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m41zn | How much of a "nutritional investment" is a spider's web? | I was thinking about this recently when I trashed a spiderweb that had been set up outside my doorway overnight. How big of a deal is it to the spider that his brand new web was ruined before it caught anything? Can he make 20 more like it ain't no thang, or is making a web so costly that they really can't afford to mess them up? | askscience | {
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"I am not an expert on spiders, but the [Wikipedia page](_URL_0_) points out that the silk from which webs are made contains a large amount of protein, which is costly. Spiders apparently eat their old webs to recover some of the protein.\n\nThe investment of time is probably also a factor in calculating the cost, since the spider won't be able to eat until after the new web has been made.",
"Web building is costly for spiders. Exactly *how* costly depends on whether the spider is well fed and if it can replenish it's energy/nutrition quickly and easily, or not.\n\nFor trap constructing spiders, [choline, which the spider is not able to synthesize is limiting](_URL_3_).\n\n > Under laboratory conditions with a diet of fruit fies, choline is limiting, and the spiders make allocation trade-offs between investing choline in foraging (the web) or in their body.\n\n > ...\n\n > Shifts in resource allocation, measurable as the allocation of choline between the orb and the body, may therefore have strong fitness consequences.\n\nFor [black widow spiders fed low or high protein diets](_URL_3_):\n\n > I maintained L. hesperus females on two different diets (high- versus low-food) and tested their web-building behaviour in the presence or absence of neighbours. \n\n > ... well-fed spiders produced more silk and built denser webs than their poorly fed counterparts.\n\nThe time and [energy spent constructing the web is also costly for orb spiders](_URL_3_):\n\n > most of the spider's daily locomotor activity and energetic are devoted to web building.\n\n > (1) that energetic costs associated with web-building were closely related to body mass and to web-building activity, and (2) that as their body mass increased, spiders reduced the amount of silk used per web, while their foraging effort simultaneously increased.",
"If you are worried about how much inconvenience you caused that spider, you can look at the frequency of web relocation as an indication of the cost of web construction. Specifically, spiders who build energetically cheaper webs are more likely to relocate them compared to spiders with costlier webs. \n\nThat said, [this article](_URL_5_) describes how sheet-funnel webs, which contain a tight mesh-work of silk threads, are much more costly to a spider than webs produced by orbweavers. As a result, spiders utilizing sheet-funnel designs tend to avoid relocation (less than 1% daily relocation). The energy needed to construct a new web is about 9-19 times that of a sheet-funnel spider's daily maintenance requirements.\n\nI am going to go out on a limb here and guess that the webs you brushed away were most likely made by an orbweaver. [This author](_URL_4_) studied the web-site tenacity of two closely related orbweaver spiders. Compared to our sheet-funnel spiders, they were up to 20% more likely to relocate their webs. All other factors being equal, we can postulate that the energy necessary to rebuild an orbweaver web is around 7-15 times their daily maintenance requirements. Realistically though, all other factors **are probably not equal** so take this value with a hunk of salt.\n\nTLDR: Your spider likely has a web relocation rate of 20% from day to day. She is probably pretty used to picking up and moving shop.\n\nEdit: restored links",
"Well how about this, from Wiki take an approximate diameter of spider silk to be ~3 & #956;m, I’m looking at a smallish web out my window here and I would estimate perhaps 200m of silk, tops. Its not a nice neat web, red-backs tend to make a big messy tangle, but I reckon its probably over estimating rather than under. Also take density of spider silk to be [1.3g/cm^3](_URL_6_).\n\n- > Weight of web = ((3x10^-6 ) /2 )^2 x & #960; x 200 x 1.3 x 10^6 = 1.84 x 10^-3 grams.\n\nIf an average house spider weighs say 0.2g, perhaps 0.15g? Then the mass of his (or her) whole web is only around 1% of his body mass.\n\nSo just based on these assumptions, the spider probably doesn’t mind loosing a web or two",
"(This information is primarily from Alcock's Animal Behavior, 9th Ed. and my University Behavioral Ecology lecture notes from last week which covered web-building in great detail) \n\nThe web certainly is costly, as it requires an investment in proteinaceous webbing, the sticky coating excretion that is applied to some sections of the web, and the energy [used to actually lay down the webbing](_URL_8_). Orb-weaving spiders, your typical house spider, actually place and replace webs on a daily basis, generally only leaving the webs up from dusk till dawn. They consume the web during the day and have enzymes that break it down to be reused, so they do not lose the entire amount of protein they expended when laying the silk. \n\nSpiders are very well adapted to laying webs, however, and make very good choices about location. They place webs near lights, which attract prey. Like a person choosing a location for a hammock, they have instincts that inform them on what shape and amount of space should be in an area before placing the web. They even [decorate their web](_URL_7_) with patterns that both attract prey and repel predators. \n\nDestroying the spider's web is certainly costly. Web-building spiders are generally not able to forage effectively without their webs - barn spiders don't suddenly start hunting down flies. You are pretty much guaranteeing that the spider will not eat for a time and it will lose the metabolic benefit of being able to reuse the protein that is stored in the web."
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"http://www.springerlink.com/content/hl2g5xv1wu79v6m0/",
"http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~rankin/articles/nutritional.pdf",
"http://www.mendeley.com/research/western-black-widow-spiders-express-statedependent-webbuilding-strategies-tailored-presence-neighbours-4/",
"http://www.jstor.org/pss/2424443",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/n841637075350047/",
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Spider_silk#Density",
"http://www.kuriositas.com/2011/05/spiders-that-decorate-their-own-webs.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XqKrZ8qGWsk"
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} | How much of a "nutritional investment" is a spider's web?
I was thinking about this recently when I trashed a spiderweb that had been set up outside my doorway overnight. How big of a deal is it to the spider that his brand new web was ruined before it caught anything? Can he make 20 more like it ain't no thang, or is making a web so costly that they really can't afford to mess them up? | [
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|
jo5y9 | Another question about FTL | I understand FTL movement is impossible.
Having said that, do the equations used to determine particle interactions still work when you plug in a velocity greater than c, or does the math simply not work at all for some reason?
