location of the perfect fifth
and the octave. This improves one\'s overall understanding of the
location of notes on the fingerboard by relation to one another and
builds the groundwork for understanding
scales. Power chords are a staple of heavy
distortion guitar styles, where the distortion creates harmonics that
give a rich sound despite the bare-bones simplicity of the chord.
Perfect fifths (e.g., C-G) and their inversion, perfect fourths (e.g.,
G-C), are the most consonant interval on the guitar (and in all of music
for that matter), not counting unison and octaves.
It is more difficult to play the octave for a root note on the D string,
because the B string is tuned differently than the other strings, and
you will need to stretch further to reach the octave. Power chords are
most commonly played on the thicker strings, and many songs exclusively
use perfect fifth power chords.
### Perfect Fifth above octave
The simplest perfect fifth power chord uses the same fingering as an E
minor chord, except only the thickest
three strings are played. Here is the fretting for the E5 power chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: E5 power chord for guitar (open).png\|**E5 Power Chord**
```{=html}
</div>
```
When you play a power chord in the open position (or any power chord),
you have to be careful to mute
the other strings so they do not ring out. In this case, if you also
played the G string, you would be playing a full chord, not a power
chord. Use your extra fingers to lightly touch the other strings, use
your fretting fingers to smother the unnecessary strings, or just avoid
hitting the unnecessary strings with your impact hand.
Power chords, and really any chord types, are useful because they can be
moved anywhere on the neck, as long as the relationship between the
notes is the same. For example, in the E5, the thickest string plays an
E, the next string plays a B (which is the fifth note of *any* E scale),
and the next string plays another E, but an octave above it.
If you take the same chord pattern, and move it up the neck to make a
different power chord. For example, take the two fretted notes, then use
your first finger and fret the thick E string two frets behind the
others. For example, if you were fretting the E string at the third
fret, you would be playing a G5 which looks like this:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: G5 power chord for guitar (3rd fret).png\|**G5 Power Chord**
```{=html}
</div>
```
There are several different fingerings you can use to play a power
chord, but it is best to choose one that lets you easily move the power
chord up and down the neck.
Here are three most common fingerings for a power chord, in this case, a
G5. In the second and third fingering, the two strings are barred at the
fifth fret. The numbers indicate the number of finger to use. Finger #1
is the index finger, #2 the middle finger, #3 the ring finger, and
finger #4 is the little finger.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre">
```
` EADGBE EADGBE EADGBE`\
` ---xxx ---xxx ---xxx`\
` 1 ...... 1 ...... 1 ......`\
` 2 ...... 2 ...... 2 ......`\
` 3 1..... 3 1..... 3 1.....`\
` 4 ...... 4 ...... 4 ......`\
` 5 .34... 5 .33... 5 .44...`
```{=html}
</div>
```
#### Alternate Fingerings
One common variation on the power chord involved omitting the second,
higher octave note. For example, a G5 without the second G would look
like this:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: G5 power chord for guitar (omit octave).png\|**G5 Power Chord with
the octave omitted**
```{=html}
</div>
```
These are easier to play because you only need two fingers and the sound
is similar to the three string version.
Since a power chord is just playing multiple strings that produce only
two tones, it is possible to play all six strings and still be playing a
power chord. Some open tunings
set the guitar up so that when you strum it open, it plays a power
chord. Here is an example of a full G5 chord, where all strings are
either playing a G or a D.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
` EADGBE`\
` --00--`\
` 1 ......`\
` 2 ......`\
` 3 2...11`\
` 4 ......`\
` 5 .4....`
```{=html}
</div>
```
This chord can be considered a non-traditional power chord, since in
popular music, power chords usually use only two or three strings. This
is also a hard fingering for the beginner, but it emphasizes an
important fact about double stops: as long as you keep adding octave or
unison notes, you will *always* be playing the same interval. Playing a
non-octave or unison note will instead produce a chord.
Adding unison notes may sound different even though they are supposed to
produce the same pitch. This may be because the strings have different
tension or thickness. In general, the guitar\'s thinner strings will
have a brighter, more ringing sound.
### Perfect Fourths
This type of power chord can be regarded as root plus perfect fifth in
the octave below.
Perfect fourths have a slightly more suspended sound than perfect fifth
chords. These are easy to play, because most of the strings on the
guitar are tuned in fourths. This means that playing any two of the
thickest four strings, when they are beside one another and played at
the same fret. For example, a D4 is played like this:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
<File:D4> power chord for guitar.png\|**D4 Power Chord with the octave
omitted**
```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
` EADGBE`\
` xx00xx`
```{=html}
</div>
```
These can easily be moved up the neck. For example, a G4 or a B4 would
be played like this:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
<File:G4> power chord for guitar omit octave.png\|**G4 Power Chord with
the octave omitted** <File:B4> power chord for guitar omit
octave.png\|**B4 Power Chord with the octave omitted**
```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
` EADGBE EADGBE`\
` (33xxxx) (x22xxx)`
```{=html}
</div>
```
Perfect fourths are the same as the upper two notes of the original
three-string power chord. It is rare to add a new top octave, but it may
done. The following Power chords show the G4 and B4 with the octave
added:
\<div style=\"font-family:monospace, monospace;\>
<File:G4> power chord with octave for guitar.png\|**G4 Power Chord with
the octave** <File:B4> power chord with octave for guitar.png\|**B4
Power Chord with the octave**
```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
` EADGBE EADGBE`\
` (335xxx) (x224xx)`
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Other Double Stops
You can play a huge variety of different intervals by playing chords,
and just plucking two notes at the same time. Often you can add variety
to chord strumming by playing a quick fill by playing different sections
of a chord, and achieving different intervals.
|
# Guitar/Muting and Raking
## Muting
Muting a string is simple: with the fretting hand, touch the string with
a finger, but do not press it down, and strike the string. It is usually
best to do this where a harmonic will not
result, but strings can be muted at harmonics for special effect. In
tablature, muted notes are often marked with an \"x\" instead of a fret
number. It is also common practice to mute a string with the picking
hand after striking a note to create a shortened \"staccato\" effect.
Again touching a string to mute away from harmonic nodes is advised, but
sometimes pulling off into harmonics creates interesting effects.
## Palm muting
 Palm
muting may or may not make the pitch of the string discernable. Very
lightly rest the palm of the hand on or near the bridge, then fret and
strike strings normally. Palm-muted notes are sometimes notated the same
way as muted notes when the pitch is not discernable; otherwise fret
numbers are given normally and the muted notes are marked \"P.M.\" in
tablature.
### The Palm Muting Technique
The idea is not to mute the strings, but to dampen them, so that the
notes are still clear, but with less sustain. To start, hold your guitar
like you normally would, but let your palm brush against the strings,
near the bridge. Remember to \"let\" the strings brush against your
palm, not putting any force on the strings. The closer to the bridge,
the more forgiving it is. As you get better, try adjusting the amount of
muting by keeping your palm at different distances from the bridge. Very
heavy palm muting can raise the pitch of the note(s), especially on
guitars with a floating tremolo bar system equipped. Using or not using
this effect is at the reader\'s discretion.
## Finger Muting
 You can
also mute strings just by pressing your fingers against the strings, but
not so hard that they are fretted and play notes.
## Raking
Raking is not a kind of muting, but a technique for applying it. It is
vaguely related to sweep
picking, but instead of
an arpeggio, the result is usually a single percussive-sounding note.
(However, sweep picking is sometimes incorrectly notated as a rake in
tablature, and sloppy sweep picking may accidentally become a rake.)
Between two and four strings are struck, only one containing the desired
note and the rest muted. Rakes may be notated in various ways; the most
common way is to add muted grace notes, possibly adding the word
\"rake\" to the tablature for clarification.
de:Gitarre: Palm Mute
it:Chitarra/Palm mute e
Stoppato
|
# Guitar/Learning Songs
Now that you\'ve got a few chords under your belt, you\'re ready to
start learning some songs. Great! There are several ways to learn songs,
and some are more accessible than others.
## General Tips
There are two basic forms that appear in thousands of songs. They are
the twelve bar blues and the thirty-two bar ballad. Both forms are used
extensively in all genres. The blues and rock \'n \'roll genres both use
the twelve-bar blues form and many songs by Chuck Berry, Eddie Cochran
and Buddy Holly are twelve bar blues and therefore very easy to learn.
If you are trying to learn a jazz standard then you will find that many
of them are of the thirty-two bar form. Practicing and understanding
these two basic forms is essential for the guitarist who wishes to learn
songs.
Practice the song slowly (especially if it\'s a fast song) until you can
play it flawlessly. Then, when you are confident with the notes you are
supposed to play, increase the speed until you can play along with the
song.
Using a drum-machine or metronome when practicing is essential. An
alternative method for improving timing is to play along with your
favorite artists.
## Methods of Learning
### Sheet Music
The best way is to find sheet music for the song you are trying to
learn, like a tab book, available from any guitar shop. Tab books are
good, because they are almost always accurate, and they not only show
the notes you\'re supposed to play, but they give good sense of how to
play the notes. Generally they include both the rhythm and lead part,
even written on the same page if they are played at the same time.
Tab books are expensive and there\'s a learning curve associated with
fluent tab reading, especially if you have no prior knowledge of music
notation. Understanding music theory, even
just enough to properly (and easily) read a tab book is a challenge but
not insurmountable. Being able to read music, whether it\'s tab or
notation, will improve your playing.
### Online Tab
A much quicker, cheaper and often faster way to learn is to search for
an online tab of the song you\'re looking for. Simply type \"Artist Name
Song Name tab\" into your favorite search engine, and \"voila!\", you
have dozens to choose from. The online tab community is thriving, and
there are many popular sites where you can find tabs for most popular
songs. Some sites even feature a MIDI of the song, to make learning even
easier.
There are several downsides to online tab, some of which are outlined in
the Tablature section. The biggest
problem is lack of accuracy. Always remember that online tabs are not
made by professionals like tab books, and that somewhere down the line
someone was sitting at home with a CD and figured it out by trial and
error. Thus, the more complicated the song, the less likely the tab you
are reading is 100% accurate. But since most people don\'t play a song
*exactly* as it sounds on the album (even the recording artists!), this
isn\'t such a big deal.
Another down side is that there is a huge amount of stealing in the
community, and if you are looking for an obscure tab, you might only
find one actual tab, with copies of it on every site you visit. Some
sites allow for multiple versions, and some use voting or comments to
give you a sense of how accurate the tab is. However, don\'t let voting
alone determine which tab you read, because if the people who vote
don\'t know how to play the song either, then they might vote a terrible
tab really high. In general, you should read two or three tabs for a
song, and then from that determine how you intend to play the song.
Comments on a song can contain slight revisions or alternate fingerings
for chords, so it is good to check those out.
### By Ear
Songs can also be learned \"by ear\", with no sheet music. Essentially
you just listen to the song and try to figure it out, with nothing for
reference. Knowledge of music theory is particularly helpful for this
method. It probably sounds a lot harder to learn this way than it is,
but it is a really good way to practice whatever music knowledge you
have. And it is especially rewarding being able to figure out a famous
musicians piece and saying \"I could have made that up!\"
First, you should always try and figure out the key (or scale) the song
is in. Knowing the key essentially tells you two important things; what
the root notes are of the chords they are playing, and the scale that is
used for soloing. When you know the scale, you can also probably figure
out which scale degree is supposed to be major or minor.
To figure out the key, try playing random notes on the fretboard, and
when one \"works\", play a major or minor pentatonic scale beginning
with that note. Once you have figure out a few more notes, you will
probably have a good idea of what scale is being used. If that doesn\'t
work, try humming the chords being used, and then match those tones on
the guitar. Be careful you don\'t accidentally start humming the lead
vocals, because although that will help determine the key, the chords
are likely different.
Once you know what key the song is in, the rest generally follows pretty
quickly. Some of the tricky bits can be one-note riffs, arpeggios, of
specific voicing of the chords they are using.
If have no experience of keys and their relationship to writing songs,
then figuring out songs by ear is more difficult. Essentially you need
to just find the same notes or chords and write them down or remember
them. Generally this involves a lot of trial and error, but working this
way provides excellent ear training.
### Other Guitarists
This is perhaps the best way to learn. Playing with another guitarist
gives you the opportunity to ask questions about chords and rhythms, and
it gives you a chance to see and hear what the song is supposed to be
like when it\'s performed live. However, the down side is that often a
guitarist learns to play a song \"their way\", and they don\'t care
about how it\'s \"really\" supposed to be played. Thus, you might not be
learning the song exactly, but rather a slightly different version.
### Concert Videos
Another place to learn is by watching concert videos, especially on DVDs
where they allow you to pick camera angles. Often they will have a
camera never breaks away from lead guitarist. By following along, you
can learn exactly how a particular guitarist plays a particular song
live.
The downside of this is that not every artist (especially new ones) has
a concert DVD. Also, the guitarist may be playing the song differently
live than on the album, so depending on how accurate you intend to be
with your learning and playing, watching a video may not be the best
way.
## Chord Progressions
Songs are created using chords. Chords are derived from scales. The
chords that are derived from one diatonic
scale never change. If you learn the seven
chords in the key of C major, then when you find a song in that key, you
can quickly work out the chord progressions that make up the song.
_Chords in C major_
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major** File: D minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**D minor** File: E minor chord for guitar
(open).png\|**E minor** File: F major chord for guitar (open).png\|**F
major** File: G major chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major** File: A
minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor** <File:B> half diminished
7th chord for guitar (root 1st position).png\|**B half diminished 7th**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Note that the chords in the key of C major consists of 3 major chords, 3
minor chords and 1 diminished chord. This holds true for all major keys.
### Chord Theory
Songs in the key of C major will start with a C major chord and end with
a C major chord. The tonic chord of C major is the chord that defines
the key ( the name tonic is derived from the word tonal). If you think
of music as a journey then the tonic chord is the starting point and the
return point. The notes in the scale of C major are named:
I is the Tonic
II is the Supertonic
III is the Mediant
IV is the Subdominant
V is the Dominant
VI is the Relative Minor
VII is the Leading Note
VIII is the Octave
Tonic - is the first note of the scale and it is this note that
determines the tonality or key, hence the name Tonic.
Supertonic -- the word "super" comes from the Latin verb "superare"
which means "to be above". The second note of any scale is always above
the tonic.
Mediant -- the mediant refers to the fact that this note lies halfway
between the tonic and the dominant.
Subdominant -- the word "sub" means \"to be below\". This note is below
the dominant.
Dominant -- this note has this name because with the tonic it sets the
tonality or key. The tonic and dominant notes, more than any of the
others, determines the tonality of a piece of music. The fifth note of
the scale is therefore a dominant factor.
Relative Minor -- so called because this is the tonic note of the
corresponding natural minor scale. Every major scale has a corresponding
natural minor scale that contains exactly the same notes. So the
relative minor of the C major scale is A natural minor. It is also
called the submediant because is lies three notes below the octave as
the mediant lies three notes above the tonic.
Leading-note -- whenever you play a scale and arrive at this note, you
will find that it naturally wants to move up to the octave note. People
have a psychological expectation of music. The most important need is
for the "musical journey" to have a start and end. If you were to play
the C major scale and stopped at the leading-note, you would always have
the sense that the scale is incomplete.
Octave -- the same note as the tonic but an octave higher in sound and
the end of the musical journey that a scale takes us on.
All the chords in C major take the same names given to the degrees of
the scale. You can refer to the dominant note or the dominant chord.
### Common Progressions
The tonic, subdominant and dominant are called the tonal chords. The
supertonic, mediant and relative minor are called the modal chords. The
tonal chords define tonality (key) and the modal chords suggest
modality. If you play only the modal chords Am and Em from the key of C
major the listener will eventually interpret the music to be in the key
of A minor (aeolian mode). It must be noted that Am and Em has to be
stated over a lengthy period of time. Analyzing chord progressions
starts with the tonal chords:
Step One: Try the progression I-V (Tonic to Dominant)
Step Two: Try the progression I-IV (Tonic to Subdominant)
Step Three: Try the progression I-VI or I-III (Tonic to Relative Minor)
or (Tonic to Mediant)
Step Four: Try the progression I-II (Tonic to Supertonic)
If you know the song starts with a C major chord and none of the above
works then the song may contain chromatic chords. It is common practice
to change the modal chords which are minor into their major
counterparts. So D minor becomes D major and E minor becomes E major.
The chromatic supertonic and the chromatic mediant are a common
compositional device. Even though you have added chromatic chords the
listener will still interpret the key as C major.
Try playing this progression: **C - E major - Am - G**
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major** File: E major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: A minor chord for guitar
(open).png\|**A minor** File: G major chord for guitar (open).png\|**G
major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
In the above chord progression you have played a chord that doesn\'t
belong to the key of C major. The tonality of the piece is preserved by
the following chords which are diatonic to the key.
### How To Continue Learning
- Take formal lessons from a qualified teacher. Be sure to seek
testimonials and references.
- Watch others play. Notice what they have to pay attention to and
what seems like magic.
- Practice arbitrary scale runs. Go up and or down 3 or 4 notes and
then move up the scale with the same interval.
- Jam up with friends who are better than you as frequently as
possible
- Get some friends along who are at the same skill level and form a
band of your own
- Listen to your favorite music and try to envision what the guitarist
is doing to make the notes come out as they do.
- Listen to different music. It may open your mind to techniques and
phrasing you never imagined using before. It may also expand your
musical library. Pick any genre you\'re not familiar with. Get a
feel for the timing and note choice. Into classical? Try bluegrass.
Headbanger? Pick up some jazz or blues. Then move on to your hero\'s
heroes. Find out what musical influences got Jimi Hendrix, B.B King
or Eric Clapton primed for stardom.
A great way to continue learning if you can already play is to teach
guitar to other people.
|
# Guitar/Scales
!The god of music Apollo strumming a lyre. In Greek mythology the lyre
was invented by Hermes who presented it to Apollo as recompense for
stealing his
cattle.
Western music uses twelve notes called the complete chromatic scale. The
seven white keys and their corresponding black keys on a keyboard allows
for easy visualization of the complete chromatic scale and the twelve
semitones. From this simple twelve note system are all the other scales
derived. A scale is simply a way of ordering the twelve sounds found in
Western Music. It must be borne in mind that music as an activity
precedes musical theory and that the scales we use now have an evolution
that predates written records. Today\'s scale system is referred to as
the major-minor system. Go back to the Medieval period and the system
used then was called the Church Modes. The study of scales should start
with the major scales and minor scales or the blues and pentatonic
scales. Unlike the piano where each semitone is represented by a key; on
the guitar each semitone is represented by a fret. Pianists visualize
the chromatic scale as the seven white keys and five black keys but
guitarists should visualize their complete chromatic scale as all the
notes from the open E string (low) up to the open high e string.
Basically play all the open notes and fretted notes on the first four
frets in sequence starting with the low open E string and ending on the
high open e string. This is the complete chromatic scale over two
octaves as visualized on the guitar. Scales take their names from the
first note played - the C major, C minor, C diminished are all scales
that start with C. For historical reasons the major scale and the minor
scale consists of seven notes. Other scales may use more than seven
notes and some (e.g. pentatonic = 5) less than seven notes.
It is important to remember that on the guitar, if you know the pattern
of a particular scale, you can move that pattern anywhere else on the
fret board and be playing in a different key. By this, I mean if you are
playing a major scale, beginning on the low E string at the fifth fret,
which is an A note and then you played the same pattern of notes, but
you started on the 3rd fret of the low E string, you will be playing a G
major scale. If this sounds confusing to you, read the entire article,
and if it is still unclear, see the musical
scale article on Wikipedia or the Music
Theory wikibook.
There are many different scales: the major scale, three different forms
of the minor scale, the blues scale, the pentatonic scale, the whole
tone scale, the diminished scale and some scales that originated in
Spain and India. There are also very interesting scales from eastern
music. It is possible to create your own scales by altering another as
you wish, or completely coming up with your own. Note that though there
are three minor scales (Natural. Harmonic and Melodic) you don\'t
actually have to learn three different scales. The Harmonic and Melodic
Minor scales are variations of the Natural Minor scale. After you have
learnt, for example, the A natural minor scale, you only have to sharpen
the seventh note to change it to a Harmonic minor scale. The Melodic
Minor has two notes sharpened - the sixth and seventh note. Once again
the reasons for the existence of these scales is historical. The
Harmonic minor scale is so called because it is from this scale that
minor harmony is usually taken. A simpler way of saying this is that the
Harmonic minor scale is the scale we use to build the chords in a minor
key. The Melodic Minor scale is so called because this scale is
frequently used for building melodies.
The \"Circle of Fifths\" is a memory aid for learning the major and
minor scales which can equally be applied to all scales. The scales in
common use have evolved over many centuries and the established major
scale, followed by the natural minor and then the two variants: the
harmonic minor scale and the melodic minor scale form the basis of
Western music. The \"Circle of Fifths\" and major scales in tab can be
found in the Scale Manual section of this book.
All scales in this section are in the key of A and presented in tab
except the Hungarian Minor which is given in the key of C. This means
that the root note of all these scales is A.
## Pentatonic Scales
Pentatonic scales are the least complicated, because they have five
notes rather than the seven notes used in the major scale. The
pentatonic scale is used extensively by blues and rock guitarists and
provides an ideal starting point for jamming along with recorded music.
A very famous song that uses the A minor pentatonic is \"Stairway To
Heaven\" by Led Zeppelin.
### A Minor Pentatonic
` `**`A-C-D-E-G-A`**
Most guitarists feel comfortable beginning with the A minor pentatonic,
which is the single most popular scale for solos in Western music. Most
guitarists know this shape of the Am pentatonic scale by heart, mainly
because it is so frequently used in solos. It can also be used for
pretty much anything, especially if you want to give it a slightly
melancholy sound.
Remember that this scale pattern (and any other scale pattern) can be
moved up and down the fretboard therefore allowing the guitarist to play
in many different keys using the one shape.
!600x100
In this diagram, the notes are ordered sequentially up the scale (going
higher in pitch). The different octaves of the first degree of the scale
(in this case, the A note) are highlighted with a yellow dot.
#### Learning the Scale
When you are learning any scale, it is helpful to break it down into
smaller chunks, which can be practiced and memorized much more easily.
With the A minor pentatonic scale, it is most commonly broken down into
these sections.
Section 1:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |--0-------3--`\
`B |-----1----3--`\
`G |--0-----2----`\
`D |--0-----2----`\
`A |--0-------3--`\
`E |--0-------3--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A minor pentatonic
Ex1{width="800"}
Section 2:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |-----3-----5--`\
`B |-----3-----5--`\
`G |--2--------5--`\
`D |--2--------5--`\
`A |-----3-----5--`\
`E |-----3-----5--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A minor pentatonic
Ex2{width="800"}
Section 3:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |--5--------8--`\
`B |--5--------8--`\
`G |--5-----7-----`\
`D |--5-----7-----`\
`A |--5-----7-----`\
`E |--5--------8--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A minor pentatonic
Ex3{width="800"}
Section 4:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |-----8-----10-`\
`B |-----8-----10-`\
`G |--7-----9-----`\
`D |--7--------10-`\
`A |--7--------10-`\
`E |-----8-----10-`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A minor pentatonic
Ex4{width="800"}
Section 5:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |----10----12--`\
`B |----10------13`\
`G |--9-------12--`\
`D |----10----12--`\
`A |----10----12--`\
`E |----10----12--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A minor pentatonic
Ex5{width="800"}
Scales should be practiced repeatedly and slowly. Scales are an ideal
way to improve hand co-ordination and finger memory which in turn leads
to a personal technique. A common technical problem associated with the
guitar is string noise. Even a simple chord movement from C to Am should
be played at the slowest speed possible with care being taken not to
bend the strings and for each note, open or fretted, to ring out
clearly. The A minor pentatonic shapes shown above should be played
slowly up and down. If you are playing with a plectrum then practice
alternate picking or tremolo
picking. To play scales with fingers
just alternate the index and middle finger of the right hand. If you are
using a steel-string acoustic then to avoid tendonitis and hand fatigue
it is advised that you tune your guitar down a tone when practising
scales.
#### The Blues scale
*Please see the Blues section for more
lessons.*
You can easily modify the minor pentatonic scale by adding a single note
and turning it into the blues scale - the flatted fifth note (b5) of the
scale. In the diagram below, A blues scale is shown at the fifth fret.
The number represent the frets played, and the numbers in parentheses
represent the Blue Note which, as the name suggests, is the major source
of the blues vibe in the scale. The blue note is not actually part of
the Minor Pentatonic scale, although it is often added in for extra
colour.
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |--5--------8--`\
`B |--5--------8--`\
`G |--5-----7-(8)-`\
`D |--5-----7-----`\
`A |--5-(6)-7-----`\
`E |--5--------8--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A minor pentatonic including \"blue\"
notes{width="800"}
### Major Pentatonic
The A major pentatonic also has five notes:
**A-B-C#-E-F#-A**
!600x100
The major pentatonic can be formed from any seven note major scale by
simply leaving out the fourth and seventh note. The difference between
the A minor pentatonic and the A major pentatonic is their modality.
They both use the same first degree, however it is the interval between
the first degree and the third that defines a scales modality. In the
major pentatonic we have a major third (A - C#) so therefore the modal
quality of this scale is major. The minor pentatonic has a minor third
(A - C) and therefore the modal quality of this scale is minor. Though
they both have the same tonality by starting on the same note they
differ in sound. Understanding that it is the third of a scale that
determines whether a scale is minor mode or major mode is important. In
a scale the I, IV and V notes are called the tonal degrees and the III,
VI, and VII notes are called the modal degrees.
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |-----5---------`\
`B |-----5-----7---`\
`G |--4-----6------`\
`D |--4--------7---`\
`A |--4--------7---`\
`E |-----5-----7---`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A major pentatonic scale - two
octaves{width="800"}
Practice this the same way you practice the minor pentatonic scale. When
you feel completely comfortable with both pentatonic scales, begin to
explore the other different scales.
## Major Scale
The pattern for any major scale is 2-2-1-2-2-2-1, meaning that the
difference from the first note to the second is 2 frets, from the second
to the third is 2 frets, from the third to the fourth is 1 fret, etc.
The difference in notes can also be called steps, 2 notes being a whole
step, and 1 note being a half step. This pattern in steps can be shown
as W-W-H-W-W-W-H or as full tones and semitones T-T-S-T-T-T-S.
Major scale in the key of A
**A-B-C#-D-E-F#-G#-A**
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |-4-5---------`\
`B |---5---7-----`\
`G |-4---6-7-----`\
`D |-4---6-7-----`\
`A |-4-5---7-----`\
`E |---5---7-----`
```{=html}
</div>
```
\[\[Image:A major scale for guitar two octave 4th
position.png\|thumb\|800px\|left\|A major scale - two
`octaves]]`
## Natural Minor Scale
The pattern for any natural minor scale is 2-1-2-2-1-2-2, shown in steps
as W-H-W-W-H-W-W
Natural Minor Scale in the key of A
**A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A**
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |---5--------`\
`B |---5-6---8--`\
`G |-4-5---7----`\
`D |---5---7----`\
`A |---5---7-8--`\
`E |---5---7-8--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A natural minor scale - two
octaves{width="800"}
The movable shape for this scale is shown:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |-------|---x---|-------|-------|-------|`\
`B |-------|---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|`\
`G |---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|-------|`\
`D |-------|---x---|-------|---x---|-------|`\
`A |-------|---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|`\
`E |-------|---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|`\
` 5th`
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Harmonic Minor Scale
The Harmonic minor scale has a very different quality than the minor
pentatonic scale. It has a \"middle-eastern\" sound when used to play
lead lines.
**A-B-C-D-E-F-G#-A**
This is a moveable shape and to play in other keys just move the shape
up or down the neck:
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |--4--5-----7--8--`\
`B |-----5--6--------`\
`G |--4--5-----7-----`\
`D |--------6--7-----`\
`A |-----5-----7--8--`\
`E |-----5-----7--8--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!A harmonic minor scale - two
octaves{width="800"}
This looks a little more complicated, and is certainly more difficult to
get to sound nice, but when you have mastered it, it will sound great!
## Melodic Minor Scale
This scale is actually *two* scales. Thus when one speaks of a \"melodic
minor\" pattern, one refers to two patterns - one ascending and one
descending.
**A-B-C-D-E-F#-G#-A** (ascending) **A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A** (descending)
This is best illustrated by playing the melodic minor scale. Below is
the A melodic minor scale in tab; note the sharps when ascending and the
naturals when descending.
!A melodic minor scale - one
octave{width="800"}
The ascending pattern is constructed by raising the 6th and 7th steps of
the natural minor scale. When descending the normal natural minor scale
is used without the 6th and 7th raised. The reason for this is to be
found in singing. Vocalists find the augmented second between the F and
G sharp in the Harmonic minor scale very awkward to sing. It is not
impossible but the dissonance of the interval and the sense of
\"leaping\" meant that a different approach was sought. The answer was
to also raise the sixth note. The awkward augmented second was gone and
the melody flowed better due to the absence of the leap.
## Hungarian Minor
The Hungarian minor scale is a type of combined musical scale. It is
akin to the harmonic minor scale, except that it bears a raised fourth.
Its tonal center is slightly ambiguous, due to the large number of half
steps. Also known as Double Harmonic Minor, or Harmonic Minor #4, it
figures prominently in Eastern European music, particularly in gypsy
music. Melodies based on this scale have an exotic, romantic flavor.
```{=html}
<div style="line-height:1em">
```
`e |--7--8-----10--11--`\
`B |--7--8--9----------`\
`G |--7--8-------------`\
`D |--------9--10------`\
`A |--------9--10--11--`\
`E |-----8-----10--11--`
```{=html}
</div>
```
!C Hungarian minor scale - one
octave{width="800"}
A Hungarian minor scale in the key of C would proceed as follows:
**C-D-Eb-F#-G-Ab-B-C**
Its scale degrees are 1 2 b3 #4 5 b6 7 and its step pattern w - h - + -
h - h - + - h, where w indicates a whole step, h indicates a half step,
and + indicates an augmented second.
### Derived chords
Chords that may be derived from the Hungarian minor scale are:
<File:C> minor barre chord for guitar 3rd position.png\|**C Minor**
<File:D7b5> chord for guitar 5th position.png\|**D7 Flat Fifth**
<File:E> augmented chord for guitar open position.png\|**E Flat
Augmented** <File:G> major chord for guitar open position (no doubled
third).png\|**G Major** <File:A> flat seventh chord for guitar barre 4th
position.png\|**A Flat Seventh** <File:B> minor sixth chord for guitar
open position.png\|**B Minor Sixth**
This scale is obtainable from the \*Arabic scale by starting from the
fourth of that scale. Said another way, the C Hungarian minor scale is
equivalent to the G Arabic scale.
In the video game, The Illusion of Gaia (published by the Enix
Corporation), the flute melody found in the Inca Ruins uses the C
Hungarian minor scale (a #4 is used in the second phrase); this music is
also quoted when the player reaches the Larai Cliff stage of the game,
transposed to D.
Joe Satriani has composed several songs using the Hungarian minor scale.
## Church Modes
The Church Modes preceded the Major-Minor system. The student is advised
to listen to the music of Palestrina as well as the jazz album *Kind of
Blue* by Miles Davis; both use modes to great effect.
For example, in the key of C, the notes are:
**C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C**
If you wanted to play in the 2nd mode, called the Dorian mode, then you
would just play the same notes, but start on the second note. So instead
you would play:
**D-E-F-G-A-B-C-D**
The different modes are called:
- Ionian
- Dorian
- Phrygian
- Lydian
- Mixolydian
- Aeolian
- Locrian
The Phrygian mode - **E F G A B C D E** - is of special interest to
flamenco players. The third and seventh degrees are often sharpened,
giving the scale notes **E F G# A B C D# E**. This arrangement is
commonly used in descending form. The second degree of the scale is
referred to as a leaning note, which means the note tends to fall one
semitone. In this case F falls to E.
|
# Guitar/Scale Theory
!The Codex Las Huelgas is a music manuscript from the thirteenth
century. The codex superseded the papyrus scroll and is the precursor of
the modern printed
book.
## The Invention Of Notation
By the ninth century Western music had become standardized into a
notational form called `<i>`{=html}nuemes`</i>`{=html} which were shapes
that represented notes. One line was used to indicate the middle pitch
with nuemes above the line being higher in pitch and the nuemes below
the line being lower in pitch. This primitive notational system was more
of a memory aid rather than a complete notational system showing exact
pitch and duration. To read nuemes you needed to be familiar with the
piece of music beforehand. In the tenth century Guido d\'Arezzo, a
Benedictine monk and Choir Master, extended the one line to four lines
and set the exact pitch of each note. This new invention of the stave
allowed music to be notated more precisely. Guido d\'Arezzo also devised
the `<i>`{=html}solfeggio`</i>`{=html} system where a different syllable
is sung to each note of an ascending scale:
**Do - Re - Mi - Fa - Sol - La - Ti**
Today a scholarly approach has been applied to the music of the past in
relation to ensuring that the notation is interpreted correctly. An
example is baroque music where modern research into the instruments,
techniques and approach of this period has led today\'s musicians to
revise their interpretation and performance of Baroque notation.
During the Renaissance Italian composers tried to recreate the plays of
Ancient Greece and their experiments led to the invention of Opera.
Musicians have always mined the music of the past for ideas and maybe
some clue as to the roots of contemporary musical practices. From a
musicologist point of view we are living in a Golden Age simply from the
fact that mankind for the first time has the ability to record sound.
Though we take recorded sound for granted today; it must be said that
the future musicologist will find a rich legacy of sound recordings from
which to base their research. We can never hear the music of Ancient
Greece or the Medieval period; we can only attempt to recreate it. The
importance of notation as the only mechanism we had for preserving the
music of the past becomes self-evident.
## The Church Modes
The music up to the baroque period was created from a form of scales
known as the Church Modes which took their names from the tribes of
Ancient Greece.
- **Ionian** - the Greeks who settled on the coast of modern day
Turkey.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Dorian** - the Greeks who settled on Crete, Sparta and Corinth.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Phrygian** - the Greeks who moved further inland in Turkey to
settle Anatolia.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Lydian** - a Greek tribe also from the Anatolia region of Turkey.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Mixolydian** - the Mixolydian mode was invented by Sappho, the 7th
century B.C. poet and musician.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Aeolian** - originally Greeks from Thessaly who spread to the
Greek islands and Asia-minor.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Locrian** - inhabitants of the ancient region of Locris in Central
Greece.
The Ancient Greeks laid the foundation for the study of music and
intervals in a way that has defined Western music ever since. They
investigated intervals using mathematics and used ratios to describe
these intervals. The Church Modes are not scales from Ancient Greece.
The Ancient Greeks used a scale system based on the idea of tetrachords.
However the debt that the Medieval period owes to the Ancient Greeks is
reflected in the naming of the Church Modes. The Ancient Greeks also
described their modes as Dorian, Lydian, etc. However this shows a
continuity of music nomenclature rather than practice and the Ancient
Greeks used their modes in an entirely different manner to the Medieval
musician. Here is Aristotle\'s view of the modes:
> \"The musical modes differ essentially from one another, and those who
> hear them are differently affected by each. Some of them make men sad
> and grave, like the so-called Mixolydian; others enfeeble the mind,
> like the relaxed modes; another again, produces a moderate and settled
> temper, which appears to be the peculiar effect of the Dorian; the
> Phrygian inspires enthusiasm\"
The quote above is from Aristotle\'s `<i>`{=html}Politics`</i>`{=html}
which is a work about government and society and the individual\'s role
in both. This Aristotelian analysis of music influenced the early Church
fathers who sought to lay the foundations for the liturgy of the
Christian mass which had always contained musical elements.
The Church Modes derive from Gregorian Chant which is a body of
liturgical vocal music named in honor of Pope Gregory (590CE to 604CE)
who set others to collect all the earlier Christian plainsong for
codification. Pope Gregory instigated the revision of the existing
liturgical music into a coherent whole and in doing so defined the
musical practices of the early Christian faith. With regards to secular
(non-religious) music there is not much contemporary information
available for the modern reader. The church filling the vacuum left by
the demise of the Roman empire became the main conduit of information
and therefore the earliest substantial musical literature we have
available to study is primarily to do with the musical practices of the
Christian church.
As instruments and forms evolved, some of the Church Modes became
redundant as musicians found that those modes did not suffice for their
musical needs. A few of the Church Modes went on to form the basis of
our \"major-minor\" system and it is from these modes that baroque
musicians created the harmonic theory that has dominated music right up
to the twentieth century. The earlier Ionian mode is now called the
Major scale.
## The Piano Keyboard
The keyboard layout of the harpsichord and organ became standardized in
the 15th century and the invention of the keyboard played a large part
in laying down the foundation of modern tuning practices and theory.
Tempered-tuning was adopted as a direct result of these inventions. The
earlier system of mean-tuning meant that the errors introduced by the
problem of the Pythagorean Comma allowed only a few keys to be played.
If a piano was mean-tuned to C major then the player would find that
keys further away from this C major center would be unusable. The
guitarist can hear this by tuning the guitar in the first position
(first four frets) so that a C major chord is in tune with itself. You
will find that the chords in the first position are usable but as you
further progress up the neck the chords start to sound out of tune.
Tempered-tuning spreads the errors introduced by the Pythagorean Comma
evenly across the entire range of an instrument. By the time the piano
was invented in the 17th century, the tempered C major scale had become
the foundation for teaching music theory.
Since the keyboard has been such a dominating force in music, a complete
study of scale theory must make some reference to it. Thus, it is best
to first look at the piano keyboard and then compare it to the guitar
fretboard.
Before you begin it is good idea to familiarise yourself with the notes
of the C major scale. Roman numerals are used to label the scale
degrees.
------------------- --- ---- ----- ---- --- ---- -----
**Roman Numeral** I II III IV V VI VII
**Note** C D E F G A B
------------------- --- ---- ----- ---- --- ---- -----
!A piano keyboard showing the C major scale. Note that all the degrees
of the C major scale are on the white
keys.{width="240"}
If you play each key on a keyboard ascending from the middle C (diagram
on the right), you will have played the 12 tone chromatic scale. These
are all the notes available in Western music. The keyboard of a piano is
laid out so that when you play the C major scale, you use only the white
keys. The C major scale has no sharps (#\'s) or flats (b\'s) which means
that no black keys are used. Only the C major and its relative minor
have no sharps or flats; all other scales will have a sharp or flat in
their notation.
It is important to recognize that on the keyboard the distance between
two adjacent keys is always a semitone. On the guitar the same applies
to adjacent frets. Looking at the keyboard diagram you will see that
between the C and D is a black key which is a semitone above the C and a
semitone below the D. Between E and F there is no black key but it is
still notated as a semitone interval. There is also no black key between
B and C so they are also semitone neighbours. The 12 tone chromatic
scale consists of 12 sounds which are all a semitone apart. The C major
scale has seven notes which are represented by all the white keys. At
this point it is best to remember that adjacent keys are a semitone
apart and that a tone describes keys two semitones apart. Therefore C to
D is a tone because there are two semitones - C to C# and C# to D. E to
F# is also a tone.
The C major scale has no sharps of flats so that the chords are formed
using only the white keys. The most basic chord you can play is a triad
which consists of three notes. The piano student will be asked by their
tutor to play the seven triads in the key of C major almost immediately.
Once the piano student has formed the shape of the C major triad (C-E-G)
it is only a case of moving that shape up through the scale degrees
while naming the chords. A beginner on the piano will learn the chords
in the key of C major within minutes.
The guitar exercise below will allow you to quickly learn the chords of
the C Major scale. For the Dm triad and Bdim triad use your little
finger for the lowest note and for the lowest note of the last triad (C
major octave) use your third finger.
!Triads derived from the key of C major for
guitar{width="800"}
## Structure of the Major Scale
The major scale (or Ionian mode) is the main scale currently used in
music. It is made up of seven notes plus an eighth which duplicates the
first an octave higher. The Italian music system \"solfeggio\" where
each note is sung using a syllable - \"Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti,
(Do)\" - may help in illustrating this concept.
The interval pattern for any major scale is:
` ``<b>`{=html}`2-2-1-2-2-2-1``</b>`{=html}` `
meaning that the difference from the first note to the second is 2
frets, from the second to the third is 1 fret, etc.
The difference in notes can also be called steps, 2 notes being a whole
step, and 1 note being a half step. This pattern in steps can be written
as:
` ``<b>`{=html}`w-w-h-w-w-w-h``</b>`{=html}` `
It can also be represented as:
` ``<b>`{=html}`t-t-s-t-t-t-s``</b>`{=html}` `
with \"t\" meaning \"tone\" and \"s\" meaning \"semitone\". The choice
is yours as to which of the three descriptors you choose to use.
The scale below uses the \"tone-semitone\" method:
!C major
scale{width="800"}
Please note that there is a distinction in terminology between American
English and UK English. It is common to find the word \"tone\" used in
American English to describe notes whereas in UK English the word
\"tone\" is never used.
For example:
American English: \"The leading-tone is always a semitone below the
octave in a major scale\"
UK English: \"The leading-note is always a semitone below the octave in
a major scale\"
_`<b>`{=html}Major scale in the key of
C`</b>`{=html}_
C - D - E - F - G - A - B - C
**Two Octaves Of C Major:**
!C major two octaves ascending at the seventh
position{width="800"}
This shape is moveable, and the fingering is shown below
7th
e:---x---|---x---|-------|-------|
B:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|
G:---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|
D:---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|
A:---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|
E:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|
## Structure of the Minor scale
### Natural minor
The natural minor scale (or Aeolian mode) is one of the diatonic scales
along with the major scale. The word \"diatonic\" in a modern sense
refers only to the major and natural minor scales. In the key of A
minor, the harmonic form would be called \"non-diatonic\" because the
seventh note is sharpened.
`<b>`{=html}TIP:`</b>`{=html} Any natural minor scale can be changed
into a harmonic minor scale by sharpening the seventh note.
The natural minor scales are all \"diatonic\" because they consist of
the notes from the key they are derived from without any changes. The
harmonic and melodic form both contain changes to the original natural
minor scale and are therefore \"non-diatonic\".
Natural minor scales can be created for any key using the formula:
` ``<b>`{=html}`w-h-w-w-h-w-w``</b>`{=html}
Below is the Am natural (or relative) scale with tones and semitones
shown:
!Am (natural)
scale scale"){width="800"}
Minor scale (diatonic) in the key of C:
C - D - Eb - F - G - Ab - Bb - C
**Two Octaves Of C Minor:**
!C natural minor two octaves ascending at the seventh
position{width="800"}
This shape is moveable, and the fingering is shown below
7th
e:-------|---x---|-------|-------|-------|
B:-------|---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|
G:---x---|---x---|-------|---x---|-------|
D:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|-------|
A:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|
E:-------|---x---|-------|---x---|---x---|
|
# Guitar/Picking and Plucking
There are two major methods of right hand (for right handed players)
techniques namely, either by using a pick (also called a plectrum) or
fingers. The plectrum is very common in rock, country and pop music,
where it is considered convenient for strumming and louder guitar sound.
Use of fingers is most common among classical guitarists and flamenco
players, as combination of strings better executed using the right hand
fingers, and generally have softer sound than the pick. Other than
classical guitarists and flamenco players, use of a pick or fingers is a
matter of personal preference.
## Striking
### Using a pick
The primary advantages of the pick are its speed, its ease of striking
large chords and, because the fingernails and fingertips are not
involved, its preservation of player\'s picking hand. Furthermore, use
of a pick makes a louder and brighter sound. Its primary disadvantage is
its imprecision, making muting strings necessary. Also, if the player
wishes to switch to the tapping style, he or she can tap with or with
out the pick: to tap with the pick just put it on its side and tap it on
the desired fret. However, tapping with a pick makes it harder to tap on
multiple strings.
### Finger Strumming
Players wishing not to use a pick may try finger *strumming*. This is
accomplished by holding the picking hand\'s first finger to the thumb,
much as one might hold a pick, and striking the strings with the first
fingernail. Another way is to do all down strokes with the thumb and all
upstrokes with the index finger; like one is \'petting\' the strings.
### Apoyando Strikes
Apoyando, or splinter rested, involves the finger picking through a
string such that the finger stops when resting on the next string. This
technique produces a strong, loud tone, and is considered the opposite
of Tirando.
### Tirando Strikes
When performing a tirando, or shooting splinter strike, the finger does
not affect the next string at all. This is the opposite of apoyando.
## Fingerpicking
Fingerpicking is a method of playing the guitar where you use your thumb
and at least one other finger to pick or pluck notes, using your
fingernails, fingerpicks or fingertips. Talented players can use all
five fingers on their picking hand, but many players only use four
fingers and use their pinky finger as a brace on the guitar. Most
classical guitarists alter the shape of their picking hand fingernails
for the purpose of producing a desired sound, however this is not
necessary in non-classical music; one can purchase fingerpicks to fit on
the hand.
Generally fingerpicking involves picking through
chords organized in a melody. Fingerpicking
is used extensively in folk guitar and
classical guitar, but it is also
common in other genres.
Fingerpicking is surprisingly easy on an electric guitar, which is
strange because fingerpicking is often regarded as an acoustic style.
The player may hold his or her picking hand\'s fourth finger against the
right edge (left edge on a left-handed guitar), and if it is held
straight and steady, this technique may be used to brace the hand. This
technique is called anchoring, and is frowned upon by some players. It
is possible on acoustic guitars by using the bridge similarly, but this
is not as effective as it will deaden the sound. Classical guitarists
never anchor while playing.
When strumming with individual fingers, general rule is move the wrist
only if the thumb is used, while if any other finger is used, only said
finger will be used.
When you start trying to learn, your finger coordination will be
terrible and it is easy to be discouraged. It takes several weeks to let
your muscles develop, but if you practice using all your fingers at once
your overall dexterity will increase much faster.
### Classical picking
In classical guitar repertoire, there will be a \"PIMA\" marking for the
picking hand fingers (right hand for right handed players), which
indicate which finger to use:
- **P**ulgar, or thumb.
- **I**ndice, or index finger.
- **M**edio, or middle finger.
- **A**nular, or ring finger.
These four are the ones that are used most frequently. Sometimes, the
fourth finger is used, in which it is marked either **C**, **X** or
**E**.
Typically, the thumb has a down-picking motion and the fingers have an
up-picking motion.
:
### Clawhammer and frailing
Clawhammer, sometimes known as frailing, is a method generally used with
the five-string banjo and is characteristic of traditional Appalachian
folk music of the U.S. It is primarily a down-picking style, and the
hand assumes a claw-like shape and the strumming finger is kept fairly
stiff, striking the strings by the motion of the hand at the wrist and
elbow, rather than a flicking motion by the finger. Typically, only the
thumb and second or first finger are used and the finger always
downpicks, flicking the string with the back of the fingernail.
A common characteristic of clawhammer patterns is the thumb does not
pick on the downbeat, as one might in typical finger-picking patterns
for guitar. For example, this is a common, basic time signature\|2/4
pattern:
1. Pick a melody note on the downbeat (quarter note)
2. On the second beat (music)\|beat, strum a few strings with your
strumming finger or brush with all fingers (roughly an eighth note)
3. Immediately following (on the second half of this beat), pick a note
with the thumb, usually the shorter fifth string. (roughly an eighth
note)
Here, the thumb plays the high drone (fifth string) on the second
\"and\" of \"one and two *and*\". This combined with the second finger
strumming provides a characteristic \"bum-ditty bum-ditty\" sound.
Some people, however, make a distinction between frailing and
clawhammer:
- In frailing, the first fingertip is used for up-picking melody, and
the second fingernail is used for rhythmic downward brushing.
- In clawhammer, only downstrokes are used, and they are typically
played with one fingernail as is the usual technique on the banjo.
### Travis Picking
Another well known style of finger picking is called Travis picking,
named after Merle Travis who was a country singer known for his
legendary picking skills. When picking, you use your thumb and first
finger to hit notes at the same time, creating a double stop or
interval, and then
continue picking with the first finger. Usually the thumb is responsible
for picking the bass line, while the first/second finger is for melody.
Skilled players can carry two separate melodies with the upper and lower
strings.
You can create impressive rhythms playing with just your thumb and first
finger, but to really become talented you must practice using more
fingers. For example, Chet Atkins expanded to use all three fingers,
with thumb for bass line.
:
### Rasgueado
The rasgueado or splinter striking technique originated from Spanish
flamenco music, and usually refers to three or four fingers and
sometimes the thumb striking the strings in quick succession. The notes
quickly follow one another and produce a \"rattling\" or cascading
effect.
### Scruggs style
Scruggs-style finger-picking is a
syncopated, five-string banjo style used in bluegrass
music. It is played with thumb, first and
second fingers; the fourth and/or third fingers are typically braced
against the head of the instrument. The strings are picked rapidly in
repetitive sequences or rolls; the same string is not typically picked
twice in succession. Melody notes are interspersed among arpeggios, and
musical phrases typically contain long series of staccato notes, often
played at very rapid tempos. The music is generally syncopated, and may
have a subtle swing or shuffle feel, especially on mid-tempo numbers.
The result is lively, rapid music, which lends itself both as an
accompaniment to other instruments and as a solo.
Scruggs style picking was popularized by Earl
Scruggs in the early 1940\'s in rural North
Carolina.
## Tapping
Tapping is a style of playing where notes
are created by quickly pressing, or tapping, the string down on the fret
that you want to play. Usually tapping involves both hands, and most
often it is on an electric guitar. It is possible to tap on an acoustic,
but you cannot hear the notes as clearly as on an electric.
|
# Guitar/Arpeggios and Sweep Picking
## Introduction
The word **arpeggio** (ar-*peh*-jee-oh) is Italian for \"like a harp\".
It is a common technique for playing chords on the harp. To play an
arpeggiated chord on the guitar, pick each note of the chord slowly, one
string at a time. You can play arpeggios with a plectrum or fingerstyle.
### Exercise 1
Below is a simple arpeggio study using these chords:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: A major chord for guitar (open).png\|**A major** File: D major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**D major** File: E major chord for guitar
(open).png\|**E major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
!Sixteen Bar Arpeggio Study in A
major.png "Sixteen Bar Arpeggio Study in A major"){width="800"}\
==Sweep picking== **Sweep picking** is a more specialized technique,
occurring most often in metal. It involves playing a fast arpeggio with
a special technique: when switching from one string to the next, mute
the note currently ringing by lifting the fretting finger. A sweep can
become a rake if notes are muted incorrectly. Rakes can sound nice, but
they are not sweeps. Remember only one note can ring out at a time or it
won\'t sound good. It takes practice and it helps to start slow and
build up speed.
Below is example tablature of sweep picking:
!Sample tablature for sweep
picking
This is not the only way to notate sweeps. Small sweeps can be indicated
with grace notes or even the arpeggio notation with the word \"sweep\"
(or, less correctly, \"rake\") written above.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
In a more classical approach, arpeggios must follow a distinct pattern
of notes depending on the chord/scale we\'re playing. This is similar to
playing chords note-by-note on a piano (not on a guitar).
The basic chords (the major and minor triads) are composed of three
tones: the first, the third and the fifth note of the scale (major or
minor, depending on the chord type).
For instance, the C major scale is: C D E F G A B. So, according to the
1-3-5 principle, the C major triad consists of C, E and G. Note that the
C major chord on a guitar also consists only of these three notes but
they are not always in the 1-3-5 order. Now, while playing \"classical
arpeggios\", you would not just pick around the chord randomly but you
would play C, E, G, then C, E, G an octave higher, etc. This is what is
called an arpeggio scale. You can play around it, up and down with
complete freedom or just use the 1-3-5 pattern as a bass line. This
method can also be used with more complex chords (sus4, maj7, etc.) but
then it follows a pattern different from 1-3-5 structure, depending on
the chord type. In all, this is a very simple but effective method for
composing.
While playing guitar, this might not appear as interesting as picking
\"full\" six-string chords but it can be used to give your music a
classical edge. It also has a more lead quality to it than using full
chords and requires more skill. Playing fast arpeggios like these is
sometimes used in metal music with very satisfactory results. The
\"classical arpeggios\" are in no way better than the \"harp like
chords\" and it is ultimately up to the player/composer to choose what
is best for the song in question.
## External links
|
# Guitar/Slides
The **slide** is one of the simplest guitar techniques. There are two
kinds of slides: shift slides and legato slides. In a shift slide, a
note is fretted, then struck, and then the fretting finger slides up or
down to a different fret, and the string is struck again. A legato slide
differs in that the string is struck only for the first note.
The first slide pictured is a shift slide; the second is a legato slide.
A few tablature writers do not distinguish between the two slides, using
only shift slide notation. The abbreviation \"sl.\" for slide may be
omitted. When sliding from a higher fret to a lower fret, the slanted
lines are usually changed to have a downward slope instead of an upward
slope, to emphasize the sliding \"down\". It is possible to slide up
from an open string, but this often does not sound as clean because this
requires a hammer-on
at the first fret (or for really fast slides, a higher fret) before
sliding up. Likewise, it is possible to slide down to an open string but
it requires a pull-off at the first (or some other) fret.
In Internet tablature, a slide from the third fret to the fifth might be
written like any of these:
` 3/5`\
` 3>5`\
` 3>s>5`\
` 3s5`
Internet tablature rarely distinguishes between the two kinds of slides.
Less commonly, tablature can instruct the guitarist to \"slide into\" or
\"slide out of\" a note. In printed tablature, they are notated
identically except, in the case of slide-into, the first note is
omitted, and in the case of slide-out-of, the second note is omitted. In
other words, the note slides in from nowhere, or out to nowhere. It
simply tells the guitarist to quickly slide from or to an arbitrary
point, usually only a few frets away.
Good sliding keeps the new note audible, while keeping the note in tune.
If you don\'t press the string hard enough, you mute the string or buzz
it on the frets. Too hard and the string bends out of tune. The latter
does not happen often, but sounds awful and should be avoided.
Example\
C C C C \| F F C C \| G F C G
: 350px
:
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
E E E E \| A A E E \| H7 A E H7
: 350px
:
|
# Guitar/Hammer-ons, Pull-offs, and Trills
Hammer-ons and pull-offs are two closely related techniques. They are
used to play *legato*, that is, in a smooth manner, and are also used to
help the guitarist to play faster. They are most commonly used in
electric guitar work, but can be used in acoustic tunes as
embellishments.
## The hammer-on
 Hammer-ons can be done anywhere on
the fretboard, but for the beginner it is easiest using an open string.
To quickly learn, strike an open E on the first string. While the note
is still ringing, quickly and firmly press a finger on the third fret.
If done properly, a G note should be sounding.
Quickly pressing your finger down and raising the note without hitting
the string again is called \"hammering on\". Without electric
amplification, the hammer-on tends to be quieter than regularly struck
notes, especially if you haven\'t practiced it! Because the strings are
closer to the fretboard, hammer-ons are easier to execute on an electric
guitar. However, this doesn\'t make them less common on an acoustic
guitar, where they are used frequently to embellish open
chords
The hammer-on can just as easily be played with fretted notes: just play
the note normally and hammer onto another (higher-numbered) fret on the
same string. If you practice hammer-ons, eventually you will be able to
move each finger smoothly and independently.
## The pull-off
 The pull-off is the opposite of the
hammer-on. Again, using the E string, hold it at the third fret. Strike
the string and while the note is still ringing, release the fretting
finger. If done properly, the G should be followed by an open E. If the
note doesn\'t ring out properly, try hitting the G harder and releasing
faster.
Like the hammer-on, the second note tends to be less loud than the
first. To help alleviate this, a slight sideways motion of the fretting
finger while pulling off will add extra vibration to the string, and
give you some extra volume. Often it is hard for a beginner to
accomplish, and the sideways movement helps greatly.
A pull-off looks like this:
D|---7p5--5p4--4p2--2p0--|
## The trill
A trill is two alternating notes, such as an A and A#. Only the first
note is struck; the rest are rapidly hammered-on and pulled off
de:Gitarre: Folkdiplom -
Hammer-On
it:Chitarra/Hammer on e Pull
off
|
# Guitar/Bending and Vibrato
**Bending** and **vibrato** are two related effects which help give
extra \"life\" to notes, especially sustained notes, by changing their
pitch. The techniques are not commonly used on the acoustic guitar or
general rhythm playing. However, they are *extremely* important to many
styles involving distorted guitar, e.g., rock or metal, even when
playing rhythm (though, in that case, bends and vibratos are usually
embellishments). Bending or an equivalent effect is not possible on all
instruments; the piano, for example, cannot have notes that change in
pitch. This is one reason why it is important to know how to bend:
because you can!
This section deals with bending and vibrato using your fingers, not the
different technique of using the vibrato bar. The two techniques do the
same basic thing, but using the vibrato bar as a substitute for
fretting-hand bending is not good practice; it is best used for very
heavy bends or heavy vibratos, not slight embellishments like finger
bending. It is more difficult to be subtle with a vibrato bar, and it is
usually a bit out of the way for the picking hand to reach, making it
harder to use. In short, while in some cases which style of bending or
vibrato is used is a matter of taste, the two techniques are not
interchangeable and are used for different effects.
## Bending
!A string as it looks during a two fret bend. Notice how the player is
using three fingers to help bend the
string.
Bending is exactly as it sounds: bending the string to the side by
pushing it (towards the sixth string) or pulling it (towards the first
string), often while a fretted note is ringing. The first three strings
are normally pushed, and the others are normally pulled. This is
particularly important on the first and sixth strings, as you do not
want the string to fall off the fretboard. Whether the string is pushed
or pulled, the note will be raised in pitch.
Many aspiring guitarists cannot bend properly. The *sound* of a bend is
more important than how it is actually executed or how it looks, but a
bad bending technique usually leads to a bad sound. Your favorite
guitarist might bend using just his or her fingertips and you might be
inclined to copy this --- don\'t! Your hands can sound every bit as good
as your hero\'s without copying his or her technique. There are two keys
to bending properly: proper thumb positioning, and bending with the
proper muscles. Do not keep your thumb behind the neck, where it usually
is, but bring it up perpendicular to the neck (a position that is
*normally* incorrect, but not in the case of bending). Keep the fingers
firm. Do not bend your fingers, but push or pull with your forearm. You
will hardly see your forearm move, possibly just see a couple of muscles
flex. It will feel awkward at first, but if you can bend with the thumb
in the proper position and without bending the fingers, you are probably
doing it correctly.
Many guitarists will have trouble bending more than 1/4 step (half a
semitone) or perhaps 1/2 step (one semitone) with only one finger,
especially on frets close to the nut and on the thinner strings. It is
much easier to bend with more than one finger, for instance, with the
index finger on the first or second fret and the ring finger on the
third, and pushing or pulling with both fingers in order to bend at the
third fret. More fingers may be used if this is not enough. It should be
possible to bend at least a full step (the pitch difference of two
frets) this way.
## Pre-bending
Bending, whether by pushing or pulling the string, raises the tension in
the vibrating portion of the string, and thus always *raises* the pitch
of the note. This means it is easier to slide up rather than down in
pitch. To create the impression of bending down, the guitarist uses a
technique called *pre-bending*, that is, bending *before* the string is
struck, then strike and release the bend (either gradually or quickly,
depending on the intended effect).
## Bend and Release
The ideas of bending and pre-bending can be combined for a \"bend and
release\", that is, striking a note, bending it up, then releasing it as
you would with a pre-bend. This will often be perceived as a \"bounce\"
in pitch, especially if played quickly. The reverse is also possible:
pre-bend, release, and bend. Repeatedly and steadily bending and
releasing is called *vibrato*.
## Vibrato
Players of many instruments, including the human voice, use vibrato to
help add expression to sustained notes. Vibrato is performed in two
major ways, the first by rapidly bending the string back and forth,
causing a modulation in pitch; therefore, all of the information above
about bending applies here, except it is performed faster or more
prolonged. Or it can be performed in a \'classical\' style where one
applies pressure parallel to the string towards the neck then towards
the bridge repeatedly, which allows one to achieve vibrato upward and
downward in pitch, albeit with a smaller change. A small, subtle vibrato
might not require the assistance of other fingers; the fretting finger
should be sufficient. However, for sustained vibrato or vibrato on the
first or second frets, using multiple fingers for bending is a good
idea.
it:Chitarra/Bending e
Release
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# Guitar/Harmonics
Harmonics are fun sounds to produce. They can be quiet and bell-like on
an Acoustic or they can be loud and squeally on an overdriven Electric.
## Harmonics Introduction
!**Harmonic series** of a string. Playing harmonics on the guitar uses
a technique that stops certain partials from
sounding{width="250"}
When you strike a note on the guitar, the sound generated is not just
one note but a series of notes. The *fundamental* (also called the first
harmonic) is the loudest and lowest of the series and fainter notes
which all have their own frequency of vibration, amplitude, and phase
are heard as well. The frequencies are integer multiples of the lowest
frequency. Looking at the diagram you will notice that the upper
partials (this is the name given to any sine waves associated with a
complex tone) follow a pattern 2,3,4,5,6,and 7 and these equal-sized
sections resonate at increasingly higher frequencies. The guitar
technique described below shows how to play harmonics by lightly
touching the string directly over the fret. You are essentially
cancelling out certain partials from being heard by not allowing that
part of the string to vibrate. Pianists have no means of manipulating
strings to produce harmonics unless they lift up the lid of the piano
and lightly touch the string. Woodwind instruments can produce harmonics
by the technique of *overblowing*. It must be noted that we all tend to
hear or play music as a \"single sensation\" and that the partials
present are not considered or heard as separate during that experience.
### List of natural harmonics
- **12th fret** - octave above open string
- **7th or 19th fret** - octave plus a perfect fifth above open string
- **5th or 24th fret** - two octaves above open string
- **4th, 9th or 16th fret** - two octaves plus a major third above
open string
There are more harmonics than these but these are the easiest to produce
and the most audible. They are ordered from lowest to highest in pitch.\
== Natural harmonics == Natural harmonics are the easiest to produce. A
good place to begin is the 12th fret of the high e string. With your
fretting hand, lightly touch a finger against the string directly above
the 12th fret. Do not hold it down or apply any pressure. Then strike it
with your picking hand and immediately release the string; almost
simultaneously. If executed properly the result should be a
high-pitched, silvery note. Try it again at the 7th and 5th frets; as
shown on the Natural Harmonic fretboard diagram. Each harmonic shown on
the diagram will produce a sound that is higher in pitch than its
fretted note counterpart. Harmonics will sound quieter and the higher
harmonics may be nearly inaudible without the overdrive of an amp.
{width="1700"}
### Harmonic Chords
Below are the Harmonic chords of **Em** and **Bm**. Both chords are
first inversion with the third in the bass. You can play Harmonic
arpeggios, add the open low E string to the Harmonic Em chord or play a
melodic phrase.
{width="1700"}
Below are the Harmonic chords of **G** and **D**. Both chords are second
inversion with the fifth in the bass.
{width="1700"}
A good example of the use of natural harmonics is in the song *Imperium*
by Machine Head. Clear 5th fret harmonics can be heard enforcing the low
drop B tuning.
## Pinch harmonics
Pinch harmonics are also known as Artificial Harmonics though there is
really nothing artificial about them. This is an advanced technique and
was popularized mostly by Billy
Gibbons and later Zakk
Wylde, as well as many others as early
as the 1970s including many Heavy
Metal artists. These harmonics follow
the same principles of physics as a natural harmonic; the difference
being how the harmonic is produced. In this technique a note is struck
in a downwards motion with the pick and in the same motion the string is
touched (one might really say brushed) with the edge of the thumb that
is holding the pick. You can also use the edge of the index fingernail
followed by the pick.
Pinch harmonics are most effective and audible using an Electric guitar
with overdrive or distortion. These harmonics are virtually inaudible
when using a clean (not distorted or overdriven) amp channel with the
Electric guitar or when using an Acoustic. It can sound good when
correctly used even without much overdrive but it\'s not always clear or
detectable. Use overdrive or distortion for best results especially
while learning and practicing this technique. This technique takes
practice to master. Beginners may need to spend some time on scales,
soloing, blues, riffing, strumming patterns before they feel comfortable
enough to attempt this technique. It is mostly used in soloing and
intense expressive riffing.