If the math is still consistent, can any predictions be made about a particle exceeding c and how it would interact with a normal particle? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's not a problem with the maths. The maths works fine. In fact, it's because of the maths that we know what you're asking about is nonsensical.\n\nIf you start with the maths of the special theory of relativity, there *is a way* — it's actually an error, but explaining why requires a lot of subtlety so we'll skip it — to postulate the existence of particles that move along spacelike trajectories instead of timelike trajectories. One way of describing these particles is to say they \"move faster than light,\" but when you look more closely at it every one of those four words turns out to be wrong in some fundamental way, so we'll skip that too.\n\nIf you work through the maths, you find that any such particle must have a negative mass term. Well that's okay; there's nothing inherently wrong with that. It's not at all obvious what that would *mean,* but okay, we can work with that.\n\nThen you put your relativity textbook aside and turn to your quantum field theory textbook. You review the Lagrangian of a massive field, and see that mass term sitting there. This presents no problem; we can just flip the sign. We're ignoring *everything we know* about the nature of space and time and matter, but so what? Let's just do the maths.\n\nSo now you have a model of a massive field, and you hit it with a creation operator to create a particle and *pop.* There it is. A particle with negative mass. Outstanding.\n\nExcept that's when you see your problem. Massive fields behave the way they do because there's a *restoring force* that pushes them from their excited state back into their vacuum state. But when you flip the sign of the mass term, that restoring force becomes *an exciting force.* Meaning the field will no longer have a tendency to return to its ground state, but rather will, once excited, cascade into ever-higher quantum states … because those higher quantum states are actually associated with *lower energy.* Because you flipped the sign of the mass term.\n\nWhich means if such particles could exist — particles with negative mass — the universe wouldn't be here. Because even if the fields associated with such particles started out in their vacuum state, spontaneous symmetry breaking would ensure they didn't stay that way for long, and the universe would be filled with an exploding cascade of negative-mass particles, radiating outward in a sort of shockwave from the point of symmetry-breaking. And those particles would exert pressure on the metric which would do one of two things, depending on an arbitrary choice you make when doing your calculations. Either the metric would diverge to infinity in finite time, or it would collapse to zero in a finite time.\n\nYou may have noticed that this has not happened. Therefore we can say conclusively not only that negative-mass fields *do not* exist, but that they *cannot* exist. Because if they could, the universe wouldn't be here.",
"The math is inconsistent because you end up with the square-root of a negative number.\n\nIf you look at the equation for the [Lorentz Factor](_URL_0_) and you sub in v = 1.1c, you'll see where the negative under the square root arises.\n\n(Hope that helps. I feel typing out the equations in here would be more confusing than necessary).",
"The math being consistent is an *incredibly* weak criterion. Most physical laws are well behaved enough that there's some kind of consistent continuation for any values you hammer in, so you'll have a hard time finding an actual mathematical inconsistency if you do something impossible.\n\nIt also has to not violate the conditions on physical values, which a velocity greater than c does not do. You get an imaginary everything, and a complex hyperbolic rotation, and it's just generally not meaningful.",
"Some equations don't work (see molisan's post) and some do. Those that do will give paradoxical answers, though, if you dig deep enough. My favorite example is the [tachyonic antitelephone](_URL_1_).",
"Check out [Minkowski diagrams](_URL_2_). FTL could mean a violation of causality (like going to see the births of your parents)."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyonic_antitelephone",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_diagram"
]
} | Another question about FTL
I understand FTL movement is impossible. Having said that, do the equations used to determine particle interactions still work when you plug in a velocity greater than c, or does the math simply not work at all for some reason? If the math is still consistent, can any predictions be made about a particle exceeding c and how it would interact with a normal particle? | [
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5l5iwu | Are there any everyday macroscopic phenomena that are caused by the quantum behaviour of microscopic particles? | Or "can I see the effects of quantum stuff with my own eyes" | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Interestingly, ferromagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that we observe everyday in common bar magnets and refrigerator magnets. \n\nIt can be shown that classical mechanics fails to describe the behavior of these magnets ([This theorem] (_URL_0_) is proof). It turns out ferromagnetism is a result of statistically significant alignment of *quantized* magnetic moments.",
"A Bose-Einstein condensate would be an example of a macroscopic phenomenon due to quantum behaviour. It's a state of matter (similar to solid, liquid, or gas) in which bosons are cooled to nearly absolute zero, so that most will be in the lowest energy level available. This state of matter can exhibit phenomena such as superfluidity and superconductivity.\n\nSuperfluidity would be observable as fluid flow without viscosity, examples of which can be seen in this video:\n\n_URL_1_",
"The photoelectric effect and slit experiment are both quantum behaviors you can see with your own eyes, both occur due to quantum phenomena. \n\nMore interestingly, all modern electronics contain microchips with are designed with quantum mechanics in mind.",
"Maybe not an everyday thing, but stained glass windows in old cathedrals are actually colored due to metal nanoparticles forming from metal salts. The color comes from plasmon resonance (a quantum effect), making them appear as vivid colors such as red and blue (using gold and silver, respectively). \n\nSources: \nColloidal gold being colorful: _URL_2_\nComparing medeival use of nanoparticles to them being used in TVs today: _URL_3_",
"Ferromagnetism is the most dramatic, but I'm surprised that nobody mentioned that **semiconductors** generally only make sense in terms of quantum mechanics. These are the essential components of transistors, AC to DC adapters (rectifiers) and LEDs among other common devices. \n\nAlso dependent on quantum mechanics are **gas discharge tubes**, responsible for yellow streetlights and neon signs. The yellow emission from a streetlight comes from a particular transition of the electron in the outer shell of a sodium atom.",
"Keep in mind that all of chemistry is a quantum effect. The simplest reactions and periodic table can be derived explicitly from quantum theory. More complicated, un-calculable reactions are assumed to also arise from quantum theory.\n\nA specific example of a macroscopic quantum effect is the black body curve. The observation that as you heat something it starts to glow and its color is a function of the temperature its at. This was originally modeled as a cavity with electromagnetic waves resonating in it. The energy of these waves is \"quanitized\" (read: discretized) and that allows a description of an object glowing from heat.",
"Lasers and fluorescence/phosphorescence. Both are dependent on quantized electron energy levels.\n\nPhotosynthesis has already been mentioned, but a surprising amount of enzymatic activity relies upon quantum tunneling."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93van_Leeuwen_theorem",
"https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=2Z6UJbwxBZI",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidal_gold",
"http://www.samsung.com/global/tv/blog/Stained-Glass-and-Quantum-Dot-technology.html"
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} | Are there any everyday macroscopic phenomena that are caused by the quantum behaviour of microscopic particles?
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|
oxxcd | Raw data is available from our AskScience Survey! Show us what you can do with it! | Have you been waiting to get your hands on a fresh data set? Well, here you go! The results of the AskScience Survey from the Fall of 2011 has been cleaned (but only a bit) to make it available for our AskScience readers and panelists!
[Google Spreadsheets link](_URL_1_) (It's read-only, but you can download the data)
Keep in mind that although the survey did ask more questions, those answers which were open-ended are not included here because of potential privacy concerns. (If you're interested in the full data set when it's been steam-cleaned, send me a PM and I'll start a list, but that one will be invite only because of potential privacy issues.)
We've got a few mods working on some analyses, but we'd like our community to show us what you've got as well - so have fun, and reply to this thread with your results/graphs/data representations!