As mentioned above, these harmonics are produced by striking a note with
the pick and touching the string with the picking thumb. Grip the pick
so that the tip barely peeks out between your fingertips (this is why
they are called \"pinch\" harmonics). It\'s easier when you are fretting
a note with the left hand. Try fretting the 5th fret of the D string and
plucking the string just below the neck pick-up pole pieces (maybe 1/8\"
toward the bridge from the pole pieces). The position of the plucking
along the length of the string is one of the most important parts of
this technique. While with regular picking the position of the picking
along the string can make slight variations in the sound of the note,
when executing pinch harmonics the right position is vital and tiny
positional differences can make entirely different harmonics. So try
adjusting the picking hand just millimeters up and down the string
around the area of the pick-ups.
Try imagining the pick and your picking thumb plucking the string at the
same time although the thumb is really just brushing past it. Consider
it to be really one motion. Try thinking of your thumb and the pick as
one entity and instead of picking straight down, pick down and a little
bit (millimeters) out away from the face of the guitar so your picking
motion is a sort of \'letter J\' out from the face of the guitar and so
the thumb brushes past the string and remember that the thumb should
only touch the string for an instant just like the pick does.
Try executing pinch harmonics while fretting different notes and by
striking the string in slightly different places all around the pickup
area of the guitar. Many kinds of harmonic ringing sounds may be
produced.
Without a pick, this technique may be simulated by plucking the string
with the fingertip and lightly touching it with the fingernail.
Classical guitarists use this technique and it is also found in jazz
finger-style guitar.
These harmonics, as opposed to natural harmonics, end up being much more
practical to use while playing and when mastered can be used boldly like
Zakk Wylde making the harmonic part of the riff, or subtly and possibly
unintentionally to add color and character to the notes or chords while
playing almost anything.
Pinch harmonics can easily and effectively be combined with other
techniques, such as bending or
vibrato.
To hear pinch harmonics in action check out the following:
- Ozzy Osbourne\'s *Ozzmosis* (and several other albums) features many
different examples of pinched harmonics in various solos.
- In the movie *Rock Star* at the beginning, the lead guitarist (Nick
Catanese of Black Label Society/SPEED X) in Blood Pollution (the
Steel Dragon cover band) is \"not hitting the squeal\". The squeal
they\'re speaking of is a pinch harmonic.
- One of the best examples of a bend and a pinch harmonic is Judas
Priest\'s *Lochness* off the album *Angel of Retribution* at about
1:10.
- In System of a Down\'s hit song *BYOB* it is the first bend in the
chorus (*Every bodys going to the party*) part. It is the only PH in
the song, so listen carefully
Don\'t despair if you can\'t get harmonics as clear as Judas Priest or
Zakk Wylde, they\'ve got equipment made just for making sounds like
that. They both have expensive high gain amplifiers and their guitars
are equipped with pickups that are naturally very good at pinch
harmonics. Some pickups amplify pinch harmonics better than others (some
pickups hardly amplify them at all). Judas Priest and Zakk Wylde both
play guitars with EMG humbuckers, which are some of the hottest pickups
and some of the best at amplifying pinch harmonics. Hot pickups (EMG,
Duncan JB, Duncan Live Wire, Bill Lawrence 500XL) do an excellent job of
picking up pinch harmonics. Once you\'ve practiced at home, ask to try
out a guitar with \"hot pickups\" and a \"high gain\" amplifier at the
local guitar shop if you want a taste(warning: it\'s easy to get
spoiled/hooked!).
## Tapped harmonics
This technique, like tapping itself, was popularized by Eddie van
Halen. Tapped harmonics are an
extension of the tapping technique. The note is
fretted as usual, but instead of striking the string, the string is
tapped at one of the frets listed in the natural harmonic list. Do not
hold the string down with the tapping hand, just bounce the finger
lightly on and off the fret. This technique can be extended by fretting
a note, then tapping relative to the fretted note. For instance, hold
the third fret, and tap the fifteenth fret, for the twelfth fret
harmonic, because 12+3=15.
## Other techniques
A final technique (known as the harp harmonic) is a sort of combination
between the natural and tapped harmonic techniques. Fret the note
normally, and place the picking hand index finger on a natural harmonic
relative to the fretted note (just as in tapped harmonics). Pluck the
string with another finger and release the index finger, just as if
producing a natural harmonic.
it:Chitarra/Armonici
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# Guitar/Tremolo Bar Techniques
The tremolo bar was originally only found on Fender guitars, but now
they are on many types of electric guitar. Unfortunately, it has an
inappropriate name, because \"tremolo\" means a fast succession of two
different tones. A more accurate but less common name is the **vibrato
bar**, and they are also known as **whammy bars**.
There are several different types of tremolo bars, details of which can
be found in the Anatomy of the
Guitar section, but certain
types can only perform certain techniques. Thus, you should make sure
the tremolo bar you have can do what you want it to do, before you buy
it.
In general, it is good to learn to hold the tremolo bar between your
third and fourth fingers, so you can use the bar and hold a pick at the
same time.
This section will provide a description of how to accomplish various
techniques, but it will be up to the guitarist to discover how to
perform them.
## Dive Bomb
A Dive Bomb may be achieved by striking a natural harmonic then lowering
the tone. An \"explosion\" may added by keeping the bar pressed down and
flicking the low E string repeatedly.
Also, there is an alternative way to do a dive bomb, by flicking a
string, dipping the bar down, tapping a harmonic, then manipulating the
resulting note however you want. This technique is also known as a
\"Squeal\", or \"Dime Squeal\" named after Pantera guitarist, Dimebag
Darrel.
## Dipping
Dipping is a technique that allows you to make note changes a little
more interesting. Before you change to a higher note, use the bar to
quickly lower and then raise the pitch.
## Cat Purr
With this technique, a pitch is held for a beat, and then raised up a
tone. The lever is moved slowly, and once you reach the upper or lower
tone, you immediately hold, and then reverse direction. This results in
a sound that can sounds remarkably like a cat.
## Ruler Sound
If you press the tremolo bar down, and then suddenly release it upwards
and quickly alternate between high ups and down, it makes a snap-away
sounds, like a ruler vibrating off the edge of a table. The principle
behind this is similar to the cat purr.
## Windmill
The \"windmill\" develops if you just keep turning the tremolo bar in a
circle. Naturally, the tone moves up and down at a regular pace.
However, this can sound very \"outer space\" and can easily be over
done, and you should use this sparingly.
## String Choke
If the strings are really slack, you can quickly whip the tremolo bar
back up until it clicks, making a string choke. Sometimes overtones will
remain, and you can get some interesting sounds and harmonies. However,
these tend to disappear quickly as it is drowned out by the harmonics of
the new string pitch.
|
# Guitar/Tapping
## Fretboard Tapping
!Eddie Van Halen
**Tapping** is the short name of *fretboard tapping* or *finger
tapping*, a technique where the fingers hammer down (tap) against the
strings in order to produce sounds rather than striking or plucking the
strings. If both the left and right hand are used then it is called
two-handed tapping.
It is not clear who first developed tapping but it was certainly
popularized by Eddie van Halen. Van
Halen was listening to *Heartbreaker* by Led Zeppelin and he was quite
inspired by the solo, which contained a variation of tapping. This is
arguably the song that pushed Van Halen to use \"tapping\" frequently.
A rather different kind of independent two-handed tapping was discovered
by Harry DeArmond and named \"The Touch System\" by his student Jimmie
Webster. The \"Touch System\" is a complete playing method rather than a
technique. Another method of independent tapping was discovered by
Emmett Chapman, where the right hand comes over the fretboard and lines
up with the frets like the left. The three kinds of tapping techniques
are:
### Interdependent tapping
Interdependent tapping is by far the most common type of tapping. It is
generally used as a lead guitar technique, most commonly during solos;
however, a small number of songs are entirely tapped. The player\'s
picking hand leaps out to the fretboard and begins to tap the strings
with the fingers. However, one must get the pick out of the way in order
to tap. Some players do this by sticking the pick between their fingers;
others simply use the middle finger to tap.
The Van Halen technique of getting rid of the pick is done by moving the
pick into the space between the first and second joints of his middle
finger. Eruption by Eddie Van Halen is a good example of this technique.
### The Touch System
!Stanley Jordan As mentioned
before, this is a whole playing style and a whole book could be written
about it. The first musician to play this way was pickup designer Harry
DeArmond in the 1940\'s, who used tapping as a
way to demonstrate the sensitivity of his pickups. While each hand could
play its own part, DeArmond held his right hand in the same orientation
as conventional guitar technique. This meant the ability of that hand to
tap scale-based melody lines was limited. He taught his approach to
Gretch Guitars employee Jimmie Webster, who wrote an instruction book
called \"The Touch System for Amplified Spanish guitar.\" Webster made a
record and travelled around demonstrating the method. Even though it
inspired a few builders (Dave bunker, for example), the Touch System was
limited by the lack of equal movements for the right hand and never
caught on.
### The Free Hands Method
In 1969 Emmett Chapman, who had no
previous knowledge of DeArmond, Webster or any other tapping guitarists,
discovered that he could tap on the strings with both hands, and that by
raising the neck up could align the right hand\'s fingers with the frets
as on the left, but from above the fretboard. This made scale-based
melody lines just as easy to tap in the right hand as the left, and a
new way of playing a stringed instrument was born. Chapman redesigned
his home-made 9-string guitar to support his new playing method, and
began selling his new instrument (The Chapman Stick) to others in 1974.
In 1976 Chapman published his volume of collected lessons he used for
teaching guitarists and Stick players as \"Free Hands: A New Discipline
of Fingers on Strings.\"
It has been popularised by players such as Tony Levin, Nick Beggs, John
Myung, Bob Culbertson, and Greg Howard, and is currently experiencing a
surge in popularity due to the internet. Stanley Jordan became famous in
the 1980s for using the same method on the guitar. Jordan discovered the
method independently after Chapman did, was signed to Blue Note Records,
and released several successful albums.The method that Chapman invented
and Jordan also used allows complete self-accompaniment and
counterpoint, as on piano.
it:Chitarra/Tapping
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# Guitar/Octaves
## Octaves
Using octaves is a useful way of reinforcing melody lines. When a melody
is played simultaneously at different octaves; the ear interprets it as
a single melodic voice. Octave lead playing stands out and is not that
difficult to master. Any melody you know can be expanded to include
octaves. The diagram below shows three octave pairs of the note C. All
are movable and once grasped can be incorporated into your playing with
ease. Wes Montgomery was a jazz guitarist who made octaves his trademark
and his influence is heard in the work of the guitarist George Benson.
{width="1700"}
## C major scale using Octaves
{width="800"}\
==F major scale using Octaves==
{width="800"}
|
# Guitar/Chord Types
A chord is two or more different notes played simultaneously. Most
chords have three notes though. Chords derive their names from the
*root* note; so a C chord has C for its root note and a G7 chord will
have G. The interval between the root note and the third determines
whether a chord is a major or minor. Chords may be strummed or the notes
picked individually though beginners find strumming much easier. The
more advanced technique of picking is examined in the Picking and
Plucking chapter.
While chords are primarily used for rhythm guitar, basic chord knowledge
can be important for lead playing as well. Knowing how chords are
constructed can help when learning the lead parts of many songs since
there is always a relationship between a chord and the lead part. For
example, if you have to play a lead part over a C major chord (C-E-G)
and you use the notes of a D flat major chord (Db-F-Ab) then the result
will be very dissonant. Additionally, many lead patterns revolve around
arpeggios. These are chords with their notes played in sequence (the
word \"arpeggio\" actually means \"broken chord\") rather than together.
For more information on arpeggios, see the Arpeggio and Sweep
Picking chapter.
Chords are easy to play though understanding the theory behind chord
construction (harmony) will require some understanding of scales. While
it is not essential to have a knowledge of scales to be able to use this
section, understanding scales will definitely improve your general
musicianship. With that in mind, go ahead and learn and use these chords
without worrying too much about the theory and when you have the time
take a look at the page on general music theory and
the page on scales.
Beginners are advised to start with open
chords, which are often the easiest
chords to form. Learning open chords is important because it sets the
stage for learning how to form barre chords. Barre
Chords are chords you form by pressing
all (or some) of the strings down with the first finger. This finger
acts as the barre (the same job that the nut of the guitar does when you
are playing open chords). Because of this barre chords don\'t usually
include open strings and can be moved freely up and down the neck. As
you move your barre chord, the shape of the chord remains the same
although all the notes change. Barring is an important technique and
greatly opens up the neck of the instrument.
## Different Kinds of Chords
### Major chords
The most basic chord is called a triad and consists of three different
notes. A major triad consists of the root, a major third, and a perfect
fifth. The early study of chords should be based around how to build the
tonic triad (chord) from any major scale. To build the tonic triad you
take the first note of any major scale and the third note (a major 3rd)
and the fifth note (a perfect fifth). Take for example building a tonic
triad (chord) from the C major scale. If you look at this C major scale:
**C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C**
you will notice that the first, third and fifth notes of the scale are
C, E, and G. The most obvious thing that most guitarists become
instantly aware of is that the C major played in the first position
actually involves playing 5 strings and therefore must have more notes
than a triad. The C major chord shown below has these notes C, E, G, C,
E. If you cancel out the doubles you are left with a C major triad. This
brings us to an important rule: any chord tone (note) can be doubled
without affecting the chords designation. Therefore a C major triad
(C-E-G) and the first position C major chord below (C-E-G-C-E) are both
still C major chords though the 5 note version will sound fuller due to
the note doubling. Major chords have a characteristically bright and
happy sound.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Minor chords
The minor triad consists of a root, a minor third and a perfect fifth.
The interval between the root and third is a minor third and the
interval between the root and fifth is a perfect fifth. Minor chords
have a dissonant quality due to the interval of a minor third. It must
be remembered that we are talking about building chords from scales and
that these intervals, the minor third and perfect fifth, are the
interval designations from the scale which are then applied to naming
the intervals in a chord. Which is why the triad intervals are not named
1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively.
Minor chords are best understood in relation to their major chord
counterpart. In the example below we will use E major and E minor. When
we play an E major chord, we can flatten the third of the chord by
lifting the finger that is holding down the third string at the first
fret, making it an open string. By altering this one note so that the
interval is changed from a major third to a minor third, we have formed
a new chord: E minor.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: E minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**E minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Switching between major and minor chords can be relatively easy, as it
involves the change of only one note. Some chord changes, for example
changing between an open F major to a F minor, will need a little more
effort.
### Dominant Seventh chords
A minor seventh is added to a major chord. When a minor seventh is added
to any major chord that major chord is changed into a dominant seventh.
The dominant chord always refers to the chord built on the fifth degree
of any major scale. Look at the C major scale below:
**C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C**
The fifth degree of the scale is G. The chord built on the fifth
contains the notes: G-B-D. To change this dominant major chord to a
dominant seventh you need to add a fourth note. The note you add is F
(the minor seventh) which now makes: G-B-D-F. This chord has very strong
need to resolve usually to the tonic. The reason the interval in G-B-D-F
is called a minor seventh and not a perfect fourth is that interval
designation is determined from the root of the chord being discussed.
Take for example the G major scale below:
**G-A-B-C-D-E-F#-G**
As you can see the interval G-F# is a major seventh. You can form a
minor seventh interval by lowering the seventh by a semitone: G-F. This
holds true for all major seventh intervals.
At first it seems quite strange looking at the interval relationship of
another key to determine the chord intervals of the key you are playing
in. With practice it becomes very easy but does involve learning a few
major scales.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:A7> chord for guitar (open).png\|**A7** <File:G7> chord for guitar
(open).png\|**G7**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Sixth chords
Add a sixth to the chord. The two chords below are major chords from the
key of C with a sixth added.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:F6> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**F6 (Subdominant in C
major)** <File:C6> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**C6 (Tonic in
C major)**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Suspended chords
To form a suspended chord the third is replaced with either a second or
a fourth. The third of a chord defines its modality - whether a chord is
major or minor. By removing the third and replacing it with a second or
fourth you have suspended the chord\'s modal quality. This creates a
chord that is neither major or minor and the ear interprets the chord as
harmonically ambiguous.
Suspended chords derived from a D major chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Dsus2> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**Dsus2** File: D
major chord for guitar (open).png\|**D major** <File:Dsus4> chord for
guitar (open position).png\|**Dsus4**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Suspended chords derived from the A major chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Asus2> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**Asus2** File: A
major chord for guitar (open).png\|**A major** <File:Asus4> chord for
guitar (open position).png\|**Asus4**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Suspending an E major chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** <File:Esus4>
chord for guitar (open position).png\|**Esus4**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Slash chords
Chords that are not in root position. For example, a C/G is a C chord
with a bass note of G. They are also referred to as \"inversions\".
Slash chords are always notated with their chord name first followed by
the bass note.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:C> major chord for guitar (open position in second
inversion).png\|**C/G** <File:F> major chord for guitar (open position
in second inversion).png\|**F/C**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Diminished chords
These consist of a stack of minor thirds. You can extend a diminished
triad (three note chord) by adding another minor third; which gives you
a four note chord called a diminished seventh chord. The diminished
seventh chord is notated as Co7 or dim7. Diminished seventh chords are
built entirely from minor thirds, so you can move the chord shape up the
neck in intervals of a minor third (three frets) and this will be
exactly the same notes as the original chord but in a different order.
The term \"inversion\" is used when chords have their notes rearranged.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Edim7> chord for guitar (root).png\|**Edim7 - root position**
<File:Edim7> chord for guitar (third in bass).png\|**Edim7 - 1st
inversion** <File:Edim7> chord for guitar (fifth in bass).png\|**Edim7 -
2nd inversion**
```{=html}
</div>
```
A half-diminished chord consists of a diminished triad with a major
third on top. In other words, a half-diminished chord is a diminished
triad with a minor seventh.
Diminished chords are full of tension because of the dissonance created
by stacking minor third intervals and they are normally resolved to a
consonant major or minor chord.
|
# Guitar/Barre Chords
Barre chords are chords that involve using one finger, usually your
first finger, to press all the strings down at once on a single fret.
Barring turns your first finger into a movable
capo. You can then use your
remaining three fingers to play open chord shapes, but in any position
on the fretboard. Not all open chord shapes are easy to play with a
barre, but once you have learned barring techniques, your chord
vocabulary will increase and you will be able to play all along the
fretboard.
Initially, barre chords are much more difficult to play than open
chords. Before being able to play a barre chord, you first must train
your hand be able to barre the fretboard. To do this, you take your
first finger and press it lightly against the strings (applying no
pressure) so that the finger covers all the strings along the same fret.
Keep increasing the pressure until all the strings can be heard to sound
clearly. A common mistake for beginners is to barre with full pressure
which leads to hand fatigue. By lightly touching the strings and
increasing the pressure in small increments, you will find that the
pressure you need to apply to make the strings sound is much less than
you imagine. Your thumb should be directly behind your first finger on
the neck for full support. To illustrate the concept of a barre, compare
the difference between the open strings (where the nut acts like a
\"zero\" barre) and the full barre at the third fret.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: Open Strings.png\|**The nut acts as the barre** File: Full bar at
3rd Fret.png\|**Full barre at the third fret**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Six String Barre Chord
A six string barre chord is a chord in which all the strings are being
played. It can be compared to E chords, because, since the guitar is
tuned to E, it effectively is an open barre chord. (you can view all
open chords as a form of barre chords, which do not require you to press
all the 6 strings somewhere \[ because you use the open strings - 0 -
hence their name \]. Let us examine the form of a major six string barre
chord, in this case G, along with the major E chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: G major
chord for guitar (3rd fret full bar).png\|**G major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
In both of these chords, the relationship between the individual notes
is identical, which is why the G chord is still a major chord. The
difference is the root note, which determines the keys of the respective
chords. By looking at the root note, we can see that the difference
between all the notes of the E major and G major are three frets. But so
long as the relationship remains the same, the major barre chord form
can be played on any fret neck. For example, it could be played as an A
major or a B major by putting it in these two positions:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: A major chord for guitar (5th fret full bar).png\|**A major**
File: B major chord for guitar (7th fret full bar).png\|**B major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
The usefulness of barre chords comes from this ability to be played
anywhere on the neck. Sliding the chord shape up and down the neck
allows you to play many different chords relatively easily, and barre
chords are a fundamental tool for rhythm guitarists since they can
easily be used to create syncopated chord progressions.
As we saw earlier, the difference between a major and a minor chord is a
flattened third. Using a barre chord, the transition between a major and
a minor chord is relatively simple. The difference between an E major
chord and E minor chord is the lifting of a single finger, thereby
lowering the note by a semitone. With any barre chord that is formed
using the E major shape, you can lift a single finger and play the
corresponding minor chord. The minor barre chord form, shown beside the
major barre chord form:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: E minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**E minor** File: G major chord for guitar
(3rd fret full bar).png\|**G major** File: G minor chord for guitar (3rd
fret full bar).png\|**G minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
The same idea can be applied to seventh chords, or any other chord you
can think of.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E7 chord for guitar (open D).png\|**E7** File: G7 chord for guitar
(3rd fret full bar).png\|**G7**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Five String Barre Chords
The same principles hold for five string barre chords, except instead of
using the E chord shape, the A chord is used. Additionally, it should be
emphasised that only five strings are played, which means that the low E
string should not be allowed to sound.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: A major chord for guitar (open).png\|**A major** File: C major
chord for guitar (3rd fret bar).png\|**C major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
|
# Guitar/Movable Chords
Because of the relative tuning of the strings on a guitar, it is very
easy to play a variety of chords that can be moved up and down the neck.
The most basic types of movable chords are the power
chord and barre
chord. This section deals with chords
that, in general, do not use open strings. Once the shape of the chord
is memorised, it can be played anywhere on the fretboard.
## Major and Minor shapes
Movable chords often use the general shapes of open
chords. However, not all open chords are
easy to play as a movable chord. Note that C major and G major is
absent. This is because the shape of the chords, particularly G major,
demands of the guitarist an advanced technique. Classical guitarists use
a foot-stool and adopt a specific playing posture and hand position when
they play and this allows them to form these chords with relative ease.
The classical guitar also has nylon strings and these offer hardly any
resistance to fretting. That is not to say that the C major and G major
shape cannot be played on a steel-string acoustic; its just more
difficult because of the string tension. They are slightly easier to
play on the electric guitar. After mastering the easier shapes, try
learning the C major and G shapes. The D major shape and D minor movable
chords (as shown below) are usable but tend not to be used regularly due
to the shape being slightly awkward to hold and move to other chords.
The easiest shapes to learn are the E major and A minor chords shape.
Tip: the more difficult shapes can be broken down into smaller units and
they also make ideal arpeggio studies where you can approach them more
as a succession of notes in a riff without the need for forming the full
chord.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: A major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**A major** File: D major chord for guitar
(open).png\|**D major** File: E minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**E
minor** File: A minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor** File: D
minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**D minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
If you examine the notes that make up the chords, it becomes clear that
the thickest string plays the root note of the chords. Thus, in order to
turn these into movable chords, you also have to fret down an extra
string to complete the chord. Here are the same chords, but higher up
the neck in a movable shape. Notice how the shapes of the chord on the
strings you play are exactly the same as the open chords, except with
the thickest string now being fretted.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
<File:F> major chord for guitar (barred).png\|**F major** <File:B> major
chord for guitar (barred).png\|**B major** File: E major chord for
guitar (low E and A muted).png\|**E major** File: G minor chord for
guitar (E and B muted).png\|**G minor** <File:B> minor chord for guitar
(barred).png\|**B minor** File: E minor chord for guitar (low E and A
muted).png\|**E minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Inversions of Major and Minor
## \"Artist\" Chords
Although these guitarists certainly did not invent the chords, they made
them popular by using them in many of their songs. More often than not,
a player will first encounter them trying to learn a famous song. These
are loose categorizations, and are easily applicable to more than one
artist, so please keep that in mind.
### 7#9 (Hendrix Chords)
No chord reminds people more of Jimi Hendrix than the 7#9. These are
also used widely by Prince. The voicing for this shape is 1-3-7-#9.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: B7sharp9 chord for guitar.png\|**B7/#9** File: E7sharp9 chord for
guitar.png\|**E7/#9** File: A7sharp9 chord for guitar.png\|**A7/#9**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### 7/9 and 7/9/13 (James Brown Chords)
These chords are essential for getting a funk sound. The voicing for
this 7/9 shape is 1-3-7-9-5.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: B9 chord for guitar.png\|**B7/9** File: E9 chord for
guitar.png\|**E7/9** File: A9 chord for guitar.png\|**A7/9**
```{=html}
</div>
```
The 7/9/13chord is an easy modification of the 7/9 chord. It was perhaps
most famously used in \"Sex Machine\" by James Brown, as a change
between the 7/9 chord. Little changes like that give music some extra
texture and they also work particularly well in jazz.
Because the 7/9/13 chord requires five notes, you cannot play it with
less than five strings, or else you would be playing a different chord.
The voicing for this shape is 1-3-7-9-13.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: B13 chord for guitar.png\|**B7/9/13** File: E13 chord for
guitar.png\|**E7/9/13**
```{=html}
</div>
```
|
# Guitar/Chord Progressions
A knowledge of chord progressions will help you communicate and play
with other musicians. Knowing the most commonly used chord progressions
allows for greater enjoyment and unity when playing with other
musicians.
## The I-IV-V
The most common chord progression is I-IV-V. Note that Roman Numerals
are used to describe these chord progressions, where the \"I\" chord
stands for the chord on root note, the \"II\" for the chord on the
second note of the scale, and so on. Many songs use only these three
chords. If one views chords as a set of balancing scales with the root
note and octave root at opposing ends it will be noted that the IV and V
chords are at equal distance respectively to the root and octave root.
Take for example the key of C major:
**C - D - E - F - G - A - B - C**
You will see that the G note (or chord) is a fifth above the root note.
The note F is a fifth below the octave. This movement of a fifth is very
pleasing to the human ear in its sense of balance and cohesion in
relation to the root note. Another way to view chord progressions is
that of a journey. In the sense that the root (or tonic) chord is the
starting point and the octave root is at the end. All other points
(chords) provide interest and variation with the fourth and the fifth
chord occupying a special place on the journey due to them being
half-way.
Many chord progressions start at the tonic (I), moves away to somewhere
else, only to come back to the tonic. You can play this progression with
major chords or you can substitute minor chords for the IV or V.
### Applying the I-IV-V
Eddie Cochran and Buddy Holly are two artists who have used this
progression extensively. Note that this chord progression uses a V7
chord. A V7 chord is just a V chord with an extra note. It is so common
a device that when learning a chord progression many guitarist will play
it through a few times using I-IV-V (normal V chord with no extra note)
and then will play the chord progression I-IV-V7 a few times before
switching back to the normal I-IV-V.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:E> major chord.svg\|**E major (I)** <File:A> major chord.svg\|**A
major (IV)** <File:B7> chord.svg\|**B7 (V7)**
```{=html}
</div>
```
## I-vi-IV-V
This progression is commonly referred to as the 50\'s progression,
because it was common to many of the popular songs of the 1950\'s,
notably \"Stand by Me\". Note that the vi chord is a tonic extension, as
it contains many of the same notes as the tonic (I) chord. You may see
this progression with sevenths added in a blues song (e.g., G7, e min 7,
C7, D7). Here is the progression in the key of G major.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Gmaj> chord.svg\|**G major (I)** <File:Em> chord.svg\|**E minor
(vi)** <File:Cmaj> chord.svg\|**C major (IV)** <File:Dmaj>
chord.svg\|**D major (V)**
```{=html}
</div>
```
## The I-V-I-I
This is a popular progression at the beginning of a much larger line,
and can be combined with many other scale degrees.
## II-V-I
As its name indicates, the progression is: IImin7, V7 and Imaj7. In a
pop song, the chords might be IImin, V7, IMaj, with the first and last
chord being three-note chords (triads). In jazz, all three chords are
usually seventh chords. The II/V/I is important in jazz, where some
songs have the progression in a number of keys.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Dm7> chord.svg\|**Dm7 (ii-min7)** <File:G7th> chord.svg\|**G7
(V7)** <File:C> maj7 chord.svg\|**Cmaj7 (I)**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Alternatively you can change the chord type on the II, and alter the
voicing of the V. Some examples are:
- IIm7b5(9)/V7alt /Imaj7
(with a V7alt, the performer alters the 9th to b9 or #9 and/or makes the
11 into #11 and/or makes the 13 into b13)
### Applying the II-V-I
II-V-Is can be chained together, creating complex progressions. Here\'s
an example that starts in C major and moves to the relative minor, a
minor:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Cmaj> chord.svg\|**C major (I)** <File:Bm7b5> chord.svg\|**Bm7b5
(II)** <File:E7> chord.svg\|**E7 (V)** <File:Am7> chord.svg\|**Am7 (I)**
<File:Dm7> chord.svg\|**Dm7 (II)** <File:G7th> chord.svg\|**G7 (V)**
<File:C> maj7 chord.svg\|**Cmaj7 (I)**
```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
` C Bm7b5 E7 (I ii V)`\
` Am7 Dm7 G7 (I ii V)`\
` C (etc...) (I etc..)`
```{=html}
</div>
```
An example of complicated progression that can be created this way is
the \"Coltrane Changes\", where the
\"I\" chords move by Major 3rd intervals. Here\'s a simple example:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
` Dm7 G7 Cmaj7 (ii V I )`\
` F#m7 B7 Emaj7 (ii V I )`\
` Bbm7 Eb7 Abmaj7 (ii V I )`\
` Dm7 etc... (I etc...)`
```{=html}
</div>
```
The way the ii-V-I progression works is first that it moves by 4ths
upwards, which very often produces interesting results, and the 7th goes
down a half tone below and becomes the following chord\'s 3rd.
## Minor ii-V-i
Another commonly used chord progression is the minor ii-V-i. One can
derive this from the melodic minor scales shown above, while
substituting a IminMaj7 for the IMaj7 chord, or by using three
modes "wikilink") from one harmonic minor
scale , which produces the
following chord progression:
- ii m7 b5/ V7 / i
In the key of c minor, this would be:
- d m7 b5/ G 7 / c min
|
# Guitar/Alternate Picking
Alternate picking is an important skill, because it allows you to play
more than twice as fast than with just down picking. The basic idea is
that if you are picking just on down strokes, every time you bring the
pick back up to stroke down again, you are missing an opportunity to hit
the string again. Essentially alternate picking is more efficient,
because you have to move you hand less distance to hit the next note,
and it can be an important difference between hitting the note on time
or struggling to reach it.
As with other guitar skills, it doesn\'t sound even a little difficult
until you actually try and do it. It will take some time to master it
and get really fast. After doing it for a long time, you will begin to
notice that you are subconsciously deciding whether to alternate pick or
not, depending on the underlying rhythm. Ultimately alternate picking
allows you to play more efficiently, and thus faster.
Hold the pick in whichever method feels best for you. Only the top of
your pick should be seen and touch the string, because when you pick you
cover less distance and use less energy. Your movement should only come
from your wrist, not from your whole arm, and it should be precise.
There are many ways to practice alternate picking, but really it is
something that you have to merge into all of your guitar playing. Being
able to alternate pick at the right time is a very important step, and
it is one of the barriers that separate good guitar players and people
who just play guitar.
## Lesson 1
To introduce yourself to alternate picking, start with a simple exercise
beginning on the low E string.
e|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------1--2--3--4--------|
B|--------------------------------------------------------------1--2--3--4-----------------------|
G|-----------------------------------------------1--2--3--4--------------------------------------|
D|--------------------------------1--2--3--4-----------------------------------------------------|
A|--------------1--2--3--4-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
E|-1--2--3--4------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
e|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
B|-4--3--2--1------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
G|----------------4--3--2--1---------------------------------------------------------------------|
D|--------------------------------4--3--2--1-----------------------------------------------------|
A|-----------------------------------------------4--3--2--1--------------------------------------|
E|--------------------------------------------------------------4--3--2--1--2--3--4--5-----------|
Play this pattern up and down the strings, and then up and down the
whole neck. When you hit each note, you should make sure that you are
always picking in the opposite direction of the previous note. Try
playing faster, but always make sure you are fretting and picking each
note clean to develop good habits. A metronome is a good item to help
you with these sorts of exercises, because it helps you keep a steady
pace. Always spend time practicing at your maximum speed, but not for
the whole time; playing at an even pace is more important and builds
your internal sense of rhythm.
Once you are comfortable alternate picking, try fingering some chords
and pick through them, using alternate picking where appropriate. You
can stumble onto some famous songs completely by accident like this.
## Lesson 2
This pattern is a little more complicated, as it is a walk, where you
play a repeating pattern that always starts on the next highest note.
e|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
B|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
G|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
D|-----------------------------------------1-------1-2-----1-2-3---1-2-3-4------|
A|---------1-------1-2-----1-2-3---1-2-3-4---2-3-4-----3-4-------4--------------|
E|-1-2-3-4---2-3-4-----3-4-------4----------------------------------------------|
Continue the pattern up the strings, and make sure you are always
alternate picking. You will start to notice when sometimes it is better
to pick up or down twice in order to make the picking more efficient
overall.
## Lesson 3
This riff combines palm muting
and alternate picking.
e|--------------------------------------------------------------------|
B|--------------------------------------------------------------------|
G|-------------2---------------2---------------2---------------2--3---|
D|-------------2---------------2---------------2---------------2--3---|
A|-0-0-0-0-0-0-----0-0-0-0-0-0-----0-0-0-0-0-0-----0-0-0-0-0-0--------|
E|--------------------------------------------------------------------|
The open notes should be muted, and you should be using alternate
picking. This riff is very similar to a riff from Metallica\'s One.
## Additional Lessons
If you want more exercises, please see other sections of this book, and
perform the exercises there, except add in the alternate picking.
Alternatively, you could take a song you already know, and then pick the
chords using alternate picking. You will soon see how you can apply
alternate picking into every part of your guitar playing.
|
# Guitar/Tremolo Picking
## What is Tremolo Picking?
**Tremolo** means a modulation in volume; in the context of stringed
instruments, usually refers to repeatedly striking or bowing a single
string in a steady rhythm, especially the fastest rhythm the player can
maintain. (This technique is particularly common on the acoustic
mandolin.) In guitar literature, this is called *tremolo picking*, and
one of the few places the term \"tremolo\" is consistently used
\"correctly\" in guitar literature (whose convention usually reverses
tremolo and vibrato). This technique has nothing to do with a \"tremolo
bar\" (really a vibrato bar) or a \"tremolo\" effects box.
## How to hold the Pick
Tremolo picking, though appearing hard at first, is actually quite easy.
It is merely alternate picking at a faster speed. To start off, a pick
makes tremolo picking much easier and is highly recommended when
attempting it, but even though most people find tremolo picking much
easier with a pick, it is possible without a pick. The best way to hold
your pick is between your thumb and the side of the first knuckle of
your pointing finger, but if you feel more comfortable holding it
another way, such as with your thumb and middle finger then go ahead.
## How to Pick
The movement should come mostly from the wrist. A little bit of arm
movement is okay, but shouldn\'t be done intentionally. It is possible
to tremolo with the elbow, but the wrist is actually easier and faster
for most people with practice.
The motion done with the wrist should be like drawing quick zig zags, or
Vs. Picking should feel just like writing. Imagine drawing as many
connected V\'s as possible.
Do not play with your hand parallel to the strings. Pick like you write,
with your wrist at an angle.
## Grip
An important aspect of tremolo picking that many beginners fail to
realise is that you must have a relaxed grip on the pick, as when you
try to pick when holding the pick tensely, you will find that the pick
hits the string harder therefore making it harder to pass through the
string, causing it to sound sloppy. Maintaining a relaxed grip becomes
harder when playing faster, but you will get used to it.
## Things to Remember
When tremolo picking make sure you use just your wrist, as this will
make it much easier to pass through the string. Also, when you pick the
string, make sure your hand doesn\'t go to far away from it, as this
will slow you down. The impact from hitting the string usually forces
your hand to leave the string, but after practice, avoiding this will
become easier.
It\'s also important to remember that many beginners start to use the
thin side of the pick to tremolo, since the thin side has a smaller
surface area and passes through the strings easily. This is incorrect,
as the pick start to not only damage the strings, but also causes damage
to the wrists, and may further start to ring other strings. Use the flat
side of the pick to tremolo, not the thin border.
|
# Guitar/Rhythm
Good rhythm is almost essential to good guitar, and probably the
simplest to understand. Let\'s start with some terms:
Beat\
Bars\
Time signature
All bars (measures) consist of a number of beats. A very easy way to
grasp the idea of bars is to learn a 12 bar blues. The time signature
shows the number of beats in a bar and the note that will be used for
counting. For example, 4/4 - the top of the fraction shows the number of
beats and the bottom of the fraction shows the note unit used for
counting; which in this case is a quarter note. 4/4 is usually referred
to as common time. It may appear on the stave of printed music as either
4/4 or as a \"C\" as shown below. Whichever way the same information is
given - the piece of music has four beats to a bar and the counting note
is the quarter note.
!4/4, or common time
All the notes in Western music have a fractional relationship. We know
that in 4/4 time we will be using the quarter note as the reference for
counting. Play an open string note slowly and repeatedly while counting
in fours. Now play the open string note only when you count 1 and 3. You
have just played a half note. To play eighth notes count
\"1-and-2-and-3-and-4-and\" in the same time you would normally count
\"1-2-3-4\". For sixteenth notes the count is
\"1-e-and-a-2-e-and-a-3-e-and-a-4-e-and-a\". Here is a list of note
values used in Western music:
whole note\
half note\
quarter note\
eighth note\
sixteenth note
In common time a whole note consists of four quarter notes or four
beats. Each half note is two beats and quarter note is one beat.
There are other possible signatures, 3/4, 2/4, 6/8, 7/4 are some.
However it must be noted that over 90 percent of the music ever written
has been in common time. Triple time or 3/4 is the second most used time
signature. Once again the bottom of the fraction tells us that the
counting note is to be a quarter note but this time each bar is to only
have a count of 3. This is easily felt by playing and counting
\"1-2-3\". Triple time may also be called \"Waltz time\". Since time
signatures are fractional the question will arise as to what is the
difference between 3/4 timing and 6/8 timing. If you come across a 6/8
time signature it is best to take this as an indication to play the
piece of music \"briskly\" with even emphasis. It must be remembered at
all times that 4/4 timing is the most widely used time signature
especially so in rock and pop music.
To further apply the concept of beats, bars and time-signatures; let\'s
play a simple chord progression. Play G and D over two bars with a 4/4
time signature.
It will look like this (each measure separated by a pipe and each beat
denoted with a dash):
`G D`\
`|- - - - |- - - -|`\
` v v v v v v v v `
The \"v\" from now on denotes a downstroke and a \"\^\" denotes an
upstroke. Here. you are playing a downstroke on each beat (each tick of
the metronome) and nothing in between. Some people find it easier to
practice this without playing any chord, and muting all the strings. Try
that too.
Let\'s do some upstrokes now.
`G D`\
`|- - - - |- - - - |`\
` v^v^v^v^ v^v^v^v^`
Here, you are downstroking on the tick (intuitively called the
\'downbeat\') and upstroking in between the ticks ( the upbeat. A good
way to do this is to count your beats, \"one-and two and three and
four\" going down on the numbers and up on the ands. Most strumming
patterns you can here this going on, but slightly more complicated. Make
sure you are going down on downbeats and up on upbeats. A lot of people
who start playing tend to not follow this, and it mixes up your rhythm
badly. If you keep to this pattern, even with more complicated patterns,
you will not lose track of the beat.
If you listen to the above pattern, it will start to sound boring. But
it is the basis of all other patterns. When you hear a more complicated
pattern, most likely the player is missing some strums. Like this:
`G D`\
`|- - - - |- - - - |`\
` v^v^v^v^ v^v^v^v^`
|
# Guitar/Folk Guitar
## Introduction
!The folk singer Woody
Guthrie Folk music
is considered to be music that originates from the people. It is not the
preserve of professional composers because its themes and melodies are
derived from the experiences and lives of people who usually have no
professional musical training. The lyrics are usually an expression of
social or personal conditions. Work songs are a common folk theme and
are an excellent example of community and the lives of those who exist
within that community. Sea shanties and farming songs are two types of
folk music that have work related themes. It is only natural for
communities to express their joy at the arrival of spring and the
promise of a bountiful harvest or for sailors to celebrate their arrival
home after a long time at sea.
Folk music before modern recording tended to be regional and sung in
local dialects. The invention of sound recording meant that for the
first time these regional songs could be captured and preserved and
heard by people from different backgrounds and countries. Folk music had
always been passed down orally from generation to generation but
industrialization had led to the fragmentation of traditional rural
communities as people moved to industrial urban towns and cities.
Musicologists became very aware that the old songs were disappearing and
soon there was a movement to capture the songs using the technique of
field-recording. Alan Lomax is one of the most famous of these early
scholars who took to the roads of America with the aim of recording folk
music for the Archive of American Song of the Library of Congress. In
England the work was done by the composer Percy Grainger.
Despite all these changes, folk music will always have its place in
society. The form that the music takes may change but never the reason
for its existence.
## Playing Folk Music
!Joan Baez and Bob
Dylan The recording
of an old Lead Belly (Huddie Ledbetter) song \"Goodnight, Irene\" by The
Weavers in 1949 revived general interest in folk music and gave rise to
a new movement in the 1950s that was called the American folk music
revival. The next decade
saw the distinction between popular music and folk music becoming
blurred. In the US and many other countries, folk music and folk guitar
became very popular and musicians like Bob Dylan wrote contemporary folk
music that encapsulated the feelings and politics of the 1960s. This
style most often uses an acoustic guitar, open chords, simple chord
progressions and vocals. You can
play folk guitar with a pick, or by finger
picking. This style is simple,
yet diverse enough to let you play a variety of tunes.
Folk music evolved during the 1960s into folk-rock and the electric
guitar started to take on the role once reserved for the acoustic
guitar. However many of the 1960s rock bands also featured acoustic
guitar songs on their albums. These songs are not \"folk music\" in an
historical sense but they are a modern adaption of the older folk style
and are now generally referred to as \"acoustic music\". Often they use
the same progressions as older folk songs but incorporate a catchy
strumming pattern, rhythm or singing style. Here\'s a short list of
songs that have a folk influence:
- House Of The Rising Sun - The Animals
- The Times They Are A Changing - Bob Dylan
- Sloop John.B - The Beach Boys
These are songs that have become immensely popular, such that many
people can sing them communally though they may need prompting to
remember the next verse. Although these songs can often be performed on
an acoustic guitar, they are not quite \"folk\". You are encouraged to
learn these songs and perform them with the view of encouraging others
to sing along.
This section will provide the basics of folk guitar. By taking open
chords and learning some common (and
important!) chord changes, you will learn the principles of folk guitar.
## E to A
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: A major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**A major**
This is an E major changing to an A major. This is one of the easiest
progressions to play since the chord forms are so similar.
## C to G
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major** File: G major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major**
This is a C major changing to a G major.
## D to G
File: D major chord for guitar (open).png\|**D major** File: G major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major**
This is a D major changing to a G major.
## F to C
File: F major chord for guitar (open).png\|**F major** File: C major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major**
This is a F major changing to a C major.
## Am to C
File: A minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor** File: C major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major**
This is an A minor changing to a C major.
## Em to G
File: E minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**E minor** File: G major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major**
This is an E minor changing to a G major
## Dm to Am
File: D minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**D minor** File: A minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor**
This is a D minor changing to an A minor
|
# Guitar/Slide Guitar
## Introduction
A slide is a metal/glass/ceramic tube which fits over a finger (most
commonly the ring finger or little finger, but any will work). If you
wish to experiment with slide guitar, but do not have a slide, objects
ranging from lighters and glass bottles to sections of metal pipe and
batteries can work just as well, and in some cases provide entertainment
and stage presence to a performance. *Do not press the string down.* The
slide rests on the string, not enough to give fret buzz, but enough to
stop the string buzzing against the slide. Some players will lightly
deaden the string behind the slide with a trailing finger to stop any
unwanted vibrations.
!A metal slide being
used
Practice getting a crisp note without sliding first. Because the slide
rests on the strings, the slide playing a single note should be directly
above the fret, not behind it as with the fingers. Usually the slide
guitarist keeps the slide moving backwards and forwards slightly to
create a vibrato effect.
A common technique found in slide guitar is playing fingerstyle as
opposed to the use of a pick or plectrum. The benefits of fingerstyle
playing includes the ability to more easily pick the desired strings,
while using the other fingers to dampen the other strings from undesired
vibration. Raising the action of the guitar is also recommended. The
normal low action, which is ideal for playing lead in standard tuning,
is counter-productive when playing slide because of string buzz and lack
of a clear sounding note. For this reason many guitarists have a second
guitar where they raise the action to such a height to make it almost
unplayable using normal technique. This high action guitar is
permanently kept in an \"open tuning\" and is used exclusively for slide
playing. Note that raising (or lowering) the action means that the
intonation of the guitar has to be re-set. This can simply be done with
a guitar tuner and just involves turning the string adjuster until the
open string and its octave at the twelfth fret (fretted and harmonic)
produce exactly the same note. Basically the needle or display of an
electronic guitar tuner should settle exactly dead center regardless of
whether you are playing an open high E string or fretting its octave at
the twelfth fret. A guitar that is correctly set up will show this on
all strings. Setting the action of electric guitars is very easy due to
the string adjusters; however, acoustic guitars have their intonation
set at the factory and don\'t have string adjusters. Adjusting the
action of an acoustic should be left to a guitar shop or luthier who
specializes in repair and maintenance.
Though slide guitar is often played in open chord
tunings, Open G and Open D being
the most common, playing slide in standard tuning is also possible and
can add a new dimension to your playing. Slide guitar has always
provided a fascinating approach to playing the guitar and the sound of
the slide has found a home in genres such as rock and country.
## History
One of the earliest mentions of slide guitar is in W.C.Handy\'s
autobiography \"Father Of The Blues\":
\"As he played, he pressed a knife on the strings of the guitar in a
manner popularized by the Hawaiian guitarists who used steel bars\"
This is also one of the earliest references to the blues. As you can
tell from the quote above the use of the slide in no late-comer to the
blues genre and there is large body of work from the 1920s to the
present day. No guitarist can confuse the slide playing of Duane Allman
with that of Robert Johnson. Each period informs of itself the dictates
of taste and style.
### 1930s
Robert Johnson is cited as the first great slide guitarist. Other famous
blues performers had comer before him, Blind \"Lemon\" Jefferson was a
major entertainer during the 1920s but Robert Johnson is considered to
be the first major exponent of the slide. During his life-time he only
recorded a handful of tracks and though known locally for being a fine
entertainer; the world-wide fame that is associated with his name now is
more down to later blues fans and guitarists who have sought the roots
of the blues.
|
# Guitar/Country and Western
## Introduction
!The Appalachian Region of the
US{width="375"}
Country music is an American genre of music that can trace its roots
back to earlier European folk songs that the arriving immigrants brought
with them. It developed in the Appalachians and surrounding states;
changing the forms and sounds of the earlier folk songs until the music
reflected the conditions that these early American settlers experienced.
The music itself has never stopped absorbing elements from other genres
such as blues, ragtime, jazz, rock and contemporary folk. It is this
vitality that has kept country music at the heart of American culture.
### History
Country music, like most early folk music, was passed down orally from
generation to generation; with each adding to the existing tradition.
The guitar, being cheap and portable, was ideal for country musicians
and from the earliest days has been associated with the music.
It was the invention of the phonograph and radio that led to the
creation of the first national country stars The Carter Family. The
Carter Family also sung gospel, Victorian ballads and vaudeville songs.
The guitar solo in their song \"Wildwood Flower\" is an early example of
characteristics that are still to be found in country lead breaks.
Country guitarists also absorbed elements from the blues and slide
guitar started to be featured shortly after the success of the Carter
Family. Jimmie Rodgers (1897-1933) was the first solo star of country
music and his guitar style is a mixture of country alternating bass and
the blues form.
Country music took on some on the elements of the big band era of the
1930s. The growth of bigger bands that included instruments such as
drums and saxophones led to the creation of Western Swing. Whereas the
music of the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers had retained some of the
earlier folk ballad qualities; Western Swing was primarily for dancing.
### Guitars
Acoustic guitars have been a firm favourite for country musicians since
the 1920s. The open resonating sound of these guitars suit the country
and western chordal style. The Gibson L-5 was popular, the instrument
played by Maybelle Carter, as were Martin guitars. It must not be
overlooked that Gibsons and Martins are professional marque guitars and
that many players would have started on cheaper models by other
manufacturers.
The Dobro Resonator guitar was also used from the 1930s onwards. Its
unique timbre appealed to country guitarists and its volume allowed it
to be heard amongst the expanding line-up of instruments.
Other instruments that are commonly used in country music are the fiddle
and banjo.
## Exercise One
This exercise uses these chords:
`<font face="Courier New">`{=html} <File:G> major chord for guitar
(open).png\|**G** <File:C> major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C**
<File:D> major chord for guitar (open).png\|**D** `</font>`{=html}
This is an exercise for alternating the bass. It is recommended that
this exercise be played without a plectrum. Use the thumb of your right
hand to play the alternating bass notes. The right hand fingers must
also form a \"claw\" and be placed on the three treble strings to start
this exercise. The ring finger of the right hand always takes the
highest note. After playing the bass note with your thumb; slightly lift
your right hand fingers to sound the treble strings. Do not pluck or
pull away your right hand. A slight lift of your right hand index,
middle and ring finger is enough to sound the chord and then return your
hand back for the next lift. Practice this exercise slowly for accuracy
especially placing the claw correctly and ensuring that after the lift
the fingers are only millimeters away and ready to be placed again.
There should be no movement of the forearm or wrist; all the work is
done by the fingers. The left hand holds down the chords as shown above.
Most tab exercises will have chord diagrams that show the chords to be
used.
!Country style alternating bass in G
major{width="800"}\
## Essential Country Guitarists and Recordings
- The Carter Family - a long career has led to many Carter Family
recordings. The original Carter Family line-up recorded between 1927
and 1941 for the Victor label. Many of the original Carter Family
radio performances are in the public domain and can be found online
for listening or download.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Jimmie Rodgers - his first hit record was \"Blue Yodel (T for
Texas)\". The first country solo artist to achieve national fame in
the US.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Hank Williams - the writer of \"Your Cheating Heart\" and \"Hey,
Good Lookin\"
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Willie Nelson - the country performer and song-writer who wrote
\"Crazy\" which was a world-wide hit for Patsy Cline.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Chet Atkins - one of the architects of the Nashville sound. A
guitarist and arranger of wide skills who has performed on the
records of Elvis Presely and the Everley Brothers as well as issuing
his own solo releases and duos with the guitarist Jerry Reed.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Leon McAuliff - one of the great Western Swing steel guitarists.
Played with Bob Wills\' Texas Playboys.
|
# Guitar/Metal
*This article uses musical notation called tablature. If you are
inexperienced in reading tablature, you might want to visit this
page*
!Tony Iommi of Black Sabbath. Black Sabbath are recognised as one of
the earliest Metal
bands.
Metal is a genre of music that stemmed from rock in the late 70\'s.
Today, there are many sub-genres of heavy metal that share similarities
and differences. Guitars in heavy metal are almost always distorted and
are often downtuned.
## Techniques
These are some techniques that are mostly unique to metal or hard rock.
### Power Chords
A major element of heavy metal is the use of power chords. Standard
tuning of a guitar is (from the thickest string to the thinnest)
**E,A,D,G,b,e** Power chords in this tuning can be performed as follows:
` e|----------------| A power chord consists of a root note, its higher octave, and the lower note's fifth.`\
` b|----------------|`\
` G|----------------|`\
` D|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----`**`Octave`**\
` A|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----`**`Fifth`**\
` E|0-3-5---0-3-5---| <-----`**`Root`**
Not always, however, does a power chord have to have an octave. It may
be simply the root and fifth.
### Drop D and Drop Tunings
In dropped tunings, such as dropped D (**D,A,D,G,b,e**), power chords
are more easily played by lowering the bottom (thickest) string two
semi-tones. In dropped D, this note is a D. The same riff, transposed
and played in dropped D follows:
` e|----------------|`\
` b|----------------|`\
` G|----------------|`\
` D|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----`**`Octave`**\
` A|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----`**`Fifth`**\
` D|2-5-7---2-5-7---| <-----`**`Root`**
Playing in this tuning makes it possible to use only one finger to fret
all three strings, allowing faster and more complex riffing.
### Palm Muting
Also, in metal, palm muting plays a large role, although it is also used
in other genres. Palm muting is placing the side of your palm, while
playing, close to or on the bridge, and lightly muting the strings.
This, combined with heavy distortion, creates a thick, \"chug\" sound.
Just one example of this occurs in DevilDriver\'s \"I Dreamed I Died.\"
` X's are placed on the line underneath notes which are to be muted.`\
` `\
` C#|--------------------------------|--------------------------------|`\
` A|--------------------------------|--------------------------------|`\
` E|--------------------------------|--------------------------------|`\
` B|0--------------00-0-0-3=========|0--------------00-0-0-6=========|`\
` F#|0--------------00-0-0-3=========|0--------------00-0-0-6=========|`\
` B|0--------------00-0-0-3=========|0--------------00-0-0-6=========|`\
` xx x x xx x x `
### Pinch Harmonics
Used in lots of kinds of metal, but more in death metal or extreme
metal, pinch harmonics create a \"screaming\" or \"squealing\" sound.
They are sometimes referred to as \"Squealies,\" and mostly are played
on the higher strings of the guitar. To perform a pinch harmonic usually
requires the use of a plectrum, or pick. The technique involves holding
the pick between the thumb and index, lower on the thumb than normal. By
doing this, the bottom of the thumb is closer to the strings, and when a
note is hit, the thumb should barely touch the vibrating string.
` e|----------------|`\
` b|----------------|`\
` G|----------------|`\
` D|3-2-3-2-3-2-3*--| Often, pinch harmonics are shown by placing an asterisk next to the note that is a harmonic.`\
` A|3-2-3-2-3-2-----|`\
` D|3-2-3-2-3-2-----|`
## Exercises
Here are some tabs that will help you train and condition your fingers.
### Power Chords
Here\'s a basic power chord sequence, no palm muting.
` e|----------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` B|----------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` G|----------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-6-9-5-|`\
` A|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-6-9-5-|`\
` D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-5-3-6-0-6-9-5-|`
Here\'s a similar riff, a little harder.
` e|------------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` B|------------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` G|------------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-10-12-13| <-\`\
` A|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-10-12-13| <-Understand this is "10", "12", 13"`\
` D|0-3-2-1-0-1-2-3-0-3-2-1-0-3-6-3-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-10-12-13| <-/`
An even tougher riff, using palm muting.
` e|----------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` B|----------------------------------------------------------------|`\
` G|----------------------------4-------------5-7-8-----------5-7-8-|`\
` D|003-2-1-001-2-3-003-2-1-003-4-3-003-6-3-005-7-8-0-5-3-6-0-5-7-8-|`\
` A|003-2-1-001-2-3-003-2-1-003-2-3-003-6-3-003-5-6-0-5-3-6-0-3-5-6-| `\
` D|003-2-1-001-2-3-003-2-1-003---3-003-6-3-00------0-5-3-6-0-------|`\
` xx xx xx xx xx xx x x`
A riff that requires clever use of fingers:
` B|----------------|`\
` F#|----------------|`\
` D|--------------7-|`\
` A|----------------|`\
` E|223-5-3-6-3-225-|`\
` A|223-5-3-6-3-22--|`\
` xx xx`
### Fast Riffing
` e|--------------------------------| Remember to start slowly and build up speed once you understand the riff.`\
` B|--------------------------------|`\
` G|--------------------------------|`\
` D|--------------------------------|`\
` A|----------5-----------5-0-3/6---|`\
` D|0-3-6-0-6---0-3-6-0-6---0-3/6---|`\
` x x x x x x x x x `
` e|--------------------------------|`\
` b|--------------------------------|`\
` G|--------------------------------|`\
` D|0-0-0-3/6-0-0-0-----0-1/3-0-1---| Note: You may find it easier to slide from 3 to 6 with your middle finger`\
` A|0-0-0-3/6-0-0-0-----0-1/3-0-1---| rather than your index.`\
` D|0-0-0-3/6-0-0-0-3/6-0-1/3-0-1---|`\
` x x x x x x x ^^^`\
` Hold note`
This riff does not only involve power chords:
` e|--------------------------------|`\
` b|--------------------------------|`\
` G|--------------------------------|`\
` D|--------------------------------|`\
` A|----2---1---2-----------5-2-2-3-|`\
` D|2-2---2---2---2-2-2-2-2-5-2-2-3-|(x2)`\
` x x x x x x x x x x x `\
` `\
` `\
` e|--------------------------------|`\
` b|--------------------------------|`\
` G|--------------------------------|`\
` D|----0-------0-------------------|`\
` A|----0---4---0-----------3-0-0-1-|`\
` D|0-0---0-6-0---0-0-0-0-0-3-0-0-1-|(x2)`\
` x x x x x x x x x x x`
### Pinch Harmonics
## Metal Styles
This section should explain some differences between many genres of
metal and provide example riffs in the style of each.
### Progressive Metal
Progressive metal tends to use long, dramatic song structures as well as
unusual time signatures. Typically progressive metal draws influence
from both metal and progressive rock. There is no defining progressive
metal sound, and many progressive metal bands also fit within other
genres. Some examples include Neurosis, Fates Warning, Dream Theater and
Opeth.
### Death Metal
Death metal evolved out of thrash metal. Death metal tends to use a lot
of dramatic tempo and key changes as well as atonal chromatic riffing.
The genre is famous for its distinct vocal style; called the \"death
grunt\" which is a low, growling form of singing that often make lyrics
very hard to make out. Some examples include Origin, Necrophagist,
Cannibal Corpse, Suffocation, Deicide, Behemoth and Death. Another
variant of Death Metal is melodic Death Metal. Some examples include
Amon Amarth, In Flames, The Black Dahlia Murder and Dethklok.
`B|--------------------------------|`\
`G|--------------------------------|`\
`D|--------------------------------|`\
`A|--------------------------------|`\
`E|----4---3-----------4---3-------|`\
`B|2-3---3---2-0-1-2-3---3---2-0-1-|`
### Doom Metal
Doom metal focuses on very slow tempos and atmospheric riffs, with the
purpose of creating an eerie and depressive sound. This is probably the
metal subgenre with less palm muting and \"chug\" riffs. Some examples
include Candlemass, Cathedral, Funeral, Paradise Lost and Solitude
Aeternus.
### Black Metal
Black metal is death metal\'s faster, grimmer sounding cousin. Instead
of focusing on being as heavy as possible black metal tends to focus on
atmospheric riffs. Some black metal uses keyboards to add a symphonic
sound. Some examples of black metal include: Mayhem, Darkthrone, Burzum,
Emperor, Gorgoroth, Cradle Of Filth and Celtic Frost.
### Grindcore
!Mitch Harris of Napalm Death at Hammerfest
2010
Grindcore is not (by common misconception) a form of metal. It is a punk
sub-genre before all else, although it has had a great influence on the
more extreme sub-genres of metal, most notably Brutal Death Metal It is
characterized by blisteringly fast and abrasive riffs and downtuned
guitars, usually detuned to Drop-C. The band that pioneered this
sub-genre of punk was Napalm Death with their album \"Scum\".
### Speed Metal
Speed metal, as the name indicates, focuses greatly on speed. Speed
metal is generally considered the precursor to thrash metal (as seen
with the first Megadeth and Metallica albums), focusing more on
NWOBHM-style riffs at an increased than general thickness of guitar
tone. Still, speed metal is an ill-defined genre and is usually paired
with power metal. Despite insistence from some metal fans, DragonForce
and acts that focus on shredding are not speed metal.
### Thrash Metal
Thrash metal started as a hybrid of speed metal and thrash, an offshoot
of hardcore punk. Thrash metal tends to employ fast, gallop picked
rhythms and complex, technical parts. Some examples of thrash metal are
Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Metallica, early Sepultura and Metal Church.
Some examples of thrash/thrashcore/crossover thrash are Dirty Rotten
Imbeciles, Stormtroopers of Death, Municipal Waste and Charles Bronson.
!Kirk Hammett and James Hetfield of Metallica at The O2 Arena, London,
England
### Alternative/Groove Metal
Groove metal/post-thrash evolved out of thrash metal. Groove metal bands
tend to include slow, chunky riffs alongside more thrash oriented riffs.
Groove metal was rather successful during the mid-90s and spawned
nu-metal. Some examples of groove metal are Pantera, DevilDriver, later
Sepultura and Lamb of God.
### Metalcore
Metalcore is hardcore punk with metal influences. Metalcore evolved in
New York. As New York Hardcore bands added beatdown parts and gradually
added more and more metal influences the common \'tough guy\' sound
became more and more heavy. Some metalcore bands are Shai Hulud, Botch,
Killswitch Engage and Throwdown.
|
# Guitar/Jazz
## Jazz basics
**Jazz chords:**
Early jazz bands used the banjo as an accompaniment instrument because
its loud volume gave it the ability to be heard, unamplified, against
brass and percussion. As an acoustic instrument, the banjo was limited
to a rhythmic role.
The electric guitar eventually replaced the banjo mainly due to its
extended range and improvements in timbre and the volume boost provided
by amplification. The early jazz guitarists played block chords to
provide the rhythmic support that was once the role of the banjo. They
had to adopt an economic chordal style to match some of the fast tempos
they were expected to play. This involved three or four note chords and
this legacy is to be found in all jazz guitar styles. Here are three
movable exercises illustrating the basic jazz chord vocabulary:
_**Exercise one: Four note jazz chords in root
position**_
<File:G> major jazz chord for guitar
(root).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:G> major7 jazz chord for guitar
(root).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G
maj7**`</span>`{=html} <File:G7> jazz chord for guitar
(root).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G7**`</span>`{=html}
<File:G6> jazz chord for guitar
(root).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G6**`</span>`{=html}
_**Exercise two: four note jazz chords in first
inversion**_
<File:E> major jazz chord for guitar (first
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**E
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:E> major7 jazz chord for guitar (first
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**E
maj7**`</span>`{=html} <File:E7> jazz chord for guitar (first
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**E7**`</span>`{=html}
<File:E6> jazz chord for guitar (first
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**E6**`</span>`{=html}
_**Exercise three: three note jazz chords in second
inversion**_
<File:C> major jazz chord for guitar (second
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:C> major7 jazz chord for guitar (second
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C
maj7**`</span>`{=html} <File:C7> jazz chord for guitar (second
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C7**`</span>`{=html}
<File:C6> jazz chord for guitar (second
inversion).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C6**`</span>`{=html}
Note that in each of the above exercises there is a change of only one
note to form the next chord and that this change takes place on one
string.
## Jazz forms
The two main forms in Jazz are the twelve bar blues and the
thirty-two-bar ballad. The \"rhythm
changes\" chord progression is a 32-bar form.
The thirty-two-bar ballad will normally take the sectional formː
**A - A - B - A**
Each section consisting of eight bars. Section B is sometimes described
as the bridge and will usually modulate to a related key eventually
returning to the home key towards the end of the section. Each section
can respectively be labelledː
**Statement - Statement - Development - Recapitulation (Return of
Statement)**
A famous thirty-two bar ballad is \"Misty\" by Erroll Garner with lyrics
written by Johnny Burke. Using the lyrics from the Sarah Vaughan version
of \"Misty\" and taking into account the four bar instrumental
introduction we can separate the sections into their respective
componentsː
**A (Statement)ː**
\"Look at me. I\'m as helpless as a kitten up a tree. And I feel like
I\'m clinging to a cloud. I can\'t understand. I get misty just holding
your hand\"
**A (Statement)ː**
\"Walk my way. And a thousand violins begin to play. Or it might be the
sound of your hello. That music I hear. I get misty the moment you\'re
near\"
**B (Development)**ː
\"You can say that you\'re leading me on. But it\'s just what I want you
to do. Don\'t you notice how hopelessly I\'m lost. That\'s why I\'m
following you\"
**A (Recapitulation)ː**
\"On my own. Would I wander through this wonderland alone. Not knowing
my right foot from my left. My hat from my glove. I\'m too misty and too
much in love\"
## Jazz style
Jazz rhythms are meant to swing. While not all jazz consists of swinging
rhythms, some may have a straight eighth note feel, it is important to
become familiar with this style of playing. Swing is a difficult style
to notate because it involves pulling and pushing against the beat and
therefore students approach jazz by listening to the music first. If you
are new to jazz then the song \"My Favorite Things\" from the musical
`<i>`{=html}The Sound Of Music`</i>`{=html} is a good place to start.
Listen to John Coltrane\'s jazz version and compare it against the
original soundtrack version. You will notice that the original version
swings less and that Coltrane\'s version lasts longer. Jazz musicians
are expected to be able to improvise and this is exactly what Coltrane
does by extending the song\'s harmony and melody beyond its original
form. The drums and piano in Coltrane\'s version swing in comparison to
the backing instruments of the original. Swing may be difficult to
notate on manuscript paper but it is easy to hear in performance.
The use of octaves is a common technique in jazz guitar. Once a jazz
guitarist has learned the notes to a melody they will then play the same
melody using octaves. Audiences hear octaves as a single melodic line
and therefore using octaves is a highly effective technique for
reinforcing the melody line. Jazz guitarists are also very adept at
playing scales backwards. The jazz guitarist Kenny Burrell on the album
`<i>`{=html}Midnight Blue`</i>`{=html} uses simple minor pentatonic
scales to great effect starting on their highest note and descending
through the scale to the lowest note. Playing scales backwards is a
technique that provides for surprise openings, unusual bridges and
tension releasing.
Many famous early jazz guitarists cited horn players as a major
influence. The rise of jazz coincided with the development of the radio
and gramophone and early recordings of jazz played a major role in
developing the main stylistic elements of the genre. Louis Armstrong\'s
\"West End Blues\" (Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five - 1928) is
considered one of the masterpieces of early jazz and cemented the role
of the brass soloist. Jazz guitarists from that period took note and
soon it became standard practice for guitarists to copy horn riffs.
Charlie Christian (Benny Goodman Band 1939 - 1941) is still considered
by many as one of the great players of the instrument with many of his
riffs displaying horn-like qualities. Christian also played a role in
the development of Be-Bop participating in jams with Dizzy Gillespie and
Theolonius Monk at Minton\'s Playhouse in New York (1941) which were
recorded by a jazz fan. These recordings represent the transition from
Swing to Be-Bop and offer a rare chance to hear the informal after-hours
meetings of some of the greatest players in jazz.
A good jazz guitarist will normally have a few horn riffs in his
vocabulary. Try playing along to a Miles Davis or John Coltrane
recording and preferably choose a slow tempo ballad which will allow you
time to hear and emulate. Brass instruments are melodic instruments and
therefore, unlike the guitar, horn players cannot form chords. This
means that horn players develop very strong melodic capabilities and
this provides an ideal opportunity for a guitarist to improve their solo
lines.
The sound of the city. The age of the automobile. The wireless radio and
electric neon lights. Jazz must be placed in its social context. Duke
Ellington\'s \"Take the A Train\" invokes a New York train journey and
the pace of urban life. A listener\'s response to the Miles Davis and
Gil Evans interpretation of the slow movement from \"Concierto de
Arunjuez\", the most popular guitar concerto in the Classical
repertoire, can only conclude that the style is jazz but the themes are
Spanish. Music transcends geography and time offering the listener\'s
imagination new ground to traverse.
The study of jazz styles is the study of context. The importance of this
should be borne in mind to avoid dismissing certain jazz styles. The
validity of \"Early Autumn\" by Woody Herman is equal to the validity of
\"Take The A Train\" by Duke Ellington. The soulful sound of \"Mercy
Mercy Mercy\" by Cannonball Adderley is no less jazz than the live
performance in Berlin of \"How High The Moon\" by Ella Fitzgerald.
Context must be extended to take into account the length of career and
the artist\'s complete output. The later work of Billie Holiday was
marred by personal problems and is not a true indication of her
artistry. The popularity of Louis Armstrong and his later commercial pop
music does not tell you why he was so important to the development of
Jazz.
The black-tie Sinatra singing \"My Way\" in his later years masks the
original vocal phrasing that he developed with the Tommy Dorsey Band
that Miles Davis based his own trumpet style upon. To know that Benny
Goodman acquired some of his music charts from Fletcher Henderson
provides the opportunity to discover Chu Berry and Coleman Hawkins.
Context provides the means to see that jazz style is not exclusively or
independently developed by genius or any one group or person. Two
versions of \"Sugar Foot Stomp\", as performed by Fletcher Henderson,
will illustrate the style analysis of early Jazz stated in the
introduction - block chords, fast tempos, and the change from banjo to
guitar - \"Sugar Foot Stomp\" recorded in 1925 by Fletcher Henderson
with banjo played by Charlie Dixon and the 1931 version recorded by
Fletcher Henderson under the name Connie\'s Inn Orchestra with guitar
played by Clarence Holiday.
### Exercise one
The following exercise is a single chorus of the twelve bar blues with a
solo in the style of Charlie Christian. It is a simplified version of
the first chorus from \"Profoundly Blue\" and is transposed down a
semi-tone from the original key of E flat.
!This exercise is in the style of Charlie
Christian{width="800"}
\
You can tune your guitar up a semi-tone to compensate for the
transposition. Play the Charlie Christian version and tune your open D
string up a semi-tone to E flat which is the key of the original
recording. Tune the rest of the strings to the open D string.
### Movement exercises
These three exercises lend themselves to the 12-bar blues form. They are
designed to aid movement along the fretboard and to give the student the
chance to practice applying one chord on each beat of a bar.
_**Exercise one**_
<File:1> - G major jazz guitar chord (3rd
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:2> - C major jazz guitar chord (5th in
bass).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:3> - G7 jazz guitar chord (3rd
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G7**`</span>`{=html}
<File:4> - C major jazz guitar chord (5th in
bass).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C
major**`</span>`{=html}
_**Exercise two**_
<File:5> - C major jazz guitar chord (5th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:6> - F major jazz guitar chord (5th in
bass at 7th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**F
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:7> - C7 jazz guitar chord (8th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**C7**`</span>`{=html}
<File:8> - F major jazz guitar chord (5th in bass at 7th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**F
major**`</span>`{=html}
_**Jazz Movement Exercise Three**_
<File:9> - D major jazz guitar chord (10th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**D
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:10> - G major jazz guitar chord (5th in
bass at 9th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G
major**`</span>`{=html} <File:11> - D7 jazz guitar chord (10th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**D7**`</span>`{=html}
<File:12> - G major jazz guitar chord (5th in bass at 9th
fret).png\|`<span style="font-family:Courier New;">`{=html}**G
major**`</span>`{=html}
## Essential guitarists and recordings
!The jazz guitarist Pat Metheny; whose understated guitar style drew
not only praise from jazz fans but also gained him a following from many
who had no experience of
jazz.
The following list of influential jazz guitarists illustrates the major
stylistic changes in Jazz ranging from Swing to Progressiveː
- Django Reinhardt was gypsy
guitarist born in Belgium who played swinging jazz lines on a
Maccaferri acoustic guitar. His signature tune was the Debussy
inspired \"Nuages\" whose opening motif alludes to the Impressionist
composer\'s \"Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun\".
- Charlie Christian was the first
guitarist to popularize the electric guitar as a solo instrument in
jazz. Listen to the recordings he made with Benny Goodman in the
late 1930s, including \"Solo Flight.\"
- Tal Farlow brought the harmonic and
melodic innovations of the Bebop style of jazz
to the guitar. His mid-1950s recordings are recommended listening.
- Jim Hall brought a motif-based style of
improvisational development to the jazz guitar. His recordings with
Bill Evans are an excellent starting point.
- Wes Montgomery is renowned for his
horn-like single lines, innovative octaves, and chord solos. The
three essential Wes Montgomery recordings, all from the early 1960s,
are `<i>`{=html}The Incredible Jazz Guitar of Wes
Montgomery`</i>`{=html}, `<i>`{=html}Full House`</i>`{=html}, and
`<i>`{=html}Smokin\' At The Half Note`</i>`{=html}.
- George Benson is known for his
improvisation as well as his more popular later works. Listen to his
work with organists Jack McDuff and Dr.
Lonnie Smith or the album
`<i>`{=html}Live At Casa Caribe`</i>`{=html}.
- Pat Martino is known for his fluid
single-line improvisation. A good introduction to his playing is
`<i>`{=html}Live At Yoshi\'s`</i>`{=html}, featuring organist Joey
DeFrancesco and drummer Billy
Hart.
- Joe Pass was a great improvisor, but he is
known especially for his solo chord-melody arrangements of jazz
standards. Essential listening includes the Virtuoso series of
recordings which showcases his solo pieces.
- John McLaughlin is known as a
pioneering jazz-rock guitarist. His work in the 1970s with the
Mahavishnu Orchestra should be
considered essential listening.
- John Scofield is known for his angular
lines and use of dissonance. For new jazz listeners, his two
recordings with Medeski Martin and
Wood are probably the best
introduction to his playing.
- Allan Holdsworth is a jazz-rock
guitarist known for his peerless technique and his unique approach
to harmony. *Believe It*, a mid-1970s jazz-rock album by the New
Tony Williams Lifetime, and *None Too Soon*, a more straight-ahead
jazz album by Holdsworth, are both essential listening.
- Pat Metheny is a modern Jazz guitarist
whose popularity has never diminished his art. His collaboration
with Steve Reich on \"Electric Counterpoint\" is a notable example
of his commitment to creativity. The Pat Metheny Group debut album,
*Bright Size Life*, features the electric bassist Jaco
Pastorius.
|
# Guitar/Classical Guitar
!The Spanish guitarist and composer Fernando
Sor
## Classical Guitar
The classical guitar was preceded by the lute, vihuela and five-string
baroque guitar. This legacy is reflected in the repertoire of the
Classical guitar which ranges from the Estampie, a thirteenth century
dance, to the modern twentieth century masterpiece La Catedral by
Agustín Barrios. One of the greatest past masters of classical guitar,
Andres Segovia:
> *\"The strongest advice I give to my pupils is to study music properly
> from the beginning to the end - like the career of a sergeant or a
> physician, it is the same. It is a shame that most guitarists are
> absolutely clean of this knowledge. My advice is to study music
> properly and not to omit any knowledge of music and not to be very
> impatient about giving concerts. He who is impatient mostly arrives at
> his goals late. Step by step is the only way\"*
Quote from Segovia! A 13-part series aired on National Public Radio.
First aired April 1983 and produced by Larry Snitzler (Classical
Guitarist) and hosted by Oscar Brand (Musicologist/Folk Guitarist).
Classical guitar studies are designed to develop sight-reading skills at
the optimum speed. Classical guitarists use standard works to learn
from; especially the works of Fernando Sor (1778--1839), Mauro Giuliani
(1781-1829), Matteo Carcassi (1792-1853) and Francisco Tárrega
(1852--1909). For complete beginners the author Frederick Noad has
provided the books Solo Guitar Playing One and Two. Book One assumes
that the student has no previous experience of reading music and the
lessons have been carefully arranged with this in mind.\
## The Parts Of The Classical Guitar
!The parts of the classical
guitar{width="800"}\
==Equipment== !The traditional wooden mechanical
metronome
**Foot-stool**
A foot-stool allows the left leg to be raised when the student is
sitting. The early classical guitarists explored all the various playing
positions and the seated position with a foot-stool was found to give
the greatest access to the fretboard while also allowing barres to be
played with ease.
**Music stands**
A music stand allows the guitarist to maintain the correct playing
position and also ensures that the music is at eye level. Despite its
usefulness a music stand is usually one of the last items that
guitarists buy. Placing a book on the edge of the bed or on the floor
means that the guitarist is looking down at the music and is constantly
having to adjust their head and body position to scan the guitar neck
when changing chords. Placing the music on a stand at eye level ensures
that the guitarist only has to glance at the neck to check for correct
finger placement.
**Metronome**
A metronome is an ideal tool for improving timing. A wooden metronome
provides an organic click which is pleasing to play along with for
extended periods. Many guitarists warm up by playing scales to a
metronome.
**Nails**
The classical guitarist plays without a plectrum. The right hand
produces sound. Although the quality of tone is determined by both
hands, the type of tone and the volume are controlled primarily by the
right hand. There are seven ingredients that go into tone production: 1.
Nail length and shape; 2. Choice of stroke: free stroke (tirando) or
rest stroke (apoyando); 3. Hand position and the angle of fingers to the
strings; 4. How the fingertip and nail approach the string; 5. How the
fingertip and nail prepare on the string; 6. Finger pressure against the
string; 7. The release of the fingertip and nail from the string.
Each of these ingredients influences all the others. One will generally
determine what come next. For instance, your choice of rest stroke or
free stroke will determine your hand position, and therefore the angle
of the finger to the string.This will then determine how the finger
approaches the string, and thus how the finger will prepare on the
string. All of these contribute to the security of the fingers on the
string and your ability to apply the appropriate pressure; and the
pressure inevitably affects how the string will be released. The length
and shape of the fingernail effects how successfully you will be able to
carry out all of the various parts of the stroke.
If the nail is too long, the speed and ease with which the fingertip and
nail can go through the string is considerably diminished. This is
because resistance has been increased. A bad nail shape can also create
undesirable resistance against the string and can cause some interesting
but unsavory sounds. The reason we play with our fingernails at all is
to assist us in securing and controlling the string, to enhance volume
and tone. So it is important to grow and shape \[the nails\] in a way
that will make it easier to play and sound good. Scott Tennant: Pumping
Nylon 2nd Edition Copyright 2016 by Alfred Music pg 56
Therefore it is essential that your nails should be considered.
Professional guitarists may use a nail hardening solution, such as
Mavala, which can be purchased from any chemist. The nails should be
filed with a fine-grade nail file. Professional guitarists always file
their nails in one direction only; never back and forth. This ensures a
much cleaner tone.
**Guitar case**
Your guitar should be kept in a case when you are not playing it. A hard
body case will offer the most protection to the instrument.
## Learning To Read Music
Learning to read music involves mastering reading one note at a time. It
is common to find second-hand music books with the letters of the notes
handwritten above each note. The idea that you can learn to read music
by deciphering a single piece of music that you like should be
discarded.
The early stage of learning to read music involves only the open
strings. The idea is to introduce the notation for the fretted notes
after the notation for the open strings has been mastered. The first day
might involve starting with the notation for the open high e (thinnest
string), followed by the B string, then the G string and so on. When a
student can read the notation for the open strings comfortably the
notation for the first three frets of the high e string is introduced
and then the first three frets of the B string and so on. The early
stages of mastering the open strings does not allow for extended phrases
to be played though once the fretted notes are introduced the guitarist
will find much of melodic value and interest.
At an advanced stage of reading music the guitarist should note that
familiarity with their own sheet music collection can be
counterproductive. It is not unusual to find that a guitarist who has
used the same sheet music to learn a piece suddenly struggles when the
same piece is presented from another publication. Fonts, staff spacing
and even elements as benign as paper size and colour can cause
difficulties in sight-reading. You should vary your sight-reading by
using different publications.
At some point a piece of seemingly simple music may prove too difficult
to play. It is not uncommon to find beginner\'s books with studies where
certain passages in the music present a technical challenge that the
beginner has yet to master. This is simply a reflection of the author\'s
own advanced technique and a minor lapse in the author\'s desire to
provide studies of value to the beginner. If at any time a study
presents a passage of music that is difficult to execute then move to
the next study.
## Standard Works
Please note that the following list of works will not teach you how to
read music. For that purpose you need to use the three Noad books:
*Playing the Guitar* and *Solo Guitar Playing 1 and 2* which have proved
very popular with teachers and self-taught guitarists.
**25 Etudes op. 60 - Matteo Carcassi**
This work contains a series of studies designed for intermediate
players. Consisting of arpeggio and scale studies this work has served
generations of players with its inventiveness and melodies. Though
didactic in purpose Carcassi has provided audience-delighting studies
that form part of the repertoire of many professional and amateur
players. A highly regarded edition of Op. 60 was published by Zerboni
with revisions by Ruggero Chiesa.
**Espanoleta - Gaspar Sanz (Pujol Transcription)**
The Espanoleta by Sanz is deservedly famous. Its simplicity and beauty
is accessible to the early-stage guitarist who can read music in the
first position. Its common to find a transcription of the Espanoleta in
many sheet music compilations and tuition books; including *Playing The
Guitar* by Frederick Noad. The Pujol transcription is a simpler
arrangement than the Noad transcription and provides the guitarist with
practice in recreating Baroque ornamentation.
**The Guitarist\'s Hour Books 1, 2, and 3 (Walter Gotze)**
These collections of studies for beginners consists of pieces by Sor,
Carulli, Aguado and many others. They are designed to encourage the
student to observe note duration as well as providing an introduction to
the works of Sor and Carulli. These progressively graded studies are
ideal for metronome practice. Though most of these studies can be found
in other compilations; the choice and arrangement of the studies in all
three Guitarist\'s Hour books are exemplary with regards to progressing
the beginner\'s technique.
**Greensleeves - Francis Cutting**
Francis Cutting was an English lute composer whose patronage eventually
led to a position in Denmark. Greensleeves was a popular song in the
fifteenth century. The Cutting lute variation has been transcribed for
guitar and is part of the beginner\'s repertoire being easy to play with
a recognisable melody. Greensleeves was made widely popular in the
twentieth century by the orchestrated version \"Fantasia on
Greensleeves\" by Ralph Vaughan Williams. A modern romantic
interpretation of \"Fantasia on Greensleeves\" by Neville Marriner and
the Academy of St.Martin is recommended.
## Other Works
**Harmony - Walter Piston revised by Mark Devoto**
The revised edition of this standard University text is a complete
overview of Western harmony. Limiting itself to the common practice of
the Classical Period it provides a clear and concise introduction to
harmony.
**The Classical Guitar: Its Evolution, Players and Personalities Since
1800 - Maurice J. Summerfield**
This work presents a comprehensive overview of the personalities that
shaped the history of the classical guitar. It includes biographies of
all the major classical guitarists of the past and present. Extensive
use of images brings the biographies alive and its comprehensive
coverage places this work at the forefront of Classical Guitar
literature.
## Ways To Improve Interpretation
Playing along to recordings is an ideal way to improve your
interpretation. At the end of *Solo Guitar Playing One* is a short
ternary piece called \"Adelita\" by Tarrega which Julian Bream has
recorded. After memorizing \"Adelita \" the student should play along to
the Bream recording as it will improve their interpretation of the piece
and will impart a deeper understanding of the popular Salon style
primarily associated with Chopin.
The famous \"Leyenda\" by Albeniz is a technical challenge for any
guitarist. Transcribed for guitar from the original piano work it has
become part of the classical guitar\'s repertoire. On film we have two
master classical guitarists performing \"Leyenda\" - Segovia at the
Alhambra Palace and John Williams in the Concert from Seville. Due to
the popularity of the piece it regularly appears in compilations though
it must be noted that original transcriptions of \"Leyenda\" are
personal expressions of the transcriber\'s own technique. The two
guitarists mentioned have chosen to adapt the piece to their own
technique and a visual analysis by the student of both performances is
recommended.
Many classical pieces have their origins in the dances of the past. The
Bourrée was a popular dance that became part of the Baroque Suite. The
Canarios and Écossaise are further examples of dance forms that the
classical guitarist will come across. The Canarios was originally a
lively jig associated with the Canary Island and the classical guitarist
will be expected to play a Canarios at a lively tempo. Beginners will
find that a small amount of historical investigation into the origins of
the pieces they find in the books recommended in this chapter will prove
invaluable to interpretation and will help demystify some of the time
signatures and tempos given.
## Classical Guitarists
- David Russell
- Fernando Sor
- Ferdinando Carulli
- John Williams "wikilink")
- Julian Bream
- Christopher Parkening
- Andres Segovia
- Ida Presti
|
# Guitar/Flamenco
!Paco de Lucia
## Introduction
Flamenco is one of the folk music genres of Spain. In Spain the word
flamenco is not just associated with the guitar but also the people,
songs and dances of Spain. The history of flamenco follows that of
Spain. When the Moors ruled Southern Spain they brought with them their
instruments and the most important of these was the
Oud. This eastern lute is still to be found all over
the world but in Spain it collided with European ideas and flamenco is
the product. Flamenco is woven into the life of the region of Andalucia
where it originated and the people actively engage in the songs and
dances. The guitar has always been the main instrument used in flamenco
to support the dancers and singers due its percussive timbre. The early
flamenco guitarists very rarely played solo; their role was purely to
provide music for the dancers and singers. The rise of the solo flamenco
guitarist is a late development and many of the great flamenco soloists
are also renowned for their ability to accompany singers and dancers.
## Flamenco Guitar
!The flamenco dancer Belen Maya in traditional costume. Image: Gilles
Larrain
The modern classical guitar and its physical development can be traced
back to the Spanish guitar-maker Torres. Alongside the classical guitar
is the flamenco guitar. The flamenco guitar has the same history and the
greatest luthiers in Spain have always made both types of guitar. The
main structural difference the flamenco guitar has in relation to the
classical guitar is a thinner body. This creates a timbre that is sharp
and percussive. This is considered the ideal sound with which to
accompany dancers. The flamenco guitar also has wooden tuning-pegs,
which is the traditional method of construction for all early guitars.
The need for the classical guitar to be able to be heard in a concert
hall and the demand for greater resonance from classical composers;
means that the classical guitar has left behind the use of wooden
tuning-pegs and its body size has increased in comparison to the
flamenco guitar. In many respects the flamenco guitar is similar in
construction to the guitars of earlier centuries.
## Flamenco Artists
Paco de Lucia and Sabicas are two flamenco guitarists that students of
the guitar should be aware of. Both have played a major part in the
changes of this evolving art form. Sabicas developed the technique of
tremolo and Paco de Lucia extended the harmonic framework with his use
of jazz chord voicings. Juan Martin is a flamenco guitarist who keeps
the traditional forms sharply in focus and provides the clearest guide
for beginners wishing to study the various flamenco forms.
## Flamenco Forms
The flamenco forms have been developed over a long time. There is a
distinction of terms when flamenco forms are described. When flamenco
vocal forms are described they are called \"cantes\" and the guitarist
forms are called \"toques\". Each flamenco form has certain rhythmic and
tonal qualities that encapsulate the form and flamenco guitarists are
expected to have a knowledge of the origin and usage of these.
- Bulerías
- Soleares
- Seguirillas
- Tientos
## Flamenco Chord Progression
This is a very common chord progression that most guitarists who wish to
learn flamenco start with.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: A minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor** File: G major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major** File: F major chord for guitar
(barred).png\|**F major** File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E
major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
A descending one octave Phrygian mode starting from the note \"E\" which
can be played over the above chord progression.
!E Phrygian
scale.png "E Phrygian scale"){width="800"}\
==Flamenco Technique==
- Golpe - the Spanish word for \"tap\". This technique involves
\"tapping\" the body of the guitar to produce a percussive sound.
The third finger of the right-hand strikes the table of the guitar
with the nail and flesh. Flamenco guitars have a \"golpeador\"
(plastic cover) which protects the wood of the guitar during the use
of this technique
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Rasgueo - this is the most common strumming technique for flamenco.
The right-hand is formed into a closed fist with the thumb resting
against the guitar or low E string for support, and each finger is
flicked out one at a time (4-stroke rasgueo) to sound the strings
with the nails. A common variation is to use the technique with only
the index finger. The index finger is also used for the up-stroke
which only strikes the treble strings after the completion of the
4-stroke rasgueo.
|
# Guitar/Tone and Volume
## 3 zones of distortion
The starting point for dialing-in various electric Rock guitar tone is
not a crystal-clean full-range amplifier and speaker, but rather, a tube
power amp pushing a guitar speaker that has limited frequency response,
with the power tubes on the edge of breakup.
With power-tube distortion, and to a lesser extent with preamp tube
distortion or solid-state distortion pedals, there are three zones:
Clean, Compressed, and Distorted, somewhat corresponding to the terms
Clean, Crunch or Rhythm, and Lead. The Clean zone ranges from literally
clean with linear response, to the beginning of warmth and some
smoothing and coloration. The Compressed zone ranges from slightly warm,
smoothed, and colored, into slightly audible distortion. The Distorted
zone runs from slight breakup to full distortion. Mathew laframboise
## Controlling distortion voicing
An electric guitar has a volume control and tone control. The volume
control almost always has a side-effect on equalization as you turn it
down, affecting the pre-distortion equalization (EQ). The tone control
reduces the amount of treble, affecting the pre-distortion EQ and thus
the distortion voicing.
For increased control of the pre-distortion EQ, place an equalizer pedal
in-between the guitar and the first distortion stage such as a
distortion pedal or the guitar amp\'s built-in preamp. Switch between
all the pickup settings, in conjunction with changing the distortion
settings and EQ settings, to use the full range of basic sounds or
\"tones\" the amp can produce.
The preamp Gain control on the distortion channel of the amp, or the
Distortion control on a distortion pedal, sometimes has a side-effect of
changing the equalization and thus the distortion voicing. In that case,
you can use a lower distortion setting combined with a higher volume
setting prior to the distortion stages, to dial-in a different
distortion voicing with the same amount of distortion.
The tone stack on a standard tube amp is in-between the preamp
distortion and the power-tube distortion. Thus the tone stack acts as
the final part of shaping the preamp distortion voicing and also shapes
the power-tube distortion voicing, together with the Master Volume
control, which affects the amount of power-tube distortion voicing. For
maximum power-tube distortion, set the tone controls and Master Volume
to maximum, which is equivalent to bypassing them entirely.
When setting the preamp distortion, learn all the ways to adjust the
equalization before the preamp distortion, including the guitar\'s
volume and tone controls, a wah pedal, an equalization pedal, and any
other volume or tone controls prior to the distortion stage. These
affect the distortion voicing. More treble causes the treble to
predominate in the complex clipping, resulting in a glassy liquid
breakup tone; more bass prior to a distortion stage causes a dry, crusty
breakup tone.
The same principles hold for controlling the power-tube distortion
voicing. Learn all the ways to affect the equalization and level prior
to the tube power amp, but after the preamp distortion.
## Obtaining distortion independently of volume
To get power-tube distortion quietly or independently of volume level,
use a power attenuator or an amplifier that has a built-in power
attenuator, or a built-in power-supply based power attenuation (Power
Scaling, Power Dampening, a Sag circuit, or a Variac).
It is possible to further voice the power-tube distortion by placing a
dummy load (usually a power attenuator set entirely to use its built-in
dummy load), an equalizer, and then a solid-state power amp between the
power tubes and the guitar speaker.
A guitar speaker is a complex dynamic filter and transducer. Line-level
cabinet simulators attempt to simulate this complex dynamic sound.
In the recording studio, the amp head and speaker cabinet are typically
separated and the miked speaker cabinet is placed with microphones in a
soundproofed isolation booth or in the live room. Either location is a
soundproofed room separate from the control room where the mic signals
return and the full-range monitor speakers reside for listening to the
resulting power-tube distortion sound or loud quasi-clean amp sound at a
controlled volume. In a home studio, the guitar speaker is sometimes
placed in an isolation box with microphones.
Place one or two microphones near the guitar speaker. If you use two
microphones, this causes some complex comb filtering; be prepared to
swing the mixer\'s equalization for the two channels around very freely,
because the effects of comb filtering are unpredictable. If you use a
single microphone, setting the mixer\'s equalization is more
straightforward.
|
# Guitar/Singing and Playing
There are some people who are blessed with a perfect singing voice and
excellent coordination, and they sing and play the guitar like
breathing. For other people, attempting to sing a single note causes
them to immediately lose the rhythm.
This section is intended to help people who already play the guitar and
gives advice on how to incorporate vocals into their performance .
## General Tips
**Just keep singing.** The worst thing you can do is stop, because
stopping teaches you to stop, and only singing teaches you to sing.
**Start simple.** Pick a song with simple chord progressions and simple,
on-beat strumming patterns. Start with a very slow tempo and gradually
speed up after a successful try.
## Other Artist\'s Songs
First learn to play the song really well. Listen and sing along with the
song, over and over again. After you have a good handle on both the
singing and guitar part, try putting them together. If this still proves
too difficult having both parts memorized, you may try just playing the
guitar while listening to the song, focusing your mind on listening to
the words as closely as you can until you can think about the words
while playing. This could take away some of the multitasking confusion
prevalent in first attempts.
If multitasking is not the issue but certain songs are still a
challenge, practice playing and singing the song without reference to
the original, and when you are sure that you have memorised the lyrics
and chord changes, practice along to the original version. Sometimes
doing this will help you master the harder sections.
Be sure to keep a copy of the words nearby while you are learning, in
case you forget a line or two. It is better to stumble through a few
lines and keep the song going rather than stopping in mid verse to try
to remember something.
## Your Own Songs
After writing the first few lines of a song and with an idea of how
you\'d like the song to be (having the basic chords and lyrics ), the
next step is to explore the possibilities. The idea is to try different
tones and melodies. When singing we can stretch words to fill up some
space. change any words and chords, or if creating a version of a known
tune, add a chord (or word), later you can decide which one sounds
better. Sometimes we subconsciously create music that is a copy of our
favourite artist; there\'s nothing wrong with this. After all, some of
the greatest names in music founded their early careers with covers of
the music of their heroes. After some progress show it to your friends
and ask them for some opinions. Sometimes we may also forget the melody
or chords, so a good tip is to record it. You don\'t need a professional
studio, just a normal microphone and a computer will suffice. In
relation to lyrics during songwriting, if a word doesn\'t sit well, look
for a synonym. Most of the time, it\'s the best solution.
|
# Guitar/Writing Songs
Now that you\'ve got some skill and control over the guitar, you want to
start writing and performing your own songs. But all your famous artists
have such amazing, complicated songs, it\'s hard to know where to begin.
This page is a general guide to writing songs on the guitar. Although it
won\'t necessarily teach you to write a Top 40 hit, it will give you
some general ideas on how to write an effective song. If you haven\'t
already, please read the Singing and
Playing section.
## General Tips
- **Keep it simple.** The most popular, catchy tune on the radio is
probably the simplest, most oft reproduced melody in the world. But
that doesn\'t stop you from humming it all day, does it? Never
forget that when some people hear \"a complex, thought-provoking
piece\", others hear \"an over complicated mess.\"
- **Have confidence.** Your song may not be the best in the world, but
a gutsy, less talented performer is always more admired than an
amazing performer that is too shy to get a single note out.
- **Keep trying.** If you don\'t \"figure it out\" immediately, that
doesn\'t mean that you never will. If something sounds terrible, try
the opposite, or only use the second half of whatever your work on.
The key is to keep trying different things until something clicks.
- **Don\'t get frustrated.** If absolutely nothing is clicking, then
just come back to it later. Record whatever you have, take a break,
and play it again later. The song isn\'t going anywhere you aren\'t
going, and it\'ll still be there the next day.
- **\"Borrow\" someone else\'s melody.** Often the best melody is the
one that already exists. The history of music (and any art, really)
is checkered with people taking bits and pieces from other artists
and adding their own spin to it. However, this doesn\'t mean you
should just copy some famous song and call it your own, because
chances are someone else will notice. Other songs should be used as
a source of ideas, not something you can photocopy.
- **Ask someone else.** You might be stuck in the same rut, but that
doesn\'t mean anyone else is. Ask another musician (or even a
regular person) what they think might fit well. Sometimes the advice
will be surprising. With this method you have to be careful of
copyright issues, especially if you make it big.
## Turning Chords into Songs
Often players come up with a catchy riff or two, and they\'re not sure
how to develop it into more. Songs typically are built up in layers; for
example, in a band, one guitarist creates a riff, and another adds a
catchy lick over top, the bass player brings in something to support it
and the drummer keeps time and adds some interesting rhythms. Even
though the first guitar part might still be the same, it is ultimately
the contribution of the other parts that turns a few chords into a song.
The most important thing to remember when writing a song is that very
little sounds good completely on its own, and generally it requires at
least more than one part to make things interesting. There are many ways
to add a second part to a song. For instance, some players (especially
those that can finger pick)
can simultaneously play a bass line on the thicker strings and a melody
on the thin strings. Really complicated riffs can also sound good on
their own, however these tend to be difficult to write and you may not
have enough technical skill for complicated writing.
Another player can also add depth to a riff. For example, a bass player
can add another sound texture, and having two players allow them to
bounce melodies off one another. The song Dueling Banjos from the movie
Deliverance is a good example of how two players can create an
interesting, purely instrumental song.
But if none of these options are available to you, or perhaps you only
like to compose songs alone, there is always one other layer you can add
to any progression; your voice. Amazing singing can turn even the
simplest progression into a groundbreaking song
## Creating Melodies and Hooks
The main melody, often called the \"hook\" in popular, radio friendly
music, is the catchy, often repeated words and melody that makes the
song most memorable. In most songs, especially modern music, the hook is
contained somewhere in the chorus. However, this is not always true, as
some songs use hooks in the verses, or put hooks in both the verse and
chorus.
In general, it is much easier to put words to a melody, rather than a
melody to some words. Words tend to have their own syncopation, and this
can make it tough to make them fit with an irregular strumming pattern.
Already having words is also tough because generally the author does not
want to change them.
There are certain cases where putting music to words is a better option.
For instance, a rhyming poem or free verse with a regular meter can
easily be made a song. Simple chord
progressions lend themselves well
to these sorts , especially the I - IV - V and IV - V - I.
Often when you are creating a song, a chord progression comes easily,
but it is tough to figure out what goes over top. Even if it seems
difficult, there are many ways to make things easier for yourself.
- Record a chord progression, then play it back and try to hum or
whistle a melody over top. Often this is enough to get things
started and get you unstuck. You can accomplish the same thing by
just playing the progression over and over again, but it takes a
surprising amount of coordination to play a new riff and
spontaneously invent a melody.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Record a chord progression, and then try to solo on top of it. This
is similar to the first method, but actually using the fretboard can
help you figure out what notes work best.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Isolate a particular part of the progression and repeat it over and
over until you come up with some sort of start. it is best to use at
least two chord changes, because just strumming the same chord all
the time is uninteresting, and it tends to make coming up with a
melody even more difficult.
Another approach is to begin with a melody form, and then put chords
behind it to turn it into a song. This may be more challenging,
especially if you already have a chord progression you really enjoy, but
sometimes approaching a problem from a different angle can make things
easier overall.
For instance, in the well known \'Danny Boy\' or \'Derry Air\' as it is
sometimes called, the \'hook\' is found where the melody appears to try
to surge forward into the chorus and the words \"But come ye back\"
accompany that surge in chord progression.
## Use a Method
It is recommended that you work following some simple procedures instead
of just trying to come up with something remarkable from scratch. Here
are some guidelines on how to work step by step in order to be more
efficient.
- **Choose or come up with a scale for the song before you start
working on it.** Although experienced guitarists might be able to
follow a scale subconsciously, thus skipping this step, it is better
for beginners to use a scale so as to avoid inconsistencies and to
set a mood for the piece. Keep experimenting with scales until you
find one that suits the tone you want to give and then start working
on the song. Note that you can change scales for different parts of
the song, what you shouldn\'t do is change scale in the middle of a
single riff or melody. Also keep in mind that when you are more
confident with your guitar you can break away from the scale and use
notes not included in it, but the best way to work is to play along
the predefined scale and play an odd note only when you want to add
a different tone. This usually results in a more original melody,
but is hard and might result in sounding like random notes if not
used properly.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Keep in mind the desired result.** You won\'t get a very good
result by simply coming up with random riffs. You must always focus
on what you want to create. For example, you might want to create a
complicated, original riff for the intro to attract the listener\'s
attention or you might prefer a more melodic but less memorable
intro. Either way, you must always have the goal in mind instead of
composing aimlessly and keeping the riffs that sound good. This way
you won\'t end up with a style you didn\'t intend to create.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- **Start simple.** If, for example you want a complex riff you should
start with a very simple melody and then modify it gradually, by
expanding it, for example, or altering the rhythm, until you get the
desired result. This will not always give better results, but it\'s
easy for beginners.
Also see the Writing Effective
Songs wikibook for more help.
|
# Guitar/Playing With Others
Almost as soon as you start playing the guitar, you start to meet many
other guitarists. Eventually, you will wind up playing with some of
them, in some sort of informal *jam sessions*, where friends play
anything that tickles their fancy.
Playing with others is helped incredibly by having some basic knowledge
of music theory along with some amount of talent or
skill. This is especially true if you intend to improvise a melody or
chord progression. this section will provide the basics of considerate
playing, along with some tips on how to keep playing interesting.
## The Makeup of a Band
Even if you never intend to play in a large group, it\'s still important
to know the basic divisions of a band, because you never know what might
happen tomorrow. Learning about how a band works can also help you learn
new songs from popular groups, as well as improve your knowledge of
general music theory, and your appreciation for music.
As explained in the lead guitar and rhythm guitar
section, guitar
playing essentially breaks down to two, somewhat overlapping categories;
rhythm and lead (sometimes called melody). In a band, the rhythm guitar
is more generally associated with the drums, bass, background vocals and
less prominent instruments, while the melody guitar would be related to
the lead vocals or any other lead instrument.
Thus, when you are playing only with two people, almost immediately one
player provides the chords and groove of a song, while another play
contributes a melody that complements the song\'s progression. With more
people playing, this division becomes less strict, and players can shift
from playing more of less prominent parts.
In general, it is almost always better to play with more than two
people, because with more people, whatever piece you are playing is less
likely to fall apart when the first person screws up. If you only play
with one other person, consider including a metronome or a mp3 drum
track in the background. Electronic accompaniment helps you keep a
steady pace, and helps you learn to not \"rush\" or \"drag\" in the
group.
## Proper Playing Attitudes
The most important thing to remember about playing with others can be
learned by carefully listening to any piece of recorded music: **Every
player contributes to the song with an appropriate tone and volume, and
*never* plays in excess of that.** Essentially this just means you
shouldn\'t try to outplay and outshine everyone else in the group,
because no one likes a showoff. It doesn\'t matter how good you are (or
think you are), you should never play so much that it drowns everyone
else out.
If not overplaying is the most important thing about jamming, then the
second most important is **listening**. The key to improvisation is to
listen to the interplay of all the other instruments, and to add to that
whatever sounds best. Listening is, unfortunately, a very neglected
skill among beginning musicians, and really, most musicians in general.
A common tendency, especially among those who have just begun to get a
solid foundation in scale theory and technique, is to noodle around
aimlessly on the fretboard with little or no regard for the shape of the
song that is being played, or the structure of the arrangement. This is
a *huge* mistake, and it leads to music that no one wants to listen to;
worse yet, it does nothing to develop the musician who plays it.
Pay attention to the music that is being played around you. Add to it
only when it is necessary. You should begin to hear the lines that you
want to play before you play them. What you are shooting for here is
something akin to the old koan about sculpting: the figure is already in
the marble, and you are just trying to release it.
It is also important to make sure that you do not take up too much
\"space\" in the arrangement, which is to say, do not play so loudly
that other instruments must fight to be heard. This is especially a
problem for rhythm guitarists in jam sessions, who must be careful not
to drown out soloists.
## Staying in the Right Key
Perhaps the most important thing to do when playing with others is to
remember what key you are in. The \"key\" of a piece is essentially the
scale of notes that the song uses, but it also affects what the correct
chords are to play on each note. Suppose there is only yourself and
another guitarist playing, and the other guitarist is playing rhythm.
The chord progression they are playing determines the key of the song,
which naturally suggests certain notes for you, the lead guitarist.
Even if you have absolutely no knowledge of music theory, everyone can
generally tell when you play a wrong note. Although advanced players can
often add in \"wrong\" notes for colour (known in music
theory as an accidental), for beginners it is
important to know what notes are in what keys, so they can use the most
appropriate notes.
For example, the rhythm guitarist might be playing a three chord
blues riff in the key of B minor. Even if you
didn\'t know the key, often the first and last chord of a progression
can be good indicators of commonly used keys. At the very least, the
general tone of the progression will be enough to indicate if it is a
major or minor key. in this case, once you knew the key, you could
immediately start soling in any B minor scale, such as the B minor
pentatonic scale. However, since music is creative, it is impossible to
be \"limited\", and you also have available a number of other soloing
scales, like the pentatonic scale or any of the modes. For example, the
Phrygian mode has traditionally been the \"Spanish scale\". Modes are
much more complex and require knowledge of music theory to get the most
benefit from them.
## Improvising
There is also a basic approach to improvising which is more simple than
playing over a chord accompaniment. It also predates Western tuning
systems and chords. It is produced by playing a moving melody on one
higher-pitched string, while leaving a lower note ringing on another
**\"open\"**, or lower-pitched (unfretted) string. The static bass note
is referred to as a \"pedal tone\". The lower
note or stays the same and the
upper note moves, creating both simple harmonic and melodic motion.
Traditional instruments which have fewer strings and a smaller range
than the guitar use this technique. It can be heard in many musical
styles in both Eastern and Western musical traditions including those
with guitar.
This technique can be found both within Western tuning systems which use
12 semitones per octave as well as beyond in more complex Eastern tuning
systems. Therefore before attempting to improvise a solo over a chord
progression or a series of chords in a particular key, it is useful to
practice playing simple melodies on one (upper) string to familiarize
your ear with the **intervals**, or distances between those fretted
notes and a static open, un-fretted (lower) string below it which is
sounding simultaneously. Another advantage of this is that with each
pair of notes you play, different intervals are sounded. Your ear begins
to detect these and this is a basic form of ear training.
## Well-known Improv Bands
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# Guitar/Recording Music
So you\'ve been practicing and practicing, and finally, you\'re ready to
record your first demo. But where to begin? Should you go to a
professional studio, or just try to do it yourself at home? What kind of
equipment and software will you need? Although everyone talks like they
could write and record an entire album in a weekend, recording is a
surprisingly tricky and detailed job. Remember that professionals go to
school to learn how to record musicians.
This page is a guide for musicians that already have their own songs and
are ready to record them. It will cover the basics of the recording
process, what to expect with a professional studio, and outline an ideal
home recording setup.
!A control room with a mixing console, monitor speakers, and a computer
based Digital Audio
Workstation.{width="200"}
## What Gets Recorded When
Drums: Generally speaking, it\'s a good idea to record the drums and
percussion first. This will help all the other recording musicians
follow the right beat, instead of the drummer having to follow the other
off-beat musicians.
Bass: Should be recorded second, as it\'s the middle ground between the
basic beat of the drums and the chords of the rhythm guitar.
Rhythm Guitar: Gets recorded third, as it\'s the foundation for the lead
guitar.
Lead Guitar: Follows the rhythm guitar, and will give direction to some
of the vocalist\'s melodies.
Vocals: Very last, as the vocalist will be able to wrap melodies around
the bass and rhythm guitar\'s chords, and the lead guitarist\'s soloing
melodies. Vocals are sometimes recorded as a \"guide track\" to help the
other musicians \"feel\" their way and then at the final stage is
replaced with a more focused performance.
All in this order, of course, assuming you don\'t have the space and
tools to make a live recording.
## Mixing
When it comes to mixing volume levels and other audio dynamics, one
needs to take several things into consideration. First, which
instruments should be heard the most? In a guitar-focused rock band, one
may want to give the lead or rhythm guitar more prominence. In funk or
dance music, the bass may want to be given more space. However, certain
instruments may also need more focus at different times in the song. If
there is a banjo playing in the background in a rock song, but it
eventually gets a solo part, one may want to increase the volume at the
point of the solo.
The second thing to consider is special effects and left-right panning.
Should the guitar be given a delay effect at some parts? Perhaps the
bass may need a flange effect, or backing vocals should pan from left to
right during the bridge?
Another important thing to keep in mind is the master volume level. At
no point in your song should the listener need to abruptly turn down the
volume for fear of breaking his/her speakers!
## Professional Studio
Although you have more \"creative control\" in a personal setting,
having professional sound technicians taking care of the recording make
things much, much easier.
## Personal Studio
Based on your budget and space available, your home recording studio
layout and design will vary. What really affects your home studio is the
type of instrumentation you intend to record. For a guitarist, you could
use a computer, audio interface, amplifier, guitar and a dynamic mic.
For more advanced music composition, you could add a hardware mixer,
keyboards, drum machines, variety of different microphones, VST software
and percussion instruments.
Putting together a small studio at home is relatively inexpensive
compared to the price of hiring a professional studio. The power of
modern computers gives you a huge variety of recording options and the
computer has become the centre of home recording and pro studios. Pro
studios buy extra audio processing equipment like expensive compressors
and outboard effects which will always give them an advantage over home
recording but with a modest investment the home studio can produce a
recording quality that most people would find acceptable. All
professional musicians usually prepare demo versions of their songs
before they go into a costly professional studio and this should also
apply to your working method.
### Equipment
!An inexpensive USB external audio
interface.{width="200"}
- Condenser microphones are generally used for recording acoustic
guitars and dynamic microphones are more suitable for putting up
close to the amplifier speaker. Try not to buy cheap microphones on
the basis that the technology used is simple and therefore a cheap
microphone will match a microphone like the Shure SM57 (industry
standard microphone for recording electric guitar amplifiers and
snare drums); the extra cost is reflected in the higher audio
quality of your recordings.
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- An audio interface is essential for instruments and microphones.
Plugging a microphone directly into the computer\'s microphone input
or a guitar into the line-in input produces poor quality results due
to the fact that a computer\'s soundcard and microphone/line inputs
are generally not intended for serious recording projects. Audio
interfaces can be an external box using USB or Firewire or an
internal PCI card with break-out jacks.
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- The PC you use determines the amount of tracks you can record. A
laptop can be useful for portable recording but they rarely match
the usefulness of a high specification PC. You should aim for a
minimum of 4GB of RAM and the fastest processor that you can afford.
Audio recording and playback places a heavy demand on the
computer\'s resources and this can lead to timing errors, glitches
and less tracks but this has become less of an issue with multiple
processor machines. Recording software usually comes with a
\"multiple processor\" enabled option and you should check for this
when choosing between software packages.
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- A good guitar is essential. An entry-level guitar should be replaced
with a good quality guitar after a guitarist has mastered open
chords and a few scales. This usually means within a year or so from
the day they started playing. Guitarists tend to become attached to
their first guitar and the danger in this is that the guitar itself
hinders the development of higher skills. An entry-level guitar will
always sound like an entry-level guitar when recorded. \* A good
rule is to find out what some of your favorite guitarist plays and
play them all through a few different amps. You will then be able to
see which feels best to you, and not what the \"norm\" is. That
being said, there is a reason Gibson and Fender are the most popular
brands to own. Just remember to find a guitar that you like, and if
you like how it plays and sounds, its all up to you.
### Recording Environment
This is an odd subject. Most studios are specifically designed for
sound, and are built to get the best quality sound available. However,
some of the most famous albums ever where recorded in buildings that
were never designed for music. It all comes down to what sounds good to
you.
That being said, you never want a square/rectangle room to record in.
Always try and uses as much sound dampening possible, so that you can
get the best quality with what you have. As long as there is no reverb
(unless wanted), the recording should be adequate.
### PC or Mac?
This is more a preference than which is better. Certain people are
accustomed to Windows, others feel that an Apple is easier to operate.
However, most professionals use Macs, but it is not uncommon for some
major studios to use PCs. There are a variety of specialized Linux
distributions dedicated to the purpose as well, utilizing real-time
kernels for lower latency and faster processing of audio input.
### Recording Software
There are many companies that supply music recording software (DAW -
Digital Audio Workstation). Professional studios tend to use Pro Tools
by Avid. Pro Tools is expensive and usually needs to be run on a
computer that is built for editing, and are high performance computers
such as a Mac Pro/Alienware, or a custom built PC. However, any basic
PC/Mac can run it.
There is a learning curve associated with music software and it will
take time before you achieve results that match your expectations. A
good example is the virtual mixing desk; one aspect of the software that
matches its hardware version down to every detail. On a virtual mixer
you can assign auxiliary sends and returns, route audio, set instruments
in the stereo field, balance volumes, automate changes and much more.
All recording software allows you choose a software driver from a
multiple list. If you have bought an audio interface and installed the
software, then choose that driver to achieve lower latency. Latency is
caused by the analogue to digital conversion of the audio signal and by
the processing that takes place before it is sent to your audio outs on
your virtual mixing desk. This can be quite disconcerting to the
guitarist; a sense of striking the string but not hearing the sound
until milliseconds later. This is usually overcome by the audio
interface offering direct monitoring. This bypasses the software and
provides you with a signal that is not processed. This has its drawback
in that you cannot use any software effects but these can be applied to
your audio track afterwards.
Here is a list of sound drivers:
MME: early Microsoft driver that still appears as a default in driver
drop-down menus. Low performance makes this unsuitable for DAWs.
DX: Microsoft multi-media driver designed for improved graphics and
sounds. Offers high latency and is therefore not suitable for DAWs.
WDM: later Microsoft driver that offers improved performance over MME
ASIO: developed for high performance and low latency. This driver is
recommended for DAWs. ASIO is not a Microsoft driver and it is essential
to check that the DAW you buy supports the protocol.
## Direct injection
Direct Injection is one of the most hotly debated decisions when
recording the sound of guitar. On one hand, if truly direct (that is,
does not goes through any amplifier or effects), the extremely clean
signal is a blessing for the audio engineer, as he will now have some
thing that can be easily manipulated with any effects. On the other
hand, some people say that there are no rescue for such a clean signal,
no matter what effects were inserted.
## Effects to use
Whether you use direct injection or mikes, using computer or traditional
4-tracks, insert the effect while recording or after the recording, you
will need to have some to bring life to the otherwise sterile sound.
- Distortion - what makes electric guitar sound great? Distortion,
that\'s what. When combined with proper amount of compression, the
sound will be much smoother.
- Compression - In terms of direct injection, compression of an audio
signal can help produce a smooth distortion; this effect also
produce a sustain on the sound.
- Delay/Echo/Reverb - provide a front-back aural dimension
- Stereo chorus - provide left-right aural dimension.
Some DI-boxes that is specifically designed for recording may also have
additional circuitry, to help mimic the sound of some certain cabinet
and the position of the mike.
Alternatively, if you can get a hold of a Pre-Dunlop era Rockman, it
provides all the tools and setup needed to produce some of the best
direct-injected recorded Guitar.
## Tips for Recording
- **Don\'t get frustrated!** - If you can\'t get something to sound
right, just take a break. Go and do something that is not music
related and then try again.
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- **Re-amping** - If your midi tracks sound a bit lifeless then
re-amping can put some \"air\" into the mix. Play the midi track
through your amplifier and record back into the DAW onto a separate
track.
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- **Creating a great guitar solo** - the professionals may \"comp\" a
solo from many different takes. Jimmy Page (Led Zeppelin) and David
Gilmour (Pink Floyd) are two guitarists who utilize this method of
merging the best sections of alternative takes.
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- **Backup your projects** - essential to save and back-up your music
projects. Music projects tend to grow quite big as you gain
proficiency in developing songs and backing up your work is
essential if you don\'t want to lose earlier takes that you may wish
to return to.
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# Guitar/Tuning Your Ear
Almost as important as learning how to tune your
guitar is learning how to tune your
ear. Most people do not have \"perfect pitch\", which is an umbrella
term for anyone who is really accurate at determining or singing notes.
Although you can naturally be more or less inclined to hear correct
pitches, this is a skill that can be learned, and there are several ways
of learning it. However, the truth of the matter is that no one is
absolutely \"perfect\" when it comes to pitch, and indeed, many songs
you listen to could be deliberately composed slightly sharp or flat.
Some guitar players prefer their instruments not to be exactly tuned,
because it gives some extra texture. Tuning the thinner strings slightly
sharp can make chords sound brighter, while tuning thicker strings down
slightly can give chords some \"bite\". Another important reason to
learn to tune your ear is that one day you will sit down to jam with
someone, and have no tuner available, and you will be forced to tune to
one another. This is especially true if you have a band, and you are
playing live shows; being able to quickly adjust your instrument can be
the difference between a great performance and a terrible one.
## Using a Human Voice
If you are in a band, and you have a singer that can never quite hit
those notes perfectly, sometimes it is easier to retune your guitar
rather than try to retune the singer. Learning to tune your strings to a
note someone is singing is a valuable skill, and is surprisingly similar
to other regular tuning methods, especially if you can tune to a piano.
First the singer should sing a note, preferably an A or an E, and in the
most comfortable range of their singing voice. If they can sing high
notes, or different notes on command, it is sometimes easiest to tune
each string to the singer, and then quickly do some fine adjustments to
make sure the guitar strings are consistent.
## Using Dissonance
Players that have been playing for a long time begin to learn what a
chord or interval is \"supposed\" to sound like. Sometimes this is
because a favourite song starts with this chord, or because they always
play a particular chord type (like a power chord, major barre chord,
etc.).
With this method of tuning, you simply play the appropriate chord, and
then adjust your strings until it sounds \"right\". For example,
switching into Drop D tuning is
often easy for many people, because the open power
chord has a certain
tone when it is properly tuned. Power chords are especially easy to tell
when they are out of tune, because they contain only two notes.
### Chords for Tuning
These are some common chords that players use to tell if their guitar is
properly tuned.
The power chord is a useful tool in tuning as well as it mimics the
natural overtone series of the guitar. Playing a note and a fifth above
it, on a piano for example, will allow you to more precisely tune your
instrument.
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# Guitar/Playing What You Hear
The ultimate goal for many guitarists is to be able to create with the
guitar -- that is, to be able to conceive of a
melody or a chord sequence, \"hear\" it in one\'s
head, and then translate it onto the
fretboard. Ideally, guitarists should be able
to do so with the minimum possible latency and with as few errors as
possible, and they should fail gracefully -- that is, when they play an
unintended note, they should be able to recover from the mistake. The
best improvising guitarists, from blues players
like Eric Clapton and Freddie
King to jazz players like Wes
Montgomery and Allan
Holdsworth, have mastered this skill.
## Selected Exercises
- **Practicing In The Dark**
Staring at the fretboard while playing is considered the mark of an
amateur. In most performance situations, it isn\'t possible to look at
the fretboard while still communicating visually with other musicians
and with the audience. In addition, looking at the fretboard introduces
additional delay between thinking the note and playing the note, because
the guitarist has to visually verify that his or her fingers are in the
right place.
A good way to break yourself of this flaw is to practice with your eyes
closed, or even better, to practice in the dark. You will probably find
yourself playing mostly clichés that lay out well under your fingers.
Resist the urge to do this. Practice until you can play new or difficult
phrases without looking at the neck.
- **Visualization**
Pianist and teacher Barry Harris stated in an interview for the 2008
Stanford Jazz Series that he believes that piano players would be better
off if they played the \"piano in their head\" more often. According to
Carroll Smith\'s book \"Drive To Win,\" Formula One drivers can sit down
in a chair, close their eyes, and move their hands and legs as though
they were driving a lap, and surprisingly enough, they often get within
several seconds of their actual lap times.
As a guitar player, you should do the same.
Practice running through a solo in your head, humming or singing the
melody line and fingering in the air like you would on an actual guitar.
Without the feedback you get from hearing the notes coming from the
instrument, your weaknesses are exposed. Any chord or melodic fragment
that you\'re not confident playing in the air will likely be played with
hesitation on the actual guitar. The other advantage to visualization is
that you can do it anywhere, since it doesn\'t require a guitar. People
may give you strange looks as you walk down the street playing air
guitar, but you can be self-assured in the
fact that you\'re actually playing the right notes on your air guitar
rather than strumming aimlessly.
- **The Random-Note Game**
As an improvising guitarist, if you\'re truly creating on the fly, you
will make mistakes. The best improvisers, including guitarists like
John Scofield, can use unintended notes as
starting points for new motifs or ideas. As an improvising guitarist,
you need to know how to recover from a mistake. Recovery requires that
you first know what note you actually played relative to the chord
change, and then find a way to proceed from that note in a logical way,
usually resolving the dissonance into something consonant.
A good way to improve your fault tolerance is to play the random note
game. Put on a backing track with chord changes, such as the ones by
Jamey Aebersold. Close your eyes, move your left hand up and down the
guitar neck, and pick a random string and a random fret. Play the note.
First, listen to the note, and try to hear where it fits into the
current harmony relative to the root note of the chord and to the other
chord tones. For example, maybe you just played the seventh instead of
the sixth, or the flat third instead of the natural third. Next, try to
create a melodic line that starts on the note and resolves logically
into the tune\'s harmonic structure. There are a few devices you can try
here:
- Is the note a member of the current or next chord or scale? If so,
you can play something diatonic (in the key).
- Is the note a member of a chord or scale that can resolve into the
current chord or the next chord? If so, play something over that
chord, and then resolve it into the harmony.
- Is the note a member of a chord or scale that is a half-step off
from the current chord? If so, you can sidestep back into the
correct key.
- Is the note a member of a chord or scale that can be substituted for
the current harmony? If so, play a line over the substitution, but
keep a point in mind where you can enter back into the harmony of
the tune.
This process will be difficult and time-consuming at first, but as you
play more and more and experience the common scenarios and mistakes that
you can make, recovery will move from a conscious (and slightly
terrifying) process to an instinctual (and not so scary) one.
- **The Science of the Unitar**
\"The Science of the Unitar\" is an exercise popularized by Mick
Goodrick, professor at Boston\'s Berklee College of Music and teacher to
guitarists including Pat Metheny. Basically, you practice playing
major-scale lines using only a single string on the guitar. Most
guitarists spend the majority of their time playing in one of several
positions or \"boxes\" where the major scale or the blues scale are laid
out easily. This exercise helps guitarists to break this tendency and
become comfortable playing up and down the neck.
See the book \"The Advancing Guitarist\" for a more thorough description
of this exercise.
- **Exploring The Neck**
Most guitarists start out by learning how to play chords and single
notes in first position up to the fifth fret. Next, they learn to play
the blues scale in a few different positions, and if they\'re really
diligent, they learn to play the major and minor scales in each of the
five most common positions. They end up very good at the common case of
playing within a position, but transitioning between positions or
playing licks that don\'t fall nicely within a position remains
difficult.
Here are a few exercises you can try that will improve your familiarity
with the neck:
- Take two pieces of tape and affix them to your guitar neck, five
frets apart. For example, put one before the 5th fret and one before
the 10th fret. You\'ve just created a \"box\" that contains each
note in the chromatic scale exactly once (with one exception in
standard tuning). Next, put on a jam track and practice playing the
melody and improvising using only the notes in the box. When you
start to get comfortable in one position, move each piece of tape up
a fret and do the same thing again with the same jam track in the
same key. You will probably need to start at a slow tempo and work
your way up. Don\'t be disappointed if you\'re less fluid than
usual, or even if you sound downright bad -- you\'ve found a
weakness and you\'re addressing it.
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- Learn to play scales with four notes per string. Start off with your
first finger on the 3rd fret G on the bottom string of the guitar.
Play the G major scale up and down with four notes per string and
one note per finger (no sliding). As you ascend and descend the
scale, your hand will have to move up and down the neck while also
moving across the strings. When you\'ve mastered that pattern, play
the dorian mode of the G major scale in the same fashion, starting
with your first finger on the 5th fret A on the bottom string.
Repeat the exercise, starting on each of the notes in the G major
scale. Then try it with major scales in different keys, and finally
with the melodic minor, harmonic minor, and diminished scales in
different keys. As you\'re playing, think about the patterns in the
scales. Do this every day until you can play the scales fluently.
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- Repeat the exercise above using three notes per string, and then
with two notes per string.
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- **Using All Your Fingers**
Are you using all of your fingers? If not, why not? Think of how much
more quickly and efficiently you could navigate the neck if you had full
use of all of your fingers.
Note that \"proper\" technique is not an absolute requirement for making
great music with the guitar. Guitarist Django
Reinhardt is renowned for his
contribution to jazz guitar, and what he did is even more amazing
considering that he only had full use of two of the fingers on his left
hand. If you watch video of Wes Montgomery, you\'ll notice that when he
played single note lines, he uses his first three fingers almost
exclusively, using his little finger only for octaves and chords.
Nevertheless, using all your fingers effectively will open up a world of
musical possibilities. Allan Holdsworth is one example of a guitarist
who has mastered this skill, and Kurt Rosenwinkel uses the same
techniques to achieve a horn-like, legato sound on a \"clean\" guitar.
There are a few exercises you can do to improve the dexterity and
strength of your little finger. The \"Exploring The Neck\" exercises
detailed above, especially playing scales with four notes per string,
are extremely useful for this purpose. In addition, placing artificial
limitations on your playing while you practice can help to target
specific scenarios. For example, try playing scales and songs, or even
improvising, using only your middle, ring, and little fingers. You\'ll
probably have to start at a slow tempo and work your way up. For a good
practice aid, try using Jamey Aebersold jam tracks in combination with a
software program that can change the speed of a recording without
changing the pitch.
- **Tuning In Fourths**
For many jazz and jazz-rock players, after they begin to improvise over
music of a high level of harmonic complexity, the asymmetry inherent in
standard tuning will become a limiting factor in their playing. Songs
which contain rapid transitions between key centers, such as Giant
Steps and other compositions based on
Coltrane changes, may be especially
difficult to master in standard tuning.
Tuning the guitar in fourths (EADGCF) eliminates many of these issues.
Stanley Jordan is the best-known
guitarist to use this tuning. Allan Holdsworth states that \"if I was
starting guitar again, I\'d tune in Perfect Fourths.\" (see
link)
Advantages of tuning in fourths include:
- Every shape on the fretboard translates directly into a musical
interval. In standard tuning, the same shape on different groups of
strings may produce several different intervals.
- All chord shapes are usable across all groups of strings. For
example, a voicing on four adjacent strings is usable on three
different combinations of strings with no change in fingering,
whereas the same voicing in standard tuning would require three
different fingerings for the three combinations of strings.
- All scales reveal their symmetry across the neck. For example, given
a pattern to play a one-octave major scale across three strings
starting on the root note, you could apply this pattern at any
location on the neck and get the same major scale.
The major disadvantages of tuning in fourths are:
- Obviously, re-learning of chords, scales, and licks is required.
- Many pop and rock songs that rely upon open chords are no longer
playable in their original form.
## Selected Resources
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# Guitar/Guitar Accessories
This page is a list of common (and uncommon) accessories you can get for
guitar. It is not a buying guide, but it will give you an idea of what
to expect in your local guitar shop. While they are not all necessary
for playing guitar, some of them are extremely useful and are a good
investment.
## Picks
!From top going clockwise: 1)Standard plastic pick 2)Imitation
turtoiseshell pick 3)Plastic pick with high-friction coating 4)Stainless
steel pick 5)Triangular plastic pick 6)\"Shark\'s fin\"
pickStandard plastic pick 2)Imitation turtoiseshell pick 3)Plastic pick with high-friction coating 4)Stainless steel pick 5)Triangular plastic pick 6)"Shark's fin" pick")
Picks are probably the most frequently bought guitar accessory. There
are several reasons, but mostly it is because there are so many types of
picks, and picks are so easily lost. When you go to the guitar store,
you are overwhelmed by the agony of choice, and this is especially true
for the beginner.
Picks are probably as old as guitars themselves, although most modern
picks are made out of plastic, or sometimes metal. Apart from shape and
size of the picks, its strength and the material used to make it are
important, because these affect the \"feel\" of playing with the pick.
Up until about the 70\'s, most picks were made out of horn or turtle
shell. Turtle shell was generally better, because it allowed some
flexibility when hitting the strings. However, over time this was
devastating the turtle population, and now most picks are made of nylon
or plastic. Generally nylon picks have the same properties of the turtle
shells, and plastic picks are thicker and denser. However, the general
disadvantage of plastic picks is that they wear out quickly, especially
if you play fast and hard.
Since the guitar industry constantly experiments with new materials, you
might walk into the guitar shop and find something completely exotic.
For example, you can buy picks made from hard leather, which are
outstanding for classical guitars because of the soft feeling.
Selecting the correct pick for you depends above all on what style of
guitar you want to play. Lead or rhythm? Will you be slowly strumming
chords, or chugging away on distorted power chords? Each style is most
easily accomplished with a particular type of pick. Generally speaking,
how hard a pick you use depends on how hard your strings are. Heavier
strings will require thicker picks, and vice versa. The shape of the
pick determines how much operating area you have to use. For example,
rhythm guitarists usually use blunter, larger picks, and lead guitarists
use pointier picks so they can more precisely hit individual strings.
If you use hard picks, you will get a hard sound out of the strings,
especially with metal picks. Generally the thicker the pick the less
\"give\" there will be when you strum a chord. However, because no two
companies manufacture picks with the same material, Company X\'s 0.76 mm
pick will feel different than Company Y\'s 0.76 mm. Above all, remember
that you should always select a pick based on your ability to handle it.
You can only play well with a pick if it fits well in your hand.