***Edit:*** *Remember that there are other sources of information about Reddit users, such as the ["Who in the world is Reddit?"](_URL_0_) data and that several questions were designed to be directly compatible with that data. That ups the ante even more. :)* | askscience | {
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"And as a bonus to all you beautiful people who checked out the comments...\n\n**The AskScience mods will be doing an /r/IAMA tomorrow** around lunchtime (US)!",
"OK. Here are all the values, UNIQ'ed and in a format that should be really easy for you to make graphs from. I'll work on percentages, then crafting a story out of this next. Google spreadsheet can be found [here](_URL_0_).\n\n(I co-authored the O'Reilly book Complete Web Monitoring. We have a chapter dedicated to surveying (and interpreting the results).",
"Fresh new Google Spreadsheet complete with numerical answer data. Reference sheet on second spreadsheet in book (Splits).\n\n_URL_1_",
"A quick glance leads me to think that this type of data set is ripe for prediction using hierarchical linear modeling, provided the variance warrants such an approach.",
"This still does not explain where the dollar went.",
"Still working on the fancy stuff in SPSS, but when I ran my first crosstab I found that only 2% of Redditors are \"Unemployed and Not Looking for Work\", and less than 50% of that number are on Reddit more than 10 hours a week.\n\nSo *boom* goes that stereotype.",
"Can you also post a copy of the original survey so we can reference it for scales and constructs and whatnot?",
"I reminder to all you tinkerer's out there, use pivot tables! For those of you not familiar, here's a quick crash course.\n\nDownload and copy, and then load into your spreadsheet program (you can reupload into google docs if you want!). Assuming that you did you google docs (I did! and boy did it make my computer crawl):\n\n1) Load up the data\n2) From the menu, Data > Pivot Table Report. It might chug away for a while.\n3) Ok great, now you have this new screen with a sidebar. At the very basis, pivot tables let you take for any group a data, to define 2 variables, (for example in this case, how long do you browse reddit, and gender), and then gather information on the data based on these two variables.\n4) So you can define the variables by adding them to rows and columns. Just clicky \"add field\" and pick the one that you want. You can do more than just one row and column variable too, but that's out of scope.\n5) Now you get to pick how to dice and display your data! The simplest thing you can do is just list how many data points conform to each combination of variables. The easiest way to do that is under values, add either the fields you picked for row and column, and then select by 'Summarized' COUNTA, (instead of the default SUM). This just picks the function by which you dice the data. COUNTA just counts the number of non empty entries. \n5) Now have fun! You can do whatever you want with the data now. \n\nYou may have to clean up the data (with judicious use of find and replace, and filters) to get nice stuff for pivoting. And now you're on your way!",
"I have run a linear regression on the data, based on the scales that were provided by the user \"Flaggerbasted.\" My regression attempted to answer the question, \"What variables cause respondents to spend more time on Reddit weekly?\" I used 7 variables from the survey, and found 3 to be statistically significant (following the 2t rule (variables with absolute values of 2 or greater are statistically significant)). I have also run tests for violations of assumptions, mainly to ensure the regression is homoscedastic, free of multicollinearity (durbin-watson test), and void of any autocorrelation. From my tests, none of these appear to be a problem.\n\nThe document is available here:\n_URL_2_\n\nThe formatting has been altered a little by Google for some reason, which makes the tables a bit hard to read. If you know what you're looking for though, you'll be able to find it. Enjoy.\n\nHere are some concrete statements and analysis I was able to make regarding the significant variables:\n\n\n\n**1.\tAs the length of time a respondent has been a redditor increases, the amount of time per week they spend on reddit also increases.**\n\nThe regression shows us that the slope for this particular variable is .180. This means that for every one point increase in amount of time spent on reddit per week, there is a .180 increase in the amount of time the particular respondent has been a redditor. This is to say that, for every category increase according to our provided scales, there is a .180 increase towards the next highest category for length of time being a redditor. So, as time progresses since the respondent has registered an account on reddit, they tend to spend more and more time on the website.\n\n\n**2.\tRedditors who are less romantically involved tend to spend more time on Reddit per week.**\n\nThe slope for this particular variable is -.070, which indicates that the slope is negative. This means, according to the scale (1=forever alone, 5=married, 6=widowed), as time per week on Reddit for the respondent increases, his relative relationship maturity with his partner will decrease. I think this points more to romantic and social maturation. Respondents who spend less time per week on Reddit tend to be further along in their relationships with their partner, whether this means being in a relationship, engaged, or married. Respondents who spend the most time on Reddit per week are more likely to describe themselves as being forever alone or single. So, we can conclude that if you seek to form a relationship with the opposite sex that may eventually lead to an engagement or marriage, it is in your best interest to spend less time per week on Reddit.\n\n\n**3.\tThe less educated a respondent is (based solely on academic accomplishments), the more time per week he/she spends on Reddit.**\n\nThis variable was somewhat surprising to me. With a slope of -.057, this indicates that as a respondent’s education accomplishments increase (GED—Bachelor’s Degree---Graduate Degree), their time per week on Reddit decreases. While this shows statistical significance in our model, this may also be due to the fact that many redditors are simply younger people in their teens and twenties.",
"For the Google doc, it would be a lot easier if the top row was locked. That way, you could reference the questions while at the bottom of the chart without having to remember which column is which.",
"Econ guy here. I shall be running regressions on this data this weekend. I will post findings..",
"Anyone know Nicholas Felton who produces the Feltron report? I'll bet he could make it look magical!",
"> Raw data ***are*** available from out AskScience Survey!\n\nftfy\n\n -- pedantic AK55"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://blog.reddit.com/2011/09/who-in-world-is-reddit-results-are-in.html",
"https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0Auj-I6StoFFndDgzUUxXZjROR1QxNjk3azgzdTBVMmc#gid=0"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0AtwNm8Fk9BcGdEJrSVNPQkpOdVozRGdweEdKYmMycnc",
"https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0AgBptCgSuG2bdDhjbGFQRmFVemJ6am1DUEFGdnV3RVE#gid=0",
"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1vVqh3kysbTRioMWA3gABGqu7BHpNON24GmajIRF_RKw/edit"
]
} | Raw data is available from our AskScience Survey! Show us what you can do with it!
Have you been waiting to get your hands on a fresh data set? Well, here you go! The results of the AskScience Survey from the Fall of 2011 has been cleaned (but only a bit) to make it available for our AskScience readers and panelists! [Google Spreadsheets link](_URL_1_) (It's read-only, but you can download the data) Keep in mind that although the survey did ask more questions, those answers which were open-ended are not included here because of potential privacy concerns. (If you're interested in the full data set when it's been steam-cleaned, send me a PM and I'll start a list, but that one will be invite only because of potential privacy issues.) We've got a few mods working on some analyses, but we'd like our community to show us what you've got as well - so have fun, and reply to this thread with your results/graphs/data representations! ***Edit:*** *Remember that there are other sources of information about Reddit users, such as the ["Who in the world is Reddit?"](_URL_0_) data and that several questions were designed to be directly compatible with that data. That ups the ante even more. :)* | [
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wxapd | I heard that a piece of the Sun's core (15,000,000° C) that is the size of a pinhead can kill a person from 90 miles away. Is this true? | Would a person feel any effects from the heat of the piece of the core (15,000,000° C) at 90 miles away? If so would it be enough to kill or at least hospitalize them?