Picks for the guitar typically range in thickness from the ultra thin
0.38 mm to the really thick 1.14 mm, although bass picks can be thicker.
A mid range pick would be something about 0.76 mm thick. Beginners will
usually prefer softer picks until they can learn to hold them securely.
Aside from the thickness and mass of the pick, there also exist
different pick types. There\'s the finger pick, which fits over your
fingers with a ring (thumb-pick is special because it\'s angled), and
even your normal picks may have different shapes, such as shark-fin
(better at chord), sharppoint, etc.
## Strings
Each type of guitar uses its own type of strings. Strings are
specifically designed for a type of guitar to give it a particular sort
of sound. The differences between string types affect the guitar\'s
tone, and it is not recommended to use a set of strings not made for
your guitar. Not only would the result not sound good, but attempting to
string a guitar with the wrong kind of strings would be difficult,
frustrating, and might damage your instrument.
Three of the best and most popular brands of guitar strings for both
acoustic and electric guitar are currently Ernie Ball, D\'Addario, and
Elixir. Ernie Balls and D\'Addarios are much cheaper than Elixirs, but
Elixirs will keep their bright tone for months (which is why they are
higher-priced). But Elixirs can break as easily as any other strings, so
they are perhaps best left to people who have been playing a long time
and rarely snap strings. The difference between the other two brands is
a matter of taste; try them both.
A **classical guitar** has three bronze wound strings and three strings
made out of nylon, which are the higher pitched.
A set of strings for a **steel string acoustic** has four bronze wound
strings and two silvered steel strings, the steel ones being the
thinnest and highest pitched.
A set of **electric guitar strings** are similar to an acoustic
guitar\'s, except the strings are made of nickel instead of bronze and
steel. Often there are three wound strings and three nickel strings, but
you can also get four wound and two nickel.
The two most common gauges for the high E string in electric guitars are
.009 inches and .010 inches (these measurements appear to be used often
even in countries using the metric system). Often a whole set of strings
is referred to by the gauge of the high E string, e.g., \"nines\" or
\"tens\" for .009 and .010 gauges respectively. The beginning guitarist
is recommended to start with .009s; many professionals also use this
gauge, so many guitarists never \"outgrow\" it.
However, if you wish to try something new, you may want to try out .010
gauge strings once you get used to the lighter .009s. This is only
recommended after you have been playing for a while, as your calluses
need time to form, and your fingers need to get stronger. This procedure
also applies to strings above the .010 range. There are also .011, .012,
and .013 gauge strings readily available from all of the manufacturers
mentioned above. The benefit of higher gauge strings is tone. If you are
planning on playing metal guitar, or any other genre that uses a lot of
distortion or overdrive, you probably will not notice a difference in
the sound. Alternatively, if you are playing blues or rock, a higher
gauge string will give you a heavier, \"dirtier\" sound, very preferable
to these types of music. Stevie Ray
Vaughan is notorious
for using very heavy gauge strings (some sources claim .014 gauge),
contributing a lot to his signature tone.
## Tuning Aids
{width="200"} **Electronic
tuners** are a quick, accurate, and precise method of tuning. A tuner
can be used in two ways, either through a built in microphone which
detects sound, or by directly jacking in an electric guitar. When a note
is played, the tuner determines the note you are playing, and then
represents visually how sharp or flat the note is. Most models use a
combination of lights and a display screen to indicate the tone of the
note.
Electronic tuners can be easily drowned out by background noise when you
do not jack directly into them. Because of this, they are best used in a
quiet environment. {width="75"}
A **tuning fork** is a piece of U-shaped metal that, when struck, emits
a particular tone. Tuning forks are good because, unless bent, they will
always emit the same note. The most common tuning forks resonate at
either an A, at a frequency of 440 hertz, or C. Using a tuning fork is
generally recommended for more advanced players. You can buy a tuning
fork that sounds the note E. Many guitarists prefer this due to the fact
that the guitar\'s lowest and highest strings are both E.
To use a tuning fork, gently strike it against the heel of your hand and
it will vibrate. Then, set the base of the fork against the body of the
guitar if it is acoustic. The sound of the fork will be amplified
through the guitar, and you can use it to tune your strings. If you have
an electric guitar, you must hold the tuning fork to your ear, and then
tune your strings. It is important not to strike the fork against a hard
surface, as this may bend the fork out of tune.
If you are using an A tuning fork, then you should tune first to the
harmonic on the A string. However, you can also use the 5th fret on the
low E string, the 7th fret of the D string, the 2nd fret on the G
string, or the 5th fret on the high E string. All of these frets produce
an A, although some are in a higher octave.
A **pitchpipe** is much like a tuning fork, in that it only plays one
note and that note is used for tuning. To use a pitchpipe, you blow
through the end like a whistle. Traditional breath powered pitchpipes
are notoriously unreliable, because temperature changes can affect the
note that they play. You can also purchase electronic pitchpipes, which
emit notes through a speaker. Some electronic tuners also have this
feature.
## Cables
Cables are used to connect two sound devices
together, like a guitar and an amplifier. There are many different
types, each for a different purpose, and it is good for a guitarist to
familiarize themselves with some common types.
## String Crank
A string crank is essentially a handle with a rotating cap, designed to
fit over top of a tuning peg. It makes unwinding strings much quicker,
and some also have a slot to help remove the pegs near the bridge that
hold the strings in the body.
## Slide
!Metal Slide A **slide** or
**bottleneck** is a ceramic, glass or metal cylinder, usually worn on
the fingers rather than held in the hand. The term slide is in reference
to the sliding motion of the slide against the strings, while bottleneck
refers to the original material of choice for such slides, which were
the necks of glass bottles.
Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the normal manner (by
pressing the string against frets), a slide is placed upon the string to
vary its vibrating length and pitch. This slide can then be moved along
the string without lifting, creating continuous transitions in pitch.
## Capo
!A basic guitar capo{width="200"}
A **capo** (short for *capotasto*, which is Italian for \"head of
fretboard\") is a device used for shortening the strings, and hence
raising the pitch of the guitar. Capos are used to change the key and
pitch of a guitar sound without having to adjust the strings with the
tuning keys. It was invented by the Flamenco guitarist Jose Patino
Gonzalez.
thumb\|left\|A Shubb capo which uses a lever operated *over-centre
locking action*
clamp-KayEss-1.jpeg "wikilink")
Flamenco and folk
guitar make extensive use of the capo,
while it is used very rarely, if at all, in styles like classical
guitar and
jazz. Capos are useful and good to have, but
sometimes they prevent a player from properly learning how to play barre
chords. Capos and barre chords both have their uses, and there certainly
is no reason you cannot learn to use both.
There are several different styles of capo available, but the basic
method is the same; a rubber covered bar pressed down on the strings,
and it is fastened on the neck with a strip of elastic or some sort of
clamping mechanism. Some special capos can fret individual strings at
individual frets, enabling a player to create an open tuning, or have
two fretting bars, allowing you to quickly change from one tuning to
another without having to move the capo itself.
A simple version can be made with a pencil and a rubber band. Lay the
pencil (preferably one with flat surfaces) across the strings at the
desired fret, and holding it in place by wrapping the rubber band around
both ends and underneath the fretboard.
!A makeshift guitar capo
Because of the different techniques and chord voicings available in
different keys, chords played with a capo may sound different. For
example, placing the capo at the second fret and strumming a C major
chord-shape sounds different than strumming an open D major chord.
Although both of these produce the same chords, they each have a
different tone and texture. Capos also change the timbre of the strings
as the scale length is shortened, making the guitar sound more like a
mandolin. Capos give you a greater varieties of sounds you can achieve
on the guitar, using open chords and
alternate tunings.
A capo is almost essential for older twelve string guitars because
manufacturers would strongly recommend that the instrument *not be tuned
above a tone below standard guitar tuning* to reduce stress on the neck.
Modern 12-strings can be tuned up to pitch with ultra light gauge
strings, but many players still prefer to tune a tone lower and use a
capo to play in tune with six-string or bass guitars.
## Metronome
!A wooden
metronome.jpg "A wooden metronome")
A **metronome** is a device that produces a regulated audible beat,
and/or a visual pulse, used to establish a steady tempo. Tempos are
measured in beats-per-minute (BPM), and a metronome is invaluable for
setting a proper pace, especially when practicing. Although it is
possible to buy metronomes with moving parts, most modern ones are
electronic.
Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. A
regular \"tick\" sound indicates the beat within each measure, and
another, distinct sound (often of a different timbre, higher pitch or
greater volume) indicates the beginning of each measure. A tempo control
adjusts the amount of time separating each beat (typically measured in
beats per minute), while another, discrete, control adjusts the meter of
the rhythm and thus the number of beats in each measure. This number is
an integer often ranging from one to six, though some metronomes go up
to nine or higher. Some devices also have options for irregular time
signatures such as 5/4 or 7/8, in which other distinct sounds indicate
the beginning of each subgroup of beats within a measure.
## Music Stand
When reading music, it\'s best to use a music stand, as it can be set up
at a proper angle. Furthermore, with a sturdy collapsible stand, one can
have a reliable platform anywhere.
|
# Guitar/Effects Pedals
**Effects pedals** are electronic or digital devices that modify the
tone, pitch, or sound of an electric guitar. Effects can be housed in
effects pedals, guitar amplifiers, guitar amplifier simulation software,
and rackmount preamplifiers or processors. Electronic effects and signal
processing form an important part of the electric guitar tone used in
many genres, such as rock, pop, blues, and metal. All these are inserted
into the signal path between an electric instrument and the amplifier.
They modify the signal coming from the instrument, adding \"effects\"
that change the way it sounds in order to add interest, create more
impact or create aural soundscapes.
Guitar effects are also used with other instruments in rock, pop, blues,
and metal, such as electronic keyboards and synthesizers. Electric bass
players use bass effects, which are designed to work with the
low-frequency tones of the bass.
## Distortion-related effects
!Boss DS1 distortion
pedal Distortion is an
important part of an electric guitar\'s sound in many genres,
particularly for rock, hard rock, and metal. A distortion pedal takes a
normal electric guitar signal and combine harmonic multiplication and
clipping through the use of analog circuitry to create any number of
sounds ranging from a mild vintage blues growl to a 1960s psychedelic
fuzz sound to the sound of an highly overdriven tube amp in a metal
band. Distortion is essential to the powerful sound of heavy
metal music.
There are several different types of distortion effects, each with
distinct sonic characteristics. These include overdrive/distortion (or
vacuum tube-style distortion), overdrive/crunch, fuzz, and hi-gain.
### Overdrive Distortion
Overdrive distortion is the most well known of all distortions. Although
there aren\'t many electronic differences between a distortion an
overdrive, the main audible one is that a distortion does exactly as the
name suggests; distorts and clips the signal no matter what volume is
going through it, the amount of distortion usually remains relatively
the same. This is where an overdrive differs. Most overdrives are built
to emulate the sound of a tube amp overdriving and therefore give the
player control of the clipping through dynamics. This simply means that
the effect gives a clean sound for quieter volumes and a more clipped or
distorted sound for louder volumes.
While the general purpose is to emulate classic \"warm-tube\" sounds,
distortion pedals such as the ones in this list can be distinguished
from overdrive pedals in that the intent is to provide players with
instant access to the sound of a high-gain Marshall amplifier such as
the JCM800 pushed past the point of tonal breakup and into the range of
tonal distortion known to electric guitarists as \"saturated gain.\"
Although most distortion devices use solid-state circuitry, some \"tube
distortion\" pedals are designed with preamplifier vacuum tubes. In some
cases, tube distortion pedals use power tubes or a preamp tube used as a
power tube driving a built-in \"dummy load.\" Distortion pedals designed
specifically for bass guitar are also available. Some distortion pedals
include:
- MXR Distortion+: A distortion which is capable of having a very
subtle, soft clipping, right through to a heavily overdriven sound
favoured by many modern day heavy and death metal guitarists.
- Pro Co Rat
- Boss DS-1 Distortion
- Marshall Guv\'nor
- Line 6 Dr. Distorto
- T-Rex Engineering\|T-Rex Engineering\'s Bloody Mary
- Digitech Hot Head
- Danelectro FAB Distortion
### Overdrive/Crunch
!Ibanez Tube Screamer
pedal
Some distortion effects provide an \"overdrive\" effect. Either by using
a vacuum tube, or by using simulated tube modeling techniques, the top
of the wave form is compressed, thus giving a smoother distorted signal
than regular distortion effects. When an overdrive effect is used at a
high setting, the sound\'s waveform can become clipped, which imparts a
gritty or \"dirty\" tone, which sounds like a tube amplifier \"driven\"
to its limit. Used in conjunction with an amplifier, especially a tube
amplifier, driven to the point of mild tonal breakup, short of what
would be generally considered distortion or overdrive, these pedals can
produce extremely thick distortion sounds much like those used by Carlos
Santana or Eddie Van Halen. Today there is a huge variety of overdrive
pedals, and some of them are:
- Ibanez Tube Screamer (TS-9 and TS-808): an overdrive which was built
to work with the harmonics of a push-pull tube amp. This effect was
made famous by blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan but was and is
used by hundreds of prominent guitarists since it\'s invention.
- BOSS SD-1 Super Overdrive
- BOSS BD-2 Blues Driver
- BOSS OD-3 Overdrive
- Line 6 Crunchtone
- DigiTech Bad Monkey
- N-audio Firesound V3
- Danelectro FAB Overdrive
### Fuzz
!Arbiter Fuzzface, a fuzz
pedal. Fuzz was
originally intended to recreate the classic 1960\'s tone of an
overdriven tube amp combined with torn speaker cones. Oldschool guitar
players (like Link Wray) (citation needed) would use a screwdriver to
poke several holes through the paperboard part of the guitar amp speaker
to achieve a similar sound. Since the original designs, more extreme
fuzz pedals have been designed and produced, incorporating octave-up
effects, oscillation, gating, and greater amounts of distortion.
Some classic fuzzbox pedals include:
- Sola sound MK 2 tonebender
- Univox supa-fuzz
- Mosrite fuzzrite
- Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face: This was a favorite of Psychedelic rocker
Jimi Hendrix who shot this pedal to stardom as he did himself.
- Electro Harmonix Big Muff: Probably the most popular fuzz effects
ever designed, the Big Muff is also often used as a sustain pedal
and sounds excellent in combination with a wah wah.
### Hi-Gain
Hi-Gain (descended from the more generic electric guitar amplification
term high-gain) is the sound most used in heavy metal. High gain in
normal electric guitar playing simply references a thick sound produced
by heavily overdriven amplifier tubes, a distortion pedal, or some
combination of both\--the essential component is the typically loud,
thick, harmonically rich, and sustaining quality of the tone. However,
the Hi-Gain sound of modern pedals is somewhat distinct from, although
descended from, this sound. The distortion often produces sounds not
possible any other way. Many extreme distortions are either hi-gain or
the descendents of such. The Mesa Boogie Triple Rectifier Series of amps
are an example.
Some Hi-Gain Pedals Include:
- BOSS MT2 Metal Zone
- DigiTech Death Metal
- Danelectro FAB Metal
- Electro Harmonix Metal Muff with Top Boost
- MXR Dime Distortion: Used by Dimebag Darrell.
- Suhr Riot
### Power-tube pedal
A Power-Tube pedal contains a power tube and optional dummy load, or a
preamp tube used as a power tube. This allows the device to produce
power-tube distortion independently of volume; therefore, power-tube
distortion can be used as an effects module in an effects chain.
### Power attenuator
A Power attenuator enables a player to obtain power-tube distortion
independently of listening volume. A power attenuator is a dummy load
placed between the guitar amplifier\'s power tubes and the guitar
speaker, or a power-supply based circuit to reduce the plate voltage on
the power tubes. Examples of power attenuators are the Marshall
PowerBrake and THD HotPlate.
## Filtering-related effects
### Equalizer
!Behringer EQ700 graphic
equalizer
An equalizer adjusts the frequency response in a number of different
frequency bands. A graphic equalizer (or \"graphic EQ\") provides slider
controls for a number of frequency region. Each of these bands has a
fixed width (Q) and a fixed center-frequency, and as such, the slider
changes only the level of the frequency band. The tone controls on
guitars, guitar amps, and most pedals are similarly fixed-Q and
fixed-frequency, but unlike a graphic EQ, rotary controls are used
rather than sliders.
Most parametric EQ pedals (such as the
1 Boss PQ-4)
provide semi-parametric EQ. That is, in addition to level control, each
band provides either a center frequency or Q width control. Parametric
EQs have rotating controls rather than sliders.
Placement of EQ in a distortion signal processing chain affects the
basic guitar amp tone. Using a guitar\'s rotary tone control
potentiometer is a form of pre-distortion EQ. Placing an EQ pedal before
a distortion pedal or before a guitar amp\'s built-in preamp distortion
provides preliminary control of the preamp distortion voicing.
For more complete control of preamp distortion voicing, an additional EQ
pedal can be placed after a distortion pedal; or, equivalently, the
guitar amp\'s tone controls, after the built-in preamp distortion, can
be used. An EQ pedal in the amp\'s effects loop, or the amp\'s tone
controls placed after preamp distortion, constitutes post-distortion EQ,
which finishes shaping the preamp distortion and sets up the power-tube
distortion voicing.
As an example of pre-distortion EQ, Eddie Van Halen places a 6-band MXR
EQ pedal before the Marshall amplifier head (pre-distortion EQ). Slash
places a Boss GE-7, a 7-band EQ pedal, before his Marshall amp. This
technique is similar to placing a Wah pedal before the amp\'s preamp
distortion and leaving the Wah pedal positioned part-way down, sometimes
mentioned as \"fixed wah,\" (pre-distortion EQ), along with adjusting
the amp\'s tone controls (post-distortion EQ).
If a dummy load guitar-amp configuration is used, an additional EQ
position becomes available, between the dummy load and the final
amplifier that drives the guitar speaker. Van Halen used an additional
EQ in this position. This configuration is commonly used with rackmount
systems.
Finally, an EQ pedal such as a 10-band graphic EQ pedal can be placed in
the Insert jack of a mixer to replace the mixer channel\'s EQ controls,
providing graphical control over the miked guitar speaker signal.
Equalization-related effects pedals include Wah, Auto-Wah, and Phase
Shifter. Most EQ pedals also have an overall Level control distinct from
the frequency-specific controls, thus enabling an EQ pedal to act as a
configurable level-boost pedal. Some EQ pedals include:
- MXR M-108 10-band Equalizer
- BOSS GE-7 Equalizer
### Wah-wah
!Boss V-Wah pedal
A wah-wah pedal is a moving bandpass filter whose frequency center is
controlled by the musician via a rocker pedal. This filter boosts the
frequencies in the instrument signal around the moving frequency center,
allowing the musician to emphasize different areas of the frequency
spectrum while playing. Rocked to the bass end of the spectrum, a
wah-wah pedal makes a guitar signal sound hollow, without upper
harmonics. On the other end of the sweep, the filter emphasizes
higher-end harmonics and omits some of the low-end \"growl\" of the
natural instrument sound. Rocking the pedal while holding a note creates
a sound that goes from growl to shriek, and sounds like a crying baby,
which is how the effect got its name and also the reason behind the
Crybaby line of wah-wah pedals. The wah-wah pedal, used with guitar, is
most associated with 1960s psychedelic rock and 1970s funk. During this
period wah-wah pedals often incorporated a fuzzbox to process the sound
before the wah-wah circuit, the combination producing a dramatic effect
known as fuzz-wah.
Some wah-wah pedals include:
- Dunlop Cry Baby
- VOX V847 Wah Wah
- Danelectro Trip-L Wah
### Auto-Wah / Envelope Filter
!Musitronics Mu-Tron III
pedal An
Auto-Wah is a Wah-wah pedal without a rocker pedal, controlled instead
by the dynamic envelope of the signal. An auto-wah, also called more
technically an envelope filter, uses the level of the guitar signal to
control the wah filter position, so that as a note is played, it
automatically starts with the sound of a wah-wah pedal pulled back, and
then quickly changes to the sound of a wah-wah pedal pushed forward, or
the reverse movement depending on the settings. Controls include wah-wah
pedal direction and input level sensitivity. This is an EQ-related
effect and can be placed before preamp distortion or before power-tube
distortion with natural sounding results. Auto-Wah pedals include:
- Electro-Harmonix Q-Tron
- MXR M-120 Auto Q
- Keeley Electronics Nova Wah
- Danelectro French Fries Auto-Wah
- Mu-Tron III
### Talk Box
Early forms of the talk box, such as the Heil Talk Box, first appeared
in Country Music circles in Nashville in the 1940\',s 1950\'s, and
1960\'s, by artist like swing band pedal steel player Alvino Rey, Link
Wray (\"Rumble\"), Bill West, a Country Music steel guitar player and
husband of Dottie West, and Pete Drake, a Nashville mainstay on the
pedal steel guitar and friend of Bill West. Drake used it on his 1964
album Forever, in what came to be called his \"talking steel guitar.\"
The device used the guitar amplifier\'s output to drive a speaker horn
that pushed air into a tube held in the player\'s mouth, which filters
and thereby shapes the sound leading to a unique effect. The singer and
guitarist Peter Frampton made this effect famous with hit songs such as
\"Do You Feel Like We Do\" and \"Show Me the Way,\" as did Joe Walsh on
\"Rocky Mountain Way.\" On Van Halen\'s cover of \"You Really Got Me\"
Eddie Van Halen uses a talk box after the guitar solo to make a sound
similar to a person having sex. Newer devices, such as Danelectro\'s
Free Speech pedal, use a microphone and vocoder-like circuit to modulate
the frequency response of the guitar signal. Some Talk Boxes include:
The Dunlop Heil Talk Box, Rocktron Banshee, and Peter Frampton\'s own
company,Framptone.
## Volume-related effects
### Volume pedal
A Volume pedal is a volume potentiometer that is tilted forward or back
by foot. A volume pedal enables a musician to adjust the volume of their
instrument while they are performing. Volume pedals can also be used to
make the guitar\'s notes or chords fade in and out. This allows the
percussive plucking of the strings to be softened or eliminated
entirely, imparting a human-vocal sound. Volume pedals are also widely
used with pedal steel guitars in country music. It has also been used to
great effect in rock music; the Pat McGee Band\'s live version of
\"Can\'t Miss What You Never Had\" on General Admission illustrates what
the pedal is capable of. Some volume pedals are:
- Ernie Ball Stereo Volume Pedal
- Boss FV-50H Foot Volume
- VOX V850 Volume Pedal
### Auto-Volume/Envelope Volume
Just as an Auto-Wah is a version of a Wah pedal controlled by the
signal\'s dynamic envelope, there is an envelope-controlled version of a
volume pedal. This is generally used to mimic automatically the sound of
picking a note while the guitar\'s volume knob is turned down, then
smoothly turning the knob up, for a violin-like muted attack. An example
is:
- Boss SG-1 Slow Gear
### Tremolo
Tremolo is a regular and repetitive variation in gain for the duration
of a single note, which works like an auto-volume knob; this results in
a swelling or fluttering sound. This effect is very popular in
psychedelic and trip-hop music. The speed and depth of the flutter are
usually user-controlled.This is a volume-related effects pedal. This
effect is based on one of the earliest effects that were built into
guitar amplifiers. Examples include:
- Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator
- Boss TR-2 Tremolo
- Electro-Harmonix Worm
- Line 6 Tap Tremolo
- Danelectro Cool-Cat Tremolo
### Compressor
!Marshall ED-1 Compressor effects
pedal A
compressor acts as an automatic volume control, progressively decreasing
the output level as the incoming signal gets louder, and vice versa. It
preserves the note\'s attack rather than silencing it as with an
Envelope Volume pedal. This adjustment of the volume for the attack and
tail of a note evens out the overall volume of an instrument.
Compressors can also change the behaviour of other effects, especially
distortion. when applied toward the guitar, it can provide a uniformed
sustained note; when applied to instruments with a normally short
attack, such as drums or harpsichord, compression can drastically change
the resulting sound. Another kind of compressor is the optical
compressor which uses a light source (LED or lamp) to compress the
signal.
Some compressor pedals are:
- Boss CS-3 Compression Sustainer
- MXR M-102 DynaComp
- Diamond Compressor (optical compressor)
- Line 6 Constrictor
- T-Rex Engineering\'s CompNova
- Electro-Harmonix Black Finger (optical compressor)
- Aphex Punch Factory Optical Compressor
- TC Electronic Hypergravity Compressor (parallel compressor)
## Time-based effects
### Delay/Echo
!Boss DD3 digital delay
pedal
A Delay or Echo pedal creates a copy of an incoming sound and slightly
time-delays it, creating either a \"slap\" (single repetition) or an
echo (multiple repetitions) effect. Delay pedals may use either analog
or digital technology. Analog delays often are less flexible and not as
\"perfect\" sounding as digital delays, but some guitarists argue that
analog effects produce \"warmer\" tones. Early delay devices actually
used magnetic tape to produce the time delay effect. U2\'s guitarist,
The Edge, is known for his extensive use of delay effects. Some common
Delay pedals are:
- Boss DD-6 Digital Delay
- Boss DD-20 Giga Delay
- Line 6 DL-4 Delay Modeler
- Line 6 Echo Park
- T-Rex Engineering\'s Replica
- TC Electronic Flashback Delay
- Danelectro FAB Echo
Another technology that is used in Delay units is a feedback circuit,
consisting of a tracking oscillator circuit to hold a note of the last
interval, and after amplifying the signal, send it back to the input
side of the delay. While it was first associated with Boss DF-2 Super
Feedbacker & Distortion, currently, the signal feedback circuit is
employed by Delay pedals, and if used under \"hold\" mode (As in Boss
DD-3) it will provide a sustain effect instead of a simply delay effect.
### Looping
Extremely long delay times form a looping pedal, which allows performers
to record a phrase or passage and play along with it. This allows a solo
performer to record an accompaniment or ostinato passage and then, with
the looping pedal playing back this passage, perform solo improvisations
over the accompaniment. The guitarist creates the loop either on the
spot or it is held in storage for later use (as in playback) when
needed. Some examples of loops effects are:
- Boss RC-1 & RC-3 Loop Stations
- Boss RC-300 Loop Station
- DigiTech JamMan Looper
- Boomerang Looper
- TC Electronic Ditto
### Reverb
!DigiTech DigiDelay effects
pedal Reverb
is the persistence of sound in a particular space after the original
sound is removed. When sound is produced in a space, a large number of
echoes build up and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the
walls and air, creating reverberation, or reverb. A plate reverb system
uses an electromechanical transducer (actuator), similar to the driver
in a loudspeaker, to create vibration in a plate of sheet metal. A
pickup captures the vibrations as they bounce across the plate, and the
result is output as an audio signal. A spring reverb system uses a
transducer at one end of a spring and a pickup at the other, similar to
those used in plate reverbs, to create and capture vibrations within a
metal spring. Guitar amplifiers frequently incorporate spring reverbs
due to their compact construction. Spring reverberators were once widely
used in semi-professional recording due to their modest cost and small
size. Due to quality problems and improved digital reverb units, spring
reverberators are declining rapidly in use. Digital reverb units use
various signal processing algorithms in order to create the reverb
effect. Since reverberation is essentially caused by a very large number
of echoes, simple DSPs use multiple feedback delay circuits to create a
large, decaying series of echoes that die out over time.
Examples of reverb pedals include:
- DigiTech DigiDelay
- Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail
- Boss RV-5 Digital Reverb
- Line 6 Verbzilla
## Modulation-related effects
### Rotary Speaker
Before such effects are available electronically, these are accomplished
by the use of Rotary speakers, by spinning the speakers and/or place a
rotating baffle in front of it. This creates a doppler effect, and
depend on the speed of the rotation, translate into phasing, flanging,
chorus, vibrato, or even tremolo.
- Leslie Speakers: This is a unit that contains a bass speaker that
blare into a rotating baffle, and a horn speaker that rotate like a
siren. Originally designed for Hammond organs, they are also favored
by guitarist; some say that no electronic effects can duplicate its
sounds.
- Fender Vibratone: This is a simplified version of Leslie Speaker,
containing only a 10\" speaker that blare into a rotating baffle.
All the electronic-based effects can duplicate the sound of a rotating
speakers, as all the following effects differ based on speed, volume,
and modulation. In fact, it is not uncommon for a pedal to be capable of
doing two or more of modulation effects.
### Phase Shifter (Phaser)
!Digitech Hyper Phase effects
pedal
A Phase Shifter creates a complex frequency response containing many
regularly-spaced \"notches\" in an incoming signal by combining it with
a copy of itself out of phase, and shifting the phase relationship
cyclically. The phasing effect creates a \"whooshing\" sound that is
reminiscent of the sound of a flying jet. This effect dominates the
sound in the song Star Guitar by Chemical Brothers. The song was not
played with any guitars but you can hear the phasing effect. The
instrument being phased was actually a synthesizer. Some electronic
\"rotating speaker simulators\" are actually phase shifters. Phase
shifters were popular in the 1970s, particularly used with electric
piano and funk bass guitar. The number of stages in a phase shifter is
the number of moving dips in the frequency response curve. From a sonic
perspective, this effect is equalization-oriented. However, it may be
derived through moderate time-based processing. Some phaser pedals
include:
- MXR M-101 Phase 90
- BOSS PH-3 Phase Shifter
- Electro-Harmonix Small Stone
- Moog\] MF-103 12 Stage Phaser
- DigiTech Hyper Phase
### Vibe (Univibe)
A Vibe or Univibe pedal reproduces the sound of a rotating speaker by
synchronizing volume oscillation, frequency-specific volume oscillation,
vibrato (pitch wavering), phase shifting, and chorusing in relation to a
non-rotating speaker. The modulation speed can be ramped up or down,
with separate speeds for the bass and treble frequencies, to simulate
the sound of a rotating bass speaker and a rotating horn. This effect is
simultaneously a volume-oriented effect, an equalization-oriented
effect, and a time-based effect. Furthermore, this effect is typically
related to chorus. Some vibe pedals also include an overdrive effect,
which allows the performer to add \"tube\"-style distortion. This effect
is the most closely related to a rotary speaker. Some Vibe-only pedals
include:
- BBE Soul Vibe
- Voodoo Lab Microvibe
Some vibe-chorus pedals include
- Dunlop Univibe
- Dunlop Rotovibe
- BBE Mind Bender
### Vibrato
A vibrato pedal cyclically changes the pitch of the signal, giving the
impression that the guitar is out of tune. The depth of the effect, the
speed and the overall level of the effect can be controlled by
potentiometers. Although similar in name and able to achieve similar
sounds at high speed settings, a vibrato is different from a Vibe pedal.
Examples of vibrato-only pedals:
- TC Electronic Shaker Vibrato
- Malekko Omicron vibrato
- Subdecay Siren pitch vibrato
- Zvex Verter Instant LoFi Junky
- Boss VB-2w Vibrato
Some chorus and modulation pedals inclue a vibrato section that can be
combined with chorus, vibe or rotary.
### Flanger
A Flanger simulates the sound effect originally created by momentarily
slowing the tape during recording by holding something against the
flange, or edge of the tape reel, and then allowing it to speed up
again. This effect was used to simulate passing into \"warp speed,\" in
sci-fi films, and also in psychedelic rock music of the 1960s. Flanging
has a sound similar to a phase-shifter, but different, yet is closely
related to the production of chorus.
The first pedal-operated flanger designed for use as a guitar effect was
designed by Jim Gamble of Tycobrahe Sound Company in Hermosa Beach, CA,
during the mid 1970s. Last made in 1977, the existing \"Pedalflangers\"
appear occasionally on eBay and sell for several hundred dollars. A
modern \"clone\" of the Tycobrahe Pedalflanger is sold by Chicago
Iron.Famous users of this Flanger effect include Randy Rhoads and Eddie
Van Halen, coincidentally they both used the MXR M-117R flanger and
Eddie Van Halen even has his own signature model now.
Examples:
- Boss BF-3 Stereo Flanger
- Line 6 Liqua Flange
- MXR M-117R Flanger
- Danelectro FAB Flange
- Electro Harmonix Deluxe Electric Mistress
!Ibanez CF7 chorus/flanger effects
pedal
### Chorus
Chorus splits your guitars signal in two, then second signals pitch is
then delayed and/or modulated in pitch and mixed back in with the dry
signal. The effect sounds like several guitarists playing the same thing
at the same time resulting in a wide swelling sound. Some common chorus
pedals are:
- Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble (the original chorus effect pedal, and
first device released by Boss)
- Boss CH-1 Super Chorus
- Electro-Harmonix Small Clone
- Ibanez CF-7 Chorus/Flanger
- Line 6 Space Chorus
- MXR M-134 Stereo Chorus
- TC Electronic Stereo Chorus /Flanger /Pitch Modulator
- Danelectro FAB Chorus
### Rotary Speaker Simulator
Despite the numerous different analog devices, it is very rare for them
to be able to duplicate all aspects of a Leslie speaker. Thus, Rotary
Speaker Simulator are always going to be digital, utilizing modelling
algorithms to model the relations between the rotating horns and bass
baffle. And how the sound bounce around the cabinet. As Leslie also have
an amplifier section, most of these typically have overdrives to
simulate that aspect. Some of these pedals can even accept keyboard\'s
input.
- Boss RT-20 Rotary Ensemble Pedal: This is one of the few pedals that
is capable of modelling all aspect of a Leslie Speaker.
- Line 6 Rotomachine: Also a modelling pedal, it is available in a
compact pedal size.
- DLS Roto-Sim: Hybrid of analog with DSP modelling.
## Pitch-related effects
### Pitch Shifter/harmonizer
**Pitchshifters** change the pitch of the note played via a
user-specified amount. The range of pitch deviation depends on the
equipment used, but many pedals are capable of raising and lowering the
pitch two octaves above and below the fundamental
pitch. The amount of pitch deviation can be set or controlled via a foot
pedal (which typically offers smooth, continuous pitch control).
Typically, such function will be used with the original signal,
resulting in a **Harmonizer**: the pitch is altered and combined with
the original pitch to create two or more note harmonies. These harmonies
are typically programmed in discrete integer
multiples of the fundamental tone. When used with an expression pedal,
it provides a smooth, abeit slightly digital, bend-like effect. Pitch
shifters can also be used to electronically \"detune\" the instrument.
Some examples are:
- Digitech Whammy
- Boss PS-5 Super Shifter
- Electro Harmonix Harmonic Octave Generator
### Octaver
!Electro-Harmonix Polyphonic Octaver Generator effects
pedal
An Octaver mixes the input signal with a synthesised signal whose
musical pitch is an octave lower or higher than the original. Effects
that synthesize intervals besides octaves are referred to as harmonizers
or pitch shifters. These are frequently used in bands without a bass
player. Octave Up pedals include:
- Ampeg Scrambler
- Electro Harmonix POG (Polyphonic Octave Generator)
Octave Down pedals include:
- Boss OC-3 Super Octave
- Electro-Harmonix Octave Multiplexer
### Octave fuzz
!MXR M-103 Blue Box (octave down fuzz
pedal)")
An Octave fuzz is a fuzz with an analog octave (up or down). The Octavia
is one of the first octave pedals ever produced. Unlike octavers, the
level of the octave cannot be controlled separately from the fuzz:
increasing the gain makes the octave louder.
Octave up fuzzes include:
- Roger Mayer Octavia
- Chicago Iron Tycobrahe Octavia
- Catalinbread *Octapussy*
- Electro Harmonix Octavix
- Fender Blender
- Foxx *Tone Machine*
Octave down fuzzes include:
- MXR M-103 Blue Box
## Other effects
### Feedbacker/Sustainer
While audio feedback in general is undesirable due to the high frequency
overtone, when controlled properly, it can provide true sustain of the
sound (instead of using a distortion/compressor to make quiet notes
louder, or a feedback of a signal in a circuit as in a delay unit).
Several approaches have been used to produce guitar feedback effects,
which sustain the sound from the guitar:
- The most primitive form, as used by Jimi Hendrix, is to use the
feedback created when the guitar is played in front of a
loudspeaker.
- The neck pickup is used as a driver to push the strings based on the
bridge pickup, such as the Sustainiac Sustainer and Fernandes
Sustainer.
- A string driver can be mounted on a stand as in the Vibesware Guitar
Resonator, which is driven by the selected guitar pickup(s).
Feedback start, stop and harmonics can be controlled here by
positioning the drivers distance to the strings and the position
along the guitar neck while playing.
- A signal amplifier that powers a headstock transducer, which in turn
send feedback vibration down the string, as in Sustainiac\'s Model
C.
- A handheld string driver can contain a pickup and driver, as in the
EBow.
- A dedicated high-gain guitar amp can be used in the control room,
without a microphone, as a footswitch-controlled string feedback
driver. The microphone is placed on the speaker cabinet of the main
guitar amp in the isolation booth or live room.
### Switcher/Mixer (or \"A/B\" pedal)
A switcher pedal (also called an \"A/B\" pedal) enables players to run
two effects or two effects chains in parallel, or switch between two
effects with a single press of the pedal.
Some switcher pedals also incorporate a simple mixer, which allows
mixing the dry guitar signal to be mixed with an effected signal. This
is useful to make overly processed effects more mild and natural
sounding. Examples of the use of the mixer function include:
- A wah can be mixed with dry guitar to make it more mild and
full-bandwidth, with less volume swing.
- A compressor can be mixed with dry guitar to preserve the natural
attack of the dry signal as well as the sustain of the compressor.
- Two overdrive pedals can be blended together.
- A strong phaser effect can be mixed with dry guitar to make it more
subtle and musical.
Some examples of switcher pedals include:
- Dunlop A/B pedal
- Loop Master
Some examples of Switcher/mixer pedals include:
- BOSS LS-2 Line Selector
### Noise Gate
A noise gate allows a signal to pass through only
when the signal\'s intensity is above a set threshold, which opens the
gate. If the signal falls below the threshold, the gate closes, and no
signal is allowed to pass. A noise gate can be used to control noise.
When the level of the \'signal\' is above the level of the
\'noise\', the threshold is set above the level of
the \'noise\' so that the gate is closed when there is no \'signal\'. A
noise gate does not remove noise from the signal: when the gate is open,
both the signal and the noise will pass through.
Noise gates are also used as an effect to modify the envelope of
signals, removing gradual attacks and decays.
Examples of noise gate pedals include:
- BOSS NS-2 Noise Suppressor
- MXR M-135 Smart Gate
### Boosters
There are three types of boosters.
- The first are signal boosters. These give a gain boost to the signal
running through it and appear to make the guitar louder. They are
known as **clean boosts**.
- The second are frequency boosters. These are similar to the signal
boosters but instead of boosting the whole signal, they boost one
specific frequency range. These include treble boosters.
- The third are harmonic boosters. These boost certain harmonics
within the wave and can sometimes give a gritty, octave sound (in
either direction)
A boost pedal can be used to make the guitar louder (set up last in the
effect chain, often in the effects loop of a distorted amp), or to
increase the gain of an overdriven amplifier. Before distortion, a
booster only increases the saturation, not the volume.
## Bass Effects
### Sound conditioner
Bass effects that condition the sound, rather than changing its
character are called \"sound conditioners.\" Gain booster effects pedals
and bass preamplifier pedals increase the gain (or volume) of the bass
guitar signal. Bass preamplifiers for double basses are designed to
match the impedance of piezoelectric pickups with the input impedance of
bass amplifiers. Some double bass preamplifiers may also provide phantom
power for powering condenser microphones and anti-feedback features such
as a notch filter (see \"Filter-based effects\" section below).
Volume pedals are volume potientiometers set into a rocking foot
treadle, so that the volume of the bass guitar can be changed by the
foot. Compression pedals affect the dynamics (volume levels) of a bass
signal by subtly increasing the volume of quiet notes and reducing the
volume of loud notes, which smooths out or \"compresses\" the overall
sound. Limiters, which are similar to compressors, prevent the upper
volume levels (peaks) of notes from getting too loud, which can damage
speakers. Noise gates remove hums and hisses that occur with distortion
pedals, vintage pedals, and some electric basses.
### Bass Distortion
Bass distortion effects preamplify the signal until the signals\'
waveform \"clips\" and becomes distorted, giving a \"growling\",
\"fuzzy\" or \"buzzing\" sound. Until the late 1980s, distortion effects
designed specifically for electric bass\' low range were not commonly
available in stores, so most electric bass players who wanted a
distortion effect either used the natural overdrive that is produced by
setting the preamplifier gain to very high settings or used an electric
guitar distortion pedal. Using the natural overdrive from an
amplifier\'s preamplifier or a guitar distortion effect has the side
effect of removing the bass\' low range (low-pitched) sounds. When a
low-range note is amplified to the point of \"clipping\", the note tends
to go up an octave to its second harmonic, making deep bass notes sound
\"tinny\".
In the 1990s and 2000s, bass distortion effects became widely available.
These effects contained circuitry which ensured that the low-range bass
signal was maintained in the distorted bass tone. Bass distortion is
used in genres such as metal, thrash, hardcore, and punk.
Bass \"overdrive\" effects use a vacuum tube (or digitally-simulated
tube modelling techniques) to compress the top of the signal\'s wave
form, giving a smoother distorted signal than regular distortion
effects. Regular bass distortion effects preamplify the signal to the
point that it develops a gritty or \"dirty\" tone.
Fuzz bass effects are sometimes created for bass by using fuzzbox
effects designed for electric guitars. Fuzzboxes boost and clip the
signal sufficiently to turn a standard sine wave input into what is
effectively a square wave output, giving a much more distorted and
synthetic sound than a standard distortion or overdrive. Paul McCartney
of The Beatles used fuzz bass on \"Think for Yourself\" in the 1966
album \"Rubber Soul\"
### Filtered based effects
Filter based effects for bass include equalizer, phase shifter, wah and
auto-wah.
A **bass equalizer** is the most commonly used of these three effects.
It adjusts the frequency response in a number of different frequency
bands. While its function is similar to a tone controls on an amplifier,
such as rudimentary \"bass\" and \"treble\" frequency knobs, it allows
for more precise frequency changes. A rack-mounted bass equalizer, for
example, may have ten sliders to control the frequency range encompassed
by a regular \"bass\" frequency knob.
In comparison with an electric guitar equalizer, a bass equalizer
usually has a lower frequency range that goes down to 40 Hz, to
accommodate the electric bass\' lower range. Some bass equalizers
designed for use with extended range basses go even lower, to 20 Hz.
Equalizers can be used to change the tone and sound of the electric
bass. If the instrument sounds too \"boomy\", the bassist can lower the
frequency which is overly resonant, or if there is too much fingernail
or pick noise, the higher frequencies can be reduced.
**Notch filters** (also called band-stop filters or band-rejection
filters) are sometimes used with double basses. Notch filters are
filters that allow most frequencies to pass through unaltered, while
attenuating those in a specific range to very low levels. Notch filters
are used in instrument amplifiers and preamplifiers for acoustic
instruments such as acoustic guitar, mandolin, and bass instrument
amplifiers to reduce or prevent feedback. While most notch filters are
set manually by the user, there are also automatic notch filters which
detect the onset of feedback and notch out the frequency before damaging
feedback begins.
**Bass Phase Shifters** create a complex frequency response containing
many regularly-spaced \"notches\" in an incoming signal by combining it
with a copy of itself out of phase, and shifting the phase relationship
cyclically. The phasing effect creates a \"whooshing\" sound that is
reminiscent of the sound of a flying jet.
### Bass chorus
**Bass chorus** effects use a cycling, variable delay time that is short
so that individual repetitions are not heard. The result is a thick,
\"swirling\" sound that suggests multiple instruments playing in unison
(chorus) that are slightly out of tune. Bass chorus effects were more
common in the late 1980s, when manufacturers such as Peavey included
chorus effects in its bass amplifiers. In the 1990s and 2000s, more
sophisticated bass chorus effects devices were created which only apply
the swirling chorus effect to the higher parts of the bass tone, leaving
the instrument\'s low fundamental untouched.\[5\]
## Multi-Effects unit
A multi-FX unit is a single effects device that can perform several
guitar effects simultaneously. Such devices generally use digital
processing to simulate many of the above-mentioned effects without the
need to carry several single-purpose units. In addition to the classic
effects, most have amplifier/speaker simulations not found in analog
units. This allows a guitarist to play directly into a recording device
while simulating an amplifier and speaker of his choice.
!Boss GT-3 multi-effects
unit
A typical digital multi-effects pedal is programmed, with several memory
locations available to save custom user settings. Many lack the
front-panel knobs of analog devices, using buttons instead to program
various effect parameters. Multi-effects devices continue to evolve,
some gaining MIDI or USB interfaces to aid in programming. Examples
include:
- Tech 21 Sans Amp - A line of analog effects with distortion and
speaker simulation capability.
- Line 6 POD XT Live
- Behringer V-Amp Pro
- DigiTech RP series
- DigiTech GNX series
- Boss ME-20, ME-50, GT-6, GT-8
- Zoom G2, G3, G5 series
- Vox Tonelab series
- Roland VG series
- Korg AX series
The quality of sound that is a major feature of separate pedals can
never be matched by a multi-effects unit but they are ideal for a
guitarist on a budget.
|
# Guitar/E-bow
The E-bow is a device that causes your string to
vibrate without it being plucked, almost like a violin bow makes a
violin string vibrate. It requires a dramatically different technique to
play, as it basically replaces your pick. Furthermore, due to its true
sustain capability, it is possible to actually slide up and down along
the string without the loss of volume.
The Ebow is basically a self-contained amplifier with sensing coils and
driving coils, using the concept of audio feedback. When placed over a
string, the driver coil causes it to vibrate, which is picked up by the
sensing/input coil. The electrical signal is then amplified by an opamp
and produces a varying magnetic field of the same frequency in the
driver coil, which then feeds a magnetic field of the same resonant
frequency back to the string, thus sustaining its vibration.
- The ebow is easiest to use when using a humbucker in neck position,
as it provide twice the available effective surface when compare to
a single coil. If a single coil sound is desired, you would need to
be able to provide an alternative wiring such that the coils can be
connected in parallel; one such case would be the Ibanez H-H
configuration. Alternatively, you can use a \"two-single coil\"
positions (such as position 2 and 4 on a Stratocaster).
- Use the pilot light to position the ebow.
- If the guitar side is not on full volume, the ebow may take 10ms
before it takes effect; this is especially true on the higher
strings.
- Due to the sustain, the guitar may sound more monotone then a normal
picking if you just keep it over the hotspot. Remember to move back
and forth away from the hotspot to make it sound more natural.
- Be careful when moving from string to string, as the two
stop-grooves may move the string side to side, providing a mismatch
of string to the driver groove.
## Harmonic mode
The **harmonic mode** of the PlusEBow occurs due a reverse in polarity
of the output coil, which dampens the fundamental frequency of the
string and accentuate the harmonics, which are driven more. Thus, many
normally unachievable harmonic notes are also available. However, the
harmonic mode will only produce a different timbre of the fundamental
note while used on 1st (e) and 2nd (B) string, as well as the higher
notes on 3rd (G string).
In harmonic mode, whether to slide into the note or fret it normally
will easily change the timbre of the sound. Sliding will keep the tone
from before, but fretting it will easily change it. Generally, when a
note is fretted close to the bridge, the note will have more bass than
one that is fretted close to the nut.
|
# Guitar/Cables
Since you are likely to encounter cables at some point in your guitar
playing career, it is important learn about them. This is especially
true if you play the electric guitar. With the electric guitar, the use
of an amplifier is essential and the cable is the only connection that
links the two together. So in order to ensure a good sound, you need to
use the proper cabling, unless using wireless connectivity.
!A comparison of 4 jack types. From left to right: A 2.5 mm jack (often
used with cellphones), a 3.5 mm mono, a 3.5 mm stereo and a 6.3 mm
stereo, a 3.5 mm mono, a 3.5 mm stereo and a 6.3 mm stereo"){width="150"}
## Audio Cables
!Two styles of 6.3mm
jack{width="150"}
### Jack Plugs
Plugs and Jacks are one style of connector used to connect audio
equipment together. Jacks are the \"female\" side of the connection into
which Plugs - the \"male\" side of the connection - are inserted. Anyone
who has ever used a set of headphones is familiar with at least one type
of jack. A jack is simply the end of a cable that lets it connect to
another audio device. They come in many different sizes, but for
guitarists the most important ones are these:
- 3.5mm mono - small microphones and LINE Out or LINE In small audio
devices (z. B. sound map)
- 3.5mm stereo - headphones and LINE Out or LINE In small audio
devices (e.g. sound map).
- 6.3mm mono - LINE Out or LINE In larger audio devices (guitar
amplifier, mixers, etc.), e-guitar, Send or Return of effects
equipment, microphones and loudspeakers.
- 6.3mm stereo - combining Send and Return with effects devices,
Stereo microphones and headphones.
Plugs and Jacks are often referred to among audio professionals as
\"tip-sleeve\" or \"tip-ring-sleeve\" connectors. If one looks closely
at plug at the end of a typical set of headphones, one will note that
there are white or black plastic rings separating metal surfaces. Each
of those metal surfaces is connected to a wire that is used to send
audio from one side to another. The notch found in the tip of the
connector is used to give the connection some resistance to being
inadvertently disconnected (though it hardly compares to the positive
locking of the XLR connector following).
The 6.3mm (or 1/4\" as it\'s commonly referred to) mono connector is
commonly used for connecting a guitar to an amplifier. Since a guitar,
from an audio point of view, really has no sense of left-to-right
difference, only two wires are needed, so this mono or \"tip-sleeve\"
connector is fine for the job. The tip carries the audio signal, while
the sleeve carries the ground side of the audio signal.
Looking at a pair of typical headphones for a portable music player, one
finds three metal sections. The 3.5mm stereo or tip-ring-sleeve
connector uses the tip for left-hand audio, the ring for right-hand
audio and the sleeve for ground. Look further at a set of headphones for
a smartphone like Apple\'s EarPods, and one finds four metal sections:
tip for left-hand audio, ring for right-hand audio, little sleeve for
control signals produced by the volume/play-pause controller, and big
sleeve for ground.
### Choosing Good Cables
Choosing the right cable for an electric guitar is all about preserving
the tone that the luthier and you have worked so hard to create. Many
different styles of patch cables are available in differing lengths and
using different brands of connectors, cable and jackets. A good patch
cable has been made with the rigours of guitar playing in mind: It will
use high quality connectors (look for Neutrik or Switchcraft on the
connectors themselves as two high quality brands), will be constructed
using high quality cable, and will often offer some strain relief using
a reinforcing sleeve or spring-type arrangement at the point where
connector and cable meet. A good cable will lay flat when fully extended
with no tendency to curl or twist. When connected between the guitar and
amplifier, the connections should feel solid, with no excessive play or
looseness. There should be no appreciable noise added to the sound of
the guitar, and when the guitarist grasps the connector body while
connected to the guitar and amplifier there should not be an increased
hum heard.
Patch cords often come with rubberized jackets, fabric jackets or
vinyl/polyvinyl jackets. The first two are particularly good as the main
guitar-to-amplifier connection, while the third is more suited to use
between effects units or from the effects units to the amplifier. The
choice between rubberized and fabric jackets mainly comes down to
personal preference, though, the rubberized cables are somewhat easier
to clean off should they come in contact with sticky or damp substances
common in some performance locations.
Good patch cables will be priced in the US\$20-40 range for a 3-meter
cable. A good quality cable will have a lifespan of five to ten years if
properly cared for.
### XLR plugs
!XLR plug and
socket{width="150"}
These plugs are very durable and they are the plug of choice for
professional recordings, and non-professional recordings. Nearly all
professional stages and sound studios are equipped with XLR
connections\... some home studios have XLR connections, thanks to the
invention of retail outlets. Loudspeakers and mixers are also often
connected with these cables too
The plugs have a catch mechanism, which prevents inadvertent separation
of a patch cord. In order to be able to pull a XLR plug from the socket,
you have to press the release mechanism. A XLR connection always
consists of 3 phases. One phase transfers the mass while the other two
transmit the audio signal. Usually one of the two audio signals is
misphased in transfer, in order to remove any effects from signal
distortion.
### MIDI Cables
!MIDI cable plugged into a
port.{width="150"}
Right now, the 5 pronged MIDI cable are always used for data transfer,
but originally they were intended for use with high quality stereo
equipment. At that time this 5- pronged cable represented a variant to
Stereo, which existed beside the identical, 3 pronged mono execution.
Today these cables are used almost exclusively for the transmission of
MIDI control signals between MIDI capable music instruments, amplifiers
and computers. Since it does not depend on fast data transmission rates,
shielding of the individual wires inside the cable is not necessary.
### Polyphonic or Hexaphonic Guitar Cables
In order to transfer each string to a guitarsynth, polyphonic guitar
effect or guitar2MIDI, a few different connectors have been used, but
the one introduced by Roland/BOSS in 1989 has clearly turned into a
standard. Its a DIN 13pin as it has been used in car radio before and
apart from the 6 strings (pin 1\...6) it contains the standard mono
output (pin7), a volume control (pin8), an up/dn switch (pin10/11) and
+-7V (pin 12/13). A problem is that ground flows only through the weak
housing contact.
Other polyphonic connectors:
- 7pin Lemo, used by ARP Avatar guitar synth (1977)
- 24pin rectangular used by Roland before the 13pin DIN (1977-88)
- Neutricon used by Paradis Guitars (1985-96)
- subD used by Photon (around 1984)
- multiplexed stereo 1/4\" used by Shadow GTM (around 1984)
- RJ45 Ethernet style used by Gibson Digital Guitar (since 2005)
## Other Cables
### Power Cables
Warning: All these cables and connectors are intended for a high supply
voltage! Changes or repairs to such cables can be dangerous! Power
cables for music equipment are commonly called \"jug cables\" in New
Zealand, because they were the same as the power cord for an electric
water jug!
## Mains Power Cable
!Mains Power
lead{width="150"}
A three slot conductor plug designed to International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) specifications. Sometimes called a \"kettle plug\" or
\"kettle lead\". The kettle lead is designed for use with mains power
outlets.
|
# Guitar/Bass Guitar
Bass guitars have similar design features to other types of guitar but
scaled up: thicker strings, longer neck and larger body, etc. This
allows lower notes to be created when the strings are tuned to a
playable tension. They are sometimes categorized as guitars but are also
categorized as a separate instrument.
Although there are many variations, the standard bass guitar has four
strings tuned EADG, from lowest pitch string to highest, one octave
lower than the bottom four strings of a guitar in standard tuning. The
next most common variant is the five string, tuned BEADG. While the bass
guitar can be played like an oversized guitar, by playing chords, this
chordal style is rare on bass. Rather, bass is often used to play single
notes. Bass also draws much inspiration from double bass playing,
notably the smooth quarter note style calked \"walking bass\" which is
used in jazz, blues and country. The electric bass has a vocabulary of
playing styles and music all of its own, including slapping and popping.
## Slapping And popping
One of the distinguishing features of the bass guitar is the percussive
slap style. It is most associated with funk, but it is also used in sone
pop, jazz fusion and nu metal styles. It is typically distinct to the
bass guitar, although it has been used on acoustic guitars by skillful
players.
Slapping is accomplished by percussively striking the string - usually E
or A on a standard tuned bass - with the left hand side of the thumb
(for a right-handed player). This is done towards the neck of the bass.
The thumb is then pulled away as quickly as possible, to create a
distinct, \"fretty\" noise.
Popping is accomplished by curling the fingertip of the index or middle
finger under the string - usually the D or G string. The string is then
plucked to create a similar sound to slapping on the thicker strings.
This is, again, performed towards the neck of the bass. Fretting hand
and playing hand muting and percussive \"ghost notes\" are a key part of
the distinctive sound of slapping and popping.
- Slap Bass Tutorial Video
(Free)
## Different tunings
The \"standard\" bass is a 4 string bass, tuned EADG (low to high).
Other variations of this tuning include DADG (\"drop D\") and rarely
iiCGCF. These lower tunings are often used in metal and heavier music,
as they extend the instrument\'s range lower. Altering the tuning of a
bass to a lower range (or any other fretted instrumented) by reducing
string tension can cause problems that new players should be aware of:
looser strings are more prone to \"fret buzz\", in which a string
rattles on the fretboard, producing a sound that is usually unwanted.
Loosening strings also alters the tension on the neck, which can lead to
warping the neck.
To achieve a clear tone on notes lower than standard tuning, a standard
five string bass adds a low B string, with the bass normally tuned BEADG
(low to high). Some players may restring a 4-string bass as BEAD,
leaving off the high G. There are thick strings that go even lower in
range, however these are typically found only on specialty instruments.
## Bass runs
Bass runs or \"fills\" are used to add interest and to transition
frommone chord to another. For example if one wants to change from a C
chord bassline to an Am chord bassline, they could do a scalar run that
adds a B note to connect the C to the A.
|
# Guitar/Harmonica and Guitar Combo
!Diatonic Harmonicas.
Image:Cralize
The harmonica is an instrument that has found favour with many
guitarist. The idea evolved from the blues and country and western
musicians of the early part of the 20th century. The role the harmonica
plays in providing another timbre has appealed to many artists.
Musicians such as Bob Dylan and Neil Young have used the combination to
great effect.
Harmonicas exist in four varieties: diatonic, chromatic, tremolo and
chord. The chromatic can play along to music in any key but is harder to
master than the diatonic version. The diatonic harmonica is made to play
in one key and is easier to learn but you will need to buy more than
one. The guitar\'s natural key is E; so buying a diatonic harmonica in
the key of E major would be ideal. The other diatonic harmonicas you
should aim to add to your collection is G major and C major. Diatonic
harmonicas are cheap and it shouldn\'t take long before you have a
collection of harmonicas that cover every key. The tremolo harmonica is
like a diatonic, yet it vibrates and has more vibrato than usual
harmonicas. It is used for orchestra too.Chord harmonicas are very big
and may require multiple people to play and can be even used in the
orchestra at times.They add a touch to a lot of things really.Chord
Harmonicas are very cool,yet very expensive too and they can run in the
thousands when it comes to cost.Some good Chord Harmonicas can cost you
\$2,000 or more depending on the company selling them.
\[\[Image:16-hole chrom 10-hole diatonic.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Chromatic
harmonica and Diatonic harmonica.
` Image:George Leung]] `
To play both instruments, one would need a way to hold the harmonica
while the hands chord and strum the guitar. This is done by the
harmonica holder, which goes around the neck, allowing the harmonica to
be always in front of your mouth. However, there are a few things to
keep in mind:
- Instead of moving the harmonica itself, you will now move your head
in order to play the notes. Due to this limitation the solos you
\"blow\" will be slower than if you had the harmonica cupped in your
hands.
- Hand-related effects, such as hand vibrato, will be unavailable.
Also, due to the lack of hands, there will be no additional
resonance from the cupped hands.
Furthermore, since one is multitasking, it\'s best to know how to play
both instruments individually very well, in order to spend less time
trying to find each note and chord. When you buy your first harmonica,
spend some time learning to play it with your hands. Try playing along
to the recordings of Little Walter and Sonny Boy Williamson.
The harmonica will usually be played in the 2nd position (of course one
can try other positions). Often the guitar plays the chords, while the
harmonica provides the melody. This is because guitars have a much lower
octave range than the harmonica; furthermore, guitarists can play chords
in different keys easily. Since the harmonica is played in a higher
pitch range, this makes it suitable for melodic lines. Another factor is
the timbre of the harmonica tends to cut through the sound of resonating
guitar chords. Still, this should not stop you reversing the roles, as
long as it sounds pleasing.
It is possible to play chromatic harmonicas with a guitar. This can be
done with the following:
- Valved Diatonic or XB-40
- Tombo S-50.
- Take off the mouthpiece of a **straight tuned** chromatic harp.
However, one may need to make sure the body\'s edge is smooth
:
: Note: both S-50 and this method require using the lips to block
the non-sounding row; S-50, due to greater distance between
rows, is easier at this.
- Use the handless chromatic; essentially a special mouthpiece that
move up and down between the rows, controlled by the movement of the
head.
|
# Guitar/Guitar Maintenance and Storage
Properly maintaining a valuable guitar keeps it valuable. Guitars can
take a lot of abuse, especially if you play live shows and tour, and
even if it pretty much \"sounds the same,\" lack of maintenance may
suddenly render the instrument unplayable. You don\'t need to carefully
examine a guitar every day, but occasional check ups keep it
good-sounding and ready to play.
# Storage
The easiest way to take care of your guitar is to store it properly. The
more expensive the guitar, the better your storage should be. It is
generally accepted that the air humidity should be neither too high nor
too low, thus somewhere in the 45-55% range, and the temperature of the
area should be about 65-75 °F (18-24 °C). These two factors are the
biggest threat to an instrument, because changes in moisture and
temperature can cause permanent warping of the neck and other critical
parts. For guitars made out of solid wood, it is advised to use a
humidifier to prevent cracks and damage from weather change.
On the other hand, guitars made out of multi-layered(plywood) wood,
typically in budget guitars, can withstand relatively more humidity and
temperature changes. Keeping the guitar in a case away from direct
sunlight can help with increasing the life of the guitar.
## Storing Environment
The surest way to keep your guitar in good shape is to remember this
simple rule: *Do not expose the guitar to any climate condition that you
would not want to be exposed to.* If you keep this in mind, your
instrument will likely last years and years.
Avoid large or rapid changes in humidity. Like your body, the guitar
gets used to the climate it is in, and suddenly changing it causes
stress. Humidity is the most dangerous thing that attacks an instrument,
because when wood gets wet, the cell walls become softer and it is more
easily bent. Often, the strings themselves are enough to bend the neck.
Also, if the humidity stays way too low, then the wood will crack and
the structure will weaken.
Temperature on its own is less damaging to the guitar. Wood is generally
tolerant to changes in temperature, and for the most part it expands and
contracts together. Extreme temperatures or rapid temperature changes,
however, can cause serious damage, especially when combined with extreme
humidity. Changes in temperature also affect strings, especially nylon
strings. A significant change in temperature typically detunes the
strings. Other areas to watch for temperature related damage are any
glued joins, like where the neck meets the body, or the fretboard
attaches to the neck.
Never expose your instrument to extreme temperatures for a long time.
For instance, leaving your guitar in a car in the summer all day, or
leaving it outside overnight are sure ways to completely destroy your
instrument. Also keep the guitar out of direct sunlight as much as
possible, because it makes the wood more brittle and can change the
color of the instrument.
Keeping your instrument strung and in tune is another good way to make
sure that you don\'t harm your instrument. Strings put tension on the
neck. Excessive tension may make the neck bow if the guitar isn\'t kept
in tune.
## Methods of Storage
First, a simple tip: If one is playing the guitar and wishes to put it
briefly aside to look for songs or notes or the like, then the best
repository is the couch, the bed, or the floor (with carpet or with the
guitar bag as a cushion). The basic rule reads: What lies down, cannot
fall down. A guitar gets most of its scrapes because one leans it
against a wall, or against a table edge, and then it is knocked over
from the slightest contact or draft of air. If one had put it down, this
would not have happened.
### Wall Hooks
These are most often seen on the walls of guitar stores that must
display dozens of instruments in a small amount of wall space. These are
good, because they keep the guitar out of the way but openly displayed.
These are just a U-shaped piece of metal, covered in rubber or soft
plastic.
The piece screws to the wall, and the headstock rests snugly between the
two pieces of metal. In regards to plasterboard walls be sure to drill
into the timber studs. The weight of the guitar poses no risk to the
neck or headstock. When you select a spot to hang a guitar, avoid
outside walls. These are subject to more temperature change, which can
risk damage to the instrument.
### Guitar Stands
For the most part, guitar stands look similar to a wall hook, except
instead of all the weight being on the headstock, most is on the bottom
of the body and the neck is mostly supported to keep the guitar standing
straight.
Each type of guitar has a specialized type of stand. For example, an
Ovation guitar, which has a rounded plastic back, requires a differently
shaped stand than a Fender Stratocaster or a regular acoustic guitar.
Regardless of what type of stand you get, you should always make sure
that it holds your guitar firmly. Some stands also have a locking
device, which adds an extra level of security.
One problem you might encounter (although it is rare) is that the
lacquer used on your guitar has a reaction with the rubber used to coat
the stand. When you buy a new stand, you should examine the guitar every
few days and look for discolorations or weak spots. As is often the
case, serious guitar damage is easiest to stop before it starts.
### Cases
!A Les Paul style guitar in a hard
case{width="150"}
There are two main kinds of guitar case, gig bags and hard cases. Gig
bags are a favorable kind of keeping, because they give a good amount of
protection, and they are also light to carry. Some often have backpack
style shoulder straps. Gig bags do not protect against temperature
changes very well. Hard cases, in contrast, provide excellent protection
against temperature, humidity and physical damage. Hard cases are also
essential for taking a guitar on an air plane, or for long journeys.
Compared to other methods of storing, cases are by far the most secure,
and this is especially true of hard cases. If the guitar is secured
properly in the case (almost) nothing can happen to it under standard
conditions.
The biggest (and perhaps only) disadvantage of a case is that you cannot
openly display your instrument the way you can on a wall hook or stand.
Price is also a disadvantage, because although gig bags can be bought
relatively cheaply, hard cases are expensive. Still, a cheap bag for an
expensive guitar is a poor investment.
When you buy a case, you absolutely *have to* make sure that the guitar
fits in the case. Gig bags are a little more forgiving, but you will not
get a guitar to fit properly in a hard case that is too small. When you
pick up the case, give it a little bit of a shake, and you should not
feel or hear the guitar moving around very much.
### Cabinets
Storing a guitar in a glass-front cabinet shows it off, and can help
keep it at the proper humidity while being quickly accessible. The cost
and required floor space may not be practical for most guitarists. One
alternative is Musik Tent™, an Instrument Humidor that is portable and
lightweight that uniformly humidifies, stores and displays guitars in
wet and dry environments.
# Maintenance
## Body
The body often takes the most abuse, simply because it is the biggest
target. To help keep a fine instrument in good condition, wipe it down
with a soft cloth after playing. Don\'t use water-based furniture
sprays. You can buy specially treated cloths and sprays for guitars at
almost any music store. Dirt, sweat, and often small nicks and scrapes
can just be cleaned up with a cloth, little bit of warm water. Murphy\'s
Oil Soap can be used to clean the whole guitar. Wipe the strings with a
clean cloth. Some guitarists advocate wiping the strings with warm
water, but be sure to protect the fingerboard from moisture. Consider
wiping your guitar strings off every time you play. Oils and dirt left
on your strings make them asymmetrical---as opposed to evenly
cylindrical vibrating bodies. They may even wear out a bit faster. A
soft, natural fiber or \"microfiber\" cloth works the best and is safest
for the finish. Clean the frets as you do the rest of the guitar. If
necessary, carefully use 0.001 steel wool to get grime off the
fingerboard next to the frets. You can also gently go over the frets to
take off any minor nicks.
If you have a stained or lacquered body, you can treat it with a little
bit of furniture polish. However, if you have a guitar with an untreated
body, be extremely careful with polish. For these types, it is better to
find some sort of cleaning oil or wax, since they help prevent hair-line
cracks from developing. After cleaning, the body must be absolutely dry,
because if the wood gets over-moistened, the tone of the guitar will
begin to degrade.
## Neck and Fretboard
The neck is probably the most important part of the guitar, especially
if you want to play it for a long time. Unless the guitar is stored for
extended periods of time, the tension of the strings will always be
pulling against the neck and stretching it away from the body. If stored
for a long period of time, strings should be loosened, to reduce the
tension on the neck. If the guitar gets moist, this neck warping happens
even faster. Sometimes warping can be fixed by adjusting the truss rod,
but this only prolongs the death of the instrument, and can\'t really
fix the problem.
You can also oil or wax the fretboard, but you should first determine
whether the fretboard is stained or painted, and use the appropriate
protection. Always remember that using too much cleaner is always worse
than using no cleaner at all, and always rub it in slowly.
Another drastic way to repair a warped neck on acoustic guitars is take
all the strings off, and place a small glass of water into the body.
Then, keep the body in place and put a small amount of weight (1 or 2
pounds) on the neck and let it bend back into the proper shape. When it
has been corrected, remove the water, keep the weight on and let the
guitar dry. Hopefully the neck will remain in the correct position,
however it will be much more prone to warping from that point on. Since
this procedure is somewhat accident prone, some manufacturers offer
special instrument air moisturizers, which you can put in a case, or on
a specific area of the neck. These generally allow for a higher rate of
success.
The fretboard is usually made from untreated wood, and it should be
cleaned regularly, before dirt begins to build up. Usually a good time
to do this is when you change your strings, which should be every month
or two. You need to clean the wood between the frets, and the simplest
way is using a clean damp cloth or some very fine steel wool. Use some
water with a little bit of detergent to make cleaning easier. If you use
steel wool, you can also clean up the edges of worn frets, which is
important because smooth frets improve the life of your strings. If the
frets are really worn down, they can be replaced, but this is generally
not a good project to undertake yourself.
It is very important that the neck is not wet after cleaning, because
water damages the structure of the neck. Your cleaning cloth should be
damp, not soaking wet. After cleaning, you can also apply a coat of
furniture polish to seal the wood.
## Strings
A set of strings wear down slowly, if you maintain them properly. Since
regular playing does some amount of damage to the strings, it\'s a good
idea to change regularly. Full sets of strings should be replaced at the
same time. If you only replace one string, the others are likely to
break soon, the strings will have different tones, and the opened pack
of strings will begin to corrode. When changing a set of strings, some
guitarists recommend replacing them one at a time, rather than removing
all strings at once, to maintain tension on the neck (i.e., remove and
replace the first string, then the second, then the third, etc.).
If you do not clean your strings, they may become dull, and even begin
to rust. Dirty strings also damage the frets themselves, because the
grime and rust makes the strings more coarse. There are many types of
string cleaners. Pharmacies sell boxes of individually wrapped
alcohol-saturated pads. These are excellent for occasionally
deep-cleaning strings, but protect the fingerboard.
If you clean your strings infrequently, you can just as easily use glass
cleaner to release the sweat from the strings. It\'s easiest to soak a
cloth in window cleaner, and then slip the cloth behind, and clean the
whole length of each string individually. You can tell when a string is
cleaned when you rub the string and the cloth is still clean. Also, you
shouldn\'t let the cleaner remain on the strings, because residue might
damage the string too. As always, protect the fingerboard from moisture.
When finished, wipe the strings with a dry cloth.
## Tuning Mechanisms
Tuning mechanisms are usually chromed, gold-plated, anodized, or
burnished steel. Since steel rusts, especially when it contacts sweat,
these pieces should be cleaned periodically. Properly oiled mechanisms
work smoothly and help keep the strings in tune.
To prevent rust, clean and oil parts regularly. You can use commercial
machine oils from any hardware store, but baby oil or petroleum jelly
works too. Too little lubricant is better than too much---adding more is
easier than removing excess. Two drops is often enough. Avoid making
contact with the wood parts of the guitar because the oil could stain or
discolor. Electrical components (switches, sockets, potentiometers,
etc.) can also go bad if the oil gets in them.
Many tuning machines have a screw in the knob that controls how easily
they turn. The knobs should be snug, with no free play, but they should
not be so tight that they are difficult to turn. Care should be taken
not to over-tighten, as this may break plastic tuner buttons or may
strip the screw thread and require repair or replacement.
|
# Guitar/Adjusting the Guitar
Many beginning or even intermediate guitarists are unaware that their
guitar should be `<b>`{=html}\"set up\"`</b>`{=html}. The adjustments
described in the adjustment subsections below (along with restringing
and tuning) are called a `<b>`{=html}\"set up\"`</b>`{=html}.
# What difference does a set up make?
When a guitar is set up properly:
- the guitar will feel and sound its best
- all the strings will sound with exactly the notes they are supposed
to
- all notes will sound correct when played at each fret up and down
the neck
- the guitar will be as easy as possible to play
- strings will break less frequently.
If a guitar plays easily and sounds its best then it\'s easy for the
player to feel successful.
When a guitar is not set up properly:
- the guitar may not feel or sound quite right
- some notes may sound correct while some others may sound sharp or
flat
- the guitar may be difficult to play
- strings will break more often
- damage to the instrument could be incurred unwittingly by the player
## When to Set Up?
When a guitar is brand new and fresh from the factory it may or may not
have had these adjustments done. As a rule, a guitar should be set up
when first purchased (used or new) and again when switching string
gauges. Consider getting a set up anytime the guitar sounds or feels
different than it used to. Perhaps after a guitar travels (altitude
changes, pressure changes, and humidity can affect the wood in the
guitar) and just like changing oil in a car it is a good idea to get a
set up every now and then for maintenance purposes (perhaps twice a
year).
Poor set up may be obvious to a player or it might not. In some cases
the guitar may be unplayable because it hasn\'t been set up. A
maladjusted guitar can cause strange quirks, for instance frets near the
bottom of the neck being too sharp, or can even cause damage (e.g., by
using .012 gauge strings on a nut designed for .009 strings, and the
tension messes up the nut), and it can easily frustrate the player when
their playing is perfectly correct yet things still don\'t sound right.
In particular if your guitar ever becomes difficult for you to play, a
set up will probably help.
It is not absolutely *required* to set up a guitar, but it is
nonetheless a good idea, *especially* if the guitar is to be taken to
the stage. Some people never get their guitar set up. Some get their
guitar set up even when nothing previously seemed wrong with it, then
find such a dramatic change in the guitar\'s playability and sound that
they wish they had set it up sooner.
## How to get a Set Up
These adjustments should generally be done by a professional, qualified
repair person. They require precision instruments, some hard to find
tools, a steady hand, quite a bit of time and know-how.
Virtually all musical instrument stores will be able to perform a
professional set up. Some will do the job better than others. Call a
local music store and ask them \"Do you do set ups for electric (or
acoustic) guitars and how much would you charge?\". Getting a set up
will probably cost from \$30 to \$75 USD.
# Adjustments
## Adjusting action at the bridge
This is a simple adjustment that can usually be performed without
professional assistance. The bridge saddles should be lowered if the
string action is too high, that is, the strings are too far up off the
fretboard. In some cases it may be desirable to raise the saddles for a
higher string action.
Most electric guitars have two small screws on the saddle which can be
used to raise or lower the saddle. Some saddles have screws that can be
rotated using the fingers; others require an allen key. Lower the
saddles too much and the strings might rattle against certain frets
(this may or may not be inconsequential on an electric guitar; listen
through an amplifier). In more extreme cases, pressing a string against
one fret might actually fret the string against a different fret,
usually the one under the intended one. In both cases, filing the frets
might alleviate the problem if the saddle really should be that low.
Otherwise, simply raising the saddle a small amount on the side with the
problem should be fine.
## Filing frets
The frets go with the shape (or contour) of the neck radius (9, 12\",
16\", etc.) Frets can determine how the notes on your guitar sound (i.e.
intonation) and over time and use playing a fretted instrument the frets
will begin to wear out by either changing the shape of the crowns (the
top of the frets, and they are changed by being flattened out or
mis-shaped)or the frets will begin to leave their slots. Fret work
should be done by someone with experience doing this kind of job because
this is a job that can lead to worse problems on your guitar such as
your tonation being worse, action may be higher, strings may buzz out,
and it may require that multiple frets be replaced or further repaired.
Frets come in a variety of sizes as well making them each different to
work on and there are special tools available to do this line of work
but many are expensive and without proper training may not be used
correctly.
## Filing the nut
Filing the nut should only be done by a qualified repair person and is
used to reduce pressure at the nut to allow a heavier gauge of strings
to be used. It may not be necessary if the new strings are detuned lower
(e.g., when switching from .009\'s to .010\'s, the nut will need no
adjustment if the guitar is tuned to Eb-Ab-Db-Gb-Bb-Eb instead of
E-A-D-G-B-E).
## Neck/truss rod adjustment
This particular adjustment has been known to ruin guitars when performed
incorrectly, so here referral to a professional repair person is highly
recommended. A guitar will need a truss rod adjustment if the neck is
not straight. One way to check the straightness of the neck is to play
12th and 19th harmonics on the low and high strings. After sounding each
harmonic, fret the note there and play it again: it should be exactly
the same pitch. If it is not, the neck *may* be in need of adjustment.
However, this may be indicative of an intonation problem as well, which
*can* be fixed without the aid of a repair person; see below. If
adjusting the intonation does nothing for you, give the guitar to a
repair person.
## Adjusting intonation
You may notice each string on the bridge sits in a \"saddle\". Depending
on your setup, you might notice the saddles may be in different
positions: some might be pushed forward and others might be pushed back,
sometimes slightly. The positioning of the saddle effectively changes
the length of the vibrating string. Tune the guitar to concert pitch
with the aid of an electronic tuner, making sure the open strings are
*perfectly* in tune. Play the 9th and 12th fret harmonics, then play the
fretted notes. If the fretted notes are sharp, the string is too short
and the saddle needs to be pushed back toward the base of the bridge. If
the note is flat, the string is too long and the saddle needs to be
pushed up toward the nut. Repeat this procedure for each string.
Adjusting the intonation should be done every few months or at least
twice a year (Every six months interval).
|
# Guitar/Stringing the Guitar
Aside from the physical shape of the guitar body, strings are the most
important thing for determining the sound of a guitar. New strings sound
bright and full, while old strings tend to sound dull and dead. Many
guitarists believe that strings should be changed regularly, not just
when they break. This is because sweat and dirt corrode the strings, and
over time this degrades their sound quality. Other guitarists believe
that new strings sound much worse than old ones, feeling that a
string\'s tonal quality only improves over time. Individual string
quality may vary drastically from string to string.
When one breaks a string, all of the strings should be changed at once.
This is especially true if the newer string is of a different brand or
gauge. The string\'s manufacturing process, thickness and age all affect
its tone, and one new string being played with a bunch of old strings
can make your guitar sound strange. Players should be advised that
guitars are usually set up for a particular gauge of string. The guitar
will still function fine with a different gauge of strings, however for
optimal sound, the guitar may need to be adjusted. See the chapter on
adjusting the guitar for more
details.
Because there are several different types of guitar, and each type is
designed differently, each type has its own method of stringing. The
type of strings you use mostly depends on what style of music you play
and how long you\'ve been playing. Thinner strings are generally
preferred by beginners, but many experienced players prefer the feel of
thin strings over thicker strings. Please see the guitar
accessories section for details on
different types of strings.
The first thing you always need to do when stringing a guitar is to take
off the old strings. You should *never* just cut the strings of a tuned
guitar in half, because the sudden release of tension on the neck can
damage the guitar. Instead, always turn the tuning pegs to decrease
tension, until the string is so loose that it doesn\'t produce a note
when struck, then cut or unwind them. In most cases, the string is bent
at the end where it was inserted, to insure that it would stay during
tuning. Unbend the string, then pull it out of the peg hole. If the peg
end of the string is too bent or curled from the winding, cut the string
on a straight part of the string. This will make it easier to remove the
string from the hole at the other end and reduce the risk of scratching
the body or the bridge while trying to get it out. Slide the string out
of the bridge at the bottom end of the guitar. Some people string one at
a time to make sure the neck sustains tension, or they just take all of
the strings off at the same time.
## Stringing Acoustics
Standard guitars typically have a ball-head peg at the bridge section.
This peg has a hollow shaft, with a groove that allows the string to
come out from the peg.
Typically, the process is as follows:
Unwinding the string
1. Pick one of the strings, usually either the first or sixth string,
and begin loosening it. If you have a string winder, put the
rectangular box over the tuning peg and unwind the string.
```{=html}
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```
1. Once the string is loose enough, pull the peg out of the bridge. If
you have a string winder, it will have a notch that can fit
underneath the head to pull it out.
Attaching the string
1. The guitar string should have a ball (or cylinder) end. Put that
into the bridge hole.
2. Push the ball-head peg back in. as you do, pull on the string so
that the peg can hold the string tightly on the bridge end.
3. Find the hole on the winder, and place the string through it,
leaving about 5cm out on the other side. For the thicker strings, it
is recommended to bend it a bit.
4. Use one hand to hold the string so that the section between this
hand and the peg is tight. Wind one wound.
5. Check the tightness again, and try to divert the string so that it
wind UNDERNEATH the winder hole. Then wind it until you have the
string encircle the machine head two to three times.
6. Tune from here.
### Twelve String Acoustic
It has the same principle to the sixth string. But every two strings
were tuned with the same sound, one octave apart. \*(RDT)
### Classical Guitar
To unstring a classical guitar one method is:
1. Loosen the string by turning the tuning peg
2. Then at the bridge push the string back into the hole a little, this
will loosen the \"knot\" enough to unknot and pull the string out of
the hole.
3. Then feed the string around the peg loop by loop until the last hoop
which is inserted through the hole in the peg is available, push the
string out of the loop, then pull the loop out of the hole.
To string a classical guitar one method is reverse of the unstringing
1. Bend about an inch of string at one end to form an open loop, push
that through the peg hole, wrap the other end of the string around
the peg and through the loop, then pass it down the guitar body to
the bridge and into the hole there.
2. Loop back to the neck (about two or three inches) and twist back
around the string, then you can put two or three twists in which
should end up on top of the bridge, pull the string from the middle
of the guitar to draw the twists taut.
3. Then wind the peg to tighten the string. You should take it easy
when tuning up for the first time to give the string time to
\"settle in\", you may also find that the string may go out of tune
easily for a day or two as it beds in.
## Stringing Electrics
For the 6th string (the low E), take the string out of the package and
insert the end through the bridge of the guitar. Pull it all the way
through until the ball at the end of the string stops it from being
pulled further. This is optional: Make a kink in the string to insure
that it will not slip away from the turning of the peg, (usually about
one or two inches from the peg). Wind the string around halfway and
insert the end through the hole. Pull the string to add tension, so the
string will stay around the peg during tuning. Turn the tuning peg to
increase tension until the string is around the desired pitch, to make
certain it will stay on properly. Check that the string is in the notch
in the nut and the bridge, if it is not, decrease tension on the string
until you can move it into the notch, tune it back up. Do this for the
rest of your strings and you are done!
Another method:
String the low E and other strings as mentioned. Align the tuning peg\'s
hole with the direction of the string and slip it through the peg in the
direction of the headstock. Facing the guitar with the headstock to your
right, pull the string taut with your left hand.
With your opposite thumb and forefinger, twist the string in an \"s\" at
the twelfth fret so that it touches both sides of the twelfth fret. You
will have to let some of the string out to do this. This method tells
you the optimum length of the string to wind around the tuning peg.
Hold the string with your right hand below the tuning peg so that the
pointy end is sticking out the other side. Slowly tighten the peg so
that the string is winding on the INSIDE of the headstock \-- inside
right for E A D, and inside left for G B E. Allow the string to wind
once underneath itself, and then wrap it over top of itself the rest of
the way. Make sure you hold tight as you go so that there is little
slippage later.
If possible, hold the string with your right thumb and middle finger
while regulating the pressure on the string with your right index
finger.
### Tips
- Note that taking off all strings at once is not recommended if you
have:
1. a floating tremolo system (e.g. Floyd Rose II), which can be
difficult to get the tremolo angle back to the right level when
restrung;
2. a bridge which is not fixed (one that will just fall off when the
strings are removed)
- Try not to bend the string in the same place excessively otherwise
the string will break at the bend
|
# Guitar/Alternate Tunings
!In standard tuning, the C-major chord has three shapes because of the
irregular major-third between the G- and B-strings. Among alternative
tunings, regular tunings have the same shape for chords everywhere on
the
fretboard.
Many guitar players use alternate tunings, which differ from standard
tuning. The use of alternate tunings (non-standard tunings) are found
throughout the history of the classical guitar and are a major factor in
the playing of blues slide guitar. Many alternate tunings involve
downtuning (\"dropping\") strings.
## Dropped tunings
### Dropped D (DADGBE)
The most common alternate tuning is the dropped D (or \"drop D\")
tuning. The lower E string is tuned down to a D. This tuning allows one
to play power chords
on the fourth, fifth and sixth strings with only one finger, and of
course allows for lower bass notes. Used commonly in heavy metal, but
also in nearly every other form of guitar music.
Waylon Jennings used this frequently, even dropping to D with the use of
a scruggs banjo tuner on his famous telecaster in the middle of a song.
### Drop C tuning CGCFAD
This progressive tuning is used in metal but often used by bands who
stick with 6 string guitars to achieve an extra deep tone. Bands such as
CydeDish, Deftones, System of a Down, KSE, August Burns Red and As I Lay
Dying.
### Drop B (BF#BEG#C#)
Alternatively, you can tune to BF#BEG#C#, if you are looking for a deep
heavy hitting sound. This tuning is mostly used by nu-metal bands like
Slipknot, August Burns Red, many deathcore bands, and some death metal
bands.
### Drop A (AEADF#B)
Alternatively, you can tune to AEADF#B, if you are looking for a deep
heavy hitting sound. This tuning is mostly used by nu-metal bands like
Slipknot, August Burns Red, many deathcore bands, and some death metal
bands.
### Double dropped D (DADGBD)
Similar to Dropped D above, for this tuning just drop both \'E\' strings
a full tone. Neil Young often tunes his guitars this way.
## Regular tunings
!The major-thirds tuning G#-C-E-G#-C-E repeats its three open-notes in
the higher octave after three
strings.
!Chords can be shifted diagonally in major-thirds tuning and other
regular
tunings.
!Minor, major, and seventh chords (*C, D, G*): In major-thirds tuning,
major and minor chords can be played with two fingers on two consecutive
frets. The chords have the same shape, unlike the chords of standard
tuning.: In major-thirds tuning, major and minor chords can be played with two fingers on two consecutive frets. The chords have the same shape, unlike the chords of standard tuning.")
Among alternative guitar-tunings, regular tunings have equal
musical-intervals between the paired notes of their successive
open-strings. Regular tunings simplify the learning of the fretboard of
the guitar and of chords by beginning students. Regular tunings also
facilitate improvisation by advanced guitarists.
Guitar tunings assign pitches to the open strings of guitars. Tunings
can be described by the particular pitches that are denoted by notes in
Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered from lowest to
highest. The *standard tuning* defines the string pitches as E, A, D, G,
B, and E. Between the open-strings of the standard tuning are three
perfect-fourths (E-A, A-D, D-G), then the major third G-B, and the
fourth perfect-fourth B-E.
In contrast, regular tunings have constant intervals between their
successive open-strings:
- 4 semitones (major third): Major-thirds tuning,
- 5 semitones (perfect fourth): All-fourths tuning,
- 6 semitones (augmented fourth, tritone, or diminished fifth):
Augmented-fourths tuning,
- 7 semitones (perfect fifth): All-fifths tuning
For the regular tunings, chords may be moved *diagonally* around the
fretboard, indeed *vertically* for the repetitive regular tunings (minor
thirds, major thirds, and augmented fourths). Regular tunings thus
appeal to new guitarists and also to jazz-guitarists, whose
improvisation is simplified. On the other hand, some conventional chords
are easier to play in standard tuning than in regular tuning.
### Major thirds tuning
!Chords can be translated vertically by three strings, because
major-thirds tuning repeats itself (at a higher octave). Again, the
chords have the same shape, unlike the chords of standard
tuning.. Again, the chords have the same shape, unlike the chords of standard tuning.")
\\Image:First and second inversions of C-major chord on six-string
guitar with major-thirds tuning.png\|right\|thumb\|alt=The C major chord
and its first and second inversions. In the first inversion, the C note
has been raised 3 strings on the same fret. In the second inversion,
both the C note and the E note have been raised 3 strings on the same
fret.\|Chords are inverted by shifting notes three strings *on the same
fret*.
Major-thirds tuning was introduced by jazz-guitarist Ralph Patt in 1964.
All of the intervals between its successive open strings are major
thirds; in contrast, the standard guitar-tuning has one major-third amid
four perfect-fourths.
Major-thirds tuning reduces the extensions of the little and index
fingers (\"hand stretching\"). Major and minor chords are played on two
successive frets, and so require only two fingers; other
chords---seconds, fourths, sevenths, and ninths---are played on three
successive frets. For each regular tuning, chord patterns may be moved
around the fretboard, a property that simplifies beginners\' learning of
chords and that simplifies advanced players\' improvisation. In
contrast, chords cannot be shifted around the fretboard in the standard
tuning E-A-D-G-B-E, which requires four chord-shapes for the major
chords. There are separate chord-forms for chords having their root note
on the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth strings. Major-thirds tuning
repeats its octave after every two strings, which again simplifies the
learning of chords and improvisation; Chord inversion is especially
simple in major-thirds tuning. Chords are inverted simply by raising one
or two notes three strings. The raised notes are played with the same
finger as the original notes.
### All fourths tuning
![In *all-fourths* and standard tuning, the C7 chord has notes on frets
3-8; Covering six frets is difficult, and so C7 is rarely played but
\"alternative voicing\" are substituted instead. In *major-thirds*
tuning, all seventh-chords can be played on three consecutive
frets._tuning_for_six_string_guitar.png "In all-fourths and standard tuning, the C7 chord has notes on frets 3-8; Covering six frets is difficult, and so C7 is rarely played but "alternative voicing" are substituted instead. In major-thirds tuning, all seventh-chords can be played on three consecutive frets.")
!The consecutive notes of all-fourths tuning are spaced apart by five
semi-tones on the chromatic
circle.
!All fourths tuning.
: E-A-d-g-c\'-f\'
This tuning is like that of the lowest four strings in standard tuning.
Consequently, of all the regular tunings, it is the closest
approximation to standard tuning, and thus it best allows the transfer
of a knowledge of chords from standard tuning to a regular tuning. Jazz
musician Stanley Jordan plays guitar in all-fourths tuning; he has
stated that all-fourths tuning \"simplifies the fingerboard, making it
logical\". Contemporary players are also moving to fourths tuning, noted
players include Alex Hutchings and Tom Quayle.
: Eb-Ab-Db-Gb-B-E
A less commonly used version of fourths tuning is retaining the regular
tuning on the first and second strings (E and B) and lowering the other
strings by a semitone. This version can make playing classical pieces
more accessible.
### Augmented fourths tuning
### All fifths tuning
#### New Standard Tuning (CGDAEG)
!**New standard tuning**. All perfect fifths (C-G-D-A-E) plus a minor
third
(E-G). plus a minor third (E-G).")
!C major chord in new standard tuning
.
!D major chord in new standard tuning
.
![Open fifths on D in new standard tuning
.
The tuning, invented and introduced by Robert Fripp of
King Crimson, is: C(6th) - G(5th) - D(4th) - A(3rd) - E(2nd) - G(1st).
Basically this tuning is efficient because it utilizes the tuning that
is common is a cello (CGDA) , violin, and mandolin (both GDAE), in which
it is in fifth, from a low C. The second string is a fourth up from the
B to an E, and the first string is a minor third up from the E to a G.
Since the lowest five strings are tuned in fifths, typical fingerings
for chords and scales used on the violin, cello, and mandolin are
applicable here. The minor third between the top strings allow denser
chords in the high range of the scale, and easier access to some
elementary chord tones (typically the thirteenth for chords with the
root note on the sixth string, and the ninth and flat ninth for chords
with the root note on the fifth string, see chord). NST has a greater
range than the Old Standard Tuning, approximately a perfect fifth (a
major third lower and a minor third higher).
Scales across two strings in NST also line up nicely into coherent
tetrachords or four-note patterns that have a visually rational
relationship (whole and half-tone relationships have a remarkable
symmetry that can be easier to learn than the OST whose intervals from 6
to 1 have the (inconsistent) major third thrown in the middle of the
scale.
{{-}}
## Open tunings
### Open A (EAC#EAE)
Alternatively you could tune the guitar to EAC#AC#E
### \"Slide\" Open A (EAEAC#E)
This tuning is identical to Open G tuning but with every string raised
one step, or two frets
### Open C (CGCGCE)
Used notably by Devin Townsend in his bands Strapping Young Lad and
Devin Townsend Project.
### Open D (DADF#AD)
Open D, like all open tunings, produces a major chord (in this case, D
major) when all strings are strummed. Drop the sixth, first, and second
strings down two semitones, and the third string one semitone. It is
also called \"DAD-fad\" after its notes.
Uses the same chord shapes as Open E but is easier on a guitar neck as
the strings are detuned lessening the tension.
Open D is a common tuning for folk, blues, and slide guitar. A variation
of this tuning is open d minor. Open D minor is tuned DADFAD, meaning
the only change is that the F# is tuned down to an F.
#### Chord shapes
Here are some handy chord shapes: G/D: (020120) Em7/D: (022120)
### Open E (EBEG#BE)
Used by Cat Stevens and a popular choice for slide guitarists. Strumming
in the open position yields a Emajor chord. You can easily play any
chord by barring across the neck at different fret positions. This does
however have some disadvantages; mainly that it is slightly more
difficult to play minor chords. Some artists overcome this by tuning to
EBEGBE. This allows both minor and major chords to be played easily.
Because tightening the strings more than is intended can break the
strings or put unneeded stress on the neck, many players opt to tune in
Open D and put a capo on the second fret; the result is the same.
### Open C6 (CACGCE)
This tuning is rarely used. It has been used by Jimmy Page on
\"Bron-Yr-Aur\", \"Friends\", and \"Poor Tom\". J. M. Smig uses this
tuning on \"Fingers In The Forest\".
### Open G (DGDGBD)
This is sometimes referred to as \"Spanish Tuning\", popular with slide
guitarists. Tune the 1st and 6th strings down to D, and the 5th string
to G.
Keith Richards uses this tuning extensively after 1968. (See Brown
Sugar, Honky Tonk Women, Start Me Up) He also removes the 6th string
(low E in standard tuning) because the root of the chord is on the 5th
string in Open G.
## Miscellaneous tunings
### DADGAD
DADGAD (pronounced as a word: \"DAD-gad\"), one of the most versatile
tunings, is named after the tuning of its strings. The sixth, second,
and first strings are dropped two semitones to D, A, and D. Strumming
all the strings open forms a Dsus4 chord; fretting the second fret of
the third string (or muting the third string) produces a D5 chord, or D
power chord. Most songs for DADGAD are in D major, or in G major with a
capo at the fifth fret. Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin played Kashmir in
this tuning.
### DADADD
This is essentially one huge power chord. Each string neatly divides the
scale in half and it is easy to make simple patterns then repeat them
anywhere on the fretboard.
### Standard E-flat (EbAbDbGbBbeb)
In this tuning, each string is tuned down a half step, or one fret. This
is a popular tuning throughout the history of blues and rock, and many
modern bands perform with it. Stevie Ray Vaughn frequently used this
tuning with heavier strings to get a full, rich tone.
### Standard D (DGCFAD)
Made popular by death metal band Death. Commonly used in metal today.
**Standard C (CFBbEbGC)**
Used by John Petrucci on 3 songs from Dream Theater's Train Of Thought.
fr:Apprendre la
guitare/Accordage
|
# Guitar/Scale Manual
## Circle Of Fifths
!Circle of
Fifths{width="300"}
The Circle of Fifths is a memory aid for learning all the keys. Here are
some fundamental observations:
Clockwise direction shows all the sharp keys
Anti-clockwise shows all the flat keys
Both directions start at the key of C major which is 12 o'clock
C major is the only key that has no sharps or flats
Clockwise ends with the key of C sharp
Anti-clockwise ends with the key of C flat
C, C flat and C sharp use the same notation letters
Each successive \"hour\" clockwise adds a sharp
Each successive \"hour\" anti-clockwise adds a flat
The name \"circle of fifths\" refers to the interval between the root
note of each successive scale in the clockwise direction.
Anti-clockwise the root note of each scale forms the interval of a
fourth with the root note of the following scale.
## One Octave Major Scales Clockwise
!C major one
octave.png "C major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !G major one
octave.png "G major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !D major one
octave.png "D major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !A major one
octave.png "A major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !E major one
octave.png "E major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !B major one
octave.png "B major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !F sharp major one
octave.png "F sharp major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !C sharp major one
octave.png "C sharp major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"}
## One Octave Major Scales Anti-Clockwise
!C major one
octave.png "C major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !F major one
octave.png "F major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !B flat major one
octave.png "B flat major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !E flat major one
octave.png "E flat major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !A flat major one
octave.png "A flat major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !D flat major one
octave.png "D flat major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !G flat major one
octave.png "G flat major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"} !C flat major one
octave.png "C flat major one octave"){width="800"
height="142"}
|
# Guitar/Chord Reference
# Open Chords
Open chords tend to sound \"richer\" than corresponding barre chords due
to the fact that open strings resonate freely without any hindrance.
Open chords typically sustain longer than their barre chord equivalent.
An open chord is any chord that has one or more strings sounded without
being fretted. Guitarists tend to use this name to refer to the chords
that contain open strings that are played in the first position (first
four frets).
## Open Major chords
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: A major chord for guitar (open).svg\|**A major** File: C major
chord for guitar (open).svg\|**C major** File: D major chord for guitar
(open).svg\|**D major** File: E major chord for guitar (open).svg\|**E
major** File: F major chord for guitar (open).svg\|**F major** File: G
major chord for guitar (open).svg\|**G major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Open minor chords
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: A minor chord for guitar (open).svg\|**A minor** File: D minor
chord for guitar (open).svg\|**D minor** File: E minor chord for guitar
(open).svg\|**E minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Barre chords
Barre chords use a movable shape that can be shifted up in pitch and
down in pitch along a string to give different keys.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: B major chord for guitar (barred).png\|**B major** File: B minor
chord for guitar (barred).png\|**B minor** File: F major chord for
guitar (barred).png\|**F major** File: F minor chord for guitar
(barred).png\|**F minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Open seventh chords
Seventh chords, strictly speaking from a music theory perspective, means
any seventh chord, including major, minor, dominant seventh, diminished
and so on. In a beginning guitar context, however, \"seventh chord\"
often means a dominant seventh chord, which is a major triad with a
flatted seventh. The G dominant seventh chord, or G7 chord, is the notes
G, B, D and F.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: D7 chord for guitar (open).png\|**D7** File: G7 chord for guitar
(open).png\|**G7** File: A7 chord for guitar (open).png\|**A7** File: C7
chord for guitar (open).png\|**C7**
```{=html}
</div>
```
## Chords in C major
\
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major** File: D minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**D minor** File: E minor chord for guitar
(open).png\|**E minor** File: F major chord for guitar (open).png\|**F
major** File: G major chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major** File: A
minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor** <File:B> half diminished
7th chord for guitar (root 1st position).png\|**B halfdim7**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Note that the chords in the key of C major consists of 3 major chords, 3
minor chords and 1 diminished chord. This holds true for all major keys.
fr:Apprendre la
guitare/Accords
|
# Guitar/Chords
A chord is two or more different notes played simultaneously. Most
chords have three notes though. Chords derive their names from the
*root* note; so a C chord has C for its root note and a G7 chord will
have G. The interval between the root note and the third determines
whether a chord is a major or minor. Chords may be strummed or the notes
picked individually though beginners find strumming much easier. The
more advanced technique of picking is examined in the Picking and
Plucking chapter.
While chords are primarily used for rhythm guitar, basic chord knowledge
can be important for lead playing as well. Knowing how chords are
constructed can help when learning the lead parts of many songs since
there is always a relationship between a chord and the lead part. For
example, if you have to play a lead part over a C major chord (C-E-G)
and you use the notes of a D flat major chord (Db-F-Ab) then the result
will be very dissonant. Additionally, many lead patterns revolve around
arpeggios. These are chords with their notes played in sequence (the
word \"arpeggio\" actually means \"broken chord\") rather than together.
For more information on arpeggios, see the Arpeggio and Sweep
Picking chapter.
Chords are easy to play though understanding the theory behind chord
construction (harmony) will require some understanding of scales. While
it is not essential to have a knowledge of scales to be able to use this
section, understanding scales will definitely improve your general
musicianship. With that in mind, go ahead and learn and use these chords
without worrying too much about the theory and when you have the time
take a look at the page on general music theory and
the page on scales.
Beginners are advised to start with open
chords, which are often the easiest
chords to form. Learning open chords is important because it sets the
stage for learning how to form barre chords. Barre
Chords are chords you form by pressing
all (or some) of the strings down with the first finger. This finger
acts as the barre (the same job that the nut of the guitar does when you
are playing open chords). Because of this barre chords don\'t usually
include open strings and can be moved freely up and down the neck. As
you move your barre chord, the shape of the chord remains the same
although all the notes change. Barring is an important technique and
greatly opens up the neck of the instrument.
## Different Kinds of Chords
### Major chords
The most basic chord is called a triad and consists of three different
notes. A major triad consists of the root, a major third, and a perfect
fifth. The early study of chords should be based around how to build the
tonic triad (chord) from any major scale. To build the tonic triad you
take the first note of any major scale and the third note (a major 3rd)
and the fifth note (a perfect fifth). Take for example building a tonic
triad (chord) from the C major scale. If you look at this C major scale:
**C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C**
you will notice that the first, third and fifth notes of the scale are
C, E, and G. The most obvious thing that most guitarists become
instantly aware of is that the C major played in the first position
actually involves playing 5 strings and therefore must have more notes
than a triad. The C major chord shown below has these notes C, E, G, C,
E. If you cancel out the doubles you are left with a C major triad. This
brings us to an important rule: any chord tone (note) can be doubled
without affecting the chords designation. Therefore a C major triad
(C-E-G) and the first position C major chord below (C-E-G-C-E) are both
still C major chords though the 5 note version will sound fuller due to
the note doubling. Major chords have a characteristically bright and
happy sound.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Minor chords
The minor triad consists of a root, a minor third and a perfect fifth.
The interval between the root and third is a minor third and the
interval between the root and fifth is a perfect fifth. Minor chords
have a dissonant quality due to the interval of a minor third. It must
be remembered that we are talking about building chords from scales and
that these intervals, the minor third and perfect fifth, are the
interval designations from the scale which are then applied to naming
the intervals in a chord. Which is why the triad intervals are not named
1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively.
Minor chords are best understood in relation to their major chord
counterpart. In the example below we will use E major and E minor. When
we play an E major chord, we can flatten the third of the chord by
lifting the finger that is holding down the third string at the first
fret, making it an open string. By altering this one note so that the
interval is changed from a major third to a minor third, we have formed
a new chord: E minor.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: E minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**E minor**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Switching between major and minor chords can be relatively easy, as it
involves the change of only one note. Some chord changes, for example
changing between an open F major to a F minor, will need a little more
effort.
### Dominant Seventh chords
A minor seventh is added to a major chord. When a minor seventh is added
to any major chord that major chord is changed into a dominant seventh.
The dominant chord always refers to the chord built on the fifth degree
of any major scale. Look at the C major scale below:
**C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C**
The fifth degree of the scale is G. The chord built on the fifth
contains the notes: G-B-D. To change this dominant major chord to a
dominant seventh you need to add a fourth note. The note you add is F
(the minor seventh) which now makes: G-B-D-F. This chord has very strong
need to resolve usually to the tonic. The reason the interval in G-B-D-F
is called a minor seventh and not a perfect fourth is that interval
designation is determined from the root of the chord being discussed.
Take for example the G major scale below:
**G-A-B-C-D-E-F#-G**
As you can see the interval G-F# is a major seventh. You can form a
minor seventh interval by lowering the seventh by a semitone: G-F. This
holds true for all major seventh intervals.
At first it seems quite strange looking at the interval relationship of
another key to determine the chord intervals of the key you are playing
in. With practice it becomes very easy but does involve learning a few
major scales.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:A7> chord for guitar (open).png\|**A7** <File:G7> chord for guitar
(open).png\|**G7**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Sixth chords
Add a sixth to the chord. The two chords below are major chords from the
key of C with a sixth added.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:F6> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**F6 (Subdominant in C
major)** <File:C6> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**C6 (Tonic in
C major)**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Suspended chords
To form a suspended chord the third is replaced with either a second or
a fourth. The third of a chord defines its modality - whether a chord is
major or minor. By removing the third and replacing it with a second or
fourth you have suspended the chord\'s modal quality. This creates a
chord that is neither major or minor and the ear interprets the chord as
harmonically ambiguous.
Suspended chords derived from a D major chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Dsus2> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**Dsus2** File: D
major chord for guitar (open).png\|**D major** <File:Dsus4> chord for
guitar (open position).png\|**Dsus4**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Suspended chords derived from the A major chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Asus2> chord for guitar (open position).png\|**Asus2** File: A
major chord for guitar (open).png\|**A major** <File:Asus4> chord for
guitar (open position).png\|**Asus4**
```{=html}
</div>
```
Suspending an E major chord:
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: E major chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** <File:Esus4>
chord for guitar (open position).png\|**Esus4**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Slash chords
Chords that are not in root position. For example, a C/G is a C chord
with a bass note of G. They are also referred to as \"inversions\".
Slash chords are always notated with their chord name first followed by
the bass note.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:C> major chord for guitar (open position in second
inversion).png\|**C/G** <File:F> major chord for guitar (open position
in second inversion).png\|**F/C**
```{=html}
</div>
```
### Diminished chords
These consist of a stack of minor thirds. You can extend a diminished
triad (three note chord) by adding another minor third; which gives you
a four note chord called a diminished seventh chord. The diminished
seventh chord is notated as Co7 or dim7. Diminished seventh chords are
built entirely from minor thirds, so you can move the chord shape up the
neck in intervals of a minor third (three frets) and this will be
exactly the same notes as the original chord but in a different order.
The term \"inversion\" is used when chords have their notes rearranged.
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
<File:Edim7> chord for guitar (root).png\|**Edim7 - root position**
<File:Edim7> chord for guitar (third in bass).png\|**Edim7 - 1st
inversion** <File:Edim7> chord for guitar (fifth in bass).png\|**Edim7 -
2nd inversion**
```{=html}
</div>
```
A half-diminished chord consists of a diminished triad with a major
third on top. In other words, a half-diminished chord is a diminished
triad with a minor seventh.
Diminished chords are full of tension because of the dissonance created
by stacking minor third intervals and they are normally resolved to a
consonant major or minor chord.
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Polynomial Remainder Theorem
The **Polynomial Remainder Theorem** is an application of Euclidean
division of polynomials. It is one of the most fundamental and popular
theorems of Algebra. It states that the remainder of the division of a
polynomial $P(x)$ by a linear polynomial $(x - r)$ is equal to $P(r)$.
## Examples
### Example 1
Show that the remainder of the division of a polynomial
$f(x) = x^2 - 2x + 2$ by a linear polynomial $(x - 1)$ is equal to
$f(1)$. **Solution :** Divide $f(x) = x^2 - 2x + 2$ by $(x - 1)$ like
the following one.
``` cpp
x - 1 ) x^2 - 2x + 2 ( x - 1
x^2 - x
------------
- x + 2
- x + 1
------------
1
```
As, $f(1) = 1^2 - 2(1) + 2 = 1$, thus the remainder is equal to $f(1)$.
### Example 2
Show that the remainder of the division of a polynomial
$F(x) = ax^2 + bx + c$ by a linear polynomial $(x - m)$ is equal to
$F(m)$. **Solution :** Divide $F(x) = ax^2 + bx + c$ by $(x - m)$ like
the following one.
``` cpp
x-m ) ax^2+bx+c ( ax+am+b
ax^2-amx
------------------
amx+bx+c
amx -am^2
------------------
bx+c+am^2
bx-bm
------------------
am^2+bm+c
```
As, $f(m) = am^2 + bm + c$, thus the remainder $am^2 + bm + c$ is equal
to $f(m)$.
## Proof
### Proposition
If $P(x)$ is a polynomial of a positive degree and $a$ is any definite
number, the remainder of the division of $P(x)$ by $(x - a)$ will be
$P(a)$
### Proof
The remainder of the division of a polynomial of a positive degree
$P(x)$ by $(x - a)$ is either 0 or a non-zero constant. Let the
remainder is $R$ and the quotient is $Q(x)$. Then, for every value of
$x$,
```{=html}
<div class="center" style="width: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
```
$P(x) = (x - a)$·$Q(x) + R .... (i)$
```{=html}
</div>
```
Putting $x = a$ in the equation $(i)$, we get $P(a) = 0$ ·
$Q(a) + R = R$. Thus, the remainder of $P(x)$÷$(x - a)$ is equal to
$P(a)$.
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Polynomial Factor Theorem
The **Polynomial Factor Theorem** is a theorem linking factors and zeros
of a polynomial.[^1] It is an application of the polynomial remainder
theorem Polynomial Remainder
Theorem.
It states that a polynomial $f(x)$ has a factor $(x - a)$ if and only if
$f(a) = 0$. Here, $a$ is also called the root of the polynomial.[^2]
## Proof
### Statement
If $P(x)$ is a polynomial of a positive degree and if $P(a) = 0$ so
$(x - a)$ is a factor of $P(x)$.
### Proof
According to the Polynomial Remainder Theorem, the remainder of the
division of $P(x)$ by $(x - a)$ is equal to $P(a)$. As $P(a) = 0$, so
the polynomial $P(a)$ is divisible by $(x - a)$
∴ $(x - a)$ is a factor of $P(x)$. *\[Proved\]*
### Converse of Factor Theorem
**Proposition :** If $(x - a)$ is a factor of the polynomial $P(x),$
then $P(a) = 0$
## Factorization
### Example 1
**Problem :** Resolve the polynomial $P(x) = 18x^3 + 15x^2 - x - 2$ into
factors.
**Solution :** Here, the constant term of $P(x)$ is $-2$ and the set of
the factors of $-2$ is $F$**~1~**$=${±1, ±2}
Here, the leading coefficient of $P(x)$ is $18$ and the set of the
factors of $18$ is $F$**~2~**$=${±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ±9, ±18}
Now consider $P(a)$, where
$a = \frac {r}{s}, r\isin F$**~1~**$, s\isin F$**~2~**
When,
$a = 1, P(1) = 18+15-1-2 \ne 0$
$a = -1, P(-1) = -18+15+1-2 \ne 0$
$a = -\frac{1}{2}, P(-\frac{1}{2}) = 18(-\frac{1}{8})+15(-\frac{1}{4})+\frac{1}{2}-2 = 0$
Therefore, $(x + \frac{1}{2}) = \frac{1}{2}(2x+1)$ is a factor of $P(x)$
Now, $P(x) = 18x^3 + 15x^2 - x - 2$
$= 18x^3 + 9x^2 + 6x^2 + 3x - 4x - 2$
$= 9x^2(2x + 1) + 3x(2x + 1) - 2(2x + 1)$ $= (2x + 1)(9x^2 + 3x - 2)$
$= (2x + 1)(9x^2 + 6x - 3x - 2)$ $= (2x + 1)(3x(3x + 2) - 1(3x + 2))$
$= (2x + 1)(3x + 2)(3x - 1)$
∴$P(x) = (2x + 1)(3x + 2)(3x - 1)$
### Example 2
**Problem :** Resolve the polynomial
$P(x) = -3x^2 -2xy + 8y^2 + 11x - 8y - 6$ into factors.
**Solution :** Considering only the terms of $x$ and constant, we get
$-3x^2+ 11x - 6$.
$-3x^2+ 11x - 6 \equiv (-3x+2)(x-3)..(i)$
In the same way, considering only the terms of $y$ and constant, we get
$8y^2 - 8y - 6$.
$8y^2 - 8y - 6 \equiv (4y+2)(2y-3)..(ii)$
Combining factors of above (i) and (ii), the factors of the given
polynomial can be found. But the constants $+2, -3$ must remain same in
both equations just like the coefficients of $x$ and $y$.
∴$P(x) = (-3x+4y+2)(x+2y-3)$
## References
[^1]: 1 Byjus.com, Maths,
Factor Theorem
[^2]: 2 Byjus.com,
Maths, Roots of Polynomials
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Rational Root Theorem
The rational root theorem states that, if a rational number
$\frac{p}{q}$ (where $p$ and $q$ are relatively prime) is a root of a
polynomial with integer coefficients, then $p$ is a factor of the
constant term and $q$ is a factor of the leading coefficient. In other
words, for the polynomial,
$P(x) = a_{n}x^n + a_{n-1}x^{n-1} + a_{n-2}x^{n-2} + ...+ a_0$, if
$P(\frac{p}{q}) = 0$, (where $a_i\in\Z$ and $a_0, a_n \neq 0$) then
$\frac{(a_0)}{p}\in\Z$ and $\frac{a_n}{q}\in\Z$
## Proof
Let $P(x) = a_{n}x^n + a_{n-1}x^{n-1} + a_{n-2}x^{n-2} + ...+ a_0$,
where $a_i\in\Z$.
Assume $P(\frac{p}{q}) = 0$ for coprime $p, q\in\Z$. Therefore,
$P(\frac{p}{q})=a_n(\frac{p}{q})^n+a_{n-1}(\frac{p}{q})^{n-1} + a_{n-2}(\frac{p}{q})^{n-2}+...+a_1(\frac{p}{q})+a_0 = 0$
$\Rightarrow a_np^n + a_{n-1}p^{n-1}q+a_{n-2}p^{n-2}q^2+...+a_1pq^{n-1}+a_0q^n=0$
$\Rightarrow p(a_np^n-1 + a_{n-1}p^{n-2}q+a_{n-3}p^{n-2}q^2+...+a_1q^{n-1})=-a_0q^n$
Let $w=a_np^n-1 + a_{n-1}p^{n-2}q+a_{n-3}p^{n-2}q^2+...+a_1q^{n-1}\in\Z$
Thus, $w=-\frac{a_0q^n}{p}$
As $p$ is coprime to $q$ and $w\in\Z.$, thus $\frac{a_0}{p}\in\Z$.
Again,
$a_np^n + a_{n-1}p^{n-1}q+a_{n-2}p^{n-2}q^2+...+a_1pq^{n-1}+a_0q^n=0$
$\Rightarrow q(a_{n-1}p^{n-1}+a_{n-2}p^{n-2}q+...+a_1pq^{n-2}+a_0q^{n-1})=-a_np^n$
Let $(a_{n-1}p^{n-1}+a_{n-2}p^{n-2}q+...+a_1pq^{n-2}+a_0q^{n-1})=v\in\Z$
Thus, $qv=-a_np^n$ $\Rightarrow v=-\frac{a_np^n}{q}$
As $q$ is coprime to $p$ and $v\in\Z.$, thus $\frac{a_n}{p}\in\Z$.
$\therefore$ For
$P(x) = a_{n}x^n + a_{n-1}x^{n-1} + a_{n-2}x^{n-2} + ...+ a_0$, if
$P(\frac{p}{q}) = 0$, (where $a_i\in\Z$ and $a_0, a_n \neq 0$) then
$\frac{(a_0)}{p}\in\Z$ and $\frac{a_n}{q}\in\Z$. ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem is a fundamental theorem in algebra that provides a
formula to expand powers of binomials. It allows us to easily expand
expressions, $(a+b)^n$, where $a$ and $b$ are real numbers or variables,
and $n\geq0$.
## Proof
**Proposition:** For any real numbers $a, b$ and $n\ge0,$
$(a + b)^n = \sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}a^{n-k}b^k$ Where
$\binom{n}{k} = \frac{n!}{k! (n-k)!}$
**Proof *(Mathematical Induction)*:**
For $n = 0, (a + b)^n = (a + b)^0 = 1$
For $n = 1, (a + b)^n = (a + b)^1 = (a + b)$
For $n = 2, (a + b)^n = (a + b)^2$ $= a^2 + 2ab + b^2$
$= \binom{2}{0}a^2b^0 + \binom{2}{1}a^1b^1 + \binom{2}{2}a^0b^2$
$=\sum_{k=0}^2 \binom{2}{k}a^{2-k}b^k$
For $n = 3, (a + b)^n = (a + b)^3$ $= a^3 + 3a^2b + 3ab^2 + b^3$
$= \binom{3}{0}a^3b^0 + \binom{3}{1}a^2b^1 + \binom{3}{2}a^1b^2 + \binom{3}{3} a^0b^3$
$=\sum_{k=0}^3 \binom{3}{k}a^{3-k}b^k$
Let\'s assume $(a + b)^n = \sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}a^{n-k}b^k$ for
some $a\ge0.$ Now we just have to show that the equation holds true for
$n + 1.$
$(a + b)^n = \sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}a^{n-k}b^k$
Or, $(a + b)^n(a + b) = (\sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}a^{n-k}b^k)(a + b)$
$= (\binom {n}{0} a^nb^0 + \binom {n}{1} a^{n-1}b^1 + \binom {n}{2} a^{n-2}b^2 + ... + \binom {n}{n} a^0b^n) (a + b)$
$= a(\binom {n}{0} a^nb^0 + \binom {n}{1} a^{n-1}b^1 + \binom {n}{2} a^{n-2}b^2 + ... + \binom {n}{n} a^0b^n) + b(\binom {n}{0} a^nb^0 + \binom {n}{1} a^{n-1}b^1 + \binom {n}{2} a^{n-2}b^2 + ... + \binom {n}{n} a^0b^n)$
$= (\binom {n}{0} a^{n+1}b^0 + \binom {n}{1} a^{n}b^1 + \binom {n}{2} a^{n-1}b^2 + ... + \binom {n}{n} ab^n) + (\binom {n}{0} a^nb^1 + \binom {n}{1} a^{n-1}b^2 + \binom {n}{2} a^{n-2}b^3 + ... + \binom {n}{n} a^0b^{n+1})$
$= \binom {n}{0} a^{n+1}b^0 + a^{n}b^1 (\binom {n}{1} + \binom {n}{0}) + a^{n-1}b^2 (\binom {n}{2} + \binom {n}{1}) + ... + ab^n (\binom {n}{n} + \binom {n}{n-1}) + \binom {n}{n} a^0b^{n+1})$
$= \binom {n+1}{0} a^{n+1}b^0 + \binom {n+1}{1}a^{n}b^1 + \binom {n+1}{2} a^{n-1}b^2 + ... + \binom {n + 1}{n} ab^n + \binom {n+1}{n+1} a^0b^{n+1})$
∴$(a + b)^{n+1} = \sum_{k=0}^{n+1} \binom{n+1}{k}a^{n+1-k}b^k$
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Product, Quotient, Composition Rules
The product rule, the quotient rule and the composition *(or chain)*
rule are the most fundamental rules or formulas of differential
calculus. For the functions $u(x)$ and $v(x)$, the rules are,
1. Product Rule: $D_x (uv) = v\cdot D_x u + u\cdot D_x v$
2. Quotient Rule:
$D_x (\frac{u}{v}) = \frac{1}{v^2} (v \cdot D_x u - u \cdot D_x v)$
3. Composition Rule: $D_x v = D_y v\cdot D_x y$
## Proof
### Product Rule
$D_x (uv)$ $=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {\Delta (uv)}{\Delta x}$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac{u(x+\Delta x)\cdot v(x+\Delta x) - u(x)\cdot v(x)}{\Delta x}$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac{u(x+\Delta x)\cdot v(x+\Delta x) - u(x)\cdot v(x+\Delta x) + u(x)\cdot v(x+\Delta x) - u(x)\cdot v(x)}{\Delta x}$
$= \lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac{[u(x+\Delta x)-u(x)]\cdot v(x+\Delta x) + u(x)\cdot [v(x+\Delta x)-v(x)]}{\Delta x}$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac{(\Delta u) \cdot v(x+\Delta x) + u(x)\cdot (\Delta v)}{\Delta x}$
$= \lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}}[\frac {\Delta u}{\Delta x}\cdot v(x + \Delta x) + \frac {\Delta v}{\Delta x}\cdot u(x)]$
$= \lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}}[D_x u\cdot v(x + \Delta x) + u\cdot D_x v]$
$=v\cdot D_x u + u\cdot D_x v$
$\therefore D_x (uv) = v\cdot D_x u + u\cdot D_x v$ ***\[Proved\]***
### Quotient Rule
$D_x (\frac{u}{v})$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {\Delta (\frac {u}{v})}{\Delta x}$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {1}{\Delta x}\cdot [\frac {u(x + \Delta x)}{v(x + \Delta x)} - \frac {u(x)}{v(x)}]$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {1}{\Delta x}\cdot [\frac {u(x + \Delta x)\cdot v(x) - u(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}{v(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}]$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {1}{\Delta x}\cdot [\frac {u(x + \Delta x)\cdot v(x) -v(x)\cdot u(x) + v(x)\cdot u(x) - u(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}{v(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}]$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {1}{\Delta x}\cdot [\frac {v(x)\cdot (u(x + \Delta x)-u(x)) + u(x)\cdot (v(x) - v(x + \Delta x)}{v(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}]$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {1}{\Delta x}\cdot [\frac {v(x)\cdot (\Delta u) + u(x)\cdot (\Delta v)}{v(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}]$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac {\frac {v(x)\cdot (\Delta u)}{\Delta x} + \frac {u(x)\cdot (\Delta v)}{\Delta x}}{v(x)\cdot v(x + \Delta x)}$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac{{v(x) \cdot \frac{\Delta u}{\Delta x} + u(x) \cdot \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta x}}}{{v(x) \cdot v(x + \Delta x)}}$
$=\lim_{{\Delta x \to 0}} \frac{{v(x) \cdot D_x u + u(x) \cdot D_x v}}{{v(x) \cdot v(x + \Delta x)}}$
$=\frac{{v(x) \cdot D_x u + u(x) \cdot D_x
v}}{{v(x) \cdot v(x)}}$ $=\frac{{v\cdot D_x u + u\cdot D_x v}}{{v^2}}$
$\therefore D_x (\frac{u}{v}) = \frac{v \cdot D_x u - u \cdot D_x v}{v^2}$
### Composition Rule
$D_xv$ $= \lim_{\Delta x\to 0}\frac{\Delta v}{\Delta x}$
$= \lim_{\Delta x\to 0}\frac{\Delta v\cdot\Delta y}{\Delta x\cdot\Delta y}$
$= \lim_{\Delta x\to 0}\frac{\Delta v}{\Delta y}\cdot\lim_{\Delta x\to 0}\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}$
$= \lim_{\Delta y\to 0}\frac{\Delta v}{\Delta y}\cdot\lim_{\Delta x\to 0}\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}$
$= D_yv\cdot D_xy$
$\therefore D_xv = D_yv\cdot D_xy$
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Intermediate Value Theorem
The **Intermediate Value Theorem** is a fundamental theorem in calculus.
The theorem states that if a function, $f(x)$ is continuous on a closed
interval $[a,b],$ then for any value, $y$ defined between $(f(a)$ and
$f(b),$ there exists at least one value $c \in (a,b)$ such that
$f(c) = y$. ![Intermediate Value Theorem: f(x) is continuous on \[a,
b\], there exists at least one value c, that is defined on (a, b) such
that f(c) =
y.](Intermediatevaluetheorem.svg "Intermediate Value Theorem: f(x) is continuous on [a, b], there exists at least one value c, that is defined on (a, b) such that f(c) = y.")
## Proof
**Statement:** If a function, $f$ is continuous on $[a, b],$ then for
every $y$ between $f(a)$ and $f(b),$ there exists at least one value
$c \in (a, b)$ such that $f(c) = y$
**Proof:** Assume that $f(x)$ is a continuous function on $[a, b]$ and
$f(a)<f(b).$
Consider a function $g(x) = f(x) - y.$ The purpose of defining $g(x)$ is
to investigate the behavior of $f(x)$ concerning the value $y$.
Since $f$ is continuous on $[a,b]$ and $y$ is a constant,
$g(x) = f(x) - y$ is also continuous on $[a,b],$ as the difference of
two continuous functions is continuous.
Now, $f(a) < y$ \[As $c \in (a, b)$ and $y = f(c)$\]
Or, $f(a) - y < 0$
$\therefore g(a) < 0$
In the same way, $g(b) > 0$
Since $g(x)$ is continuous and $g(a)$ is defined below the $x$-axis
while $g(b)$ is defined above the $x$-axis, there must exist at least
one point $c$ in the interval $[a,b]$ where $g(c)=0$.
Therefore, at the point $c$, $g(c) = f(c) - y = 0 \implies f(c) = y$
∴ There exists at least one point $c$ in the interval $[a,b]$ such that
$f(c)=y.$ ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Differentiability Implies Continuity
**Statement:** If a function $f(x)$ is differentiable at the point
$x_0,$ then $f$ is continuous at $x_0.$
**Proof:** Assume $f(x)$ is differentiable at $x_0$. Then, $D_{x}f(x_0)$
exists.
The function $f(x)$ is continuous at $x_0$ when
$\lim_{x \to x_0} f(x) = f(x_0).$
$\Rightarrow \lim_{x \to x_0} f(x) - f(x_0) = 0$
$\Rightarrow \lim_{x \to x_0} f(x) - \lim_{x \to x_0} f(x_0) = 0$
$\Rightarrow \lim_{x \to x_0} [f(x) - f(x_0)] = 0.$ So, to prove the
theorem, it is enough to prove that
$\lim_{x \to x_0} [f(x) - f(x_0)] = 0.$
$\lim_{x \to x_0} [f(x) - f(x_0)]$
$=\lim_{x \to x_0} [\frac {f(x) - f(x_0)}{x - x_0} (x-x_0)]$
$=\lim_{x \to x_0} [\frac {f(x) - f(x_0)}{x - x_0}]\cdot\lim_{x \to x_0} (x-x_0)$
$=D_{x}f(x_0)\cdot 0 = 0$
Therefore, When $D_{x}f(x_0)$ exists,
$\lim_{x \to x_0} [f(x) - f(x_0)] = 0$ is true.
$\therefore$ If $f(x)$ is differentiable at the point $x_0,$ then $f$ is
continuous at $x_0.$ ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Rolle's Theorem
The Rolle\'s theorem says that, If a real-valued function $f$ is
continuous on a closed interval $[a, b]$, differentiable on an open
interval $(a, b)$ and $f(a) = f(b)$, then there exists at least a number
$c$ such that $D_xf(c) = 0$. It means that if a function satisfies the
three conditions mentioned in the previous sentence, then there is at
least a point in the graph of the function, where the slope of the
tangent line at the point is $0$, or the tangent line is parallel to the
$x$-axis.
## Proof
![f(x) is continuous on $[a, b]$ differentiable on $(a, b)$ and
$f(a)=f(b)$. Thus,
$D_xf(c)=0$](RTCalc.svg "f(x) is continuous on [a, b] differentiable on (a, b) and f(a)=f(b). Thus, D_xf(c)=0")
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Bézout's Identity
!Étienne Bézout *(31 March 1730 -- 27 September
1783)*")
**Bézout\'s Identity** is a theorem of Number Theory and Algebra, which
is named after the French mathematician, Étienne Bézout *(31 March 1730
-- 27 September 1783)*. The theorem states that the greatest common
divisor, $$ of the integers, $a$ and $b$ can be written in the form,
$ax + by = d,$ where $x$ and $y$ are integers. Here, $x$ and $y$ are
called Bézout coefficients for $(a, b)$.
## Computing the pairs, $(x, y)$
There are infinite number of pairs of $(x, y)$ which satisfies the
equation $ax + by = d,$. A general formula can be developed to compute
pairs as much as you want. To do that, first of all, it\'s required to
calculate one pair of $(x, y)$. One simple way to calculate a pair is
using the **extended Euclidean algorithm**.
### General Formula for Computing
Once you have one pair $(x_0, y_0),$ you can apply the formula,
$(x_k, y_k) = (x_0 - k\frac{b}{d}, y_0 + k\frac{a}{d})$where $k\in \Z$,
that means $k$ is an integer.
**Proof:** As $(x, y)=(x_0, y_0)$ satisfies the equation $ax + by = d,$
then,
$ax_0 + by_0 = d$
Or, $\frac {d(ax_0 + by_0)}{d} = d$
Or, $\frac {dax_0 + dby_0}{d} = d$
Or, $\frac {dax_0 -kba + kba + dby_0}{d} = d$
Or, $ax_0 - ak\frac{b}{d} + by_0 + bk\frac{a}{d} = d$
Or, $a(x_0 - k\frac{b}{d}) + b(y_0 + k\frac{a}{d}) = d$
Or, $a(x_0 - k\frac{b}{d}) + b(y_0 + k\frac{a}{d}) = ax_k + by_k$
Therefore, the coefficients of $a$ are equal and the coefficients of $b$
are also equal, $(x_k, y_k) = (x_0 - k\frac{b}{d}, y_0 + k\frac{a}{d})$
*\[Note: The formula only works when $d \neq 0$. Also, as $x\in\Z$, then
$k\in\Z$.\]*
**Example:** The greatest common divisor of $a = 8$ and $b = 12$ is
$\gcd(8, 12) = 4.$ According to the identity, there exists integers $x$
and $y$, so that $8x + 12y = 4$ $\Rightarrow 2x + 3y = 1$. If you try to
solve the equation, you may soon come up with a pair of solutions like
$(x_0, y_0) = (-1, 1)$. So,
$(x_k, y_k) = (-(1 + k\frac{b}{d}), 1 + k\frac{a}{d})$. By using this
formula, you may find pairs as much as you want.