I would appreciate it if someone would explain the answer (how can we tell what the relative heat would be that far away, etc.?) | askscience | {
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"At that temperature, it will release its energy very fast. A worst-case scenario is that all the energy is released at once, as in an atomic bomb. The density at the core of the sun is about 150 times that of water. Assuming a cubic pinhead with a 2mm side, that means our solar core pinhead weighs 1.2 grams. The sun consists of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium, and the specific heat capacity of that mix should be about 10. That means that the total energy of the pinhead will be 1.2 * 10 * 15000000 = 180 MJoule, or about 0.00000005 megaton, or about ~~50 grams of TNT. That is about the same as a hand grenade. It will make your ears ring if you are standing too close to it~~ 50 Kilograms of TNT. That is a decent size military bomb. It will make your ears come off if you are standing too close to it.\n\n\nEdit: quaz3 is right, I apparently did too much (too little?) in my head in the last step. 50 Kg of TNT is correct.",
"Depends what you mean.\n\nSupernats has already dealt with the case where the pinhead releases all it's energy at once.\n\nThe factoid you quoted comes from imagining what would happen if the piece of the sun didn't cool down, but instead magically remained at 15 million K. How much power would be radiated then?\n\nWe can use the [Stefan-Boltzmann law](_URL_1_) to calculate the power emitted, but only if we assume that our peice of the sun is a black body (i.e. a perfect emitter of radiation). It isn't, but we'll make the assumption so we can get an order-of-magnitude estimate.\n\nAssume we have a sphere of radius r=1mm and surface area 4 pi r^2. The power emitted is:\n\n[P = (stefan-boltzmann constant) \\* (4 pi r^2 ) \\* T^4 = 3.6\\*10^16 W](_URL_2_)\n\nThat's a lot! It's about 2000 times more than the average power consumption of all of civilisation. It's so huge because the power radiated by a black body is proportional to the temperature to the power of *4*, and the core of the sun is very hot.\n\nTo find out the power density at a distance of 90 miles, we have to imagine that power being distributed over a sphere of radius 90 miles. This gives us:\n\n[P/A = (3.6\\*10^16 W) / ((4 pi (90 miles)^2 ) = 137 kW/m^2 ](_URL_0_)\n\nFor comparison, sunlight at the Earth's surface has a power density of only about 1 kW/m^2 .\n\nI'm no doctor, but I imagine a radiant flux 137 times greater than direct sunlight will do some damage.",
"No, and certainly not a piece the size of a pin.\n\nYou have to remember, we constantly create tempetures in the hundreds of millions, with a few pounds of material, and we keep those stable in a magnetic field roughly meter to meters of the wall that is housing. While the thermal transfer can be incredible those walls stay intact. If a 15,000,000 pin head size piece of matter could generate enough heat 90 miles away to kill a human, the stuff we create would instantly vaporize the walls of the containment only meters away.\n\nWe also create tempertures in the trillions to study high energy physics.",
"Fusion reaction in the core sun is slow. ~ 276.5 watts/m^3 . Roughly same amount of heat than same volume of active compost heap produces. Pinhead size of sun core would not kill anyone with thermal radiation. Sun produces lots of heat because there is so much of it and because surface-area-to-volume ratio inversely proportional to size.\n\nMaybe you want to know spectral [radiance](_URL_4_) (W/m^2 ) you get from pinhead sized [black body](_URL_3_) with 15,000,000° C surface temperature from 90 miles away. Someone else can tackle that (It does not look very dangerous from that distance, just 10,000 times the temperature of melting iron).",
"Definitely sounds nonsensical. A \"pinhead\" isn't exactly a standard size, but let's be very generous and say that it has a volume of 1 cm^3.\n\nFirst thing, the Sun may output an immense amount of energy, but that's because it's *huge*; the Sun actually has a rather low power density (power produced per volume). Your body at rest has a significantly larger power density, for example. According to [Wikipedia](_URL_7_): \n\n > The power production by fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, theoretical models estimate it to be approximately 276.5 watts/m^3,[50] a power production density that more nearly approximates reptile metabolism than a thermonuclear bomb.[b]\n\nTherefore, your solar pinhead would produce around a single milliwatt of power, which is a tiny fraction of what even a small LED bulb produces. If something is going to kill you, it definitely won't be the luminous energy.\n\nI believe, however, that the previous analysis is of little relevance, in the sense that it's too simple an extrapolation. The act of relocating a piece of solar core into almost empty space produces, of course, an extreme non-equilibrium condition, so it's not realistic to extrapolate the core's normal behaviour to this separate piece.\n\nLet us consider the nuclear fusion that happens in the core. The Sun produces its energy through a process called the [proton-proton chain](_URL_5_), where most of the energy produced escapes in the form of gamma rays. Since the Sun is huge and very dense at the core (~150 g/cm^3 , about 13 times denser than lead), the gamma rays are trapped and \"thermalized\", which is to say they gradually lose their excess energy over millions and millions of collisions with surrounding atoms, distributing it evenly around, ultimately forming the blackbody spectrum we know, which is similar to a regular object heated to 5500 K. If one could extract a small enough piece of the core and keep it undergoing fusion, however, there might not be enough matter surrounding it to provide enough stopping power for the gamma rays. In short, the fragment of solar core would be a source of gamma rays, which are lethal. However, once again, since the power density is so small it would be a 1 mW point source of gamma radiation, producing on the order of 1 billion gamma ray photons per second. Even if you ingested this nuclear reactor and every gamma photon was absorbed by your body, you would very roughly take a day to be exposed to a lethal amount of radiation.\n\nAnd now for what would *actually* happen if you could instantly teleport a fragment of solar core into the open: it would simply explode as soon as the immense pressure keeping the hydrogen plasma cramped were lifted. Hydrogen is a gas with density around 0.1 mg/cm^3 in ordinary conditions, and as stated earlier, in the solar core it is compressed to a whopping 150 g/cm^3 . Therefore, given the opportunity, the fragment of solar core would expand outwards to 1.5 million times its original volume, or 1500 L. If it were expanding against the atmosphere, that would imply an explosion energy of about 150 kJ, which apparently equals 36 grams of TNT.\n\nI'd love for someone to check my math!\n\nEdit: Evidently I failed to consider the thermal energy stored in 1 cm^3 of solar core matter, which is what strongly dominates the force of the explosion. [supermats](_URL_6_) seems to be correct.",
"Well what you have is a small amount of material that once released from its gravitation compression will turn into a bomb. The question is how much energy is there. Sadly after 6000K temperature stops becoming a useful stat(Chemistry is cute) and you need to know energy density because temperature is a measure of a specific frequency of quanta and can't be used for calculations. BUT we do know the energy density of the core!\n\n_URL_9_\n276.5 W/m^3 - Energy production @ Core\n.02755 W/mm^3 - Energy production of \"Pin\"\n\nAnswer - It would be cool to the touch. The core of the Sun is actually very cool because nearly all the \"spent\" fuel is there along with gravity keeping the material from moving(absorbing energy). The actual energy emission is near the surface. That 15,000,000° is a sensational number not intended to be used in physics.\n\nBut since we're trying to blow stuff up! Average(assuming uniform density) energy emission of Sun plasma is 272380 W/m^3. You would need a _URL_8_ to kill @ 90 miles which yielded 50000kT of TNT which = 2.092e17J. Assuming the nuclear reaction stops when we warp the plasma to earth you would need......\n\n7.68e11 m^3 or 768000000000000L of plasma compressed into a pin to kill someone @ 90 miles.\n\n19,220,000,000,000,000 Gallons for Murkins."