## Proof
Assume $S = \{ax+by:x,y\in\Z \text{ and } ax+by>0\}$ where $a$ and $b$
are non zero integers. The set is not an empty set as it contains either
$a$ or $-a$ when $x = \pm 1$ and $y=0$. Since $S$ is not an empty set,
by the well-ordering principle, the set has a minimum element
$d = as + bt$.
The Euclidean division for $\frac {a}{d}$ may be written as
$a = dq + r$, where $q=\left\lfloor {\frac{a}{d}} \right\rfloor$,
$r = a - d \left\lfloor {\frac{a}{d}} \right\rfloor$ and $0 \leq r <d$.
Here, $r = a - dq$ $= a - q(as + bt)$ $= a - qas + qbt$
$= a(1 - qs) + b(qt)$
Thus, $r$ is in the form $ax+by$, and hence $r\in S\cup\{0\}$. But,
$0\leq r<d$ and $d$ is the smallest positive integer in $S$. So, $r$
must be $0$. Thus, $d$ is a divisor of $a$. $q = \frac {a}{d} > 0$ as
the remainder is zero and a is a non zero integer. Similarly, $d$ is
also a divisor of $b$. Therefore, $d$ is a common divisor of $a$ and
$b$.
Assume $c$ as any common divisor of $a$ and $b$; $a = cu$, $b = cv$.
Again, $d = as+bt$ $= cus + cvt$ $= c(us + vt)$
Thus, $c$ is a divisor of d. Since $d>0$ $\implies c\leq d$. Therefore,
any common divisor of $a$ and $b$ is less than or equals to $d$.
$\therefore d$ is the same as $gcd(a, b)$ and $d$ can be expressed as
$ax + by = d$. ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/De Morgan's laws
**De Morgan\'s Law** is a fundamental principle in Logic and Set Theory.
It establishes a useful relationship between the logical operators
\'AND\' and \'OR\' when negations *(NOT)* are applied. There are two
primary forms of De Morgan\'s Law, known as De Morgan\'s First Law and
De Morgan\'s Second Law. These laws state that,
1. The negation of a disjunction is the conjunction of the negations,
$(A \cup B)' = A' \cap B'$
2. The negation of a conjunction is the disjunction of the negations,
$(A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'$
## Proof
!De Morgan\'s Law for sets $A$ and
$B$ Let $A$ and
$B$ are two sets. De Morgan\'s First Law states that the complement of
the union of $A$ and $B$ sets is the same as the intersection of the
complements of $A$ and $B$. That means, $(A \cup B)' = A' \cap B'$, or
$\overline {(A\cdot B)} = (\overline {A} + \overline {B})$. And De
Morgan\'s First Law states that the complement of the intersection of
$A$ and $B$ is the same as the union of their complements,
$(A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'$, or
$\overline {(A+B)} = (\overline {A} \cdot \overline {B})$.
### De Morgan\'s First Law
Assume $x \in (A\cup B)'$. Then $x \not \in A \cup B$.
$\implies x \not \in A$ AND $x \not \in B$
$\implies x \in A'$ AND $x \in B'$
$\implies x \in (A'\cap B')$
$\therefore (A\cup B)' \subseteq (A'\cap B')$
Again, Let, $x \in (A'\cap B')$. Then, $x \in A'$ AND $x \in B'$
$\implies x \not \in A$ AND $x \not \in B$
$\implies x \not \in A \cup B$.
$\implies x \in (A\cup B)'$
$\therefore (A' \cap B') \subseteq (A\cup B)'$
Therefore, $(A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'$ ***\[Proved\]***
### De Morgan\'s Second Law
Assume $x \in (A\cap B)'$. Then $x \not \in A \cap B$.
$\implies x \not \in A$ OR $x \not \in B$
$\implies x \in A'$ OR $x \in B'$
$\implies x \in (A'\cup B')$
$\therefore (A\cap B)' \subseteq (A'\cup B')$
Again, Let, $x \in (A'\cup B')$. Then, $x \in A'$ OR $x \in B'$
$\implies x \not \in A$ OR $x \not \in B$
$\implies x \not \in A \cap B$.
$\implies x \in (A\cap B)'$
$\therefore (A' \cup B') \subseteq (A\cap B)'$
Therefore, $(A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'$ ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Mid Point Theorem
!In this right triangle, $AD = CD, BE = CE, DE = \frac {1}{2}AB$and
$DE \parallel AB$ according to the Mid Point
Theorem
The midpoint theorem is a fundamental concept in geometry that
establishes a relationship between the midpoints of a triangle\'s sides.
This theorem states that when you connect the midpoints of two sides of
a triangle, the resulting line segment is parallel to the third side.
Additionally, this line segment is precisely half the length of the
third side.
## Proof
### Statement
In a triangle, if a line segment connects the midpoints of two sides,
then this line segment is parallel to the third side and half its
length.
### Proof with the help of Congruent Triangles
!The construction for the mid-point theorem\'s proof with similar
triangles
**Proposition:** Let $D$ and $E$ be the midpoints of $AC$ and $BC$ in
the triangle $ABC$. It is to be proved that,
1. $DE \parallel AB$ and;
2. $DE = \frac {1}{2}AB$.
**Construction:** Add $D$ and $E$, extend $DE$ to $F$ as $EF = DE$, and
add $B$ and $F$.
**Proof:** ***\[1\]*** In the triangles $\Delta CDE$ and $\Delta EBF,$
$CE = BE$ ; \[Given\]
$DE = EF$ ; \[According to the construction\]
$\angle CED = \angle AEF$ ; \[Vertical Angles\]
∴ $\Delta CDE \cong \Delta EBF$ ; \[Side-Angle-Side theorem\]
So, $\angle CDE = \angle BFE$
∴ $CD \parallel BF$
Or, $AD \parallel BF$ and $CD = BF = DA$
Therefore, $ADFB$ is a parallelogram.
∴ $DF \parallel AB$ or $DE \parallel AB$
***\[2\]*** $DF = AB$
Or $DE + EF = AB$
Or, $DE + DE = AB$ \[As, $\Delta CDE \cong \Delta EBF$\]
Or, $2DE = AB$
Or, $DE = \frac {1}{2}AB$
∴ In the triangle $\Delta ABC,$ $DE \parallel AB$ and
$DE = \frac {1}{2}AB$, where $D$ and $E$ are the midpoints of $AC$ and
$BC$. ***\[Proved\]***
### Proof with the help of Coordinate Geometry
**Proposition:** Let $D$ and $E$ be the midpoints of $AC$ and $AB$ in
the triangle $ABC$, where the coordinates of $A, B, C$ are
$A(x_1, y_1), B(x_2, y_2), C(x_3, y_3)$. It is to be proved that,
1. $DE = \frac {1}{2}BC$ and
2. $DE \parallel BC$
**Proof:** ***\[1\]*** The distance of the segment
$BC = \sqrt{(x_3 - x_2)^2 + (y_3 - y_2)^2}$
The midpoint of $A(x_1, y_1)$ and $C(x_3, y_3)$ is
$D(\frac {x_1 + x_3}{2}, \frac {y_1 + y_3}{2})$.
In the same way, The midpoint of $A(x_1, y_1)$ and $B(x_2, y_2)$ is
$E(\frac {x_1 + x_2}{2}, \frac {y_1 + y_2}{2})$
∴ The distance of
$DE = \sqrt{(\frac {x_1 + x_3}{2} - \frac {x_1 + x_2}{2})^2 + (\frac {y_1 + y_3}{2} - \frac {y_1 + y_2}{2})^2}$
$= \sqrt{(\frac {x_1 + x_3 - x_1 - x_2}{2})^2 + (\frac {y_1 + y_3 - y_1 - y_2}{2})^2}$
$= \sqrt{\frac {(x_3 - x_2)^2}{4} + \frac {(y_3 - y_2)^2}{4}}$
$= \sqrt{\frac {(x_3 - x_2)^2 + (y_3 - y_2)^2}{4}}$
$= \frac{\sqrt {(x_3 - x_2)^2 + (y_3 - y_2)^2}}{2}$
$= \frac {1}{2} BC$ ; \[As,
$BC = \sqrt{(x_3 - x_2)^2 + (y_3 - y_2)^2}$\]
***\[2\]*** The slope of $BC,$ $m_1 = \frac {y_2 - y_3}{x_2 - x_3}$
The slope of $DE,$
$m_2 = \frac {\frac {y_1 + y_2}{2} - \frac {y_1 + y_3}{2}}{\frac {x_1 + x_2}{2} - \frac {x_1 + x_3}{2}}$
$= \frac {\frac {y_1 + y_2 - y_1 - y_3}{2}}{\frac {x_1 + x_2 - x_1 - x_3}{2}}$
$= \frac {\frac {y_2 - y_3}{2}}{\frac {x_2 - x_3}{2}}$
$= \frac {y_2 - y_3}{x_2 - x_3}$ $= m_1$ ; \[As,
$m_1 = \frac {y_2 - y_3}{x_2 - x_3}$\]
Therefore, $DE \parallel BC$
∴ In the triangle $\Delta ABC,$ $DE \parallel BC$ and
$DE = \frac {1}{2}BC$, where $D$ and $E$ are the midpoints of $AC$ and
$AB$. ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagorean Theorem is a fundamental relation between the three
sides of a right triangle in Euclidean Geometry. It states that the
square of the hypotenuse side is equal to the sum of squares of the
other two sides in a right-angled triangle.[^1] !In this right
triangle, $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$ according to the Pythagorean
Theorem
The theorem is named after the Greek philosopher Pythagoras (570 -- 495
BC). But, both the Egyptians and the Babylonians were aware of versions
of the Pythagorean theorem about 1500 years before Pythagoras.
## Proof
### Statement
In a right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares on the two other sides.
### Proof with the help of two right angled triangles
**Proposition :** Let in the triangle $ABC, \angle B = 90$°, the
hypotenuse $AC=b,$ $AB =c$ and $BC= a$. It is required to prove that
$AC^2 = AB^2 + BC^2,$ i.e. $b^2=c^2+a^2$.
**Construction :** Produce $BC$ up to $D$ in such a way that
$CD = AB = c$. Also, draw perpendicular $DE$ at $D$ on $BC$ produced, so
that $DE = BC = a$. Join $C, E$ and $A, E$. !James A. Garfield\'s Proof
of the Pythagorean Theorem using a
Trapezoid
**Proof :** In $\Delta ABC$ and $\Delta CDE$, $AB=CD=c, BC= DE = a$ and
included $\angle ABC$ = included $\angle CDE$ \[As
$\angle ABC = \angle CDE = 90$°\]
Therefore, $\Delta ABC \cong \Delta CDR$. \[Side-Angle-Side theorem\]
∴$AC = CE = b$ and $\angle BAC = \angle ECD$.
Again, since $AB\perp BD$ and $ED\perp BD, AB \parallel ED$. Therefore,
$ABDE$ is a trapezoid.
$\angle ABC + \angle BAC + \angle ACB = 180$°
or, $90$°$+ \angle BAC + \angle ACB = 180$°
or, $\angle BAC + \angle ACB = 90$°
or, $\angle RCD + \angle ACB = 90$° \[As $\angle BAC = \angle ECD$\]
Again, $\angle BCD = 180$°
or, $\angle BCA + \angle ACE + \angle ECD = 180$°
or $\angle ACE = 90$°
∴$\Delta ACE$ is a right triangle.
Now, Trapezoid $ABDE = \Delta ABC + \Delta CDE + \Delta ACE$
or,
$\frac {1}{2} BD(AB+DE) = \frac {1}{2}(AB)(BC) + \frac {1}{2}(CD)(DE) + \frac {1}{2}(AC)(CE)$
or,
$\frac {1}{2} (a+c)(c+a) = \frac {1}{2}ac + \frac {1}{2}ac + \frac {1}{2}b^2$
or, $\frac {1}{2} (a+c)^2 = \frac {1}{2}(2ac + b^2)$
or, $(a+c)^2 = (2ac + b^2)$
or, $a^2 + 2ac + c^2 = 2ac + b^2$
or, $b^2 = a^2 + c^2$ ***\[Proved\]***
*\[Note : The 12th President of the United States of America, James A.
Garfield proved the Pythagorean Theorem with the help of two right
angled triangles. His proof of the Pythagorean Theorem was published on
page 161 of the New-England Journal of Education, April 1, 1876\][^2]*
### Proof with the help of similar triangles
### Proof with the help of Algebra
**Proposition :** Let, in the triangle $c$ is the hypotenuse and $a, b$
be the two other sides. It is required to prove that, $c^2=a^2+b^2$.
!Pythagorean Theorem\'s Proof with
Algebra
**Construction :** Draw four triangles congruent to $\Delta ABC$ as
shown in the figure.
**Proof :** The large shape in the figure is a square with an area of
$(a+b)^2$ \[As teh length of every side is same, $(a + b)$ and the
angles are right angles\]
The area of the small quadrilateral is $c^2$, as the shape is a square.
\[As, every side is $c$ and every angle of the quadrilateral is right
angle (proved while proving with the help of two right angled
triangles)\]
According to the figure, $(a+b)^2=4(\frac {1}{2}ab) + c^2$
Or, $a^2+2ab+b^2=2ab + c^2$
Or, $a^2+b^2=c^2$ ***\[Proved\]***
## Reference
[^1]: 1
Byjus.com, Mathematics, Pythagoras Theorem Statement
[^2]: 2
Sid J. Kolpas, \"Mathematical Treasure: James A. Garfield\'s Proof
of the Pythagorean Theorem,\" Convergence (February 2016)
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Law of Cosines
!Here
$c^2 = a^2+b^2-2ab\cdot \cos\gamma$
The law of cosines explains the relation between the sides and an angle
of a triangle. The law states that for any triangle $\Delta ABC$, if
$\angle ACB=\theta$, $AB=c$, $AC=b$ and $BC=a$, then
$c^2 = a^2+b^2-2ab\cdot \cos\theta$. For
$\theta=\frac{\pi}{2}, \Delta ABC$ is a right angle and
$c^2 = a^2 + b^2$, we have proved it as the pythagorean theorem earlier.
## Proof
### Statement
In any triangle, the square of one side\'s length is equal to the
difference between the sum of the squares of the other two sides\'
lengths and twice the product of those two sides\' lengths and the
cosine of the included angle.
Assume, $\Delta ABC$ is a triangle where $\angle ACB=\theta,$ $AB=c$
$AC=b$ and $BC=a.$ It is needed to be proved that,
$c^2 = a^2+b^2-2ab\cdot \cos\theta$.
Let us extend the line segment $BC$ to $BD$ (only for obtuse triangles),
where $AD\perp BD$. Assume $AD=h$ and $CD = k$.
### Proof with the help of the Pythagorean Theorem
#### For obtuse triangles:
!Construction for proving the law of cosines for angle
$\theta>\pi/2$.
According to the Pythagorean theorem, we can say that, for $\Delta ACD,$
$b^2 = k^2 + h^2$
Similarly, for the triangle $\Delta ABD,$ $c^2 = h^2 + (a+k)^2$
$= h^2 + a^2 + k^2 + 2ak$ $= a^2 + b^2 + 2ak$.
We will be using this value for further proof. But now, let\'s determine
some trigonometric values for the triangles.
Here, $\angle ACD = \pi - \theta$.
Therefore, $\frac{k}{b} = \cos(\pi -\theta)$
Or, $k = b\cdot\cos(\pi-\theta)$
$= b[\cos(\pi)\cdot cos(\theta) + \sin(\pi)\cdot \sin(\theta)]$
$= -b\cdot\cos(\theta)$
Now, $c^2 = a^2 + b^2 + 2ak$.
$\therefore c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab\cdot\cos\theta$. ***\[Proved\]***
#### For acute angles:
!Construction for proving the law of cosines for angle
$\theta<\pi/2$.
Like as the proof we have proved before, according to the Pythagorean
theorem, we can say that, for $\Delta ACD,$ $b^2 = k^2 + h^2$
Similarly, for the triangle $\Delta ABD,$ $c^2 = h^2 + (a-k)^2$
$= h^2 + a^2 + k^2 - 2ak$ $= a^2 + b^2 - 2ak$.
Here, $\angle ACD = \theta$.
Therefore, $\frac{k}{b} = \cos\theta$ $\Rightarrow k = b\cdot\cos\theta$
Now, $c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ak$.
$\therefore c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab\cdot\cos\theta$. ***\[Proved\]***
*\[Note: Whatever the triangle is, the formula,
$c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab\cdot\cos\theta$ works.\]*
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Brahmagupta Theorem
The Brahmagupta\'s theorem states that if a cyclic quadrilateral is
orthodiagonal (that is, has perpendicular diagonals), then the
perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the diagonals
always bisects the opposite side.[^1]
The theorem is named after the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta
(598-668).
## Proof
### Statement
If any cyclic quadrilateral has perpendicular diagonals, then the
perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the diagonals
always bisects the opposite side.
### Proof
!If $BM \perp AC$ and $EF\perp BC,$then $AF=FD,$ according to the
Brahmagupta\'s
theorem
**Proposition:** Let $ABCD$ is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle
with perpendicular diagonals $AC$ and $BD$ intersecting at point $M$.
$ME$ is a perpendicular on the side $BC$ from the point $M$ and extended
$EM$ intersects the opposite side $AD$ at point $F$. It is to be proved
that $AF = DF$.
**Proof:** $\angle CBD = \angle CAD$ \[As both are inscribed angles that
intercept the same arc $CD$ of a circle\]
Or, $\angle CBM = \angle MAF$
Here, $\angle CMB + \angle CBM + \angle BCM = 180$°
Or, $\angle CMB + \angle BCM = 180$° $- \angle CBM$
Again, $\angle CME + \angle CEM + \angle ECM = 180$°
Or, $\angle CME + \angle CMB + \angle BCM = 180$° \[As
$\angle CMB = \angle CEM = 90$° and $\angle BCM = \angle ECM$\]
Or, $\angle CME + 180$° $- \angle CBM = 180$°
Or, $\angle CME = \angle CBM$
Or, $\angle AMF = \angle MAF$ \[As, \\angle AMF = \\angle CME; Vertical
Angles\]
Therefore, $AF = MF$
In the similar way, $\angle MDF = \angle DMF$ and $MF = DF$
Or, $AF = DF$ ***\[Proved\]***
## Reference
[^1]: Michael John Bradley (2006). The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient
Times to 1300. Publisher Infobase Publishing. ISBN 0816054231. Page
70, 85.
|
# Timeless Theorems of Mathematics/Napoleon's theorem
!$\Delta LMN$ is an equilateral
triangle
The Napoleon\'s theorem states that if equilateral triangles are
constructed on the sides of a triangle, either all outward or all
inward, the lines connecting the centers of those equilateral triangles
themselves form an equilateral triangle. That means, for a triangle
$\Delta ABC$, if three equilateral triangles are constructed on the
sides of the triangle, such as $\Delta ACM$, $\Delta BCX$ and
$\Delta ABZ$ either all outward or all inward, the three lines
connecting the centers of the three triangles, $ML$, $LN$ and $MN$
construct an equilateral triangle $LMN$.
## Proof
!A trigonomatric proof of the Napoleon\'s
theorem.
Let, $\Delta ABC$ a triangle. Here, three equilateral triangles are
constructed, $\Delta BCE$, $\Delta ABD$ and $\Delta ACF$ and the
centroids of the triangles are $P$, $Q$ and $R$ respectively. Here,
$AC=b$, $AB=c$, $BC=a$, $PQ=r$, $PR=q$ and $QR=p$. Therefore, the area
of the triangle $\Delta ABC$, $T=\frac{1}{2}bc\cdot\sin A$
$\Rightarrow bc\cdot\sin A=2T$
For our proof, we will be working with one equilateral triangle, as
three of the triangles are similar (equilateral). A median of
$\Delta ACF$ is $AG = (m+k)$, where $AR = m$ and $RG = k$. $AQ=n$ and,
as $\Delta ACF$ is a equilateral triangle, $\angle AGC=90^\circ$.
Here, $m+k=\frac{b\sqrt{3}}{2}$. As the centroid of a triangle divides a
median of the triangle as $1:2$ ratio, then
$m=\frac{2}{3}\cdot\frac{b\sqrt{3}}{2}$ $=\frac{b}{\sqrt{3}}$.
Similarly, $n=\frac{c}{\sqrt{3}}$.
According to the Law of Cosines, $a^2 = b^2 + c^2 - 2bc\cdot \cos A$
(for $\Delta ABC$) and for $\Delta AQR$,
$p^2 = m^2 + n^2 - 2mn\cdot\cos(A+60^\circ)$
$= (\frac{b}{\sqrt{3}})^2 + (\frac{c}{\sqrt{3}})^2 - 2\frac{b}{\sqrt{3}}\cdot\frac{c}{\sqrt{3}}\cdot\cos(A+60^\circ)$
$= \frac{b^2 + c^2 - 2bc\cdot\cos(A+60^\circ)}{3}$
$= \frac{b^2 + c^2 - 2bc(\cos A\cdot cos60^\circ - \sin A\cdot\sin 60^\circ)}{3}$
$= \frac{b^2 + c^2 - 2bc(\cos A\cdot \frac{1}{2} - \sin A\cdot\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2})}{3}$
$= \frac{b^2 + c^2 - bc(\cos A\cdot - \sin A\cdot\sqrt{3})}{3}$
$= \frac{b^2 + c^2 - bc\cos A\cdot - 2T\sqrt{3})}{3}$
$= \frac{a^2 + 2bc\cos A - bc\cos A - 2T\sqrt{3})}{3}$ \[According to
the law of cosines for $\Delta ABC$\]
$= \frac{a^2 + bc\cos A - 2T\sqrt{3})}{3}$
$= \frac{a^2 + \frac {b^2 + c^2 - a^2}{2} - 2T\sqrt{3})}{3}$
$= \frac{\frac {b^2 + c^2 + a^2 - 4T\sqrt{3}}{2}}{3}$
Therefore, $p = \sqrt{\frac{1}{6} (a^2 + b^2 + c^2 - 4T\sqrt{3})}$
In the same way, we can prove,
$q = \sqrt{\frac{1}{6} (a^2 + b^2 + c^2 - 4T\sqrt{3})}$ and
$r = \sqrt{\frac{1}{6} (a^2 + b^2 + c^2 - 4T\sqrt{3})}$. Thus,
$p = q = r$.
$\therefore\Delta PQR$ is an equilateral triangle. ***\[Proved\]***
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Definition
understand that it is a subdiscipline of
anthropology and have a basic understanding
of archaeology dating techniques, evolution of cultures, Darwinian
thought, genetics, and primate behaviours.
\_\_toc\_\_ There is a long academic tradition in modern anthropology
which is divided into four fields, as defined by Franz Boas (1858-1942),
who is generally considered the father of the Anthropology in the United
States of America. The study of anthropology falls into four main
fields:
1. Sociocultural anthropology
2. Linguistic anthropology
3. Archaeology
4. Physical anthropology
Although these disciplines are separate, they share common goals. All
forms of anthropology focus on the following:
- Diversity of human cultures observed in past and present.
- Human beings in all of their biological, social, and cultural
complexity.
- Many other disciplines in the social sciences, natural sciences, and
even humanities are involved in study of human cultures.
- Examples include: Psychology, geography, sociology, political
science, economics, biology, genetics, history and even art and
literature.
## Sociocultural anthropology/ethnology
This field can trace its roots to processes of European colonization and
globalization, when European trade with other parts of the world and
eventual political control of overseas territories offered scholars
access to different cultures. Anthropology was the scientific discipline
that searches to understand human diversity, both culturally and
biologically. Originally anthropology focused on understanding groups of
people then considered \"primitive\" or \"simple\" whereas sociology
focused on modern urban societies in Europe and North America although
more recently cultural anthropology looks at all cultures around the
world, including those in developed countries. Over the years,
sociocultural anthropology has influenced other disciplines like urban
studies, gender studies, ethnic studies and has developed a number of
sub-disciplines like medical anthropology, political anthropology,
environmental anthropology, applied anthropology, psychological
anthropology, economic anthropology and others have developed.
## Linguistic anthropology
!Franz Boas is considered to be the founder of modern
anthropology.
This study of human speech and languages includes their structure,
origins and diversity. It focuses on comparison between contemporary
languages, identification of language families and past relationships
between human groups. It looks at:
- Relationship between language and culture
- Use of language in perception of various cultural and natural
phenomena
- Process of language acquisition, a phenomenon that is uniquely
human, as well as the cognitive, cultural, and biological aspects
involved in the process.
- Through historical linguistics we can trace the migration trails of
large groups of people (be it initiated by choice, by natural
disasters, by social and political pressures). In reverse, we can
trace movement and establish the impact of the political, social and
physical pressures, by looking at where and when the changes in
linguistic usage occurred.
## Archaeology
Is the study of past cultures through an analysis of artifacts, or
materials left behind gathered through excavation. This is in contrast
to history, which studies past cultures though an analysis of written
records left behind. Archaeology can thus examine the past of cultures
or social classes that had no written history. Historical archaeology
can be informed by historical information although the different methods
of gathering information mean that historians and archaeologists are
often asking and answering very different kinds of questions. It should
be noted that recovery and analysis of material remains is only one
window to view the reconstruction of past human societies, including
their economic systems, religious beliefs, and social and political
organization. Archaeological studies are based on:
- A specific methodology to recover material remains including
excavation techniques, stratigraphy, chronology, and dating
techniques
- Animal bones, plant remains, human bones, stone tools, pottery,
structures (architecture, pits, hearths).
## Physical anthropology
Is the study of human biological variation within the framework of
evolution, with a strong emphasis on the interaction between biology and
culture. Physical anthropology has several subfields:
- Paleoanthropology
- Osteometry/osteology
- Forensic anthropology
- Primatology
- Biological variation in living human populations
- Bioarchaeology/paleopathology
### Paleoanthropology
As a subdiscipline of physical anthropology that focuses on the fossil
record of humans and non-human primates. This field relies on the
following:
Understanding Human Evolution:
Evolution of hominids from other primates starting around 8 million to 6
million years ago. This information is gained from fossil record of
primates, genetics analysis of humans and other surviving primate
species, and the history of changing climate and environments in which
these species evolved.
Importance of physical anthropology
Evidence of hominid activity between 8 and 2.5 million years ago usually
only consists of bone remains available for study. Because of this very
incomplete picture of the time period from the fossil record, various
aspects of physical anthropology (osteometry, functional anatomy,
evolutionary framework) are essential to explain evolution during these
first millions of years. Evolution during this time is considered as the
result of natural forces only.
Importance of related disciplines
Paleoanthropologists need to be well-versed in other scientific
disciplines and methods, including ecology, biology, anatomy, genetics,
and primatology. Through several million years of evolution, humans
eventually became a unique species. This process is similar to the
evolution of other animals that are adapted to specific environments or
\"ecological niches\". Animals adapted to niches usually play a
specialized part in their ecosystem and rely on a specialized diet.
Humans are different in many ways from other animals. Since 2.5 million
years ago, several breakthroughs have occurred in human evolution,
including dietary habits, technological aptitude, and economic
revolutions. Humans also showed signs of early migration to new
ecological niches and developed new subsistence activities based on new
stone tool technologies and the use of fire. Because of this, the
concept of an ecological niche does not always apply to humans any more.
## Summary
The following topics were covered:
- Introduced field of physical anthropology;
- Physical anthropology: study of human biology, non-human primates,
and hominid fossil record;
- Placed paleoanthropology within overall context of anthropological
studies (along with cultural anthropology, linguistics, and
archaeology);
Further modules in this series will focus on physical anthropology and
be oriented toward understanding of the natural and cultural factors
involved in the evolution of the first hominids.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Origin
## Beginning of the 20th Century
In 1891, Eugene Dubois discovers remains of hominid fossils (which he
will call *Pithecanthropus*) on the island of Java, in southeast Asia.
The two main consequences of this discovery:
- stimulated research for a \"missing link\" in our origins
- oriented research interest toward southeast Asia as possible cradle
of humanity
Yet, in South Africa, 1924, Raymond Dart accidentally discovered the
remains of child (at Taung) during exploitation of a quarry and
publishes them in 1925 as a new species - *Australopithecus africanus*
(which means \"African southern ape\"). Dart, a British-trained
anatomist, was appointed in 1922 professor of anatomy at the University
of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa. Through this
discovery, Dart:
- documented the ancient age of hominids in Africa and
- questioned the SE Asian origin of hominids, arguing for a possible
African origin.
Nevertheless, Raymond Dart\'s ideas were not accepted by the scientific
community at the time because:
- major discoveries carried out in Europe (such as Gibraltar, and the
Neander Valley in Germany) and Asia (Java) and
- remains of this species were the only ones found and did not seem to
fit in phylogenetic tree of our origins and
- ultimately considered simply as a fossil ape.
It took almost 20 years before Dart\'s ideas could be accepted, due to
notable new discoveries:
- in 1938, identification of a second species of Australopithecine,
also in South Africa: *Paranthropus (Australopithecus) robustus*.
Robert Broom collected at Kromdraai Cave the remains of a skull and
teeth,
- in 1947, other remains of *Australopithecus africanus* found at
Sterkfontein and Makapansgat, and
- in 1948, other remains of *Paranthropus robustus* found at
Swartkrans, also by R. Broom.
## 1950s - 1970s
During the first half of the 20th century, most discoveries essential
for paleoanthropology and human evolution were done in South Africa.
After World War II, research centered in East Africa. The couple Mary
and Louis Leakey discovered a major site at Olduvai Gorge, in Tanzania:
- many seasons of excavations at this site - discovery of many layers
(called beds), with essential collection of faunal remains and stone
tools, and several hominid species identified for the first time
there;
- In 1959, discovery in Bed I of hominid remains (OH5), named
*Zinjanthropus (Australopithecus) boisei*;
- L. Leakey first considered this hominid as the author of stone
tools, until he found (in 1964) other hominid fossils in the same
Bed I, which he attributed to different species - *Homo habilis*
(OH7).
Another major discovery of paleoanthropological interest comes from the
Omo Valley in Ethiopia:
- from 1967 to 1976, nine field seasons were carried out;
- In 1967, discovery of hominid fossils attributed to new species -
*Australopithecus aethiopicus*
- 217 specimens of hominid fossils attributed to five hominid species:
*A. afarensis*, *A. aethiopicus*, *A. boisei*, *H. rudolfensis*, *H.
erectus*, dated to between 3.3 and 1 Million years ago.
Also in 1967, Richard Leakey starts survey and excavation on the east
shore of Lake Turkana (Kenya), at a location called Koobi Fora:
- research carried out between 1967 and 1975
- very rich collection of fossils identified, attributed to *A.
afarensis* and *A. boisei*
In 1972, a French-American expedition led by Donald Johanson and Yves
Coppens focuses on a new locality (Hadar region) in the Awash Valley
(Ethiopia):
- research carried out between 1972-1976
- in 1973, discovery of most complete skeleton to date, named Lucy,
attributed (in 1978 only) to *A. afarensis*
- more than 300 hominid individuals were recovered
- discoveries allow for a detailed analysis of locomotion and
bipedalism among early hominids
From 1976 to 1979, Mary Leakey carries out research at site of Laetoli,
in Tanzania:
- In 1976, she discovers animal footprints preserved in tuff (volcanic
ash), dated to 3.7 million years ago (MYA).
- In 1978-1979, discovery of site with three series of hominid
(australopithecine) footprints, confirming evidence of bipedalism.
## 1980 - The Present
### South Africa
Four australopithecine foot bones dated at around 3.5 million years were
found at Sterkfontein in 1994 by Ronald Clarke:
- oldest hominid fossils yet found in South Africa
- They seem to be adapted to bipedalism, but have an intriguing
mixture of ape and human features
Since then, eight more foot and leg bones have been found from the same
individual, who has been nicknamed \"Little Foot\".
### Eastern Africa
Recent discovery of new *A. boisei* skull is:
- one of the most complete known, and the first known with an
associated cranium and lower jaw;
- It also has a surprising amount of variability from other *A.
boisei* skulls, which may have implications for how hominid fossils
are classified.
Recent research suggests that the some australopithecines were capable
of a precision grip, like that of humans but unlike apes, which would
have meant they were capable of making stone tools.
The oldest known stone tools have been found in Ethiopia in sediments
dated at between 2.5 million and 2.6 million years old. The makers are
unknown, but may be either early *Homo* or *A. garhi*
A main question is, how have these species come to exist in the
geographical areas so far apart from one another?
### Chad
A partial jaw found in Chad (Central Africa) greatly extends the
geographical range in which australopithecines are known to have lived.
The specimen (nicknamed Abel) has been attributed to a new species -
*Australopithecus bahrelghazali*.
In June 2002, publication of major discovery of earliest hominid known:
*Sahelanthropus tchadensis* (nickname: \"Toumai\").
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Bones
## Bone Identification and Terminology
### Skull
**Cranium**: The skull minus the lower jaw bone.
**Brow, Supraorbital Ridges**: Bony protrusions above eye sockets.
**Endocranial Volume**: The volume of a skull\'s brain cavity.
**Foramen Magnum**: The hole in the skull through which the spinal cord
passes.
- In apes, it is towards the back of the skull, because of their
quadrupedal posture
- In humans it is at the bottom of the skull, because the head of
bipeds is balanced on top of a vertical column.
**Sagittal Crest**: A bony ridge that runs along the upper, outer center
line of the skull to which chewing muscles attach.
**Subnasal Prognathism**: Occurs when front of the face below the nose
is pushed out.
**Temporalis Muscles**: The muscles that close the jaw.
### Teeth
**Canines**, **Molars**: Teeth size can help define species.
- Gorillas eat lots of foliage; therefore they need very large molars,
they also have pronounced canines.
- Humans are omnivorous and have smaller more generalized molars, and
reduced canines.
**Dental Arcade**: The rows of teeth in the upper and lower jaws.
- Chimpanzees have a narrow, U-shaped dental arcade
- Modern humans have a wider, parabolic dental arcade
- The dental arcade of Australopithecus afarensis has an intermediate
V shape
**Diastema**: Functional gaps between teeth.
- In the chimpanzee\'s jaw, the gap between the canine and the
neighboring incisor, which provides a space for the opposing canine
when the animal\'s mouth is closed
- Modern humans have small canines and no diastema.
## Using Bones to Define Humans
### Bipedalism
Fossil pelvic and leg bones, body proportions, and footprints all read
\"bipeds.\" The fossil bones are not identical to modern humans, but
were likely functionally equivalent and a marked departure from those of
quadrupedal chimpanzees.
Australopithecine fossils possess various components of the bipedal
complex which can be compared to those of chimpanzees and humans:
- A diagnostic feature of bipedal locomotion is a shortened and
broadened ilium (or large pelvic bone); the australopithecine ilium
is shorter than that of apes, and it is slightly curved; this shape
suggests that the gluteal muscles were in a position to rotate and
support the body during bipedal walking
- In modern humans, the head of the femur (or thigh bone) is robust,
indicating increased stability at this joint for greater load
bearing
- In humans, the femur angles inward from the hip to the knee joint,
so that the lower limbs stand close to the body\'s midline. The line
of gravity and weight are carried on the outside of the knee joint;
in contrast, the chimpanzee femur articulates at the hip, then
continues in a straight line downward to the knee joint
- The morphology of the australopithecine femur is distinct and
suggests a slightly different function for the hip and knee joints.
The femoral shaft is angled more than that of a chimpanzee and
indicates that the knees and feet were well planted under the body
- In modern humans, the lower limbs bear all the body weight and
perform all locomotor functions. Consequently, the hip, knee and
ankle joint are all large with less mobility than their counterparts
in chimpanzees. In australopithecines, the joints remain relatively
small. In part, this might be due to smaller body size. It may also
be due to a unique early hominid form of bipedal locomotion that
differed somewhat from that of later hominids.
Thus human bodies were redesigned by natural selection for walking in an
upright position for longer distances over uneven terrain. This is
potentially in response to a changing African landscape with fewer trees
and more open savannas.
### Brain Size
Bipedal locomotion became established in the earliest stages of the
hominid lineage, about 7 million years ago, whereas brain expansion came
later. Early hominids had brains slightly larger than those of apes, but
fossil hominids with significantly increased cranial capacities did not
appear until about 2 million years ago.
Brain size remains near 450 cubic centimetres (cc) for robust
australopithecines until almost 1.5 million years ago. At the same time,
fossils assigned to Homo exceed 500 cc and reach almost 900 cc.
What might account for this later and rapid expansion of hominid brain
size? One explanation is called the \"radiator theory\": a new means for
cooling this vital heat-generating organ, namely a new pattern of
cerebral blood circulation, would be responsible for brain expansion in
hominids. Gravitational forces on blood draining from the brain differ
in quadrupedal animals versus bipedal animals: when humans stand
bipedally, most blood drains into veins at the back of the neck, a
network of small veins that form a complex system around the spinal
column.
The two different drainage patterns might reflect two systems of cooling
brains in early hominids. Active brains and bodies generate a lot of
metabolic heat. The brain is a hot organ, but must maintain a fairly
rigid temperature range to keep it functioning properly and to prevent
permanent damage.
Savanna-dwelling hominids with this network of veins had a way to cool a
bigger brain, allowing the \"engine\" to expand, contributing to hominid
flexibility in moving into new habitats and in being active under a wide
range of climatic conditions.
### Free Hands
Unlike other primates, hominids no longer use their hands in locomotion
or bearing weight or swinging through the trees. The chimpanzee\'s hand
and foot are similar in size and length, reflecting the hand\'s use for
bearing weight in knuckle walking. The human hand is shorter than the
foot, with straighter phalanges. Fossil hand bones two million to three
million years old reveal this shift in specialization of the hand from
locomotion to manipulation.
Chimpanzee hands are a compromise. They must be relatively immobile in
bearing weight during knuckle walking, but dexterous for using tools.
Human hands are capable of power and precision grips but more
importantly are uniquely suited for fine manipulation and coordination.
### Tool Use
Fossil hand bones show greater potential for evidence of tool use.
Although no stone tools are recognizable in an archaeological context
until 2.5 million years ago, we can infer nevertheless their existence
for the earliest stage of human evolution. The tradition of making and
using tools almost certainly goes back much earlier to a period of
utilizing unmodified stones and tools mainly of organic, perishable
materials (wood or leaves) that would not be preserved in the fossil
record.
How can we tell a hominid-made artifact from a stone generated by
natural processes? First, the manufacturing process of hitting one stone
with another to form a sharp cutting edge leaves a characteristic mark
where the flake has been removed. Second, the raw material for the tools
often comes from some distance away and indicates transport to the site
by hominids.
Modification of rocks into predetermined shapes was a technological
breakthrough. Possession of such tools opened up new possibilities in
foraging: for example, the ability to crack open long bones and get at
the marrow, to dig, and to sharpen or shape wooden implements.
Even before the fossil record of tools around 2.5 Myrs,
australopithecine brains were larger than chimpanzee brains, suggesting
increased motor skills and problem solving. All lines of evidence point
to the importance of skilled making and using of tools in human
evolution.
## Summary
In this chapter, we learned the following:
1\. Humans clearly depart from apes in several significant areas of
anatomy, which stem from adaptation:
- bipedalism
- dentition (tooth size and shape)
- free hands
- brain size
2\. For most of human evolution, cultural evolution played a fairly
minor role. If we look back at the time of most australopithecines, it
is obvious that culture had little or no influence on the lives of these
creatures, who were constrained and directed by the same evolutionary
pressures as the other organisms with which they shared their ecosystem.
So, for most of the time during which hominids have existed, human
evolution was no different from that of other organisms.
3\. Nevertheless once our ancestors began to develop a dependence on
culture for survival, then a new layer was added to human evolution.
Sherwood Washburn suggested that the unique interplay of cultural change
and biological change could account for why humans have become so
different. According to him, as culture became more advantageous for the
survival of our ancestors, natural selection favoured the genes
responsible for such behaviour. These genes that improved our capacity
for culture would have had an adaptive advantage. We can add that not
only the genes but also anatomical changes made the transformations more
advantageous. The ultimate result of the interplay between genes and
culture was a significant acceleration of human evolution around 2.6
million to 2.5 million years ago.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids Early
## Overview of Human Evolutionary Origin
The fossil record provides little information about the evolution of the
human lineage during the Late Miocene, from 10 million to 5 million
years ago. Around 10 million years ago, several species of large-bodied
hominids that bore some resemblance to modern orangutans lived in Africa
and Asia. About this time, the world began to cool; grassland and
savanna habitats spread; and forests began to shrink in much of the
tropics.
The creatures that occupied tropical forests declined in variety and
abundance, while those that lived in the open grasslands thrived. We
know that at least one ape species survived the environmental changes
that occurred during the Late Miocene, because molecular genetics tells
us that humans, gorillas, bonobos and chimpanzees are all descended from
a common ancestor that lived sometime between 7 million and 5 million
years ago. Unfortunately, the fossil record for the Late Miocene tells
us little about the creature that linked the forest apes to modern
hominids.
Beginning about 5 million years ago, hominids begin to appear in the
fossil record. These early hominids were different from any of the
Miocene apes in one important way: they walked upright (as we do).
Otherwise, the earliest hominids were probably not much different from
modern apes in their behavior or appearance.
Between 4 million and 2 million years ago, the hominid lineage
diversified, creating a community of several hominid species that ranged
through eastern and southern Africa. Among the members of this
community, two distinct patterns of adaptation emerged:
- One group of creatures (Australopithecus, Ardipithecus,
Paranthropus) evolved large molars that enhanced their ability to
process coarse plant foods;
- The second group, constituted of members of our own genus Homo (as
well as Australopithecus garhi) evolved larger brains, manufactured
and used stone tools, and relied more on meat than the
Australopithecines did.
## Hominid Species
!Map of hominid fossil sites in East
Africa.svg "Map of hominid fossil sites in East Africa")
------------------ ----------------------- ----------------- --------------------------
**Species** **Type** **Specimen** **Named by**
Sahelanthropus tchadensis \"Toumai\" TM 266-01-060-1 Brunet et al. 2002
Orrorin tugenensis BAR 1000\'00 Senut et al. 2001
Ardipithecus ramidus ARA-VP 6/1 White et al. 1994
Australopithecus anamensis KP 29281 M. Leakey et al. 1995
Australopithecus afarensis LH 4 Johanson et al. 1978
Australopithecus bahrelghazali KT 12/H1 Brunet et al. 1996
Kenyanthropus platyops KNM-WT 40000 M. Leakey et al. 2001
Australopithecus garhi BOU-VP-12/130 Asfaw et al. 1999
Australopithecus africanus Taung Dart 1925
Australopithecus aethiopicus Omo 18 Arambourg & Coppens 1968
Paranthropus robustus TM 1517 Broom 1938
Paranthropus boisei OH 5 L. Leakey 1959
Homo habilis OH 7 L. Leakey et al. 1964
------------------ ----------------------- ----------------- --------------------------
### *Sahelanthropus tchadensis* (\"Toumai\")
!Sahelanthropus tchadensis - commonly called \"Toumai\". A hominid
skulll from 6-7 million years
ago
- Named in July 2002 from fossils discovered in Chad.
- Oldest known hominid or near-hominid species (6-7 million years
ago).
- Discovery of nearly complete cranium and number of fragmentary lower
jaws and teeth:
- Skull has very small brain size (ca. 350 cc), considered as
primitive apelike feature;
- Yet, other features are characteristic of later hominids: short
and relatively flat face; canines are smaller and shorter; tooth
enamel is slightly thicker (suggesting a diet with less fruit).
- This mixture of features, along with fact that it comes from around
the time when hominids are thought to have diverged from
chimpanzees, suggests it is close to the common ancestor of humans
and chimpanzees.
- Foramen magnum is oval (not rounded as in chimps) suggesting upright
walking position.
### *Orrorin tugenensis*
- Named in July 2001; fossils discovered in western Kenya.
- Deposits dated to about 6 million years ago.
- Fossils include fragmentary arm and thigh bones, lower jaws, and
teeth:
- Limb bones are about 1.5 times larger than those of Lucy, and
suggest that it was about the size of a female chimpanzee.
- Its finders claimed that Orrorin was a human ancestor adapted to
both bipedality and tree climbing, and that the australopithecines
are an extinct offshoot.
### *Ardipithecus ramidus*
!Skeleton of *Ardipithecus
ramidus*
- Recent discovery announced in Sept. 1994.
- Dated 4.4 million years ago.
- Most remains are skull fragments.
- Indirect evidence suggests that it was possibly bipedal, and
that some individuals were about 122 cm (4\'0\") tall;
- Teeth are intermediate between those of earlier apes and
Austalopithecus afarensis.
### *Australopithecus anamensis*
- Named in August 1995 from fossils from Kanapoi and Allia Bay in
Kenya.
- Dated between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago.
- Fossils show mixture of primitive features in the skull, and
advanced features in the body:
- Teeth and jaws are very similar to those of older fossil apes;
- Partial tibia (inner calf bone) is strong evidence of
bipedality, and lower humerus (the upper arm bone) is extremely
humanlike.
### *Australopithecus afarensis*
!\"Lucy\", an *Australopithecus afarensis*
skeleton
- Existed between 3.9 and 3.0 million years ago.
- *A. afarensis* had an apelike face with a low forehead, a bony ridge
over the eyes, a flat nose, and no chin. They had protruding jaws
with large back teeth.
- Cranial capacity: 375 to 550 cc. Skull is similar to chimpanzee,
except for more human-like teeth. Canine teeth are much smaller than
modern apes, but larger and more pointed than humans, and shape of
the jaw is between rectangular shape of apes and parabolic shape of
humans.
- Pelvis and leg bones far more closely resemble those of modern
humans, and leave no doubt that they were bipedal.
- Bones show that they were physically very strong.
- Females were substantially smaller than males, a condition known as
sexual dimorphism. Height varied between about 107 cm (3\'6\") and
152 cm (5\'0\").
- Finger and toe bones are curved and proportionally longer than in
humans, but hands are similar to humans in most other details.
### *Kenyanthropus platyops* (\"flat-faced man of Kenya\")
!Skull of *Kenyanthropus
platyops*.JPG "Skull of Kenyanthropus platyops")
- Named in 2001 from partial skull found in Kenya.
- Dated to about 3.5 million years ago.
- Fossils show unusual mixture of features: size of skull is similar
to *A. afarensis* and *A. africanus*, and has a large, flat face and
small teeth.
### *Australopithecus garhi*
- *A. garhi* existed around 2.5 Myrs.
- It has an apelike face in the lower part, with a protruding jaw
resembling that of *A. afarensis*. The large size of the palate and
teeth suggests that it is a male, with a small braincase of about
450 cc.
- It is like no other hominid species and is clearly not a robust
form. In a few dental traits, such as the shape of the premolar and
the size ratio of the canine teeth to the molars, *A. garhi*
resembles specimens of early Homo. But its molars are huge, even
larger than the *A. robustus* average.
- Among skeletal finds recovered, femur (upper leg bone) is relatively
long, like that of modern humans. But forearm is long too, a
condition found in apes and other australopithecines but not in
humans.
### *Australopithecus africanus*
- First identified in 1924 by Raymond Dart, an Australian anatomist
living in South Africa.
- *A. africanus* existed between 3 and 2 million years ago.
- Similar to *A. afarensis*, and was also bipedal, but body size was
slightly greater.
- Brain size may also have been slightly larger, ranging between 420
and 500 cc. This is a little larger than chimp brains (despite a
similar body size).
- Back teeth were a little bigger than in *A. afarensis*. Although the
teeth and jaws of *A. africanus* are much larger than those of
humans, they are far more similar to human teeth than to those of
apes. The shape of the jaw is now fully parabolic, like that of
humans, and the size of the canine teeth is further reduced compared
to *A. afarensis*.
NOTE: *Australopithecus afarensis* and *A. africanus* are known as
gracile australopithecines, because of their relatively lighter build,
especially in the skull and teeth. (Gracile means \"slender\", and in
paleoanthropology is used as an antonym to \"robust\"). Despite the use
of the word \"gracile\", these creatures were still more far more robust
than modern humans.
### *Australopithecus aethiopicus*
- *A. aethiopicus* existed between 2.6 and 2.3 million years ago.
- Species known mainly from one major specimen: the Black Skull
(KNM-WT 17000) discovered at Lake Turkana.
- It may be ancestor of *P. robustus* and *P. boisei*, but it has a
baffling mixture of primitive and advanced traits:
- Brain size is very small (410 cc) and parts of the skull
(particularly the hind portions) are very primitive, most
resembling *A. afarensis*;
- Other characteristics, like massiveness of face, jaws and
largest sagittal crest in any known hominid, are more
reminiscent of *P. boisei*.
### *Paranthropus boisei*
!Skull of *Paranthropus
boisei*
- *P. boisei* existed between 2.2 and 1.3 million years ago.
- Similar to *P. robustus*, but face and cheek teeth were even more
massive, some molars being up to 2 cm across. Brain size is very
similar to P. robustus, about 530 cc.
- A few experts consider *P. boisei* and *P. robustus* to be variants
of the same species.
### *Paranthropus robustus*
- *P. robustus* had a body similar to that of *A. africanus*, but a
larger and more robust skull and teeth.
- It existed between 2 and 1.5 million years ago.
- The massive face is flat, with large brow ridges and no forehead. It
has relatively small front teeth, but massive grinding teeth in a
large lower jaw. Most specimens have sagittal crests.
- Its diet would have been mostly coarse, tough food that needed a lot
of chewing.
- The average brain size is about 530 cc. Bones excavated with *P.
robustus* skeletons indicate that they may have been used as digging
tools.
*Australopithecus aethiopicus*, *Paranthropus robustus* and *P. boisei*
are known as robust australopithecines, because their skulls in
particular are more heavily built.
### *Homo habilis*
!Skull of *Homo
habilis*
- *H. habilis* (\"handy man\")
- *H. habilis* existed between 2.4 and 1.5 million years ago.
- It is very similar to australopithecines in many ways. The face is
still primitive, but it projects less than in A. africanus. The back
teeth are smaller, but still considerably larger than in modern
humans.
- The average brain size, at 650 cc, larger than in
australopithecines. Brain size varies between 500 and 800 cc,
overlapping the australopithecines at the low end and *H. erectus*
at the high end. The brain shape is also more humanlike.
- *H. habilis* is thought to have been about 127 cm (5\'0\") tall, and
about 45 kg (100 lb) in weight, although females may have been
smaller.
- Because of important morphological variation among the fossils, *H.
habilis* has been a controversial species. Some scientists have not
accepted it, believing that all *H. habilis* specimens should be
assigned to either the australopithecines or Homo erectus. Many now
believe that *H. habilis* combines specimens from at least two
different *Homo* species: small-brained less-robust individuals (*H.
habilis*) and large-brained, more robust ones (*H. rudolfensis*).
Presently, not enough is known about these creatures to resolve this
debate.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids Early Chronology
## Phylogeny and Chronology
### Between 8 million and 4 million years ago
Fossils of *Sahelanthropus tchadensis* (6-7 million years) and *Orrorin
tugenensis* (6 million years), discovered in 2001 and 2000 respectively,
are still a matter of debate.
The discoverers of *Orrorin tugenensis* claim the fossils represent the
real ancestor of modern humans and that the other early hominids (e.g.,
Australopithecus and Paranthropus) are side branches. They base their
claim on their assessment that this hominid was bipedal (2 million years
earlier than previously thought) and exhibited expressions of certain
traits that were more modern than those of other early hominids. Other
authorities disagree with this analysis and some question whether this
form is even a hominid. At this point, there is too little information
to do more than mention these two new finds of hominids. As new data
come in, however, a major part of our story could change.
Fossils of *Ardipithecus ramidus* (4.4 million years ago) were different
enough from any found previously to warrant creating a new hominid
genus. Although the evidence from the foramen magnum indicates that they
were bipedal, conclusive evidence from legs, pelvis and feet remain
somewhat enigmatic. There might be some consensus that *A. ramidus*
represent a side branch of the hominid family.
### Between 4 million and 2 million years ago
*Australopithecus anamensis* (4.2-3.8 million years ago) exhibit mixture
of primitive (large canine teeth, parallel tooth rows) and derived
(vertical root of canine, thicker tooth enamel) features, with evidence
of bipedalism. There appears to be some consensus that this may
represent the ancestor of all later hominids.
The next species is well established and its nature is generally agreed
upon: *Australopithecus afarensis* (4-3 million years ago). There is no
doubt that *A. afarensis* were bipeds. This form seems to still remain
our best candidate for the species that gave rise to subsequent
hominids.
At the same time lived a second species of hominid in Chad:
*Australopithecus bahrelghazali* (3.5-3 million years ago). It suggests
that early hominids were more widely spread on the African continent
than previously thought. Yet full acceptance of this classification and
the implications of the fossil await further study.
Another fossil species contemporaneous with A. afarensis existed in East
Africa: *Kenyanthropus platyops* (3.5 million years ago). The fossils
show a combination of features unlike that of any other forms: brain
size, dentition, details of nasal region resemble genus
Australopithecus; flat face, cheek area, brow ridges resemble later
hominids. This set of traits led its discoverers to give it not only a
new species name but a new genus name as well. Some authorities have
suggested that this new form may be a better common ancestor for Homo
than *A. afarensis*. More evidence and more examples with the same set
of features, however, are needed to even establish that these fossils do
represent a whole new taxonomy.
Little changed from A. afarensis to the next species: *A. africanus*:
same body size and shape, and same brain size. There are a few
differences, however: canine teeth are smaller, no gap in tooth row,
tooth row more rounded (more human-like).
We may consider A. africanus as a continuation of *A. afarensis*, more
widely distributed in southern and possibly eastern Africa and showing
some evolutionary changes. It should be noted that this interpretation
is not agreed upon by all investigators and remains hypothetical.
Fossils found at Bouri in Ethiopia led investigators to designate a new
species: *A. garhi* (2.5 million years ago). Intriguing mixture of
features: several features of teeth resemble early *Homo*; whereas
molars are unusually larger, even larger than the southern African
robust australopithecines.
The evolutionary relationship of A. garhi to other hominids is still a
matter of debate. Its discoverers feel it is descended from A. afarensis
and is a direct ancestor to Homo. Other disagree. Clearly, more evidence
is needed to interpret these specimens more precisely, but they do show
the extent of variation among hominids during this period.
Two distinctly different types of hominid appear between 2 and 3 million
years ago: robust australopithecines (*Paranthropus*) and early *Homo*
(*Homo habilis*).
The first type retains the chimpanzee-sized brains and small bodies of
Australopithecus, but has evolved a notable robusticity in the areas of
the skull involved with chewing: this is the group of robust
australopithecines (*A. boisei*, *A. robustus*, *A. aethiopicus*).
- The Australopithecines diet seems to have consisted for the most
part of plant foods, although *A. afarensis*, *A. africanus* and *A.
garhi* may have consumed limited amounts of animal protein as well;
- Later Australopithecines (*A. boisei* and robustus) evolved into
more specialized \"grinding machines\" as their jaws became markedly
larger, while their brain size did not.
The second new hominid genus that appeared about 2.5 million years ago
is the one to which modern humans belong, *Homo*.
- A Consideration of brain size relative to body size clearly
indicates that Homo habilis had undergone enlargement of the brain
far in excess of values predicted on the basis of body size alone.
This means that there was a marked advance in information-processing
capacity over that of Australopithecines;
- Although *H. habilis* had teeth that are large by modern standard,
they are smaller in relation to the size of the skull than those of
Australopithecines. Major brain-size increase and tooth-size
reduction are important trends in the evolution of the genus Homo,
but not of Australopithecines;
- From the standpoint of anatomy alone, it has long been recognized
that either A. afarensis or *A. africanus* constitute a good
ancestor for the genus Homo, and it now seems clear that the body of
*Homo habilis* had changed little from that of either species.
Precisely which of the two species gave rise to *H. habilis* is
vigorously debated. Whether *H. habilis* is descended from *A.
afarensis*, *A. africanus*, both of them, or neither of them, is
still a matter of debate. It is also possible that none of the known
australopithecines is our ancestor. The discoveries of
*Sahelanthropus tchadensis*, *Orrorin tugenensis*, and *A.
anamensis* are so recent that it is hard to say what effect they
will have on current theories.
What might have caused the branching that founded the new forms of
robust australopithecines (Paranthropus) and Homo? What caused the
extinction, around the same time (between 2-3 million years ago) of
genus Australopithecus? Finally, what might have caused the extinction
of Paranthropus about 1 million years ago?
No certainty in answering these questions. But the environmental
conditions at the time might hold some clues. Increased environmental
variability, starting about 6 million years ago and continuing through
time and resulting in a series of newly emerging and diverse habitats,
may have initially promoted different adaptations among hominid
populations, as seen in the branching that gave rise to the robust
hominids and to Homo.
And if the degree of the environmental fluctuations continued to
increase, this may have put such pressure on the hominid adaptive
responses that those groups less able to cope eventually became extinct.
Unable to survive well enough to perpetuate themselves in the face of
decreasing resources (e.g., Paranthropus, who were specialized
vegetarians) these now-extinct hominids were possibly out-competed for
space and resources by the better adapted hominids, a phenomenon known
as competitive exclusion.
In this case, only the adaptive response that included an increase in
brain size, with its concomitant increase in ability to understand and
manipulate the environment, proved successful in the long run.
## Hominoid, Hominid, Human
The traditional view has been to recognize three families of hominoid:
the *Hylobatidae* (Asian lesser apes: gibbons and siamangs), the
*Pongidae*, and the *Hominidae*.
- The Pongidae include the African great apes, including gorillas,
chimpanzees and the Asian orangutans;
- The Hominidae include living humans and typically fossil apes that
possess a suite of characteristics such as bipedalism, reduced
canine size, and increasing brain size (e.g., australopithecines).
### The emergence of hominoids
Hominoids are Late Miocene (15-5 million years ago) primates that share
a small number of postcranial features with living apes and humans:
- no tail;
- pelvis lacks bony expansion;
- elbow similar to that of modern apes;
- somewhat larger brains in relationship to body size than similarly
sized monkeys.
### When is a hominoid also a hominid?
When we say that *Sahelanthropus tchadensis* is the earliest hominid, we
mean that it is the oldest fossil that is classified with humans in the
family *Hominidae*. The rationale for including *Sahelanthropus
tchadensis* in the *Hominidae* is based on similarities in shared
derived characters that distinguish humans from other living primates.
There are three categories of traits that separate hominids from
contemporary apes:
- bipedalism;
- much larger brain in relation to body size;
- dentition and musculature.
To be classified as a hominid, a Late Miocene primate (hominoid) must
display at least some of these characteristics. *Sahelanthropus
tchadensis* is bipedal, and shares many dental features with modern
humans. However, the brain of *Sahelanthropus tchadensis* was no bigger
than that of contemporary chimpanzees. As a consequence, this fossil is
included in the same family (Hominidae) as modern humans, but not in the
same genus.
### Traits defining early *Homo*
Early Homo (e.g., *Homo habilis*) is distinctly different from any of
the earliest hominids, including the australopithecines, and similar to
us in the following ways:
- brain size is substantially bigger than that of any of the earliest
hominids, including the australopithecines;
- teeth are smaller, enamel thinner, and the dental arcade is more
parabolic than is found in the earliest hominids, including the
australopithecines;
- skulls are more rounded; the face is smaller and protrudes less, and
the jaw muscles are reduced compared with earliest hominids,
including the australopithecines.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids Early Behavior
in human evolution is about the diet of our earliest ancestors. The
presence of primitive stone tools in the fossil record tells us that 2.5
million years ago, early hominids (*A. garhi*) were using stone
implements to cut the flesh off the bones of large animals that they had
either hunted or whose carcasses they had scavenged.
Earlier than 2.5 million years ago, however, we know very little about
the foods that the early hominids ate, and the role that meat played in
their diet. This is due to lack of direct evidence. Nevertheless,
paleoanthropologists and archaeologists have tried to answer these
questions indirectly using a number of techniques.
- Primatology (studies on chimpanzee behavior)
- Anatomical Features (tooth morphology and wear-patterns)
- Isotopic Studies (analysis of chemical signatures in teeth and
bones)
## What does chimpanzee food-consuming behavior suggest about early hominid behavior?
### Meat consuming strategy
Earliest ancestors and chimpanzees share a common ancestor (around 5-7
million years ago). Therefore, understanding chimpanzee hunting behavior
and ecology may tell us a great deal about the behavior and ecology of
those earliest hominids.
In the early 1960s, when Jane Goodall began her research on chimpanzees
in Gombe National Park (Tanzania), it was thought that chimpanzees were
herbivores. In fact, when Goodall first reported meat hunting by
chimpanzees, many people were extremely sceptical.
Today, hunting by chimpanzees at Gombe and other locations in Africa has
been well documented.
We now know that each year chimpanzees may kill and eat more than 150
small and medium-sized animals, such as monkeys (red colobus monkey,
their favorite prey), but also wild pigs and small antelopes.
Did early hominids hunt and eat small and medium-sized animals? It is
quite possible that they did. We know that colobus-like monkeys
inhabited the woodlands and riverside gallery forest in which early
hominids lived 3-5 Myrs ago. There were also small animals and the young
of larger animals to catch opportunistically on the ground.
Many researchers now believe that the carcasses of dead animals were an
important source of meat for early hominids once they had stone tools to
use (after 2.5 million years ago) for removing the flesh from the
carcass. Wild chimpanzees show little interest in dead animals as a food
source, so scavenging may have evolved as an important mode of getting
food when hominids began to make and use tools for getting at meat.
Before this time, it seems likely that earlier hominids were hunting
small mammals as chimpanzees do today and that the role that hunting
played in the early hominids\' social lives was probably as complex and
political as it is in the social lives of chimpanzees.
When we ask when meat became an important part of the human diet, we
therefore must look well before the evolutionary split between apes and
humans in our own family tree.
### Nut cracking
Nut cracking behavior is another chimpanzee activity that can partially
reflect early hominin behavior. From Jan. 2006 to May 2006, Susana
Carvalho and her colleagues conducted a series of observation on several
chimpanzee groups in Bossou and Diecké in Guinea, western Africa. Both
direct and indirect observation approach was applied to outdoor
laboratory and wild environment scenarios. [^1]
The results of this research show three resource-exploitation strategies
that chimpanzees apply to utilize lithic material as hammers and anvils
to crack nut: 1) Maximum optimization of time and energy (choose the
closest spot to process nut). 2) Transport of nuts to a different site
or transport of the raw materials for tools to the food. 3) Social
strategy such as the behavior of transport of tools and food to a more
distant spot. This behavior might relate to sharing of space and
resources when various individuals occupy the same area.
The results demonstrate that chimpanzees have similar food exploitation
strategies with early hominins which indicate the potential application
of primate archaeology to the understanding of early hominin behavior.
## What do tooth wear patterns suggest about early hominid behavior?
Bones and teeth in the living person are very plastic and respond to
mechanical stimuli over the course of an individual\'s lifetime. We
know, for example, that food consistency (hard vs. soft) has a strong
impact on the masticatory (chewing) system (muscles and teeth). Bones
and teeth in the living person are therefore tissues that are remarkably
sensitive to the environment.
As such, human remains from archaeological sites offer us a
retrospective biological picture of the past that is rarely available
from other lines of evidence.
Also, new technological advances developed in the past ten years or so
now make it possible to reconstruct and interpret in amazing detail the
physical activities and adaptations of hominids in diverse environmental
settings.
Some types of foods are more difficult to process than others, and
primates tend to specialize in different kinds of diets. Most living
primates show three basic dietary adaptations:
- insectivores (insect eaters);
- frugivores (fruit eaters);
- folivores (leaf eaters).
Many primates, such as humans, show a combination of these patterns and
are called omnivores, which in a few primates includes eating meat.
The ingestion both of leaves and of insects requires that the leaves and
the insect skeletons be broken up and chopped into small pieces. The
molars of folivores and insectivores are characterized by the
development of shearing crests on the molars that function to cut food
into small pieces. Insectivores\' molars are further characterized by
high, pointed cusps that are capable of puncturing the outside skeleton
of insects. Frugivores, on the other hand, have molar teeth with low,
rounded cusps; their molars have few crests and are characterized by
broad, flat basins for crushing the food.
In the 1950s, John Robinson developed what came to be known as the
dietary hypothesis. According to this theory there were fundamentally
two kinds of hominids in the Plio-Pleistocene. One was the \"robust\"
australopithecine (called Paranthropus) that was specialized for
herbivory, and the other was the \"gracile\" australopithecine that was
an omnivore/carnivore. By this theory the former became extinct while
the latter evolved into *Homo*.
Like most generalizations about human evolution, Robinson\'s dietary
hypothesis was controversial, but it stood as a useful model for
decades.
Detailed analyses of the tooth surface under microscope appeared to
confirm that the diet of *A. robustus* consisted primarily of plants,
particularly small and hard objects like seeds, nuts and tubers. The
relative sizes and shapes of the teeth of both *A. afarensis* and *A.
africanus* indicated as well a mostly mixed vegetable diet of fruits and
leaves. By contrast, early *Homo* was more omnivorous.
But as new fossil hominid species were discovered in East Africa and new
analyses were done on the old fossils, the usefulness of the model
diminished.
For instance, there is a new understanding that the two South African
species (*A. africanus* and *A. robustus*) are very similar when
compared to other early hominid species. They share a suite of traits
that are absent in earlier species of Australopithecus, including
expanded cheek teeth and faces remodeled to withstand forces generated
from heavy chewing.
## What do isotopic studies suggest about early hominid behavior?
Omnivory can be suggested by studies of the stable carbon isotopes and
strontium(Sr)-calcium(Ca) ratios in early hominid teeth and bones.
For instance, a recent study of carbon isotope (13C) in the tooth enamel
of a sample of *A. africanus* indicated that members of this species ate
either tropical grasses or the flesh of animals that ate tropical
grasses or both. But because the dentition analyzed by these researchers
lacked the tooth wear patterns indicative of grass-eating, the carbon
may have come from grass-eating animals. This is therefore a possible
evidence that the australopithecines either hunted small animals or
scavenged the carcasses of larger ones.
There is new evidence also that *A. robustus* might not be a herbivore.
Isotopic studies reveal chemical signals associated with animals whose
diet is omnivorous and not specialized herbivory. The results from 13C
analysis indicate that *A. robustus* either ate grass and grass seeds or
ate animals that ate grasses. Since the Sr/Ca ratios suggest that *A.
robustus* did not eat grasses, these data indicate that *A. robustus*
was at least partially carnivorous.
## Summary
Much of the evidence for the earliest hominids (*Sahelanthropus
tchadensis*, *Orrorin tugenensis*, *Ardipithecus ramidus*) is not yet
available.
*Australopithecus anamensis* shows the first indications of thicker
molar enamel in a hominid. This suggests that *A. anamensis* might have
been the first hominid to be able to effectively withstand the
functional demands of hard and perhaps abrasive objects in its diet,
whether or not such items were frequently eaten or were only an
important occasional food source.
Australopithecus afarensis was similar to *A. anamensis* in relative
tooth sizes and probable enamel thickness, yet it did show a large
increase in mandibular robusticity. Hard and perhaps abrasive foods may
have become then even more important components of the diet of *A.
afarensis*.
*Australopithecus africanus* shows yet another increase in postcanine
tooth size, which in itself would suggest an increase in the sizes and
abrasiveness of foods. However, its molar microwear does not show the
degree of pitting one might expect from a classic hard-object feeder.
Thus, even *A. africanus* has evidently not begun to specialize in hard
objects, but rather has emphasized dietary breadth (omnivore), as
evidenced by isotopic studies.
Subsequent \"robust\" australopithecines do show hard-object microwear
and craniodental specializations, suggesting a substantial departude in
feeding adaptive strategies early in the Pleistocene. Yet, recent
chemical and anatomical studies on *A. robustus* suggest that this
species may have consumed some animal protein. In fact, they might have
specialized on tough plant material during the dry season but had a more
diverse diet during the rest of the year.
[^1]:
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Oldowan
Africa
## The Olduvai Gorge
2 million years ago, Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) was a lake. Its shores
were inhabited not only by numerous wild animals but also by groups of
hominids, including Paranthropus boisei and Homo habilis, as well as the
later Homo erectus.
The gorge, therefore, is a great source of Palaeolithic remains as well
as a key site providing evidence of human evolutionary development. This
is one of the main reasons that drew Louis and Mary Leakey back year
after year at Olduvai Gorge.
Certain details of the lives of the creatures who lived at Olduvai have
been reconstructed from the hundreds of thousands of bits of material
that they left behind: various stones and bones. No one of these things,
alone, would mean much, but when all are analyzed and fitted together,
patterns begin to emerge.
Among the finds are assemblages of stone tools dated to between 2.2 Myrs
and 620,000 years ago. These were found little disturbed from when they
were left, together with the bones of now-extinct animals that provided
food.
Mary Leakey found that there were two stoneworking traditions at
Olduvai. One, the Acheulean industry, appears first in Bed II and lasts
until Bed IV. The other, the Oldowan, is older and more primitive, and
occurs throughout Bed I, as well as at other African sites in Ethiopia,
Kenya and Tanzania.
## Subsistence patterns
### Meat-eating
Until about 2.5 million years ago, early hominids lived on foods that
could be picked or gathered: plants, fruits, invertebrate animals such
as ants and termites, and even occasional pieces of meat (perhaps hunted
in the same manner as chimpanzees do today).
After 2.5 million years ago, meat seems to become more important in
early hominids\' diet. Evolving hominids\' new interest in meat is of
major importance in paleoanthropology.
Out on the savanna, it is hard for a primate with a digestive system
like that of humans to satisfy its amino-acid requirements from
available plant resources. Moreover, failure to do so has serious
consequences: growth depression, malnutrition, and ultimately death. The
most readily accessible plant resources would have been the proteins
accessible in leaves and legumes, but these are hard for primates like
us to digest unless they are cooked. In contrast, animal foods (ants,
termites, eggs) not only are easily digestible, but they provide
high-quantity proteins that contain all the essential amino acids. All
things considered, we should not be surprised if our own ancestors
solved their \"protein problem\" in somewhat the same way that chimps on
the savanna do today.
!Excavations at an Olduvai Gorge
site
Increased meat consumption on the part of early hominids did more than
merely ensure an adequate intake of essential amino acids. Animals that
live on plant foods must eat large quantities of vegetation, and
obtaining such foods consumes much of their time. Meat eaters, by
contrast, have no need to eat so much or so often. Consequently,
meat-eating hominids may have had more leisure time available to explore
and manipulate their environment, and to lie around and play. Such
activities probably were a stimulus to hominid brain development.
The importance of meat eating for early hominid brain development is
suggested by the size of their brains:
- cranial capacity of largely plant-eating Australopithecus ranged
from 310 to 530 cc;
- cranial capacity of primitive known meat eater, Homo habilis: 580 to
752 cc;
- *Homo erectus* possessed a cranial capacity of 775 to 1,225 cc.
### Hunters or scavengers?
The archaeological evidence indicates that Oldowan hominids ate meat.
They processed the carcasses of large animals, and we assume that they
ate the meat they cut from the bones. Meat-eating animals can acquire
meat in several different ways:
- stealing kills made by other animals;
- by opportunistically exploiting the carcasses of animals that die
naturally;
- by hunting or capturing prey themselves.
There has been considerable dispute among anthropologists about how
early hominids acquired meat. Some have argued that hunting, division of
labor, use of home bases and food sharing emerged very early in hominid
history. Others think the Oldowan hominids would have been unable to
capture large mammals because they were too small and too poorly armed.
Recent zooarchaeological evidence suggests that early hominids (after
2.5 million years ago) may have acquired meat mainly by scavenging, and
maybe occasionally by hunting.
If hominids obtained most of their meat from scavenging, we would expect
to find cut marks mainly on bones left at kill sites by predators
(lions, hyenas). If hominids obtained most of their meat from their own
kills, we would expect to find cut marks mainly on large bones, like
limb bones. However, at Olduvai Gorge, cut marks appear on both kinds of
bones: those usually left by scavengers and those normally monopolized
by hunters. The evidence from tool marks on bones indicates that humans
sometimes acquired meaty bones before, and sometimes after, other
predators had gnawed on them.
## Settlement patterns
During decades of work at Olduvai Gorge, Mary and Louis Leakey and their
team laid bare numerous ancient hominid sites. Sometimes the sites were
simply spots where the bones of one or more hominid species were
discovered. Often, however, hominid remains were found in association
with concentrations of animal bones, stone tools, and debris.
At one spot, in Bed I, the bones of an elephant lay in close association
with more than 200 stone tools. Apparently, the animal was butchered
here; there are no indications of any other activity.
At another spot (DK-I Site), on an occupation surface 1.8 million years
old, basalt stones were found grouped in small heaps forming a circle.
The interior of the circle was practically empty, while numerous tools
and food debris littered the ground outside, right up to the edge of the
circle.
## Earliest stone industry
### Principles
!Chopper from Olduvai, 1-2 Myrs
old
Use of specially made stone tools appears to have arisen as result of
need for implements to butcher and prepare meat, because hominid teeth
were inadequate for the task. Transformation of lump of stone into a
\"chopper\", \"knife\" or \"scraper\" is a far cry from what a
chimpanzee does when it transforms a stick into a termite probe. The
stone tool is quite unlike the lump of stone. Thus, the toolmaker must
have in mind an abstract idea of the tool to be made, as well as a
specific set of steps that will accomplish the transformation from raw
material to finished product. Furthermore, only certain kinds of stone
have the flaking properties that will allow the transformation to take
place, and the toolmaker must know about these.
Therefore, two main components to remember:
- Raw material properties
- Flaking properties
### Evidence
The oldest Lower Palaeolithic tools (2.0-1.5 million years ago) found at
Olduvai Gorge (*Homo habilis*) are in the Oldowan tool tradition.
Nevertheless, older materials (2.6-2.5 million year ago) have recently
been recorded from sites located in Ethiopia (Hadar, Omo, Gona, Bouri -
*Australopithecus garhi*) and Kenya (Lokalalei).
Because of a lack of remarkable differences in the techniques and styles
of artifact manufacture for over 1 million years (2.6-1.5 million years
ago), a technological stasis was suggested for the Oldowan Industry.
The makers of the earliest stone artifacts travelled some distances to
acquire their raw materials, implying greater mobility, long-term
planning and foresight not recognized earlier.
Oldowan stone tools consist of all-purpose generalized chopping tools
and flakes. Although these artifacts are very crude, it is clear that
they have been deliberately modified. The technique of manufacture used
was the percussion.
The main intent of Oldowan tool makers was the production of cores and
flakes with sharp-edges. These simple but effective Oldowan choppers and
flakes made possible the addition of meat to the diet on a regular
basis, because people could now butcher meat, skin any animal, and split
bones for marrow.
Overall, the hominids responsible for making these stone tools
understood the flaking properties of the raw materials available; they
selected appropriate cobbles for making artifacts; and they were as
competent as later hominids in their knapping abilities.
Finally, the manufacture of stone tools must have played a major role in
the evolution of the human brain, first by putting a premium on manual
dexterity and fine manipulation over mere power in the use of the hands.
This in turn put a premium in the use of the hands.
## Early hominid behavior
During the 1970s and 1980s many workers, including Mary Leakey and Glynn
Isaac, used an analogy from modern hunter-gatherer cultures to interpret
early hominid behavior of the Oldowan period (e.g., the Bed I sites at
Olduvai Gorge). They concluded that many of the sites were probably
camps, often called \"home bases\", where group members gathered at the
end of the day to prepare and share food, to socialize, to make tools,
and to sleep.
The circular concentration of stones at the DK-I site was interpreted as
the remains of a shelter or windbreak similar to those still made by
some African foraging cultures. Other concentrations of bones and stones
were thought to be the remains of living sites originally ringed by
thorn hedges for defense against predators. Later, other humanlike
elements were added to the mix, and early Homo was described as showing
a sexual division of labor \[females gathering plant foods and males
hunting for meat\] and some of the Olduvai occupation levels were
interpreted as butchering sites.
Views on the lifestyle of early *Homo* began to change in the late
1980s, as many scholars became convinced that these hominids had been
overly humanized.
Researchers began to show that early *Homo* shared the Olduvai sites
with a variety of large carnivores, thus weakening the idea that these
were the safe, social home bases originally envisioned.
Studies of bone accumulations suggested that *H. habilis* was mainly a
scavenger and not a full-fledged hunter. The bed I sites were
interpreted as no more than \"scavenging stations\" where early *Homo*
brought portions of large animal carcasses for consumption.
Another recent suggestion is that the Olduvai Bed I sites mainly
represent places where rocks were cached for the handy processing of
animal foods obtained nearby. Oldowan toolmakers brought stones from
sources several kilometers away and cached them at a number of locations
within the group\'s territory. Stone tools could have been made at the
cache sites for use elsewhere, but more frequently portions of carcasses
were transported to the toolmaking site for processing.
## Summary
Current interpretations of the subsistence, settlement, and tool-use
patterns of early hominids of the Oldowan period are more conservative
than they have been in the past. Based upon these revised
interpretations, the Oldowan toolmakers have recently been dehumanized.
Although much more advanced than advanced apes, they still were probably
quite different from modern people with regard to their living
arrangements, methods and sexual division of food procurement and the
sharing of food.
The label human has to await the appearance of the next representative
of the hominid family: *Homo erectus*.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Acheulean
proposed the generic name \"*Pithecanthropus*\" for a hypothetical
missing link between apes and humans.
In late 19th century, Dutch anatomist Eugene Dubois was on the
Indonesian island of Java, searching for human fossils. In the fall of
1891, he encountered the now famous Trinil skull cap. The following year
his crew uncovered a femur, a left thigh bone, very similar to that of
modern humans. He was convinced he had discovered an erect, apelike
transitional form between apes and humans. In 1894, he decided to call
his fossil species *Pithecanthropus erectus*. Dubois found no additional
human fossils and he returned to the Netherlands in 1895.
Others explored the same deposits on the island of Java, but new human
remains appeared only between 1931 and 1933.
Dubois\'s claim for a primitive human species was further reinforced by
nearly simultaneous discoveries from near Beijing, China (at the site of
Zhoukoudian). Between 1921 and 1937, various scholars undertook
fieldwork in one collapsed cave (Locality 1) recovered many fragments of
mandibles and skulls. One of them, Davidson Black, a Canadian anatomist,
created a new genus and species for these fossils: *Sinanthropus
pekinensis* (\"Peking Chinese man\").
In 1939, after comparison of the fossils in China and Java, some
scholars concluded that they were extremely similar. They even proposed
that Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus were only subspecies of a single
species, *Homo erectus*, though they continued to use the original
generic names as labels.
From 1950 to 1964, various influential authorities in paleoanthropology
agreed that Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus were too similar to be
placed in two different genera; and, by the late 1960s, the concept of
Homo erectus was widely accepted.
To the East Asian inventory of *H. erectus*, many authorities would add
European and especially African specimens that resembled the Asian
fossil forms. In 1976, a team led by Richard Leakey discovered around
Lake Turkana (Kenya) an amazingly well-preserved and complete skeleton
of a *H. erectus* boy, called the Turkana Boy (WT-15000).
In 1980s and 1990s:
- new discoveries in Asia (Longgupo, Dmanisi, etc.); in Europe
(Atapuerca, Orce, Ceprano);
- precision in chronology and evolution of *H. erectus*;
- understanding and definition of variability of this species and
relationship with other contemporary species.
## Site distribution
### Africa
Unlike Australopithecines and even *Homo habilis*, *Homo
ergaster/erectus* was distributed throughout Africa:
- about 1.5 million years ago, shortly after the emergence of *H.
ergaster*, people more intensively occupied the Eastern Rift Valley;
- by 1 million years ago, they had extended their range to the far
northern and southern margins of Africa.
Traditionally, Homo erectus has been credited as being the prehistoric
pioneer, a species that left Africa about 1 million years ago and began
to disperse throughout Eurasia. But several important discoveries in the
1990s have reopened the question of when our ancestors first journeyed
from Africa to other parts of the globe. Recent evidence now indicates
that emigrant erectus made a much earlier departure from Africa.
### Israel
**Ubeidiyeh**
- Deposits accumulated between 1.4-1.0 million years ago;
- Stone tools of both an early chopper-core (or Developed Oldowan)
industry and crude Acheulean-like handaxes. The artifacts closely
resemble contemporaneous pieces from Upper Bed II at Olduvai Gorge;
- Rare hominid remains attributed to Homo erectus;
- Ubeidiya might reflect a slight ecological enlargement of Africa
more than a true human dispersal.
**Gesher Benot Yaaqov**
- 800,000 years ago;
- No hominid remains;
- Stone tools are of Acheulean tradition and strongly resemble East
African industries.
### Republic of Georgia
In 1991, archaeologists excavating a grain-storage pit in the medieval
town of Dmanisi uncovered the lower jaw of an adult erectus, along with
animal bones and Oldowan stone tools.
Different dating techniques (paleomagnetism, potassium-argon) gave a
date of 1.8 million years ago, that clearly antedate that of Ubeidiya.
Also the evidence from Dmanisi suggests now a true migration from
Africa.
### China
**Longgupo Cave**
- Dated to 1.8 million years ago
- Fragments of a lower jaw belonging either to Homo erectus or an
unspecified early *Homo*.
- Fossils recovered with Oldowan tools.
**Zhoukoudian**
- Dated between 500,000 and 250,000 years ago.
- Remarkable site for providing large numbers of fossils, tools and
other artifacts.
- Fossils of *Homo erectus* discovered in 1920s and 1930s.
### Java
In 1994, report of new dates from sites of Modjokerto and Sangiran where
*H. erectus* had been found in 1891.
Geological age for these hominid remains had been estimated at about 1
million years old. Recent redating of these materials gave dates of 1.8
million years ago for the Modjokerto site and 1.6 million years ago for
the Sangiran site.
These dates remained striking due to the absence of any other firm
evidence for early humans in East Asia prior to 1 Myrs ago. Yet the
individuals from Modjokerto and Sangiran would have certainly traveled
through this part of Asia to reach Java.
### Europe
**Did Homo ergaster/erectus only head east into Asia, altogether
bypassing Europe?**
Many paleoanthropologists believed until recently that no early humans
entered Europe until 500,000 years ago. But the discovery of new fossils
from Spain (Atapuerca, Orce) and Italy (Ceprano) secured a more ancient
arrival for early humans in Europe.
At Atapuerca, hundreds of flaked stones and roughly eighty human bone
fragments were collected from sediments that antedate 780,000 years ago,
and an age of about 800,000 years ago is the current best estimate. The
artifacts comprise crudely flaked pebbles and simple flakes. The hominid
fossils - teeth, jaws, skull fragments - come from several individuals
of a new species named Homo antecessor. These craniofacial fragments are
striking for derived features that differentiate them from Homo
ergaster/erectus, but do not ally them specially with either *H.
neanderthalensis* or *H. sapiens*.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids Acheulean
## The hominids
### African *Homo erectus*: *Homo ergaster*
*H. ergaster* existed between 1.8 million and 1.3 million years ago.
Like *H. habilis*, the face shows:
- protruding jaws with large molars;
- no chin;
- thick brow ridges;
- long low skull, with a brain size varying between 750 and 1225 cc.
!Facial reconstruction of Turkana
Boy{width="300"}
Early *H. ergaster* specimens average about 900 cc, while late ones have
an average of about 1100 cc. The skeleton is more robust than those of
modern humans, implying greater strength.
Body proportions vary:
: Ex. Turkana Boy is tall and slender, like modern humans from the
same area, while the few limb bones found of Peking Man indicate a
shorter, sturdier build.
Study of the Turkana Boy skeleton indicates that H. ergaster may have
been more efficient at walking than modern humans, whose skeletons have
had to adapt to allow for the birth of larger-brained infants.
*Homo habilis* and all the australopithecines are found only in Africa,
but H. erectus/ergaster was wide-ranging, and has been found in Africa,
Asia, and Europe.
### Asian *Homo erectus*
!Replica skull of \"Peking Man\", an Asian *Homo
Erectus*_presented_at_Paleozoological_Museum_of_China.jpg "Replica skull of "Peking Man", an Asian Homo Erectus")
Specimens of *H. erectus* from Eastern Asia differ morphologically from
African specimens:
- features are more exaggerated;
- skull is thicker, brow ridges are more pronounced, sides of skull
slope more steeply, the sagittal crest is more exaggerated;
- Asian forms do not show the increase in cranial capacity.
As a consequence of these features, they are less like humans than the
African forms of *H. erectus*.
Paleoanthropologists who study extinct populations are forced to decide
whether there was one species or two based on morphological traits
alone. They must ask whether eastern and western forms are as different
from each other as typical species.
If systematics finally agree that eastern and western populations of *H.
erectus* are distinct species, then the eastern Asian form will keep the
name *H. erectus*. The western forms have been given a new name: *Homo
ergaster* (means \"work man\") and was first applied to a very old
specimen from East Turkana in East Africa.
### *Homo georgicus*
Specimens recovered recently exhibit characteristic *H. erectus*
features: sagittal crest, marked constriction of the skull behind the
eyes. But they are also extremely different in several ways, resembling
*H. habilis*:
- small brain size (600 cc);
- prominent browridge;
- projection of the face;
- rounded contour of the rear of skull;
- huge canine teeth.
Some researchers propose that these fossils might represent a new
species of Homo: *H. georgicus*.
### *Homo antecessor*
Named in 1997 from fossils (juvenile specimen) found in Atapuerca
(Spain). Dated to at least 780,000 years ago, it makes these fossils the
oldest confirmed European hominids.
Mid-facial area of antecessor seems very modern, but other parts of
skull (e.g., teeth, forehead and browridges) are much more primitive.
Fossils assigned to new species on grounds that they exhibit unknown
combination of traits: they are less derived in the Neanderthal
direction than later mid-Quaternary European specimens assigned to Homo
heidelbergensis.
### *Homo heidelbergensis*
Archaic forms of Homo sapiens first appeared in Europe about 500,000
years ago (until about 200,000 years ago) and are called Homo
heidelbergensis.
Found in various places in Europe, Africa and maybe Asia.
This species covers a diverse group of skulls which have features of
both Homo erectus and modern humans. !Facial reconstruction of *Homo
Heidelbergensis*{width="300"}
Fossil features:
- brain size is larger than erectus and smaller than most modern
humans: averaging about 1200 cc;
- skull is more rounded than in erectus;
- still large brow ridges and receding foreheads;
- skeleton and teeth are usually less robust than erectus, but more
robust than modern humans;
- mandible is human-like, but massive and chinless; shows expansion of
molar cavities and very long cheek tooth row, which implies a long,
forwardly projecting face.
Fossils could represent a population near the common ancestry of
Neanderthals and modern humans.
Footprints of H. heidelbergensis (earliest human footprints) have been
found in Italy in 2003.
## Phylogenic relationships
For almost three decades, paleoanthropologists have often divided the
genus Homo among three successive species:
- *Homo habilis*, now dated between roughly 2.5 Myrs and 1.7 Myrs ago;
- *Homo erectus*, now placed between roughly 1.7 Myrs and 500,000
years ago;
- *Homo sapiens*, after 500,000 years ago.
In this view, each species was distinguished from its predecessor
primarily by larger brain size and by details of cranio-facial
morphology:
: Ex. Change in braincase shape from more rounded in *H. habilis* to
more angular in H. erectus to more rounded again in *H. sapiens*.
!A hypothesised family tree for *Homo*, proposed in
2012
The accumulating evidence of fossils has increasingly undermined a
scenario based on three successive species or evolutionary stages. It
now strongly favors a scheme that more explicitly recognizes the
importance of branching in the evolution of Homo.
This new scheme continues to accept *H. habilis* as the ancestor for all
later Homo. Its descendants at 1.8-1.7 million mears ago may still be
called H. erectus, but H. ergaster is now more widely accepted. By
600,000-500,000 years ago, *H. ergaster* had produced several lines
leading to H. neanderthalensis in Europe and *H. sapiens* in Africa.
About 600,000 years ago, both of these species shared a common ancestor
to which the name H. heidelbergensis could be applied.
## \"Out-of-Africa 1\" model
Homo erectus in Asia would be as old as Homo ergaster in Africa. Do the
new dates from Dmanisi and Java falsify the hypothesis of an African
origin for *Homo erectus*? Not necessarily.
If the species evolved just slightly earlier than the oldest African
fossils (2.0-1.9 million years ago) and then immediately began its
geographic spread, it could have reached Europe and Asia fairly quickly.
But the \"Out-of-Africa 1\" migration is more complex. Conventional
paleoanthropological wisdom holds that the first human to leave Africa
were tall, large-brained hominids (*Homo ergaster/erectus*). New fossils
discovered in Georgia (Dmanisi) are forcing scholars to rethink that
scenario completely. These Georgian hominids are far smaller and more
primitive in both anatomy and technology than expected, leaving experts
wondering not only why early humans first ventured out of Africa, but
also how.
## Summary
*Homo ergaster* was the first hominid species whose anatomy fully
justify the label human:
- Unlike australopithecines and *Homo habilis*, in which body form and
proportions retained apelike features suggesting a continued
reliance on trees for food or refuge, *H. ergaster* achieved
essentially modern forms and proportions;
- Members also differed from australopithecines and*H. habilis* in
their increased, essentially modern stature and in their reduced
degree of sexual dimorphism.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Acheulean Technology
Acheulean industry, enjoyed impressive longevity as a species and great
geographic spread. We will review several cultural innovations and
behavioral changes that might have contributed to the success of *H.
ergaster/erectus*:
- stone-knapping advances that resulted in Acheulean bifacial tools;
- the beginnings of shelter construction;
- the control and use of fire;
- increased dependence on hunting.
## The Acheulean industrial complex
(1.7 million - 200,000 years ago)
### Stone tools
By the time *Homo ergaster/erectus* appeared, Oldowan choppers and flake
tools had been in use for 800,000 years. For another 100,000 to 400,000
years, Oldowan tools continued to be the top-of-the-line implements for
early *Homo ergaster/erectus*. Between 1.7 and 1.4 million years ago,
Africa witnessed a significant advance in stone tool technology: the
development of the Acheulean industry. !Acheulean biface discovered in
Haute-Garonne,
France
The Acheulean tool kit included:
- picks;
- cleavers;
- an assortment of Oldowan-type choppers and flakes, suggesting that
the more primitive implements continued to serve important
functions;
- mainly characterized by bifacially flaked tools, called bifaces.
A biface reveals a cutting edge that has been flaked carefully on both
sides to make it straighter and sharper than the primitive Oldowan
chopper. The purpose of the two-sided, or bifacial, method was to change
the shape of the core from essentially round to flattish, for only with
a flat stone can one get a decent cutting edge.
One technological improvement that permitted the more controlled working
required to shape an Acheulean handax was the gradual implementation,
during the Acheulean period, of different kinds of hammers. In earlier
times, the toolmaker knocked flakes from the core with another piece of
stone. The hard shock of rock on rock tended to leave deep, irregular
scars and wavy cutting edges.
But a wood or bone hammer, being softer, gave its user much greater
control over flaking. Such implements left shallower, cleaner scars and
produced sharper and straighter cutting edges.
:
: **With the Acheulean Industry, the use of stone (hard hammer)
was pretty much restricted to the preliminary rough shaping of a
handax, and all the fine work around the edges was done with
wood and bone.**
Acheulean handaxes and cleavers are generally interpreted as being
implements for processing animal carcasses. Even though cleavers could
have been used to chop and shape wood, their wear patterns are more
suggestive of use on soft material, such as hides and meat. Acheulean
tools represent an adaptation for habitual and systematic butchery, and
especially the dismembering of large animal carcasses, as *Homo
ergaster/erectus* experienced a strong dietary shift toward more meat
consumption.
Acheulean tools originated in Africa between 1.7 and 1.4 million years
ago. They were then produced continuously throughout *Homo
ergaster/erectus\'* long African residency and beyond, finally
disappearing about 200,000 years ago.
Generally, Acheulean tools from sites clearly older than 400,000 to
500,000 years ago are attributed to Homo ergaster/erectus, even in the
absence of confirming fossils. At several important Late Acheulean
sites, however, the toolmakers\' species identity remains ambiguous
because the sites lack hominid fossils and they date to a period when
*Homo erectus* and archaic *Homo sapiens* (e.g., *Homo heidelbergensis*)
overlapped in time.
### Other raw materials
Stone artifacts dominate the Paleolithic record because of their
durability, but early people surely used other raw materials, including
bone and more perishable substances like wood, reeds, and skin.
A few sites, mainly European, have produced wooden artifacts, which date
usually between roughly 600,000 and 300,000 years ago:
:
: Ex. At the site of Schöningen, Germany, several wooden throwing
spears, over 2 m long. They arguably present the oldest, most
compelling case for early human hunting.
## Diffusion of Technology
Wide variability in stone tools present with *H. erectus*. In Eastern
Asia, H. erectus specimens are associated not with Acheulean tools, but
instead with Oldowan tools, which were retained until 200,000 to 300,000
years ago.
This pattern was first pointed out by Hallam Movius in 1948. The line
dividing the Old World into Acheulean and non-Acheulean regions became
known as the Movius line. Handax cultures flourished to the west and
south of the line, but in the east, only choppers and flake tools were
found.
Why were there no Acheulean handax cultures in the Eastern provinces of
Asia?
- history of research;
- other explanations:
- quality of raw materials (fine-grained rocks rare)
- different functional requirements (related to environment and
food procurement)
- \"bamboo culture\": bamboo tools used in place of stone
implements to perform tasks;
- Early dates in Java and Dmanisi explain situation
:
: Acheulean developed in Africa from the preceding Oldowan
Tradition only after 1.8 Myrs ago, but if people moved into
eastern Asia at 1.8 million years ago or before, they would have
arrived without Acheulean tools.
In sum, while the Acheulean tradition, with its handaxes and cleavers,
was an important lithic advance by Homo ergaster over older
technologies, it constituted only one of several adaptive patterns used
by the species. Clever and behaviorally flexible, H. ergaster was
capable of adjusting its material culture to local resources and
functional requirements.
## Subsistence patterns and diet
Early discoveries of Homo ergaster/erectus fossils in association with
stone tools and animal bones lent themselves to the interpretation of
hunting and gathering way of life. Nevertheless this interpretation is
not accepted by all scholars and various models have been offered to
make sense of the evidence.
### First Scenario: Scavenging
Recently, several of the original studies describing *Homo
ergaster/erectus* as a hunter-gatherer have come under intense
criticism. Re-examination of the material at some of the sites convinced
some scholars (L. Binford) that faunal assemblages were primarily the
result of animal activity rather than hunting and gathering.
Animal bones showed cut marks from stone tools that overlay gnaw marks
by carnivores, suggesting that *Homo ergaster/erectus* was not above
scavenging parts of a carnivore kill.
According to these scholars, at most sites, the evidence for scavenging
by hominids is much more convincing than is that for actual hunting.
### Which scenario to choose?
The key point here is not that *Homo ergaster/erectus* were the first
hominid hunters, but that they depended on meat for a much larger
portion of their diet than had any previous hominid species.
Occasional hunting is seen among nonhuman primates and cannot be denied
to australopithecines (see *A.
garhi*).
But apparently for *Homo ergaster/erectus* hunting took an unprecedented
importance, and in doing so it must have played a major role in shaping
both material culture and society.
## Shelter and fire
For years, scientists have searched for evidence that *Homo
ergaster/erectus* had gained additional control over its environment
through the construction of shelters, and the control and use of fire.
The evidence is sparse and difficult to interpret.
### Shelter
Seemingly patterned arrangements or concentrations of large rocks at
sites in Europe and Africa may mark the foundations of huts or
windbreaks, but in each case the responsible agent could equally well be
stream flow, or any other natural process.
Therefore there appears to be no convincing evidence that *Homo
ergaster/erectus* regularly constructed huts, windbreaks, or any other
sort of shelter during the bulk of its long period of existence. Shelter
construction apparently developed late in the species\' life span, if at
all, and therefore cannot be used as an explanation of *H. ergaster\'s*
capacity for geographic expansion.
### Fire
Proving the evidence of fire by *Homo ergaster/erectus* is almost
equally problematic. Some researchers have suggested that the oldest
evidence for fire use comes from some Kenyan sites dated about 1.4 to
1.6 million years ago. Other scholars are not sure. The problem is that
the baked earth found at these sites could have been produced as easily
by natural fires as by fires started - or at least controlled - by *H.
ergaster/erectus*.
Better evidence of fire use comes from sites that date near the end of
*Homo erectus\'* existence as a species. Unfortunately, the identity of
the responsible hominids (either Homo erectus or archaic Homo sapiens)
is unclear.
The evidence at present suggests that fire was not a key to either the
geographic spread or the longevity of these early humans.
## Out-of-Africa 1: Behavioral aspects
Researchers proposed originally that it was not until the advent of
handaxes and other symmetrically shaped, standardized stone tools that
*H. erectus* could penetrate the northern latitudes. Exactly what, if
anything, these implements could accomplish that the simple Oldowan
flakes, choppers and scrapers that preceded them could not is unknown,
although perhaps they conferred a better means of butchering.
But the Dmanisi finds of primitive hominids and Oldowan-like industries
raise once again the question of what prompted our ancestors to leave
their natal land.
Yet, there is one major problem with scenarios involving departure dates
earlier than about 1.7-1.4 million years ago, and that is simply that
they involve geographic spread before the cultural developments
(Acheulean industry, meat eating, fire, shelter) that are supposed to
have made it possible.
A shift toward meat eating might explain how humans managed to survive
outside of Africa, but what prompted them to push into new territories
remains unknown at this time.
Perhaps they were following herds of animal north. Or maybe it was as
simple and familiar as a need to know what lay beyond that hill or river
or tall savanna grass. Also an early migration could explain
technological differences between western and eastern Homo erectus
populations.
The link between butchering tools and moves into northern latitudes is
the skinning and preparation of hides and furs, for reworking 1. into
portable shelters, and 2. into clothing. more skilful skinning meant
that skins would be better preserved, while fire would lead to meat
preservation (smoking) by the simple need to hang cuts of butchered meat
high up out of reach of any scavenging animals within smoke filled caves
or other dwellings. Having smoked meat then allowed deeper incursions
into otherwise hostile terrain, or a long-term food supply available in
harsh winters. With readily available and storable energy resources, and
protective clothing, they could push out into harsh northern latitudes
with comparative ease.
## Summary
Overall, the evidence suggests that *Homo ergaster* was the first
hominid species to resemble historic hunter-gatherers not only in a
fully terrestrial lifestyle, but also in a social organization that
featured economic cooperation between males and females and perhaps
between semi-permanent male-female units.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids MiddlePaleolithic
## The second phase of human migration
The time period between 250,000 and 50,000 years ago is commonly called
the Middle Paleolithic.
At the same time that Neanderthals occupied Europe and Western Asia,
other kinds of people lived in the Far East and Africa, and those in
Africa were significantly more modern than the Neanderthals.
These Africans are thus more plausible ancestors for living humans, and
it appears increasingly likely that Neanderthals were an evolutionary
dead end, contributing few if any genes to historic populations.
Topics to be covered in this chapter:
- Summary of the fossil evidence for both the Neanderthals and some of
their contemporaries;
- Second phase of human migration (\"Out-of-Africa 2\" Debate)
## Neanderthals
### History of Research
In 1856, a strange skeleton was discovered in Feldhofer Cave in the
Neander Valley (in German \"Neandertal\" but previously it was called
\"Neanderthal\", \"thal\" = valley) near Dusseldorf, Germany. The skull
cap was as large as that of a present-day human but very different in
shape. Initially this skeleton was interpreted as that of a congenital
idiot.
The Forbes Quarry (Gibraltar) female cranium (now also considered as
Neanderthal) was discovered in 1848, eight years before the Feldhofer
find, but its distinctive features were not recognized at that time.
Subsequently, numerous Neanderthal remains were found in Belgium,
Croatia, France, Spain, Italy, Israel and Central Asia.
Anthropologists have been debating for 150 years whether Neanderthals
were a distinct species or an ancestor of Homo sapiens sapiens. In 1997,
DNA analysis from the Feldhofer Cave specimen showed decisively that
Neanderthals were a distinct lineage.
These data imply that Neanderthals and *Homo sapiens sapiens* were
separate lineages with a common ancestor, Homo heidelbergensis, about
600,000 years ago.
### Anatomy
!Full skeletons of modern *Homo Sapiens* (left) and Neanderthal
(right) and Neanderthal (right)")
Unlike earlier hominids (with some rare exceptions), Neanderthals are
represented by many complete or nearly complete skeletons. Neanderthals
provide the best hominid fossil record of the Plio-Pleistocene, with
about 500 individuals. About half the skeletons were children. Typical
cranial and dental features are present in the young individuals,
indicating Neanderthal features were inherited, not acquired.
Morphologically the Neanderthals are a remarkably coherent group.
Therefore they are easier to characterize than most earlier human types.
Neanderthal skull has a low forehead, prominent brow ridges and
occipital bones. It is long and low, but relatively thin walled. The
back of the skull has a characteristic rounded bulge, and does not come
to a point at the back.
!Skulls of *Homo Sapiens* (left) and Neanderthal
(right) and Neanderthal (right)")
Cranial capacity is relatively large, ranging from 1,245 to 1,740 cc and
averaging about 1,520 cc. It overlaps or even exceeds average for *Homo
sapiens sapiens*. The robust face with a broad nasal region projects out
from the braincase. By contrast, the face of modern Homo sapiens sapiens
is tucked under the brain box, the forehead is high, the occipital
region rounded, and the chin prominent.
Neanderthals have small back teeth (molars), but incisors are relatively
large and show very heavy wear.
Neanderthal short legs and arms are characteristic of a body type that
conserves heat. They were strong, rugged and built for cold weather.
Large elbow, hip, knee joints, and robust bones suggest great
muscularity. Pelvis had longer and thinner pubic bone than modern
humans.
All adult skeletons exhibit some kind of disease or injury. Healed
fractures and severe arthritis show that they had a hard life, and
individuals rarely lived past 40 years old.
### Chronology
Neanderthals lived from about 250,000 to 30,000 years ago in Eurasia.
The earlier ones, like at Atapuerca (Sima de Los Huesos), were more
generalized. The later ones are the more specialized, \"classic\"
Neanderthals.
The last Neanderthals lived in Southwest France, Portugal, Spain,
Croatia, and the Caucasus as recently as 27,000 years ago.
### Geography
!Distribution of
Neanderthals
The distribution of Neanderthals extended from Uzbekistan in the east to
the Iberian peninsula in the west, from the margins of the Ice Age
glaciers in the north to the shores of the Mediterranean sea in the
south.
South-West France (Dordogne region) is among the richest in Neanderthal
cave shelters:
- La Chapelle-aux-Saints;
- La Ferrassie;
- Saint-Césaire (which is one of the younger sites at 36,000).
Other sites include:
- Krapina in Croatia;
- Saccopastore in Italy;
- Shanidar in Iraq;
- Teshik-Tash (Uzbekistan). The 9-year-old hominid from this site lies
at the most easterly known part of their range.
No Neanderthal remains have been discovered in Africa or East Asia.
## Homo sapiens
### Chronology and Geography
The time and place of Homo sapiens origin has preoccupied
anthropologists for more than a century. For the longest time, many
assumed their origin was in South-West Asia. But in 1987, anthropologist
Rebecca Cann and colleagues compared DNA of Africans, Asians,
Caucasians, Australians, and New Guineans. Their findings were striking
in two respects:
- the variability observed within each population was greatest by far
in Africans, which implied the African population was oldest and
thus ancestral to the Asians and Caucasians;
- there was very little variability between populations which
indicated that our species originated quite recently.
The human within-species variability was only 1/25th as much as the
average difference between human and chimpanzee DNA. The human and
chimpanzee lineages diverged about 5 million years ago. 1/25th of 5
million is 200,000. Cann therefore concluded that Homo sapiens
originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago. Much additional molecular
data and hominid remains further support a recent African origin of Homo
sapiens, now estimated to be around 160,000-150,000 years ago.
### Earliest Evidence
The Dmanisi evidence suggests early Europeans developed in Asia and
migrated to Europe creating modern Europeans with minor interaction with
African Homo types. July 5 2002 issue of the journal Science and is the
subject of the cover story of the August issue of National Geographic
magazine. New Asian finds are significant, they say, especially the 1.75
million-year-old small-brained early-human fossils found in Dmanisi,
Georgia, and the 18,000-year-old \"hobbit\" fossils (Homo floresiensis)
discovered on the island of Flores in Indonesia.
Such finds suggest that Asia\'s earliest human ancestors may be older by
hundreds of thousands of years than previously believed, the scientists
say. Robin Dennell, of the University of Sheffield in England, and Wil
Roebroeks, of Leiden University in the Netherlands, describe their ideas
in the December 22, 2005 issue of Nature. The fossil and archaeological
finds characteristic of early modern humans are represented at various
sites in East and South Africa, which date between 160,000 and 77,000
years ago.
#### Herto (Middle Awash, Ethiopia)
In June 2003, publication of hominid remains of a new subspecies: *Homo
sapiens idaltu*. Three skulls (two adults, one juvenile) are interpreted
as the earliest near-modern humans: 160,000-154,000 BP. They exhibit
some modern traits (very large cranium; high, round skull; flat face
without browridge), but also retain archaic features (heavy browridge;
widely spaced eyes). Their anatomy and antiquity link earlier archaic
African forms to later fully modern ones, providing strong evidence that
East Africa was the birthplace of *Homo sapiens*.
#### Omo-Kibish (Ethiopia)
In 1967, Richard Leakey and his team uncovered a partial hominid
skeleton (Omo I), which had the features of Homo sapiens. Another
partial fragment of a skull (Omo II) revealed a cranial capacity over
1,400 cc. Dating of shells from the same level gave a date of 130,000
years.
#### Ngaloba, Laetoli area (Tanzania)
A nearly complete skull (LH 18) was found in Upper Ngaloba Beds. Its
morphology is largely modern, yet it retains some archaic features such
as prominent brow ridges and a receding forehead. Dated at about 120,000
years ago.
#### Border Cave (South Africa)
Remains of four individuals (a partial cranium, 2 lower jaws, and a tiny
buried infant) were found in a layer dated to at least 90,000 years ago.
Although fragmentary, these fossils appeared modern.
#### Klasies River (South Africa)
Site occupied from 120,000 to 60,000 years ago. Most human fossils come
from a layer dated to around 90,000 years ago. They are fragmentary:
cranial, mandibular, and postcranial pieces. They appear modern,
especially a fragmentary frontal bone that lacks a brow ridge. Chin and
tooth size also have a modern aspect.
#### Blombos Cave (South Africa)
A layer dated to 77,000 BCE yielded 9 human teeth or dental fragments,
representing five to seven individuals, of modern appearance.
### Anatomy
African skulls have reduced browridges and small faces. They tend to be
higher, more rounded than classic Neanderthal skulls, and some approach
or equal modern skulls in basic vault shape. Where cranial capacity can
be estimated, the African skulls range between 1,370 and 1,510 cc,
comfortably within the range of both the Neanderthals and anatomically
modern people.
Mandibles tend to have significantly shorter and flatter faces than did
the Neanderthals.
Postcranial parts indicate people who were robust, particularly in their
legs, but who were fully modern in form.
## Out-of-Africa 2: The debate
Most anthropologists agree that a dramatic shift in hominid morphology
occurred during the last glacial epoch. About 150,000 years ago the
world was inhabited by a morphologically heterogeneous collection of
hominids: Neanderthals in Europe; less robust archaic Homo sapiens in
East Asia; and somewhat more modern humans in East Africa (Ethiopia) and
also SW Asia. By 30,000 years ago, much of this diversity had
disappeared. Anatomically modern humans occupied all of the Old World.
In order to understand how this transition occurred, we need to answer
two questions:
1. Did the genes that give rise to modern human morphology arise in one
region, or in many different parts of the globe?
2. Did the genes spread from one part of the world to another by gene
flow, or through the movement and replacement of one group of people
by another?
Unfortunately, genes don\'t fossilize, and we cannot study the genetic
composition of ancient hominid populations directly. However, there is a
considerable amount of evidence that we can bring to bear on these
questions through the anatomical study of the fossil record and the
molecular biology of living populations. The shapes of teeth from a
number of hominid species suggest that arrivals from Asia played a
greater role in colonizing Europe than hominids direct from Africa, a
new analysis of more than 5,000 ancient teeth suggests. (Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences Aug 2007)
Two opposing hypotheses for the transition to modern humans have been
promulgated over the last decades:
- the \"multi-regional model\" sees the process as a localized
speciation event;
- the \"out-of-Africa model\" sees the process as the result of
widespread phyletic transformation.
### The \"Multi-regional\" model
This model proposes that ancestral Homo erectus populations throughout
the world gradually and independently evolved first through archaic Homo
sapiens, then to fully modern humans. In this case, the Neanderthals are
seen as European versions of archaic sapiens.
Recent advocates of the model have emphasized the importance of gene
flow among different geographic populations, making their move toward
modernity not independent but tied together as a genetic network over
large geographical regions and over long periods of time. Since these
populations were separated by great distances and experienced different
kinds of environmental conditions, there was considerable regional
variation in morphology among them.
One consequence of this widespread phyletic transformation would be that
modern geographic populations would have very deep genetic roots, having
begun to separate from each other a very long time ago, perhaps as much
as a million years.
This model essentially sees multiple origins of Homo sapiens, and no
necessary migrations.
### The \"Out-of-Africa\"/\"Replacement\" model
This second hypothesis considers a geographically discrete origin,
followed by migration throughout the rest of the Old World. By contrast
with the first hypothesis, here we have a single origin and extensive
migration.
Modern geographic populations would have shallow genetic roots, having
derived from a speciation event in relatively recent times. Hominid
populations were genetically isolated from each other during the Middle
Pleistocene. As a result, different populations of Homo erectus and
archaic Homo sapiens evolved independently, perhaps forming several
hominid species. Then, between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago,
anatomically modern humans arose someplace in Africa and spread out,
replacing other archaic sapiens including Neanderthals. The replacement
model does not specify how anatomically modern humans usurped local
populations. However, the model posits that there was little or no gene
flow between hominid groups.
### Hypothesis testing
If the \"Multi-regional Model\" were correct, then it should be possible
to see in modern populations echoes of anatomical features that stretch
way back into prehistory: this is known as regional continuity. In
addition, the appearance in the fossil record of advanced humans might
be expected to occur more or less simultaneously throughout the Old
World. By contrast, the \"Out-of-Africa Model\" predicts little regional
continuity and the appearance of modern humans in one locality before
they spread into others.
### Out-of-Africa 2: The evidence
Until relatively recently, there was a strong sentiment among
anthropologists in favor of extensive regional continuity. In addition,
Western Europe tended to dominate the discussions. Evidence has expanded
considerably in recent years, and now includes molecular biology data as
well as fossils. Now there is a distinct shift in favor of some version
of the \"Out-of-Africa Model\".
Discussion based on detailed examination of fossil record and
mitochondrial DNA needs to address criteria for identifying:
- regional continuity;
- earliest geographical evidence (center of origin);
- chronology of appearance of modern humans.
### Fossil record
#### Regional Continuity
The fossil evidence most immediately relevant to the origin of modern
humans is to be found throughout Europe, Asia, Australasia, and Africa,
and goes back in time as far as 300,000 years ago.
Most fossils are crania of varying degrees of incompleteness. They look
like a mosaic of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, and are generally termed
archaic sapiens. It is among such fossils that signs of regional
continuity are sought, being traced through to modern populations.
For example, some scholars (Alan Thorne) argue for such regional
anatomical continuities among Australasian populations and among Chinese
populations. In the same way, some others believe a good case can be
made for regional continuity in Central Europe and perhaps North Africa.
#### Replacement
By contrast, proponents of a replacement model argue that, for most of
the fossil record, the anatomical characters being cited as indicating
regional continuity are primitive, and therefore cannot be used uniquely
to link specific geographic populations through time.
The equatorial anatomy of the first modern humans in Europe presumably
is a clue to their origin: Africa. There are sites from the north, east
and south of the African continent with specimens of anatomical
modernity. One of the most accepted is Klasies River in South Africa.
The recent discovery of remains of H. sapiens idaltu at Herto (Ethiopia)
confirms this evidence. Does this mean that modern Homo sapiens arose as
a speciation event in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia), populations migrating
north, eventually to enter Eurasia? This is a clear possibility.
The earlier appearance of anatomically modern humans in Africa than in
Europe and in Asia too supports the \"Out-of-Africa Model\".
### Molecular biology
Just as molecular evidence had played a major role in understanding the
beginnings of the hominid family, so too could it be applied to the
later history, in principle.
However, because that later history inevitably covers a shorter period
of time - no more than the past 1 million years - conventional genetic
data would be less useful than they had been for pinpointing the time of
divergence between hominids and apes, at least 5 million years ago.
Genes in cell nuclei accumulate mutations rather slowly. Therefore
trying to infer the recent history of populations based on such
mutations is difficult, because of the relative paucity of information.
DNA that accumulates mutations at a much higher rate would, however,
provide adequate information for reading recent population history. That
is precisely what mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) offers.
MtDNA is a relatively new technique to reconstruct family trees. Unlike
the DNA in the cell nucleus, mtDNA is located elsewhere in the cell, in
compartments that produce the energy needed to keep cells alive. Unlike
an individual\'s nuclear genes, which are a combination of genes from
both parents, the mitochondrial genome comes only from the mother.
Because of this maternal mode of inheritance, there is no recombination
of maternal and paternal genes, which sometimes blurs the history of the
genome as read by geneticists. Potentially, therefore, mtDNA offers a
powerful way of inferring population history.
MtDNA can yield two major conclusions relevant for our topic: the first
addresses the depth of our genetic routes, the second the possible
location of the origin of anatomically modern humans.
### Expectations
#### Multiregional model:
- extensive genetic variation, implying an ancient origin, going back
at least a million years (certainly around 1.8 million years ago);
- no population would have significantly more variation than any
other. Any extra variation the African population might have had as
the home of *Homo erectus* would have been swamped by the subsequent
million years of further mutation.
#### Replacement model:
- limited variation in modern mtDNA, implying a recent origin;
- African population would display most variation.
#### Results
1. If modern populations derive from a process of long regional
continuity, then mtDNA should reflect the establishment of those
local populations, after 1.8 million years ago, when populations of
Homo erectus first left Africa and moved into the rest of the Old
World. Yet the absence of ancient mtDNA in any modern living
population gives a different picture. The amount of genetic
variation throughout all modern human populations is surprisingly
small, and implies therefore a recent origin for the common ancestor
of us all.
2. Although genetic variation among the world\'s population is small
overall, it is greatest in African populations, implying they are
the longest established.
3. If modern humans really did evolve recently in Africa, and then move
into the rest of the Old World where they mated with established
archaic sapiens, the resulting population would contain a mixture of
old and new mtDNA, with a bias toward the old because of the
relative numbers of newcomers to archaic sapiens. Yet the evidence
does not seem to support this view.
The argument that genetic variation among widely separated populations
has been homogenized by gene flow (interbreeding) is not tenable any
more, according to population geneticists.
### Intermediate Model
Although these two hypotheses dominate the debate over the origins of
modern humans, they represent extremes; and there is also room for
several intermediate models.
- One hypothesis holds that there might have been a single geographic
origin as predicted by replacement model, but followed by migrations
in which newcomers interbred with locally established groups of
archaic sapiens. Thus, some of genes of Neanderthals and archaic H.
sapiens may still exist in modern populations;
- Another hypothesis suggests that there could have been more
extensive gene flow between different geographic populations than is
allowed for in the multi-regional model, producing closer genetic
continuity between populations. Anatomically modern humans evolved
in Africa, and then their genes diffused to the rest of the world by
gene flow, not by migration of anatomically modern humans and
replacement of local peoples.
In any case the result would be a much less clearcut signal in the
fossil record.
## Case studies
### Southwest Asia
Neanderthal fossils have been found in Israel at several sites: Kebara,
Tabun, and Amud. For many years there were no reliable absolute dates.
Recently, these sites were securely dated. The Neanderthals occupied
Tabun around 110,000 years ago. However, the Neanderthals at Kebara and
Amud lived 55,000 to 60,000 years ago. By contrast, at Qafzeh Cave,
located nearby, remains currently interpreted as of anatomically modern
humans have been found in a layer dated to 90,000 years ago.
These new dates lead to the surprising conclusion that Neanderthals and
anatomically modern humans overlapped - if not directly coexisted - in
this part of the world for a very long time (at least 30,000 years). Yet
the anatomical evidence of the Qafzeh hominid skeletons reveals features
reminiscent of Neanderthals. Although their faces and bodies are large
and heavily built by today\'s standards, they are nonetheless claimed to
be within the range of living peoples. Yet, a recent statistical study
comparing a number of measurements among Qafzeh, Upper Paleolithic and
Neanderthal skulls found those from Qafzeh to fall in between the Upper
Paleolithic and Neanderthal norms, though slightly closer to the
Neanderthals.
### Portugal
The Lagar Velho 1 remains, found in a rockshelter in Portugal dated to
24,500 years ago, correspond to the complete skeleton of a four-year-old
child.
This skeleton has anatomical features characteristic of early modern
Europeans:
- prominent chin and certain other details of the mandible;
- small front teeth;
- characteristic proportions and muscle markings on the thumb;
- narrowness of the front of pelvis;
- several aspects of shoulder and forearm bones.
Yet, intriguingly, a number of features also suggest Neanderthal
affinities:
- the front of the mandible which slopes backward despite the chin;
- details of the incisor teeth;
- pectoral muscle markings;
- knee proportions and short, strong lower-leg bones.
Thus, the Lagar Velho child appears to exhibit a complex mosaic of
Neanderthal and early modern human features. This combination can only
have resulted from a mixed ancestry; something that had not been
previously documented for Western Europe. The Lagar Velho child is
interpreted as the result of interbreeding between indigenous Iberian
Neanderthals and early modern humans dispersing throughout Iberia
sometime after 30,000 years ago. Because the child lived several
millennia after Neanderthals were thought to have disappeared, its
anatomy probably reflects a true mixing of these populations during the
period when they coexisted and not a rare chance mating between a
Neanderthal and an early modern human.
## Population dispersal into Australia/Oceania
Based on current data (and conventional view), the evidence for the
earliest colonization of Australia would be as follows:
- archaeologists have generally agreed that modern humans arrived on
Australia and its continental islands, New Guinea and Tasmania,
about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, a time range that is consistent
with evidence of their appearance elsewhere in the Old World well
outside Africa;
- all hominids known from Greater Australia are anatomically modern
Homo sapiens;
- the emerging picture begins to suggest purposeful voyaging by groups
possessed of surprisingly sophisticated boat-building and navigation
skills;
- the only major feature of early Greater Australia archaeology that
does NOT fit comfortably with a consensus model of modern human
population expansion in the mid-Upper Pleistocene is the lithic
technology, which has a pronounced Middle, rather than Upper,
Paleolithic cast.
Over the past decade, however, this consensus has been eroded by the
discovery and dating of several sites:
- Malakunanja II and Nauwalabila I, located in Arnhem Land, would be
50,000 to 60,000 years old;
- Jinmium yielded dates of 116,000 to 176,000 years ago.
Yet these early dates reveal numerous problems related to stratigraphic
considerations and dating methods. Therefore, many scholars are
skeptical of their value.
If accurate, these dates require significant changes in current ideas,
not just about the initial colonization of Australia, but about the
entire chronology of human evolution in the early Upper Pleistocene.
Either fully modern humans were present well outside Africa at a
surprisingly early date or the behavioral capabilities long thought to
be uniquely theirs were also associated, at least to some degree, with
other hominids.
As a major challenge, the journey from Southeast Asia and Indonesia to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea would have required sea voyages, even
with sea levels at their lowest during glacial maxima. So far, there is
no archaeological evidence from Australian sites of vessels that could
have made such a journey. However, what were coastal sites during the
Ice Age are mostly now submerged beneath the sea.
## Summary
Overall the evidence suggested by mitochondrial DNA is the following:
- the amount of genetic variation in human mitochondrial DNA is small
and implies a recent origin for modern humans;
- the African population displays the greatest amount of variation;
this too is most reasonably interpreted as suggesting an African
origin.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/MiddlePaleolithic Technology
## Stone tool industry
!Flint tool found in the Valley of the Kings,
Egypt
Neanderthals and their contemporaries seem to have been associated
everywhere with similar stone tool industries, called the Mousterian
(after Le Moustier Cave in France). Therefore no fundamental behavioral
difference is noticeable. The implication may be that the anatomical
differences between Neanderthals and near-moderns have more to do with
climatic adaptation and genetic flow than with differences in behavior.
Archaeological sites are dominated by flake tools. By contrast,
Acheulean sites are dominated by large handaxes and choppers. Handaxes
are almost absent from Middle Paleolithic sites. Oldowan hominids used
mainly flake tools as well. However, unlike the small, irregular Oldowan
flakes, the Middle Paleolithic hominids produced quite symmetric,
regular flakes using sophisticated methods.
The main method is called the Levallois and it involves three steps in
the core reduction:
1. the flintknapper prepares a core having one precisely shaped convex
surface;
2. then, the knapper makes a striking platform at one end of the core;
3. finally, the knapper hits the striking platform, knocking off a
flake whose shape is determined by the original shape of the core.
Mousterian tools are more variable than Acheulean tools. Traditionally
tools have been classified into a large number of distinct types based
on their shape and inferred function. Among the most important ones are:
- points;
- side scrapers, flake tools bearing a retouched edge on one or both
sides;
- denticulates, flake tools with a succession of irregular adjacent
notches on one or both sides.
!Flint points found in Loiret,
France
Francois Bordes found that Middle Paleolithic sites did not reveal a
random mix of tool types, but fell into one of four categories that he
called Mousterian variants. Each variant had a different mix of tool
types. Bordes concluded that these sites were the remains of four
wandering groups of Neanderthals, each preserving a distinct tool
tradition over time and structured much like modern ethnic groups.
Recent studies give reason to doubt Bordes\' interpretation. Many
archaeologists believe that the variation among sites results from
differences in the kinds of activity performed at each locality. For
example, Lewis Binford argued that differences in tool types depend on
the nature of the site and the nature of the work performed. Some sites
may have been base camps where people lived, while others may have been
camps at which people performed subsistence tasks. Different tools may
have been used at different sites for woodworking, hide preparation, or
butchering prey.
Recently, however, microscopic studies of wear patterns on Mousterian
tools suggest that the majority of tools were used mainly for
woodworking. As a result, there seems to be no association between a
tool type (such as a point or a side-scraper) and the task for which it
was used.
!Mousterian points and
scrapers
Microscopic analyses of the wear patterns on Mousterian tools also
suggest that stone tools were hafted, probably to make spears.
Mousterian hominids usually made tools from rocks acquired locally. Raw
materials used to make tools can typically be found within a few
kilometers of the site considered.
## Subsistence Patterns
Neanderthal sites contain bones of many animals alongside Mousterian
stone tools. European sites are rich in bones of red deer, fallow deer,
bison, aurochs, wild sheep, wild goat and horse, while eland,
wildebeest, zebra are found often at African sites. Archaeologists find
only few bones of very large animals such as hippopotamus, rhinoceros
and elephant, even though they were plentiful in Africa and Europe.
This pattern has provoked as much debate at similar ambiguity as for
earlier hominids, regarding the type of food procurement responsible for
the presence of these bones: hunting or scavenging.
Several general models have be offered to explain the Mousterian faunal
exploitation:
### Obligate Scavenger Model
Some archaeologists (such as Lewis Binford) believe that Neanderthals
and their contemporaries in Africa never hunted anything larger than
small antelope, and even these prey were acquired opportunistically, not
as a result of planned hunts. Any bones of larger animals were acquired
by scavenging. As evidence in support of this view, the body parts which
dominate (skulls and foot bones) are commonly available to scavengers.
Binford believes that hominids of this period did not have the cognitive
skills necessary to plan and organize the cooperative hunts necessary to
bring down large prey. Mousterian hominids were nearly as behaviorally
primitive as early Homo.
### Flexible Hunter-Scavenger Model
Other scientists argue that Neanderthals likely were not obligate
scavengers, but that during times when plant foods were abundant they
tended to scavenger rather than hunt. At other times, when plant foods
were less abundant, Neanderthals hunted regularly. Their interpretation
is of a flexible faunal exploitation strategy that shifted between
hunting and scavenging.
### Less-Adept Hunter Model
Other scientists believe that Neanderthals were primarily hunters who
regularly killed large animals. But they were less effective hunters
than are modern humans. They point out that animal remains at Mousterian
sites are often made up of one or two species:
:
: For example, at Klasies River, vast majority of bones are from
eland.
The prey animals are large creatures, and they are heavily
overrepresented at these sites compared with their occurrence in the
local ecosystem. It is hard to see how an opportunistic scavenger would
acquire such a non-random sample of the local fauna. One important
feature of this model is that animal prey hunted such as eland are not
as dangerous prey as buffalo. Middle Paleolithic hominids were forced to
focus on the less dangerous (but less abundant) eland, because they were
unable to kill the fierce buffalo regularly.
### Fully Adept Hunter Model
Finally some scientists argue that scavenging was not a major component
of the Middle Paleolithic diet and there is little evidence of a less
effective hunting strategy. Skeletal element abundance and cut mark
patterning would be consistent with hunting.
Overall, there is currently no evidence that Middle Paleolithic hominids
differed from Upper Paleolithic hominids in scavenging or hunting, the
most fundamental aspect of faunal exploitation. The differences that
separate Middle Paleolithic hominids from modern hominids may not reside
in scavenging versus hunting or the types of animals that they pursued.
Differences in the effectiveness of carcass use and processing, with
their direct implications for caloric yield, may be more important.
Neanderthals lacked sophisticated meat and fat storage technology, as
well as productive fat rendering technology. At a minimum, the lack of
storage capabilities and a lower caloric yield per carcass have forced
Neanderthals to use larger foraging ranges to increase the likelihood of
successful encounters with prey.
## Cannibalism
Marks on human bones from Middle Paleolithic can be the result of two
phenomena: violence and cannibalism.
### Violence
Violence can be recognized on bone assemblages by:
- marks of weapons;
- cutmarks on skull produced by scalping;
- removal of heads and hands as trophies;
- breakage of faces;
- much less \"body processing\" than in case of cannibalism.
Evidence for violence in the Middle Paleolithic is extremely rare.
### Body processing and cannibalism
By contrast, evidence of body processing and cannibalism is becoming
more widespread at different times and in different geographical areas.
### Chronology
:
: Lower Paleolithic
: Sterkfontein (South Africa): cannibalism
: Bodo cranium (Ethiopia): cannibalism
: Atapuerca (Spain): cannibalism
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```
:
: Middle Paleolithic (Neanderthals)
: Krapina (Croatia): body processing
: Moula-Guercy (France): cannibalism
: Marillac (France): cannibalism
: Combe-Grenal (France): cannibalism
```{=html}
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```
:
: Middle Paleolithic (Homo sapiens idaltu)
: Herto (Ethiopia): body processing
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
:
: Upper Paleolithic (with Neanderthals)
: Vindija (Croatia): cannibalism
: Zafarraya (Spain): cannibalism
```{=html}
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```
:
: Neolithic
: Fontbrégoua (France): cannibalism
### Criteria
Criteria required for a \"minimal taphonomic signature\" of cannibalism:
- breakage of bones (to get at marrow and brain);
- cut marks suggesting butchery;
- so-called anvil abrasions left where a bone has rested on a stone
anvil whilst it is broken with a hammer stone;
- burning (after breakage and cutting);
- virtual absence of vertebrae (crushed or boiled to get at marrow and
grease);
- \"pot polishing\" on the ends of bones which have been cooked and
stirred in a clay pot.
These criteria **must** be found on **both** hominid and ungulate
remains. Finally the types of bones usually broken are the crania and
limb bones.
## Patterns
Different behavioral patterns toward the dead among Middle Paleolithic
Neanderthals:
- Cannibalism: Moula-Guercy
- Human individuals defleshed and disarticulated.
- Bones smashed for marrow and brain.
- Mortuary practices with body processing: Krapina, Herto
- Postmortem processing of corpses with stone tools, probably in
preparation for burial of cleaned bones.
- No evidence of marrow processing.