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"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=3.6*10^16+W+%2F+%284*pi*%2890+miles%29^2%29+in+W%2Fm^2",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body_radiation#Stefan.E2.80.93Boltzmann_law",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28stefan-boltzmann+constant%29*%284*pi*%281+mm%29^2%29+*+%2815000000+K%29^4+in+W",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/wxapd/i_heard_that_a_piece_of_the_suns_core_15000000_c/c5ha000",
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} | I heard that a piece of the Sun's core (15,000,000° C) that is the size of a pinhead can kill a person from 90 miles away. Is this true?
Would a person feel any effects from the heat of the piece of the core (15,000,000° C) at 90 miles away? If so would it be enough to kill or at least hospitalize them? I would appreciate it if someone would explain the answer (how can we tell what the relative heat would be that far away, etc.?) | [
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1a3bm0 | Did Top Gear really find the source of the Nile and are they the first? | Reddit seem to be fairly avid watchers of Top Gear so I assume most people know that in their end of season special they attempted to find the 'true' source of the Nile in £1500 estate cars. They claimed that no one had truly found the source and that some explorers have claimed to have found it but that this was not the case. They succeeded in finding a spring somewhere to the South East of Lake Victoria that feeds it and ultimately into the Nile. Could someone clarify specifically what they mean by the source, why it hasn't been found yet and just general information about the geological side of these episodes? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"One definition of a river's source is the tributary starting farthest from the river's mouth. Using the point where the Nile empties into the Mediterranean as its mouth the possible sources of the Nile are on the west side of Lake Victoria.\n\nFor the Top gear special they redefined the mouth of the Nile from its delta in Egypt to the Strait of Gibraltar where the Mediterranean meets the Atlantic. Using that definition of the Nile's mouth the streams on the East side of Lake Victoria are suddenly the candidate sources instead of those on the West. Allowing them to \"discover\" the \"true\" source of the river.\n\nProblem is defining the Strait of Gibraltar as the mouth of the Nile is really really stupid. So, no, they did not find the true source of the Nile.",
"There is no one universally accepted definition for the source of a river. Common definitions include:\n\n* greatest distance\n* greatest altitude drop\n* tributary of greatest inflow\n* a lake with many inflows, but only one prominent outflow\n* where people stop using the river's name\n\nAlso, depending on definition, the source can vary by season, and temporary flows are created and dry up.\n\nSo if they were clever with how they defined source, it is possible they could have found it. *A* source, not *the* source.",
"I was under the impression that they redefined the question. They said that since the Nile flows into the Mediterranean Sea and that exits into the ocean, they were looking for the furthest tributary from the Straight of Gibraltar. That is why they crossed Lake Victoria, they were looking for something further East. \nI don't know much about the way that sources are classified, but I think that they changed the rules a bit.",
"I think their redefinition was wrong because, as you can see from [this](_URL_0_) picture, the nile empties out in the Mediterranean. The picture shows a wave dominated deltaic system. this particular form is called a highly constructive lobate form. the presence smooth and elongated edges indicate that waves rework the edges of the shoreline to form such shapes, as a result of interactions with a river. \n\non the other hand, the strait of gibraltar looks nothing like a delta and has no recognizable feature of any of the three kinds of deltaic systems. so if they considered that the mouth, then its wrong. \n\nTherefore, the source according to the latter will be wrong.\n\nthe episode was entertaining though",
"This wiki article is very informative, and provides great background to the challenges of identifying the Nile's \"true\" source. It also depends a bit on what you define as the \"source,\" and the fact that the river is made up of two very different rivers (White Nile + Blue Nile). Most of the water sources from a point that is much closer to the mouth (Blue Nile) than the more distant, yet less voluminous source (White Nile). According to the article, the true source of the White Nile is still in question.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\"The Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source still undetermined but located in either Rwanda or Burundi. It flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile is the source of most of the water and fertile soil. It begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia at 12°02′09″N 037°15′53″E / 12.03583°N 37.26472°E and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet near the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.\"",
"I never knew the source of the Nile hasnt been located, how can this be?",
"You may be interested in Richard Francis Burton, who went to discover the source of the Nile: _URL_2_\n\nAs many have pointed out, defining the source for a river is somewhat arbitrary. Burton thought he did, although he was unsure, and so did these guys. I'd say Burton's effort was more impressive."
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"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/EupGuJ8.jpg?1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton"
]
} | Did Top Gear really find the source of the Nile and are they the first?
Reddit seem to be fairly avid watchers of Top Gear so I assume most people know that in their end of season special they attempted to find the 'true' source of the Nile in £1500 estate cars. They claimed that no one had truly found the source and that some explorers have claimed to have found it but that this was not the case. They succeeded in finding a spring somewhere to the South East of Lake Victoria that feeds it and ultimately into the Nile. Could someone clarify specifically what they mean by the source, why it hasn't been found yet and just general information about the geological side of these episodes? | [
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|
146gg1 | This may be crude but I'm not trolling and I need to know to resolve an argument: Is the inside of a vagina considered skin? Where does the skin end and the internal organ start? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7aefds",
"c7adzb9",
"c7ag7u0",
"c7atvtl"
],
"text": [
"The dividing line between skin and non-skin is not epithelial vs. non epithelial (ovaries and blood vessels are epithelial but not skin). The important distinction is dry (skin) vs. wet (mucus membrane)--compare outside of eyelid with inside of eyelid, outside of cheek with inside of cheek, outside of foreskin with inside of foreskin, etc. Skin proper is only on the outside where it's dry like normal skin, the inside of the vagina is not considered skin.",
"Until the cervix the vagina is squamous epithelial tissue, probably the mouth is most similar to the vagina histologically speaking. Then there's a transformation zone in the cervix to cylindrical epithelial tissue but then we're not in the vagina any longer. It's around labia minora the squamous epithelium starts before that it's skin.",
"Check out this website [Beautiful Cervix](_URL_0_) There are many photographs detailing how the cervix changes throughout the cycle. You can easily see the texture and shape of the vaginal walls.",
"Paramedic here. My anatomy/physiology education is certainly less than a physician but I do know that the interior of the vagina (the moist part) is mucosa, not skin. The difference is that mucous membranes generate secretions that serve to lubricate among other things. Because the environment in the vagina has a very specific pH the inside needs to regulate itself and it does so through secretions from the interior wall. That's also how it is \"self cleaning\" under nominal circumstances."
],
"score": [
20,
5,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.beautifulcervix.com"
]
} | This may be crude but I'm not trolling and I need to know to resolve an argument: Is the inside of a vagina considered skin? Where does the skin end and the internal organ start?
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v9x78 | At what size do we switch from making predictions through quantum physics to Newtonian laws? | I was reading a book which discussed the buckyballs double slit experiment. It used a brick wall and soccer balls as a metaphor. It mentioned that at some point a switch has to be made as the outcome with actual soccer balls differs from interference pattern witnessed with buckyballs but it did not specify. Have we determined a relative size at which molecules would stop behaving according to the predictions of quantum physics?
EDIT: Wow, so apparently my question entailed answers much more complex than I anticipated. Thank you to all who tried to help me bumble through this. I'm going to spend a few ~~hours~~ days with all of your answers (and with my dictionary) to see if I fully comprehend the idea or have more questions. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Molecules of all sizes obey quantum mechanics, but as the system gets larger quantum mechanics limit to classical mechanics. Since systems in daily life (such as soccer balls) are made up of a number of atoms on the order of avogadro's number (~10^23 ) there's essentially no difference between the classical and quantum predictions- and since classical mechanics is simpler, we use that. There's no size at which the molecules would \"stop behaving according to the predictions of quantum physics.\" \n\nedit: [here](_URL_0_) is a description of how to use the limit I mentioned to derive classical mechanics from quantum, in case anyone wants a source.",
"The notion that all quantum systems go to classical systems in the macroscopic limit is in general *false*. Examples of [macroscopic quantum mechanical systems](_URL_1_) include superfluids and superconductors. Quantum mechanics is the more general model of physics that happens to be well approximated by classical physics in most macroscopic systems. So to directly answer your question there isn't one size that determines whether we use a quantum mechanical or classical model to describe our system, we look at data and then see which models fit.",
"the rule of thumb is Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle. The product of position accuracy and momentum accuracy has to be greater than or equal to Planck's constant (or the reduced one I forget which). Anyway, when the product of your position and momentum accuracy (or energy and time) starts to approach the size of Planck's constant, then you're going to start to consider quantum effects.\n\nAnother rule of thumb is when the quantum wavelength of the particle is on the order of the accuracy in that particle's position. (different way of wording roughly the same thing) so for a wavelength of an electron in a material, let's say it's about nanometer, and that's why nano-scale objects have interesting properties that differ from the bulk object.",
"You can detect quantum effects in macroscopic particles.\n\nFor example, you cannot explain the piezoelectric properties of Silicon Dioxide (Quartz) without appealing to the Quantum Geometric Phase, a.k.a. Berry's Phase. This is a property that is used in a variety of applications, most notably your wristwatch.\n\nAnother example would be the *f*-centers in certain crystals. These are crystalline defects that act as traps of electron density. This shifts the band gap around, and makes for some pretty colors in precious gems.\n\nBasically, that it is not entirely accurate to state that quantum effects \"wash out\" once you get to macroscopic dimensions.",
"Somewhere around the size of a virus and above QM becomes not very useful and NM takes over. But there is no sharp transition, more like a gradual crossfade."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0902.0141",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena"
]
} | At what size do we switch from making predictions through quantum physics to Newtonian laws?
I was reading a book which discussed the buckyballs double slit experiment. It used a brick wall and soccer balls as a metaphor. It mentioned that at some point a switch has to be made as the outcome with actual soccer balls differs from interference pattern witnessed with buckyballs but it did not specify. Have we determined a relative size at which molecules would stop behaving according to the predictions of quantum physics? EDIT: Wow, so apparently my question entailed answers much more complex than I anticipated. Thank you to all who tried to help me bumble through this. I'm going to spend a few ~~hours~~ days with all of your answers (and with my dictionary) to see if I fully comprehend the idea or have more questions. | [
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|
2qxqhz | When the clock strikes midnight tonight, how close will the earth really be from the point it was at when it struck midnight last year? | askscience | {
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"Well, the [Earth's year/orbital period](_URL_1_) is about 365.25 days, and the time between the ball dropping last year and this year was only 365 days. So the Earth will be 0.25 days (~6 hours) behind in its orbit. Or [410,000 miles](_URL_0_) (660,000 km) short of where it was last year.\n\nHence why every 4 years we have to add an extra day (February 29) to the year to give the Earth time to catch back up.\n\nEdit: This answer assumes you're asking the sensible question about how far the Earth is from its position last year in a frame with the Sun always at the origin. In other frames you have to account for motion around the galaxy, etc, and the answer changes a lot, but isn't particularly insightful.",
"The Milky Way Galaxy is moving at about 500 km/s relative to the cosmic microwave background rest frame. So after a year, the Galaxy (and Earth with it) is on the order of 15 billion kilometers from where it started.",
"it depends on your frame of reference!\n\nIf you are in a heliocentric reference frame, we're about six hours along in our orbit compared to last year.\n\nHowever I think it's more interesting to consider it from the frame of reference of the universe itself, and there is a good way to visualise it! Hold out your hand and imagine you are holding a golf ball, a golf ball that is visible yet made of neutrinos so it passes through matter unhindered!\n\nThen, click your fingers and imagine that ball then becomes fixed in space and doesn't move at all. You would see that ball travel over 250,000 metres (250km) away from you in one SECOND after clicking your fingers and you will never, ever, **ever** be at that point in space again, not ever.\n\nSo, heliocentrically we aren't *that* far away, but from the reference frame of the galaxy or the universe? We're billions of miles away.",
"Nope, not even in the slightest\n\nthe Sun is also moving, don't forget. It's rotating around the galactic core at about 225-250 million years.\n\nAnd of course the Milky Way is also moving relative to it's galactic neighborhood.\n\nEven if you just talk about the relative position of the Earth to the Sun, then even that is not as straight forward. The earth moves about 1.58 million miles each 24 hours as it rotates around the sun. that's nearly 200 Earths in distance just in a single day. \n\nThere is also variations in the Earths Eccentricity or orbit, it varies more or less elliptical every 100,000 years or so. so each year it may be a tiny bit closer or further from the sun.\n\nWith all the movement of the Earth, Sun, Milky Way and so on, and even the expansion of the universe itself, the Earth will never be in the same position in space that it's previously been in.",
"The answer to this question all depends on your reference point.\n\nIf you take into account that Earth is moving around Sol, and Sol and moving around the Milky Way, and the Milky Way is moving around Laniakea, and Laniakea is also moving through the Verse.\n\nFrom this frame of perspective, nothing is ever in the same place, and you get a truer sense that time itself does not exist, it exist only as a measurement of the distance something with a certain velocity has moved through space with respect to something else, like the speed of light.",
"What it comes down to is that there is really no such thing as a \"true\" stationary frame of reference. You could really use anything, the sun, the galactic center, or even some random asteroid or body. In fact, you could even use the Earth. Now, you would have to treat it as an accelerated frame of reference, however this would allow you to say that it's in pretty much the same place. Happy New Year!",
"I think Monty Python said it best in the galaxy song:\nJust remember that you're standing on a planet that's evolving\nAnd revolving at nine hundred miles an hour,\nThat's orbiting at nineteen miles a second, so it's reckoned,\nA sun that is the source of all our power.\nThe sun and you and me and all the stars that we can see\nAre moving at a million miles a day\nIn an outer spiral arm, at forty thousand miles an hour,\nOf the galaxy we call the 'Milky Way'.\nOur galaxy itself contains a hundred billion stars.\nIt's a hundred thousand light years side to side.\nIt bulges in the middle, sixteen thousand light years thick,\nBut out by us, it's just three thousand light years wide.\nWe're thirty thousand light years from galactic central point.\nWe go 'round every two hundred million years,\nAnd our galaxy is only one of millions of billions\nIn this amazing and expanding universe.\n\nThe universe itself keeps on expanding and expanding\nIn all of the directions it can whizz\nAs fast as it can go, at the speed of light, you know,\nTwelve million miles a minute, and that's the fastest speed there is.\nSo remember, when you're feeling very small and insecure,\nHow amazingly unlikely is your birth,\nAnd pray that there's intelligent life somewhere up in space,\n'Cause there's bugger all down here on Earth."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28%28Earth+orbital+period+-+365+day%29+%2F+Earth+orbital+period%29+*+2+pi+*+Earth+semimajor+axis&a=ListOrTimes_Times&a=*DPClash.AstronomicalP.day-_*SolarDay-",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Earth+orbital+period"
]
} | When the clock strikes midnight tonight, how close will the earth really be from the point it was at when it struck midnight last year?