- Mortuary practices without body processing: Southwest Asia (Amud,
Kebara, Shanidar)
- Intentional burials; dead bodies placed carefully in burial pits
with tools and grave goods.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/UpperPaleolithic
## Early Upper Paleolithic Cultures
### Aurignacian
The Aurignacian indicates a
tool industry from the Upper Paleolithic in Europe. A tool industry
contains standardized tools and production techniques that indicate a
shared cultural knowledge. The Aurignacian industry contains blades
(long, thin stone flakes), burins (stone chisels for working bone and
wood), bone points, as well as the beginning of prehistoric art.
#### First Discovered
The name is associated with the Aurignac Rockshelter in the Pyrenees in
Southwestern France.
#### Chronology
- ca. 35,000-27,000 BC
#### Geography
- Widespread distribution over Eurasia
- Siberia (Sungir)
#### Hominid
- Modern humans (Homo sapiens)
#### Material Culture
The tools of the Aurignacian are quite standardized which shows planning
and foresight in their creation. In addition, the inclusion of tools to
work bone and wood show a wider variety of raw materials being used in
tool production.
- Upper Paleolithic-type lithic industry
- Aurignacian blades, burins, endscrapers, etc.
- Bone Tools
#### Mortuary practices
The Aurignacian period includes definitive elaborate burials with grave
goods. Burials can indicate the social status of the deceased as well as
the beginning of religious concept associated with life and death. Grace
goods provide archaeologists important social and cultural information.
#### Symbolic Expression
Proliferation of various forms of personal ornaments:
- perforated animal-teeth;
- distinctive \"bead\" forms carved out of bone and mammoth ivory;
- earliest perforated marine shells
##### Artistic Expression
Types of evidence:
- Engraved limestone blocks
- Animal and human figurines
- Parietal art
Engraved block characteristics:
- Stiffness of outlines;
- Deep incisions;
- Work executed mainly on limestone slabs or blocks;
- Sexual symbols realistically represented;
- Animals (usually heads, forequarters and dorsal lines) extremely
crudely rendered;
- This type of artistic expression limited to southwest France (mainly
Dordogne).
Figurine characteristics:
- Earliest evidence of artwork in the Upper Paleolithic:
Geissenklösterle - 37,000-33,000 BC
- Present in Central Europe, presently Germany
- Sophisticated and naturalistic statuettes of animal (mammoth,
feline, bear, bison) and even human figures
- Carved from mammoth ivory
### Gravettian
#### First Discovered
- La Gravette (Dordogne, France)
#### Chronology
- ca. 27,000-21,000 BC
#### Geography
- Widespread distribution over Eurasia
#### Major cultural centers
- Southwest France
- Northern Italy (Grimaldi)
- Central Europe (Dolni Vestonice, Pavlov)
#### Architecture
- Mammoth huts
#### Material Culture
- Upper Paleolithic-type lithic industry
- Gravette Points, etc.
#### Other Economic Activities
- Pyrotechnology
- Basketry
#### Complex mortuary practices
- Dolni Vestonice triple burial
#### Artistic Expression
Types:
- Animal figurines
- Female figurines (\"Venuses\")
- Parietal art
Animal figuring characteristics: Animals most frequently depicted are
dangerous species (felines and bears), continuing Aurignacian tradition
- In Moravia, 67 animal statuettes recorded:
- 21 bears
- 11 small carnivores
- 9 felines
- 8 mammoths
- 6 birds
- 6 horses
- 4 rhinoceroses
- 1 caprid
- 1 cervid
By contrast, Magdalenian animal statuettes from the same region show
very different patterns (N=139):
- 56 horses, 44 bisons
- 9 bears,
- 2 felines,
- 1 mammoth
- 2 birds
- 1 caprid, 1 cervid
- 5 miscellaneous, 18 indeterminates
- No rhinoceros
Dangerous animals represent only 10% of total
Female figurine characteristics: Widespread distribution over Europe and
Russia; except Spain where no evidence of Venuses
- Raw materials:
- ivory
- clay
- Various types of research performed by anthropologists:
- technological
- stylistic
- details of clothing, ornaments
- chronological/geographical
- interpretational
- Most of baked clay figurines found fragmented
- Lack of skill or deliberate action? Intentional fracturation
through heating process
- Fragmented figurines were intended products Involved and
by-products of ritual ceremonies rather than art objects
Parietal art characteristics: From 21 sites, a list of 47 animals
identified:
- 9 ibexes
- 9 cervids
- 7 horses
- 4 mammoths
- 3 bovids
- 1 megaceros
- 1 salmon
- 10 indeterminates
Dangerous animals (rhinoceros, bear, lion) depicted during the
Gravettian do not constitute more than 11% of determinable animals:
- 3 times less than in Aurignacian period);
- yet still higher frequency than during Solutrean and Magdalenian
Strong preponderance of hunted animals, with horse very widely dominant
- Example: Gargas with a list of 148 animals identified:
- 36.5% bovids (bison and aurochs)
- 29% horses
- 10% ibexes
- 6% cervids
- 4% mammoths
- 8% indeterminates
- (2 birds, 1 wild boar)
- **No** feline, rhinoceros, bear
## Late Upper Paleolithic Cultures
### Solutrean
#### First Discovered
- Solutré (NE France)
#### Chronology
- ca. 21,000-18,000 BC
#### Geography
- Limited distribution over SW France and Iberia
#### Material Culture
- Upper Paleolithic-type lithic industry
- Heat Treatment, Pressure Retouch
- Solutrean points: bifacially retouched leaf points, shouldered
points, etc.
- burins, endscrapers, etc.
#### Settlements
- Some sedentary groups (Fourneau-du-Diable)
- Long stratigraphic sequences
#### Human remains
- Complex mortuary practices:
: No evidence of burials, but manipulation of dead (e.g., reuse of
skull: Le Placard)
#### Artistic expression
Types:
- Engraved limestone blocks
- Engraved Bones
- Parietal art
Characteristics:
- Various techniques applied: painting, engraving
- Distribution and amount of animals represented in tradition of Late
Upper Paleolithic: mainly horses and bisons
- Several novelties from Gravettian:
- First association of parietal art with occupation sites
\[Low-relief scupture on blocks detached from walls\];
- Representation of animals in line or opposed
### Magdelenian
#### First Discovered
- La Madeleine (Dordogne, France)
#### Chronology
- ca. 19,000-10,000 BC
#### Geography
- Widespread distribution over Eurasia
#### Major cultural centers
- Southwest France (Charente, Dordogne, Pyrénées)
- Northeast Spain
- Central Europe
#### Material Culture
- Upper Paleolithic-type lithic industry
- Magdalenian blades, burins, etc.
- Rich bone tool industry (harpoons)
#### Complex mortuary practices
- Children burials
#### Artistic expression
Types:
- Raw Materials: Great diversity (limestone cave walls and slabs,
sandstone, shale, bone, ivory, clay, etc.)
- Techniques: All techniques employed: Engraving, Sculpture, Molding,
Cutting, Drawing, Painting
- Both mobiliary and parietal arts present. Out of about 300 sites
with parietal art, 250 are attributed to Magdalenian period.
- Types of Figurations:
- Animals (mainly horses and bisons)
- Humans (male and female)
- Hands (positive and negative)
- Signs (dots, lines)
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Dating Techniques
of reconstructing how anatomical and behavioral characteristics of early
hominids evolved. \_\_toc\_\_ Researchers who are interested in knowing
the age of particular hominid fossils and/or artifacts have options that
fall into two basic categories:
- Relative dating methods
- Chronometric dating methods
## Relative dating methods
Relative dating methods allow one to determine if an object is earlier
than, later than, or contemporary with some other object. It does not,
however, allow one to independently assign an accurate estimation of the
age of an object as expressed in years. The most common relative dating
method is stratigraphy. Other methods include fluorine dating, nitrogen
dating, association with bones of extinct fauna, association with
certain pollen profiles, association with geological features such as
beaches, terraces and river meanders, and the establishment of cultural
seriations. Cultural seriations are based on typologies, in which
artifacts that are numerous across a wide variety of sites and over
time, like pottery or stone tools. If archaeologists know how pottery
styles, glazes, and techniques have changed over time they can date
sites based on the ratio of different kinds of pottery. This also works
with stone tools which are found abundantly at different sites and
across long periods of time.
### Principle of stratigraphy
Stratigraphic dating is based on the principle of depositional
superposition of layers of sediments called strata. This principle
presumes that the oldest layer of a stratigraphic sequence will be on
the bottom and the most recent, or youngest, will be on the top. The
earliest-known hominids in East Africa are often found in very specific
stratigraphic contexts that have implications for their relative dating.
These strata are often most visible in canyons or gorges which are good
sites to find and identify fossils. Understanding the geologic history
of an area and the different strata is important to interpreting and
understanding archaeological findings.
## Chronometric dating methods
The majority of chronometric dating methods are radiometric, which means
they involve measuring the radioactive decay of a certain chemical
isotope. They are called chronometric because they allow one to make a
very accurate scientific estimate of the date of an object as expressed
in years. They do not, however, give \"absolute\" dates because they
merely provide a statistical probability that a given date falls within
a certain range of age expressed in years. Chronometric methods include
radiocarbon, potassium-argon, fission-track, and thermoluminescence.
The most commonly used chronometic method is radiocarbon analysis. It
measures the decay of radioactive carbon (14C) that has been absorbed
from the atmosphere by a plant or animal prior to its death. Once the
organism dies, the Carbon-14 begins to decay at an extremely predictable
rate. Radioactive carbon has a half-life of approximately 5,730 years
which means that every 5,730 years, half of the carbon-14 will have
decayed. This number is usually written as a range, with plus or minus
40 years (1 standard deviation of error) and the theoretical absolute
limit of this method is 80,000 years ago, although the practical limit
is close to 50,000 years ago. Because the pool of radioactive carbon in
the atmosphere (a result of bombardment of nitrogen by neutrons from
cosmic radiation) has not been constant through time, calibration curves
based on dendrochronology (tree ring dating) and glacial ice cores, are
now used to adjust radiocarbon years to calendrical years.
The development of Atomic Absorption Mass Spectrometry in recent years,
a technique that allows one to count the individual atoms of 14C
remaining in a sample instead of measuring the radioactive decay of the
14C, has considerably broadened the applicability of radiocarbon dating
because it is now possible to date much smaller samples, as small as a
grain of rice, for example.
Dendrochronology is another archaeological dating technique in which
tree rings are used to date pieces of wood to the exact year in which
they were cut down. In areas in which scientists have tree rings
sequences that reach back thousands of years, they can examine the
patterns of rings in the wood and determine when the wood was cut down.
This works better in temperate areas that have more distinct growing
seasons (and thus rings) and relatively long-lived tree species to
provide a baseline.
## Methods of dating in archaeology
Techniques of recovery include:
- Surveys
- Excavations
Types of archaeological remains include:
- Perishable: plant remains, animal bones, wooden artifacts, basketry,
and other easily degradable objects
- Nonperishable materials: stone tools, pottery, rocks used for
structures.
Data collection and analysis is oriented to answer questions of
subsistence, mobility or settlement patterns, and economy.
## Methods in physical anthropology
Data collections based on study of hard tissues (bones and teeth),
usually the only remains left of earlier populations, which include:
- Identification of bones/Which part of skeleton is represented?
- Measurement of the cranium and other elements of a skeleton.
Carefully defined landmarks are established on the cranium, as well
as on the long bones, to facilitate standardization of measurements.
- Superficial examination of bone for any marks (for instance,
cutmarks)
- Further examination using specific techniques:
- X-ray to identify evidence of disease and trauma in bones
- DNA extraction to determine genetic affiliations
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Evolution Culture
## The concept of progress
**Progress** is defined as a gradual but predictable bettering of the
human condition over time, that is, things are always getting better
over time.
### History of Progressivism
- Progressivism has been one of the cornerstones of Western historical
and philosophical thought since ancient Greek times.
- For most of its history (from the Greek period to the 15th century),
Progressivism was a purely philosophical or ideological doctrine: in
the absence of any empirical evidence of improvement in the human
condition, early progressivists devised imaginary scenarios of human
history in which they pictured the gradual emergence of enlightened
present-day institutions out of earlier and ruder institutions. The
defining characteristics of any primitive society, thus conceived,
were wholly negative: they were whatever civilization was not.
- Starting in the late 15th century, ethnographic information about
living \"primitives,\" especially in the Americas, increased,
providing the progressivists with empirical confirmation for their
ideas. Living conditions of these \"primitive peoples\" conformed in
a general way to the imagined early condition of humankind; they
were therefore considered as \"fossilized\" survivals from ancient
times, who had somehow failed to progress.
- In the 19th century, archaeology also began to provide confirmation:
evidence of early peoples who had indeed lived without metals,
agriculture, or permanent dwellings, just as the progressivists had
always imagined.
- Out of the conjunction of progressivist theory with ethnographic and
archaeological researches, the discipline of anthropology was born
in the latter half of the 19th century. Early anthropologists
arranged that evidence in orderly progression to provide seemingly
irrefutable confirmation for what had long been only a philosophical
doctrine. Progressivism was transformed into a science named
anthropology; \"Progress\" was renamed \"Social Evolution\" or
\"Cultural Evolution.\" These ideas drew upon Darwinian evolution
but incorrectly assigned a directionality and value to evolution.
Where Darwinian evolution is not about progress, but rather adapting
to a given environmental condition, social evolution was very much
about progress, usually conceived in terms of military and economic
power over other societies.
### Characteristics
Progressivism flourished mainly in optimistic times, that is, times of
scientific advances and expanding imaginations:
- pre-Socratic Greece
- the Enlightenment (18th century)
- the Victorian age (19th century)
- the generation following World War II
Progressivism has been the doctrine that legitimizes all scientific
discoveries and labels them as \"advances\".
- All progressivists agree, however, that their age is superior to
those that preceded it.
- Human history is perceived with a basic directionality, from worse
to better.
### What is better?
- What constitutes \"the better\"? What causes it? How can it be
measured?
- Answers to these questions have changed in accordance with the
ideological preoccupation of different eras, and different
philosophies:
- improved material circumstances
- intellectual maturation
- aesthetic achievements
### Us vs. Them mentality
The problem with categorizing \"progressive\" judgments must be viewed
in long-term perspective as a struggle between two basically
incompatible cultural systems:
- in the present, us and the others: states/civilizations vs.
bands/tribes;
- in paleoanthropology, us (*Homo sapiens*) and the others (other
hominid species, e.g. Neandertals, *Homo erectus*).
## Historical background of Western nations
Hunting and gathering was predominant as a way of life for about 7
million years, with agriculture and plant domestication beginning around
10,000 years ago, and life in cities or states has been around for only
the past 5,000 years or so.
Changes, or progress, since the first appearance of urban life and state
organization (5,000 yrs ago):
- non-state tribal peoples persisted in a dynamic equilibrium or
symbiotic relationship with states/civilizations
- states/civilizations developed and remained within their own
ecological boundaries
- this situation lasted for thousands of years
This situation shifted 500 years ago:
- In the 15th century, Europeans began to expand beyond their
long-established frontiers.
- For about 250 years (until 1750), the expansion was relatively slow,
as non-state tribal peoples still seemed secure and successfully
adapted to their economically \"marginal\" refuges.
- In the mid-eighteenth century, the industrial revolution launched
the developing Western nations on an explosive growth in population
and consumption called \"progress.\"
## The Industrial Revolution
This period marks a major explosion at the scale of humankind:
- phenomenal increase in population
- increase in per capita consumption rates
- totally unparalleled scope
- these two critical correlates (population and consumption rates) of
industrialization quickly led to overwhelming pressure on natural
resources
Very quickly, industrial nations could no longer supply from within
their own boundaries the resources needed to support further growth or
even to maintain current consumption levels.
As a consequence:
- Industrial revolution led to an unprecedented assault on the
world\'s relatively stable non-Western tribal peoples and their
resources.
- Many of the \"underdeveloped\" resources controlled by the world\'s
self-sufficient tribal peoples were quickly appropriated by
outsiders to support their own industrial progress.
- In the last 200 years, these tribal cultures have virtually
disappeared or have been completely marginalized.
Increased rates of resource consumption, accompanying industrialization,
have been even more critical than mere population increase:
- Industrial civilization is a culture of consumption. In this
respect, it differs most strikingly from tribal cultures.
- Industrial economies are founded on the principle that consumption
must be ever expanded.
- Complex systems of mass marketing and advertising have been
developed for that specific purpose.
- Social stratification in industrial societies is based primarily on
inequalities in material wealth and is both supported and reflected
by differential access to resources.
Industrial ideological systems and prejudices:
- place great stress on belief in
- continual economic growth
- progress
- measure \"standard of living\" in terms of levels of material
consumption.
## Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one\'s own culture. It
is vital to the integrity of any culture, but it can be a threat to the
well-being of other peoples when it becomes the basis for forcing
Western standards upon non-Western tribal cultures.
The impact of modern civilization on tribal peoples is a dominant
research theme in anthropology and social sciences.
Among economic development writers, the consensus is the clearly
ethnocentric view that any contact with superior industrial culture
causes non-Western tribal peoples to voluntarily reject their own
cultures in order to obtain a better life.
In the past, anthropologists also often viewed this contact from the
same ethnocentric premises accepted by government officials, developers,
missionaries, and the general public. But in recent years, there has
been considerable confusion in the enormous culture change literature
regarding the basic question of why tribal cultures seem inevitably to
be acculturated or modernized by industrial civilization.
- There is therefore a problem to conceptualize the causes of the
transformation process in simple nonethnocentric terms.
- This apparent inability may be due to the fact that the analysts are
members of the culture of consumption that today happens to be the
dominant world culture type.
- The most powerful cultures have always assumed a natural right to
exploit the world\'s resources wherever they find them, regardless
of the prior claims of indigenous populations.
Arguing for efficiency and survival of the fittest, old-fashioned
colonialists elevated this \"right\" to the level of an ethical and
legal principle that could be invoked to justify the elimination of any
cultures that were not making \"effective\" use of their resources.
This viewpoint has found its way into modern theories of cultural
evolution, expressed as the \"Law of Cultural Dominance\": *any cultural
system which exploits more effectively the energy resources of a given
environment will tend to spread in that environment at the expense of
other less effective (indigenous) systems.*
- These old attitudes of social Darwinism are deeply embedded in our
ideological system.
- They still occur in the professional literature on culture change.
While resource exploitation is clearly the basic cause of the
destruction of tribal peoples, it is important to identify the
underlying ethnocentric attitudes that are often used to justify what
are actually exploitative policies.
Apart from the obvious ethical implications involved here, upon close
inspection all of these theories expounding the greater adaptability,
efficiency, and survival value of the dominant industrial culture prove
to be quite misleading.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
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```
*Of course, as a culture of consumption, industrial\
civilization is uniquely capable of consuming resources at tremendous\
rates, but this certainly does not make it a more effective culture
than\
low-energy tribal cultures, if stability or long-run ecological success
is\
taken as the criterion for \"effectiveness.\"*
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</div>
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------------------------------------------------------------------------
Likewise, we should expect, almost by definition, that members of the
culture of consumption would probably consider another culture\'s
resources to be underexploited and to use this as a justification for
appropriating them.
Among some writers, it is assumed that all people share our desire for
what we define as material wealth, prosperity, and progress and that
others have different cultures only because they have not yet been
exposed to the superior technological alternatives offered by industrial
civilization. Supporters of this view seem to minimize the difficulties
of creating new wants in a culture and at the same time make the
following highly questionable and clearly ethnocentric assumptions:
1. The materialistic values of industrial civilization are cultural
universals.
2. Tribal cultures are unable to satisfy the material needs of their
peoples.
3. Industrial goods are, in fact, always superior to their handcrafted
counterparts.
**Assumption 1 -** Unquestionably, tribal cultures represent a clear
rejection of the materialistic values of industrial civilization, yet
tribal individuals can indeed be made to reject their traditional values
if outside interests create the necessary conditions for this rejection.
The point is that far more is involved here than a mere demonstration of
the superiority of industrial civilization.
**Assumption 2 -** The ethnocentrism of the second assumption is
obvious. Clearly, tribal cultures could not have survived for millions
of years if they did not do a reasonable job of satisfying basic human
needs.
**Assumption 3 -** Regarding the third assumption, there is abundant
evidence that many of the material accoutrements of industrial
civilization may well not be worth their real costs regardless of how
appealing they may seem in the short term.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Darwinian Thought
## Pre-Darwinian Thoughts on Evolution
Throughout the Middle Ages, there was one predominant component of the
European world view: stasis.
- All aspects of nature were considered as fixed and change was
unconceivable.
- No new species had appeared, and none had disappeared or become
extinct.
- Strongly thought that if any new species were to appear, it would be
through sexual intercourse through multiple different species.
The social and political context of the Middle Ages helps explain this
world view:
- shaped by feudal society - hierarchical arrangement supporting a
rigid class system that had changed little for centuries
- shaped by a powerful religious system - life on Earth had been
created by God exactly as it existed in the present (known as fixity
of species).
This social and political context, and its world view, provided a
formidable obstacle to the development of evolutionary theory. In order
to formulate new evolutionary principles, scientists needed to:
- overcome the concept of fixity of species
- establish a theory of long geological time
From the 16th to the 18th century, along with renewed interest in
scientific knowledge, scholars focused on listing and describing all
kinds of forms of organic life. As attempts in this direction were made,
they became increasingly impressed with the amount of biological
diversity that confronted them.
These scholars included:
- John Ray (1627-1705) - put some
order into the diversity of animal and plant life, by creating the
concepts of species and genus.
- Carolus Linnaeus
(1707-1778) - added two more categories (class and order) and
created a complex system of classification (taxonomy) still used
today; also innovated by including humans in his classification of
animals.
- Georges-Louis
Leclerc
(1707-1788) - innovated by suggesting the changing nature of
species, through adaptation to local climatic and environmental
conditions.
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
(1744-1829) - offered a comprehensive system to explain species
changes; postulated that physical alterations of organic life would
occur in relation to changing environmental circumstances, making
species better suited for their new habitat; also postulated that
new traits would be passed on to offspring (the theory known as
inheritance of acquired characteristics).
Therefore, the principle of \"fixity of species\" that ruled during the
Middle Ages was no longer considered valid.
In the mid-19th century, Charles
Darwin offered a new theory which
pushed further the debate of evolutionary processes and marks a
fundamental step in their explanation by suggesting that evolution works
through natural selection.
## Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Charles Darwin\'s life as a scientist began when he took a position as
naturalist aboard *HMS Beagle*, a ship charting the coastal waters of
South America. As the ship circled the globe over a five-year period
(1831-1836), Darwin puzzled over the diversity and distribution of life
he observed. Observations and collections of materials made during these
travels laid the foundation for his life\'s work studying the natural
world.
As an example, the *Beagle* stopped five weeks in the Galapagos
archipelago. There Darwin observed an unusual combination of species and
wondered how they ended up on this island.
Darwin\'s observations on the diversity of plants and animals and their
particular geographical distribution around the globe led him to
question the assumption that species were immutable, established by a
single act of creation. He reasoned that species, like the Earth itself,
were constantly changing. Life forms colonized new habitats and had to
survive in new conditions. Over generations, they underwent
transmutation into new forms. Many became extinct. The idea of evolution
slowly began to take shape in his mind.
In his 1859 publication *On the Origin of Species*, Darwin presented
some of the main principles that explained the diversity of plants and
animals around the globe: adaptation and natural selection. According to
him, species were mutable, not fixed; and they evolved from other
species through the mechanism of natural selection.
### Darwin\'s theory of natural selection
In 1838, Darwin, at 28, had been back from his voyage on the *Beagle*
for two years. He read Thomas Malthus\'s *Essay on Population*, which
stated that human populations invariably grow until they are limited by
starvation, poverty, and death, and realized that Malthus\'s logic could
also apply to the natural world. This realization led Darwin to develop
the principle of evolution by natural selection, which revolutionized
our understanding of the living world.
His theory was published for the first time in 1859 in *On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured
Races in the Struggle for Life*.
### Darwin\'s Postulates
The theory of adaptation and how species change through time follows
three postulates:
- **Struggle for existence**: The ability of a population to expand is
infinite, but the ability of any environment to support populations
is always finite.
: Example: Animals require food to grow and reproduce. When food is
plentiful, animal populations grow until their numbers exceed the
local food supply. Since resources are always finite, it follows
that not all individuals in a population will be able to survive and
reproduce.
- **Variation in fitness**: Organisms in populations vary. Therefore,
some individuals will possess traits that enable them to survive and
reproduce more successfully (producing more offspring) than others
in the same environment.
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```
- **Inheritance of variation**: If the advantageous traits are
inherited by offspring, then these traits will become more common in
succeeding generations. Thus, traits that confer advantages in
survival and reproduction are retained in the population, and traits
that are disadvantageous disappear.
### Examples of adaptation by natural selection
During his voyage on the *HMS Beagle*, Darwin observed a curious pattern
of adaptations among several species of finches (now called Darwin\'s
finches) that live on the Galapagos Islands.
Several traits of finches went through drastic changes in response to
changes in their environment. One example is beak depth:
- There was huge variation in beak depth among finches on the island;
it affected the birds\' survival and adaptation to local
environmental changes.
:
: During a drought, finches with deeper beaks were more likely to
survive than finches with shallow beaks (which were at a
disadvantage because it was harder for them to crack larger and
harder seeds).
- Parents and offsprings had similar beak depths.
Through natural selection, average morphology (an organism\'s size,
shape and composition) of the bird population changed so that birds
became better adapted to their environment.
### Benefits and disadvantages of evolution
#### Individual Selection
Adaptation results from competition among individuals, not between
entire populations or species.
Selection produces adaptations that benefit individuals. Such adaptation
may or may not benefit the population or species. In the case of
finches\' beak depth, selection probably does allow the population of
finches to compete more effectively with other populations of seed
predators. However, this need not be the case. Selection often leads to
changes in behavior or morphology that increase the reproductive success
of individuals but decrease the average reproductive success and
competitive ability of the group, population, and species.
:
: Example of conflict between individual and group interests: All
organisms in the population produce many more offspring than are
necessary to maintain the species. A female monkey may, on
average, produce 10 offspring during her lifetime. In a stable
population, perhaps only two of these offspring will survive and
reproduce. From the point of view of the species, the other
eight are a waste of resources. The species as a whole might be
more likely to survive if all females produced fewer offspring.
The idea that natural selection operates at the level of the individual
is a key element in understanding adaptation.
#### Directional Selection
Instead of a completely random selection of individuals whose traits
will be passed on to the next generation, there is selection by forces
of nature. In this process, the frequency of genetic variants for
harmful or maladaptive traits within the population is reduced while the
frequency of genetic variants for adaptive traits is increased.
Natural selection, as it acts to promote change in gene frequencies, is
referred to as directional selection.
#### Stabilizing Selection
**Finches\' beaks** (Example)
Large beaks have benefits as well as disadvantages. Birds with large
beaks are less likely to survive their juvenile period than birds with
small beaks, probably because they require more food to grow.
Evolutionary theory prediction:
- Over time, selection will increase the average beak depth in a
population until the costs of larger-than-average beak size exceed
the benefits.
- At this point, finches with average beak size in the population will
be the most likely to survive and reproduce, and finches with deeper
or shallower beaks than the new average will be at a disadvantage.
At this point, the population reaches equilibrium with regard to beak
size. The process that produces this equilibrium state is called
stabilizing selection.
Even though average characteristics of the beak in the population will
not change in this situation, selection is still going on. The point to
remember here is that populations do not remain static over the long
run; if so, it is because a population is consistently favored by
stabilizing selection.
### Rate of Evolutionary Change
In Darwin\'s day, the idea that natural selection could change a
chimpanzee into a human, much less that it might do so in just a few
million years (which is a brief moment in evolutionary time), was
unthinkable.
Today, most scientists believe that humans evolved from an apelike
creature in only 5 to 10 million years. In fact, some of the rates of
selective change observed in contemporary populations are far faster
than necessary for natural selection to produce the adaptations that we
observe.
:
: The human brain has roughly doubled in the last 2 million years
(rate of change of 0.00005% per year); that is 10,000 times
slower than the rate of change observed among finches in the
Galapagos Islands.
Therefore the real puzzle is why the change in the fossil record seem to
have been quite slow.
The fossil record is still very incomplete.
It is quite likely that some evolutionary changes in the past were
rapid, but the sparseness of the fossil record prevents us from
detecting them.
### Darwin\'s Difficulties
In *On the Origin of Species*, Darwin proposed that new species and
other major evolutionary changes arise by the accumulation of small
variations through natural selection.
This idea was not widely embraced by his contemporaries.
- Many accepted the idea that new species arise through the
transformation of existing species.
- Many accepted the idea that natural selection is the most important
cause of organic change.
- But only a few endorsed Darwin\'s view that major changes occur
through the accumulation of small variations.
Darwin\'s critics raised a major objection to his theory: The actions of
selection would inevitably deplete variation in populations and make it
impossible for natural selection to continue.
Yet Darwin couldn\'t convince his contemporaries that evolution occurred
through the accumulation of small variations because he could not
explain how variation is maintained, because he and his contemporaries
did not yet understand the mechanics of inheritance.
For most people at the time, including Darwin, many of the
characteristics of offspring were thought to be an average of the
characteristics of their parents. This phenomena was believed to be
caused by the action of blending inheritance, a model of inheritance
that assumes the mother and father each contribute a hereditary
substance that mixes, or \"blends\", to determine the characteristics of
the offspring.
The solution to these problems required an understanding of genetics,
which was not available for another half century. It was not until well
into the 20th century that geneticists came to understand how variation
is maintained, and Darwin\'s theory of evolution was generally accepted.
|
# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Origin of Language
record (following Philip Chase\'s criteria):
- Regularity of use indicating purposeful and repeated activity;
- Yet repetitive behavior alone is not enough, because by itself not
indicative of symbol use: Ex. Actions of individuals working without
a system of shared meaning
- Therefore patterns need to be complex and learned linguistically
rather than by observation or mimicry;
- Finally such behavior becomes symbolic, if it intentionally
communicates thoughts, emotions, belief systems, group identity,
etc. Material expressions of culturally mediated symbols:
- intentional burial of the dead, with grave goods;
- figurative and abstract imagery;
- pigment use;
- body ornamentation.
Important effort to clarify definition and category of data we are
dealing with. Yet if we follow these criteria, most artefacts from Lower
(Acheulean) and Middle Paleolithic (60,000-50,000 years ago) are ruled
out, because of lack of evidence for repeated patterning and
intentionality.
## Contribution of evolutionary psychology to origins of art
Is intelligence a single, general-purpose domain or a set of domains?
Evolutionary psychologists answer: set of domains, which they call
\"mental modules\", \"multiple intelligences\", \"cognitive domains\";
these \"mental modules\" interact, are connected;
Anatomically modern humans have better interaction between modules than
other animals; therefore, able to perform more complex behaviors;
Four cognitive and physical processes exist:
- making visual images
- classification of images into classes
- intentional communication
- attribution of meaning to images
The first three are found in non-human primates and most hominids. Yet,
only modern humans seem to have developed the fourth one.
For Neanderthals, intentional communication and classification were
probably sealed in social intelligence module, while mark-making and
attribution of meaning (both implicating material objects) were hidden.
Only with arrival of modern humans, connection between modules made art
possible by allowing intentional communication to escape into the domain
of mark-making.
### Problems with data and chronology
We could easily look at this transition in a smooth way: The passage
from one industry to the next, one hominid to the next, etc.
Evolutionary paths well structured and detailed, as in textbooks, but a
bit too clear-cut, that is simplistic and reductionist.
After 1.8 million years ago, when *H. ergaster/erectus* moved
out-of-Africa, the picture of human evolution becomes much more complex.
Situation due to several reasons:
- many more hominid species appear connected to global colonization
and relative isolation;
- many cultural variations observed, illustrated by various stone tool
industries, subsistence patterns, etc.
Overall, presence of differentiated cultural provinces in Africa and
Eurasia which have their own evolutionary pace.
Dates don\'t seem to reveal a clear-cut divide between the Lower and
Middle Paleolithic and don\'t fit anymore in a specific and rigorous
time frame:
- H. erectus disappeared in most places around 300,000-200,000 yrs
ago, although still found in Java up to 50,000 yrs ago;
- Archaic modern humans (Neanderthals) appeared around 130,000 yrs ago
in Europe;
- Archaic modern humans (H. sapiens sapiens) appeared some time
between 200,000 and 100,000 yrs ago in Africa;
- Acheulean stone tools were still in use beyond 200,000 yrs ago in
many areas;
- The lithic industry (Mousterian) characteristic of the Middle
Paleolithic appeared around 250,000 yrs ago in some areas (SW Asia);
- Subsistence patterns (hunting/scavenging), use of fire, habitats
were still the basis of cultural adaptations in the Middle
Paleolithic.
By focusing on a transition happening only at 50,000 yrs ago would be
overlooking some major human innovations and evolutionary trends that
took place earlier and on a much longer period.
We need to focus more on *H. heidelbergensis* and its material culture
and other behavioral patterns to realize that the transition was not at
50,000 years ago, but between 600,000 and 60,000 yrs ago.
### The revolution that wasn\'t
\"Revolution\" is in this context the Upper Paleolithic Revolution, with
the development from 50,000 yrs ago of *Homo sapiens sapiens*,
considered the only species anatomically AND behaviorally modern.
By \"modern human behavior,\" we mean:
- Increased artifact diversity;
- Standardization of artefact types;
- Blade Technology;
- Worked bone and other organic materials;
- Personal ornaments and \"art\" or images;
- Structured living spaces;
- Ritual;
- Economic intensification, reflected in the exploitation of aquatic
or other resources that require specialized technology;
- Expanded exchange networks.
By overlooking and even not considering recent discoveries from the
1990s regarding the periods before 50,000 years ago, we are misled to
consider the evidence after that date as the result of biological and
cultural revolution.
Recent observations in Africa, Europe and Asia from sites between
600,000 and 250,000 years ago (Acheulean period) seem to document very
different patterns: \"The Revolution That Wasn\'t\".
### Evidence in the Lower Paleolithic
#### Stone tools: blade technology
- Blade technology appeared and disappeared at different points in
time. Earliest evidence to date: Kapthurin Formation (Kenya)
550,000-300,000 BP
#### Bone tools
- Swartkrans (South Africa)
- Makapansgat (South Africa)
- Drimolen (South Africa)
#### Wooden tools
- Schöningen (Germany) 400,000 years ago: Spears
#### Use of pigments (ochre)
- Kapthurin Formation (Kenya) 550,000-300,000 yrs ago
- Twin Rivers Cave (Zambia) 400,000-200,000 yrs ago
- Pomongwe (Zimbabwe) 250,000-220,000 yrs ago
- Terra Amata (France) 300,000 yrs ago
- Becov (Czech Republic) 250,000 yrs ago
#### Artistic expression
- Pech de l\'Azé (France) 400,000 yrs ago: Engraved bone
- Sainte-Anne I Cave (France): Engraved bone
- Bilzingsleben (Germany) 300,000 yrs ago: Large engraved rib
- Singi Talav (India) 300,000-150,000 yrs ago: Occurrence of
non-utilitarian objects (Quartz crystals)
- Zhoukoudian (China): Occurrence of non-utilitarian objects
- Birket Ram (Israel): Human figurine
- Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania): Figurine
- Makapansgat (South Africa): Human figurine
- Tan-Tan (Morocco) 500,000-300,000 yrs ago: Human figurine
#### Mortuary practices
- Atapuerca (Spain) 350,000 yrs ago: H. heidelbergensis
#### Seafaring
- Flores Island (Indonesia) 780,000 yrs ago
## Origins of language
Sometime during the last several million years, hominids evolved the
ability to communicate much more complex and detailed information (about
nature, technology, and social relationships) than any other creatures.
Yet we, cannot reconstruct the evolutionary history of language as we
reconstruct the history of bipedalism because the ability to use
language leaves no clear traces in the fossil record. Therefore, there
is no consensus among paleoanthropologists about when language evolved.
But from new information learned from DNA testing by at the Institute
for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, the very stable gene FOXP2
(this is the gene that makes speech possible) suddenly changed
approximately 250,000 years ago, 2 of the molecular units in the
715-unit DNA sequence abruptly changed. Neanderthals did not have this
modification in their gene sequence, whereas Homo Sapien Sapiens did
have this modification and were much more articulate .
We are going to try to clarify the current situation by reviewing the
recent evidence on the topic, focusing on specific criteria that could
reveal essential information on early forms of language:
- brain capacity
- brain asymmetry
- vocal apparatus
### The intellectual and linguistic skills of early hominids
#### Australopithecines
Reconstruction work on australopithecines indicates that their vocal
tract was basically like that of apes, with the larynx and pharynx high
up in the throat. This would not have allowed for the precise
manipulation of air that is required for modern human languages. The
early hominids could make sounds, but they would have been more like
those of chimpanzees.
#### H. ergaster/erectus
##### Brain capacity
Their average cranial capacity was just a little short of the modern
human minimum, and some individual erectus remains fall within the human
modern range. It is difficult to be certain what this fact means in
terms of intelligence.
##### Brain asymmetry
Paleoanthropologist Ralph Holloway has looked at the structure of *H.
erectus* brains. He made endocasts of the inside surfaces of fossil
crania, because the inside of the skull reflects some of the features of
the brain it once held.
One intriguing find is that the brains of *H. erectus* were
asymmetrical: the right and left halves of the brain did not have the
same shape. This is found to a greater extent in modern humans, because
the two halves of the human brain perform different functions. Language
and the ability to use symbols, for example, are functions of the left
hemisphere, while spatial reasoning (like the hand-eye coordination
needed to make complex tools) is performed by the right hemisphere. This
hints that *H. erectus* also had hemisphere specialization, perhaps even
including the ability to communicate through a symbolic language.
##### Vocal apparatus
Further evidence of language use by *H. erectus* is suggested by the
reconstruction of the vocal apparatus based on the anatomy of the
cranial base. Even though the vocal apparatus is made up of soft parts,
those parts are connected to bone; so the shape of the bone is
correlated with the shape of the larynx, pharynx and other features. *H.
erectus* had vocal tracts more like those of modern humans, positioned
lower in the throat and allowing for a greater range and speed of sound
production. Thus, erectus could have produced vocal communication that
involved many sounds with precise differences.
Whether or not they did so is another question. But given their ability
to manufacture fairly complex tools and to survive in different and
changing environmental circumstances, *H. ergaster/erectus* certainly
could have had complex things to \"talk about\". Therefore it is not out
of question that erectus had a communication system that was itself
complex, even though some scholars are against this idea.
## Summary
Scientists struggle with the definition of human behavior, while dealing
with evidence dating to the early part of the Lower Paleolithic (7-2
million years ago).
Definition of modern human behavior is not easier to draw. The answer to
this topic should not be found only in the period starting at around
50,000 yrs ago. Evidence now shows that the period between 500,000 and
250,000 years ago was rich in attempts at elaborating new behavioral
patterns, either material or more symbolic.
On another level, beginning about 1.6 million years ago, brain size
began to increase over and beyond that which can be explained by an
increase in body size. Some researchers point to evidence that suggests
that from 1.6 million years to about 300,000 years ago, the brain not
only dramatically increased in size but also was being neurally
reorganized in a way that increased its ability to process information
in abstract (symbolic) way. This symbolism allowed complex information
to be stored, relationships to be derived, and information to be
efficiently retrieved and communicated to others in various ways.
Before 200,000 yrs ago, what is the relationship between *H. erectus* and *H. heidelbergensis*?
*H. heidelbergensis* seems to be the author of these new behavioral
patterns, not *H. erectus*. *H. heidelbergensis*, especially in Africa,
shows therefore evidence of new stone tool technology (blades), grinding
stone and pigment (ochre) processing before 200,000 years ago. These new
patterns connected with *H. heidelbergensis* could therefore be seen as
critical advantages over *H. erectus* in the human evolutionary lineage.
## References
- *How Humans Evolved*, Robert Boyd and Joan B. Silk, (1997)
- *Biological Anthropology*, Michael Park, (2002)
- *Physical Anthropology*, Philip L. Stein and Bruce M Rowe, (2003)
|
# Wikijunior:Solar System/Introduction
{{ }}
## Introduction
!These planets are little bigger than dots in the night sky, but if you
call them dots, then Earth (in the marble-sized group, topleft) is
smaller than a grain of
sand. is smaller than a grain of sand."){width="250"
height="250"}
Wikijunior books welcomes you to the children\'s book *Solar System*.
Outer space is perhaps the final frontier for humanity. Even though the
rest of the solar system objects may seem like tiny dots from Earth, our
celestial neighbors are still important to learn about. If, when you
grow up, you are going to be an astronaut and travel in space, you will
need to know quite a bit about the solar system. And even if you don\'t
travel to space, the things other people do there will affect you, so
you need to know about it. Also, if you meet an astronomer or an
astronaut, you do not want to sound ignorant! The importance of learning
about the solar system has led many experts here at Wikijunior to donate
their time and talents to bring this volume together.
Wikibooks is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation, aimed at providing
free, easily available, quality reading for adults and children to
promote the global spread of knowledge. Traditional publishing houses
make the bulk of their income from re-issues of classic books, new books
by authors with long track records, or celebrities who are famous in
their own right. The chances of a truly good new work being published
solely on the basis of merit skyrocket when the traditional business
model is overturned and the wellspring of new talent out there is tapped
using the Internet.
With this project we have reached a crossroads between the books of
yesterday and the encyclopedia of everything for tomorrow. Simply by
reading this book and telling others about it, you have advanced the
cause of free access to information and of democratizing the field of
publishing. Thank you, and once again, welcome.
## Studying the Solar System
!A stamp issued by the Soviet Union, showing Sputnik\'s planned orbit
path around the Earth.
{width="250"
height="300"} Scientists are still exploring the universe. Whether
things are very tiny, like the cells of plants and animals, or very big,
like a solar system or a galaxy, there is still a lot that scientists
don't know.
Scientists who study space are called
Astronomers or
Astrophysicists. They explore the solar
system in two different ways. Astronomers do it by observing celestial
bodies through telescopes, while astrophysicists (a specialized class of
astronomers) try to explain the observed phenomena using physics, as
suggested by the name, and theorize about what is still unseen or
unknown.
Telescopes were invented in the early 1600s in Europe and allowed
curious scientists like Galileo Galilei to look at very distant things
in close-up and see details of the solar system and the universe that
nobody had ever seen before. Using his telescope, Galileo was the first
person to see the rings around Saturn and draw a very detailed picture
of the moon. He also saw the four largest moons of Jupiter, sometimes
called the Galilean moons, and saw spots on the Sun. Telescopes on Earth
and in space are still used to explore the Solar System. There are
several types of telescopes. The most common ones are optical
telescopes, such as Galileo\'s (*optical* means relating to light, which
is what these telescopes see), and radio telescopes, that pick up radio
waves from outer space (radio waves occur naturally; they don\'t have to
be made by humans).
Until the 1950s, humans were limited to exploring the Solar System from
the ground. However, in 1957, the Soviet Union (now Russia and several
other countries) launched the very first satellite, *Sputnik 1*
(pronounced like *spoo-tneek*). Since then, humans have been launching
vehicles into space to explore the Solar System---some manned (with
people) and some unmanned (without people).
Now, the Solar System is full of human-made probes exploring the planets
and moons of the solar system. The probes send back information to Earth
that scientists study to figure out what it means. Every year,
scientists learn more about the Solar System. Sometimes they learn
things about other worlds that remind us of Earth. Other times, the
things they learn are very strange. Everything they learn helps us
understand more about Earth, Earth\'s history, and Earth\'s
neighborhood.
## How is the Solar System measured?
It's important that scientists use measurement to tell how big, how hot
or cold, or how far away something is. In science, people use the
**metric system**, which is named after its basic unit the metre. Below
is a description of all the types of measurement used in this book.
### Distance or length/width
For indications of measurements, such as how distant something is or how
long or wide it is, scientists use **kilometres** or **metres**. Units
of the metric system (a kilometre is 1000 metres, a metre is little more
than 3 feet in the old imperial unit system still in use in some
regions). Kilometres is often shortened to **km**, and metres is often
shortened to **m**. Kilometres and metres can also be spelled as
*Kilometers* and *Meters*, but the International Bureau of Weights and
Measurements uses the -re versions as the official spelling.
Since distances outside of the Earth get so vast, scientists have also
invented new units of measurement to make it easier to measure large
distances in space. They invented the **Astronomical unit** (㍳) which
is equivalent to 149 597 871 kilometres. One Astronomical Unit is the
approximate distance between the Earth and the Sun. The mean distance
between the sun and Neptune (the farthest planet from the sun) is 30.1
㍳, or 4.503 billion kilometres. This is why it\'s good to use ㍳ for a
big distance like that: 30 distances from the Earth to the sun is easier
to understand than four and a half billion kilometres. You might not
realize there was something wrong if someone told you the distance from
the sun to Neptune was 45.03 million kilometres, but if you thought of
it as 0.301 ㍳, you would know it couldn\'t be right.
In astronomy, they have leveling-up scales similar to the metric (10 mm
in 1 cm, 100 cm in 1 m) and customary (12 in. in 1 ft., 3 ft. in 1 yd.)
scales. Usually, these distances are not used within the solar system,
but they are important to know if you want to be an astronomer or
astrophysicist.
: 1 Light-year (ly) = 63241.077 ㍳
: 1 Parsec (pc) = 3.26 ly
: 1 Kiloparsec (kpc) = 1000 pc
: 1 Megaparsec (mpc) = 1000 kpc
: 1 Gigaparsec (gpc) = 1000 mpc
To help you visualise just how big some of these are,
: 4.22 ly = The distance from Earth to the nearest star (Proxima
Centauri) other than the sun
: 1.3 pc = The distance from Earth to Proxima Centauri
: 34 kpc = The length of the Milky Way
: 0.76 mpc = The distance from Earth to the nearest Galaxy, the
Andromeda Galaxy
: 14 gpc = The radius of the observable universe
### Mass
In order to measure how big something is, scientists measure the
**mass** of an object in kilograms or grams. There are 1000 grams in a
kilogram. Scientists do not use weight, because weight is a measurement
that means how hard gravity is pulling on an object. An object's
**mass** is the same wherever you are in the solar system because it
measures how much stuff, or matter, a thing is made up of. Your weight
will change because the amount of gravity there is varies from place to
place.
On Earth, mass and weight are the same. If you weigh 30kg (short for
kilograms) on Earth, your mass is 30kg. If you are floating around in
space, your weight if you try to stand on a set of scales will be 0kg,
but your mass is still 30kg. You are still made up of the same amount of
matter.
### Temperature
Temperature is a numeric reference, on a scale of degrees, on how hot or
cold something is in relation to a \"constant\" reference. There are
several scales. In our
everyday lives, we measure temperature in degrees Celsius, written °C
for short (the little circle ° means \"degrees\"), or degrees
Fahrenheit, written °F for short. But scientists, especially
astronomers, use **degrees Kelvin** to measure temperature, written K
for short (with no °). Don\'t use Celsius or Fahrenheit for temperatures
in astronomy!
Some important temperatures to know in Kelvin:
- 0K (−273.15°C) is maximum coldness, also called absolute zero. This
is a great thing about measuring temperature in Kelvin: that the
number is always positive and tells you how much warmer things are
than the coldest they could possibly be.
- The freezing point of water is 273.15K (0°C), and the boiling point
of water is 373.15K (100°C).
- A sunny day of 30°C (86°F) would be 303.15K. This is 273.15 + 30,
because degrees change equally in Kelvin and Celsius.
## Introduction for Parents, Guardians, and Educators
`<i>`{=html}The Solar System`</i>`{=html} is a Wikijunior book written
by a group of volunteers and made freely available to Internet users,
printers, and distributors under the terms of its license. It is the
result of cooperation between The Beck Foundation, The Wikimedia
Foundation, and volunteer writers and editors.
The volunteer writers and contributors thank you for obtaining this
book. By making it available to a young person, you complete the goal of
the Wikijunior project, which is to encourage reading and literacy among
young people.
The original text and graphics are available at
<http://www.wikibooks.org> and printed versions may be available from
many different entities under license.
Again, thank you, and enjoy.
Next Topic: Solar
System
bs:Wiki junior Sunčev
sistem/Uvod
it:Wikijunior Il sistema
solare/Introduzione
|
# Wikijunior:Solar System/Solar System
{{ }} !The Hubble Space Telescope. This
telescope is in space. It takes pictures of things that are too far away
to be seen with a regular
telescope.
Do you ever wonder about the things in the sky---the Sun, the Moon, the
stars? People have been watching the sky for a long time, trying to
figure out what is out there. We keep coming up with new ways to learn
more about outer space.
*Planets* are big balls of rock or gas that move around stars. We live
on one we call the Earth, which moves around a star we call the Sun.
There are at least seven other planets moving around the Sun and a lot
of other smaller things as well. All these things together are called a
*system*. The Latin word for the Sun is *Sol*, so we call this system
the *Solar System*. Far beyond our own Solar System are stars, bodies
like the Sun but in some cases much bigger.
!The eight planets of the Solar System, and the sun. Sizes are to
scale, but distances are
not.{width="180"
height="200"} Thousands of years ago, a man named **Aristarchus** said
that the Solar System moved around the Sun. Some people thought he was
right, but many people believed the opposite: that the Solar System
moved around the Earth, including the Sun (and even the other stars).
This seems sensible because the Earth doesn\'t feel as if it\'s moving,
does it?About 500 years ago, another man named **Copernicus** said the
same thing as Aristarchus: that all the planets moved around the Sun and
the stars were fixed in space.[^1] This time, more people agreed, but
there were still people who thought the opposite. Then, about 100 years
later, a man called **Galileo Galilei** began looking at the sky with a
new invention: the telescope. He showed that it was very likely that all
the planets moved around the Sun. This time, even more people thought
Galileo may be right and that the Earth really did move around the Sun.
Soon, more and more people started using telescopes to study the sky.
However, there were still some people who thought Galileo was wrong, and
he was even arrested and taken to court for lying. All the people who
believed him began to learn how the planets and the other things in the
Solar System moved so they could prove that he was not lying. Thousands
of years after Aristarchus, people finally said \"Okay, the Earth does
move around the Sun\". Galileo couldn\'t be called a liar anymore.[^2]
We can use very large telescopes to see what has happened to other
stars. We can compare pictures of distant stars with pictures of our own
star, the Sun. We live in exciting times because, for the first time, we
have sent people into space, and we also have telescopes in space. These
telescopes in space take thousands of pictures of the planets, our sun,
and the distant stars. On Earth, people use the photos to learn about
all the different things in the Solar System and they try to explain how
the Solar System began. We even have a robot on the red planet Mars that
moves around, and people on Earth tell it where to go and what to
photograph. We also want to know what will happen to the Earth and the
Solar System in the future.
## What is in the Solar System?
!The Solar System, showing the Sun, inner planets, asteroid belt, outer
planets, an outer dwarf planet, and a comet. (Not to
scale!)"){width="250"}
At the center of the Solar System is the Sun. It is a star, like the
billions of other stars in the sky. The other stars are very, very far
away, so they look tiny. The Sun is important to us because it gives us
heat and energy that allows life. None of the life on Earth could exist
without the Sun.[^3]
The rest of the things in the Solar System *orbit* (travel around) the
Sun. The planets are the largest of these. Each planet is a little like
the Earth. But the planets are also very different from each other.
Many of the planets have *moons*. A moon orbits a planet. Mercury has no
moons,[^4] and neither does Venus. Earth has one. Saturn has more than
80![^5]
The planets closest to the Sun are called the *inner planets*. These are
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Then comes a big ring of *asteroids*,
chunks of rock much smaller than planets. This ring is called the
*asteroid belt*. Within the asteroid belt, there is a dwarf planet
(smaller than a normal planet) named Ceres. Then come the *outer
planets*: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Farther out there are
two dwarf planets, Pluto and Eris.
The planets have the names of Roman gods that were worshipped by people
thousands of years ago, though no one believes in them now. Did you know
that some days of the week are also the names of ancient gods? Saturday
means \"Saturn Day\". Thursday means \"Thor Day\". Thor was a Viking god
and the son of Odin. Monday and Sunday simply mean \"Moon Day\" and
\"Sun Day\". Some of the months are also named after Roman gods. The
month of \"March\" is named after the Roman god \"Mars\"---he was the
god of War!
Beyond the orbit of Neptune is another big ring of things like the
asteroids, called the *Kuiper belt*. Kuiper (said \"KYE-per\") was the
last name of the person who first wrote about it. Most of the things in
the Kuiper belt are hard to see through telescopes.
After the Kuiper belt comes the *Oort cloud*. Scientists think this is
where *comets* come from. It is very far away, many times farther away
than Pluto is from the Sun (over a thousand times). It is near the edge
of the Solar System.[^6] (Yes, \"Oort\" was the last name of the person
who first wrote about it.)
!Zodiacal
light.{width="200"
height="200"} In between all the other things is dust. The pieces of
dust are very far apart, but they shine in the light of the Sun. Before
dawn, in September or October, they glow in the East. We call this the
*zodiacal glow* or *zodiacal light*.[^7]
When pieces of space dust hit the Earth\'s atmosphere, they burn
brightly. We call them shooting stars or meteors.
The Sun creates *solar wind*---a kind of gas that blows away from the
Sun into space. This gas travels out past the planets into outer space.
The edge, where the solar wind meets the wind from other stars, is
called the *heliopause*. That is about 100 times as far from us as the
Earth is from the Sun.[^8] Beyond that, there is a lot of empty space.
The nearest star to our Sun is thousands of times farther away than the
size of the entire solar system. The Universe is a really huge and empty
place![^9]
### What holds it together?
!Sir Isaac Newton, the discoverer of gravity. It is said that he came
up with the concept of gravity when an apple fell on his
head..jpg "Sir Isaac Newton, the discoverer of gravity. It is said that he came up with the concept of gravity when an apple fell on his head."){width="200"
height="220"} Why do all of the planets orbit the Sun? Why do moons
orbit planets? Why doesn\'t the Sun move away and leave the planets
behind? The answer to all of these questions has to do with *gravity*.
Gravity is a force that is a property of *mass*. It pulls things
together.
We don\'t notice the pull from the Sun because it also pulls on the
Earth by the same amount. But the Sun\'s gravity is strong enough to
keep the Earth from shooting away. Even though the Earth is going fast,
it keeps turning to go around the Sun. It is like they were tied
together with an invisible string. In the same way, moons orbit many of
the planets. They are kept there by gravity. The Sun itself does not sit
still in space. The entire Solar System orbits the center of our galaxy.
The whole thing stays together because of the force of gravity[^10].
#### About mass
Everything is made of matter. The amount of matter is called mass. Two
apples have twice the mass of one apple. The more mass a thing has, the
more gravity pulls it, and the more its gravity pulls other objects. We
don\'t notice the pull from an apple because it is so much less than the
pull from the Earth. If you stand on the ground and let go of an apple,
gravity will pull it down towards the center of the Earth. It will hit
the ground. If you could throw the apple hard enough at the right angle,
it would go into orbit around the Earth. That is how rockets put
astronauts into orbit. If you threw the apple really, REALLY hard in the
right direction, it would fly away from Earth and never come back, but
our arms are not that strong.
The force of gravity from anything is strongest when very close to that
thing and weaker when further from it. Scientists use *weight* to mean
how hard gravity pulls us. Astronauts weigh less on the moon because it
has less mass. It does not pull as hard. We actually weigh a tiny bit
less on top of a tall mountain than we do in a lower place. This is
because we are farther from most of the Earth.[^11]
## Who discovered the Solar System?
Anyone who looks up at the sky enough can see seven bright objects.
These are the Sun, our Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
People have known about them for a very long time. Ancient people
thought they were related to gods. In Babylon, they named the days of
the week after them. Almost everyone was sure that all these things were
orbiting the Earth. They did not know we lived in a **Solar** System.
In about 1500, Nicolaus Copernicus figured out that the planets orbit
the Sun. Only the Moon orbits the Earth. But he was afraid to say so for
most of his life and only published a full account of his ideas in 1543,
the year of his death.[^12] Then Galileo Galilei pointed a telescope at
the sky. He found moons orbiting Jupiter. He was certain Copernicus was
right, and he got in trouble for saying so. It took seventy years to
convince scientists that the planets orbit the Sun.[^13] Now, almost
everyone on Earth understands that we live in a Solar System. !The
largest objects at the farthest reaches of the Solar System, even
farther than
Neptune!{width="200"
height="200"} People made better telescopes and found more things in the
sky---moons,[^14] new planets,[^15] and asteroids.[^16] More things,
like the dwarf planet Eris, are being found today.[^17]
## How have we explored the Solar System?
!The *Voyager 2*
spacecraft.{width="250"}
!An artist\'s impressions of
*Spirit*.{width="250"}
Before the telescope , people explored the sky with their eyes. They saw
how the planets seemed to \"wander\" through the sky. They learned to
predict where the Sun, the moon, and planets would be in the sky. They
built some *observatories---*places for watching the sky. *Observe* is a
more scientific word for *watch*. They observed the Sun and stars to
tell the time of year. In China, they even knew when the moon would
block the Sun[^18]. Most people thought that *celestial bodies* could
cause war or peace on Earth.[^19]
After telescopes were first made in the early 17th century, people kept
making them better. Astronomers saw that planets are not like stars.
They are worlds, like the Earth. They could see that some planets have
moons.[^20] They began to think about what these worlds were like. At
first, some thought that the other planets and moons had people or
animals living on them. They thought about how it would be to live on
these other worlds.[^21] Then they made telescopes better and sent
spacecraft into space, and found that there were no plants or animals on
the Moon[^22] or on Mars.[^23]
Now, we can explore by going to some of the other worlds. Twelve
Astronauts walked on the Moon about 35 years ago. They brought rocks and
dirt back to Earth.[^24] Spacecraft flew by Venus, Mars, and the outer
planets. The pictures they took showed us a lot of what we know about
these worlds.[^25] Robots landed on Mars in 1971, 1976, and 1997. They
took thousands of pictures of the planets. They send photos and movies
back to Earth. They also check rocks to find out what they are made
of.[^26]
So far, we have not found any life except on Earth. Maybe tiny,
one-celled life once lived on Mars. Maybe there is life under the ice on
Jupiter\'s moon Europa. New spacecraft are being planned to look for
life on these worlds.[^27]
## How was our Solar System formed?
Our Solar System is part of the Milky Way *galaxy*. Galaxies are big
mixes of dust, gas, stars, and other things. Inside our Milky Way galaxy
are clouds of dust and gas where stars are born. Our Solar System was
created in this kind of cloud. A part of the cloud began to get smaller
and less spread out. It formed a big, spinning disk of gas and tiny
pieces of dust. This disk was thickest in the middle. The middle slowly
collapsed until it became the Sun. We are still trying to learn how the
planets were formed. Most scientists think that they were formed from
leftover gas and dust.
200x200px\|framed\|left\|An artist\'s illlustration of how the Solar
System began. This is how it
could have happened. The rest of the disk continued to spin around the
Sun. The tiny pieces of dust hit each other, and some of them stuck
together. Next, the bits of dust slowly collected to form grains, which
in turn joined to form lumps the size of gravel, then pebbles, and then
rocks. The rocks crashed together into mountains. The mountains crashed
together to make bigger things. These big things swept up most of the
rest of the disk to form the planets, moons, and asteroids.[^28]
The Sun got hotter as it collapsed. It began to glow. The temperature at
the center reached a million degrees Celsius. The Sun started to produce
a lot of light and heat. This light and heat swept away most of the
leftover dust and gas between the inner planets. This light and heat are
the sunlight we see and feel every day on Earth. [^29]
## What will happen to the Solar System?
In another five billion years, the Sun will use up most of its hydrogen
fuel. It will enter the final stages of its life. The middle of the Sun
will shrink down and become even hotter. The outer layer of the Sun will
grow much bigger than it is now. It will form a *red giant*.
It will be so big that Mercury and Venus, probably Earth and maybe even
Mars will be inside it. These planets will burn away. Which planets get
destroyed will depend on how much mass the Sun has left.[^30] A strong
solar wind will blow some of the outer layers of gas away from the Sun.
The Sun will have less mass. The Sun's gravity will be less. All of the
planets will move further away from the Sun.[^31]
!The massive, rapidly-aging star *Eta Carinae* throws off a giant cloud
of gas, forming a *planetary
nebula*.{width="250"}
After it has been a red giant for a while, the Sun will start to burn
*helium*. It will shrink down and will not be a red giant any more. It
will use the helium up in about a billion years. Then it will become a
red giant once again. More gas will blow away for a few hundred thousand
years.
A *planetary nebula*[^32] will form. The nebula could last for a few
thousand to a few tens of thousands of years. It will glow in the light
of the Sun.[^33]
At the center, the Sun might shrink into a tiny star called a **white
dwarf**. That kind of star is about the size of Earth. It would take
about 100 of these white dwarfs, stacked end to end, to be as wide as
the Sun is today. The Sun will not have any more fuel to burn. It will
have lots of heat left over and will keep getting cooler and dimmer.
Then its light will go out in a hundred billion years from now.[^34]
Next Topic: The Sun
## Notes
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<div style="clear:both;">
```
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</div>
```
## References
bs:Wiki junior Sunčev sistem/Sunčev
sistem
bg:Уикиджуниър Слънчева система/Слънчева
система
de:Wikijunior
Sonnensystem/\_Sonnensystem
es:Wikichicos Sistema Solar
fr:Wikijunior:Système
solaire fi:Wikijunior
Aurinkokunta it:Wikijunior Il
sistema solare
[^1]: <http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Ssolsys.htm#q21>
[^2]: <http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Ssolsys.htm#galileo>\
See also
\
[^3]: <http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/sun.html>
[^4]: <http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mercury&Display=Moons>
[^5]: <https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/saturn-moons/overview/?page=0&per_page=40&order=name+asc&search=&placeholder=Enter+moon+name&condition_1=38%3Aparent_id&condition_2=moon%3Abody_type%3Ailike>
[^6]: <http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/index.cfm>
[^7]: <http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020301.htm>
[^8]: <http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020624.html>
[^9]: \"Outside Our Solar System\" in
<http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/curric/space/spacover.html>
[^10]: \"Gravity is the force responsible for keeping the Earth and
other planets in our solar system in orbit around the Sun.\" from
Cosmic Glue,
<http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/970108b.html>
[^11]: Definitions of Mass, Gravity, and Weight from
<http://ksnn.larc.nasa.gov/webtext.cfm?unit=float>
[^12]: <http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Ssolsys.htm#q21>
[^13]: <http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Ssolsys.htm#galileo>
[^14]: Calinger, Ronald S. \"Huygens, Christiaan.\" World Book Online
Reference Center. 2004. World Book, Inc.
<http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar268300>.;\
<http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/huygens_worldbook.html>
[^15]: <http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Uranus>
[^16]: <http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planetselector.cfm?Object=Asteroids>
[^17]: <http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050729_new_planet.html>;\
<http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/29jul_planetx.xml>;\
<http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-126>
[^18]: Eclipse2001 museum <http://museumeclipse.org/about/history.html>
[^19]:
\
page 339 \"The Chaldeans \... were also the first to suspect\...
that the Sun, the moon, the planets and the constellation of stars,
all affect human life and destiny\.... These beliefs gradually
spread .. to Egypt, China, Greece, India, and Rome, for example \...
astrology is still very popular.\"
[^20]: <http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Ssolsys.htm#galileo>
[^21]: <http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/mars.html>;\
;\
;\
From the Earth to the Moon on Project Gutenberg \--
<http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/83>;
[^22]: <http://www.space.com/reference/mars/history.html>
[^23]: <http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-350/ch-15-4.html>
(bottom of page)
[^24]: <http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html>
[^25]: <http://www.solarviews.com/eng/sc_hist.htm>
[^26]: <http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/home/>
[^27]: <http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/Why_We_12.html>;
<http://www.infoplease.com/spot/astronomy1.html>
[^28]: <http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/science/origins.html>
[^29]: <http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/Sect19_2a.html>
[^30]: Which planets may get destroyed
<http://www.public.iastate.edu/~lwillson/FuturSun.pdf>
[^31]: Outline of Sun\'s death
<http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Lectures/vistas97.html>
[^32]: A *planetary* nebula was named this because through the earliest
telescopes, astronomers thought that they looked like planets. The
name stuck --- but they really have nothing to do with planets.
[^33]: Planetary nebulae <http://www.seds.org/messier/planetar.html>
[^34]: Has information on white dwarf stars
<http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/RelWWW/tests.html>
|