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1m8iuy | Are there any medical consequences or curiosities to obese humans having more skin/higher surface area? | Can larger people regulate their body temperatures better or any other curious effects to their larger surface area? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cc6ufck",
"cc6t60l",
"cc6u3y3"
],
"text": [
"Interestingly enough, their surface area to volume ratio is lower than that of skinny people. This is the main reason why they are more resistant to hypothermia, as Stylian_SyHugh says.\n\nI wonder if there are other consequences to them having lower surface area to volume ratio...",
"Medical student here: obese people are more resistant to hypothermia.\n\nIn terms of the bad: the extra skin causes problems, especially if they are diabetic. Hard to clean skin folds and infections can brew in them. \n\nNinja edit: and the smell can be horrific if there's skin breakdown",
"Body surface area is used to calculate dosing for many chemotherapeutic agents, and plays a role in the estimation of renal function. It can be extraordinarily difficult to estimate renal function in morbidly obese patients"
],
"score": [
10,
9,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are there any medical consequences or curiosities to obese humans having more skin/higher surface area?
Can larger people regulate their body temperatures better or any other curious effects to their larger surface area? | [
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|
xdzbw | How long does it take for ingested Carbs/Protein/Fat/Sugar etc to have an effect? | I've been watching my diet lately, and read plenty on how carbs are long term energy and fat is short term quick energy etc, but how long does it for those foodstuffs to actually become energy in my body, from mouth to use?
For example, if I eat a high carb food at 1pm, at what time will I feel the benefits of those carbs?
What about water from mouth to hydration? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5ljpoc",
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"c5ljbfs",
"c5lj78k"
],
"text": [
"> carbs are long term energy and fat is short term quick energy\n\nActually, it's the complete opposite; fats and proteins are much more energy dense and are metabolised into energy more slowly than carbohydrates.",
"It takes 2-3 hrs for 50% of a meal to be released from the stomach into the small intestine. It takes about 20 min for the first bits of food to trickle through your pyloric sphincter into your duodenum and then flows into your jejunum. It is in these two places where you first begin absorbing nutrients. You derive no energy from the food you eat while it sits in your stomach. Your stomach waits to empty until it becomes sufficiently distended or the food stuffs reaches a specific pH/composition or spontaneously at a much slower rate. However, there is also a cephalic phase of digestion that encompasses the neurological response to the taste, smell, or anticipation of food that occurs much sooner. This can account for the jolt of energy you feel when you are extremely hungry and get a whiff of a whole pepperoni pizza. Mmmmmm.... Pizza.\n\nEDIT: Water passes through your pyloric sphincter almost immediately. It is then absorbed rapidly in your small intestine.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nAlso relevant:\n_URL_0_",
"A lot of this depends on meal composition. Higher fat meals slow emptying of your meal from your stomach to your small intestine (where most nutrients are absorbed).\n\nIf you ate some pure glucose or fructose and water, it would be in your blood stream in a matter of minutes. This is why chews, gels, and goos for endurance athletes are in this broken down form and recommend significant water consumption. They also often contain free amino acids because breaking protein down to AA's is another stomach function that has to occur before small intestine. (Edit: AA's finish being broken down in the small intestine, but pepsin has to come from the stomach so the protein has to stay in the stomach long enough to stimulate sufficient pepsin production).\n\nSolids, fat, and protein all increase this time. For a large, high-fat, high protein meal that you don't drink anything with, it can be as many as 45 minutes before *any* of this reaches your small intestine.\n\nEdit: see below raelyni's comment for a few sources.",
"I don't know the answer to the rest of your question, but carbs are the fast-energy and fats are the slow, long-term one."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6DA_WwO90c&feature=youtube_gdata_player",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract"
]
} | How long does it take for ingested Carbs/Protein/Fat/Sugar etc to have an effect?
I've been watching my diet lately, and read plenty on how carbs are long term energy and fat is short term quick energy etc, but how long does it for those foodstuffs to actually become energy in my body, from mouth to use? For example, if I eat a high carb food at 1pm, at what time will I feel the benefits of those carbs? What about water from mouth to hydration? | [
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|
3o9zzr | Ignorant first generation American here, why are industrial companies moving towards automation when we're already fighting each other for every job in the market, and how the hell is this supposed to help? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvvpwuh",
"cvvpdzp",
"cvvs79q",
"cvvsilw"
],
"text": [
"The purpose of business in a free market system is not to create jobs. It is to make a living for the founders and owners. Jobs are simply a byproduct of business - not the intent.\n\nI have a small online business that made less than $20K last year. When it gets big enough, I will either hire someone or automate. I will make this decision in the best interest of the company that helps to feed my family, not because of the need for \"jobs.\"\n\nThe idealized 20th century business founder was Henry Ford, who built the assembly-line, mass employment model that is stuck in our minds as the way the world works.\n\nBut that was literally a century ago and is not the world we live in. The idealized business founder in the 21st century is the author of this August 5, 2015 article from _URL_0_ called, [\"The Basics of How I Built a Seven-Figure Business Without Employees\"] (http://www._URL_0_/article/249868).\n\nThis is the world we should be preparing students (and our new immigrants) for - not Henry Ford's world.",
"It's not supposed to help the people, it's supposed to help the shareholders of the company. The pressure on companies is to reduce the cost of production, the conflicting needs of the people is for cheap goods but also to benefit from their production. This opposing set of interests shows the inherent failure of capitalism as a morally acceptable economic system.",
"In addition to other comments here, Globalization is also a driver. If production is not automated here, then it will be automated in another place because there is an opportunity to reduce cost of production. It is necessary to become as efficient as you can to compete successfully. (Without government intervention like tariffs or grants)",
"Like others have said, a company makes money by producing a product as cheaply as possible and then selling it for as much as it can. The move is about dropping production costs, not hiring more people.\n\nHOWEVER... a move to automation isn't a bad move for us. It could actually be great.\n\nWe outsource a lot of manufacturing jobs because labor is so cheap overseas. It makes more sense to pay to have goods shipped across the ocean than to make them domestically. Automation stands to drop domestic production costs and make it more economically feasible to produce products domestically. \n\nAutomated facilities don't have workers on the line, but robots still need operators, technicians, maintenance staff, factory floor supervisors, etc. There are a lot of human jobs in the loop that robots can't do, and moving manufacturing domestically still creates new jobs.\n\nIn addition, someone has to make, sell, install, etc the robots. That's more jobs.\n\nI have not seen actual predicted conversion rate numbers, but the problem isn't as clear cut as \"automation costs jobs.\". The issue at hand though, is that moving to an automated workforce eliminates mainly \"low skill\" jobs while creating a demand for skilled labor. Even a system that is really simple to install or repair will require more skill than standing in one spot and moving parts in and out of a press by hand. This will potentially displace a lot of workers until workforce training catches up, and will be viewed as costing American's jobs."
],
"score": [
30,
5,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"entrepreneur.com",
"http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/249868"
]
} | Ignorant first generation American here, why are industrial companies moving towards automation when we're already fighting each other for every job in the market, and how the hell is this supposed to help?
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||
o18as | Is there any (credible) link between Aspartame and Multiple Sclerosis? | [Pursuant to this comment...](_URL_0_)
Are there any (credible) studies that show any link to Aspartame causing or exacerbating MS symptoms or lesions? I ask because all the googling I've done only turns up links of questionable quality (there are many people who wish to speak their mind about aspartame conspiracies and whatnot). Even if it doesn't _cause_ it, can it cause symptoms to be worse?
Basically, should I stop drinking diet sodas? I wanted to avoid excess sugar, but I want to avoid excess lesions more. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3dkoiv",
"c3dkul2",
"c3dkovb"
],
"text": [
"[No. I hope Snopes suffices to quell this myth, especially with the plethora of high quality links they provide.](_URL_0_)",
"[This](_URL_2_) review debunks the myth that aspartame is neurotoxic.\n\nBut, there are a few newer studies such as [this one](_URL_2_) that shown aspartame can induce oxidative stress in the rodent brain. I'm not sure of the implications these findings could have.",
"Short answer, [no](_URL_3_).\n\nIf you want a really good, in-depth look at artificial sweeteners, C0nc0rdance has a [great video on the subject](_URL_4_)."
],
"score": [
12,
6,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/atheism/comments/o0oy9/i_caused_a_riot_at_starbucksand_got_a_free_drink/c3djgzg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/aspartame.asp",
"http://www.springerlink.com/index/271G50U25780Q462.pdf",
"http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ejcn20085a.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame_controversy#Internet_hoax_conspiracy_theory",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUo2XW0z218"
]
} | Is there any (credible) link between Aspartame and Multiple Sclerosis?
[Pursuant to this comment...](_URL_0_) Are there any (credible) studies that show any link to Aspartame causing or exacerbating MS symptoms or lesions? I ask because all the googling I've done only turns up links of questionable quality (there are many people who wish to speak their mind about aspartame conspiracies and whatnot). Even if it doesn't _cause_ it, can it cause symptoms to be worse? Basically, should I stop drinking diet sodas? I wanted to avoid excess sugar, but I want to avoid excess lesions more. | [
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|
wakg4 | Humans are at the top of the food pyramid but has any plant, animal, or other sort sort of organism been found to kill only humans through evolution? | Has any living organism developed a defense mechanism because of humans and geared only towards humans? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5bogaj",
"c5bpd30"
],
"text": [
"There are certainly human-only parasites, and tigers freely predate humans to boot.",
"It's not so much a pyramid as a web, really."
],
"score": [
11,
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Humans are at the top of the food pyramid but has any plant, animal, or other sort sort of organism been found to kill only humans through evolution?
Has any living organism developed a defense mechanism because of humans and geared only towards humans? | [
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|
kwc36 | A friend claims that bread mold is entirely harmless to eat, is this a myth? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2nr4l1",
"c2nr5se",
"c2ntjfa",
"c2nu756",
"c2nrdrc",
"c2nsdke"
],
"text": [
"Your friend is wrong.\n\nMolds produce mycotoxins that can make you quite ill if consumed. This, of course, depends on the mold species in question... some molds are used to produce food products (like blue cheese) and are harmless.\n\nIn general, it's a good idea to avoid consuming mold and especially moldy grain products. Also, cutting off the visibly moldy part isn't enough to remove all of the mold; molds are made up of microscopic hyphae that can extend far into the food item in question. The part we see is simply the part where they're dense enough to be seen.",
"Here is a bit of research I did on bread mould species and it does appear as if it is not a good idea to ingest it. The problem with a rhizopus fungus infection is that both the fungus and human cells are eukaryotic which means they function in similar manners and thus it is hard to eradicate the infection without harming the human body\n\n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_",
"Eat ergot from rye and go berserk like the Vikings used to.",
"Aside-\n\n[Here's a Rastafarian bread mold](_URL_2_) Surely you don't want to eat that guy.\n\nIt's an SEM picture I took a month or so ago, the blur is from charging movement.",
"You should check with the [witches and werewolves](_URL_3_) - but I think the scientists got this one! Here is a more reputable source on [ergot poisoning](_URL_4_).",
"My grandma used to feed moldy bread to birds, would that be unhealthy for them?"
],
"score": [
99,
16,
3,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1147614",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19472954",
"http://i.imgur.com/j0lwG.jpg",
"http://www.damninteresting.com/bad-rye-and-the-salem-witches/",
"http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/bot135/lect12.htm"
]
} | A friend claims that bread mold is entirely harmless to eat, is this a myth?
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||
ppntn | CERN People! Is this real data? | _URL_0_
Look at the backdrop of the leftmost display in this picture, is that just fancy eyecandy or is that real data? Like a current snapshot of one of them bang-in-long'pipe-chambers? Either way it feeds my brain teh munchies! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"it's *more* fancy eyecandy than data. Granted we all love how it looks, and displays like this help us debug our software, but usually we're running through millions or billions of collisions and we can't sit down with a picture and a ruler and make measurements. So all the data is stored in some file, then passed over with some analysis software, and then the physics pops out as some histogram or something from the analysis software. But the display is *accurate* it is a representation of the tracks and energy passing through the detector (the tracks are the things that look like tracks, and energy is the big towery lookin things)\n\nTo explain the following deleted statements a long conversation occurred which was significantly off topic. Further statements on the matter will continue to be deleted so **do not comment on it**, I hate to have to do more work than necessary.",
"Having worked at CERN, 99% of it does not look like this. :)",
"There's always the live displays too. Not as graphical but still interesting to watch. [Have a look here] (_URL_0_)",
"Look here _URL_2_ and here _URL_2_\nThe sites show live data when the accelerator is running. They are not used for anything in the data analysis, but gives a nice physical understanding of what a collision really is.\nEdit: Right now atlas is showing heavy-ion collisions which are really messy.",
"If you're lucky enough to be on Android, this [app](_URL_3_) will even explain it all to you in a really intuitive way...",
"I know the guy who designed this particular visualization (Joe Boudreau), and have seen it running a number of times. One problem is it almost never actually is operational due to software issues and downtime in Geneva, though it is intended to take the real-time beam data and display it nicely. Makes a nice video in the foyer when it is on.",
"I work in the monitoring team of the Grid Technology group at CERN. Even though we are not in charge of these collision plots, we do have all sort of fancy graphs that help the experiments know at a glance how the system is performing.\n\nAs shavera said, it's not that we take a ruler to make measurements on screen, but they are still pretty helpful to get a general picture. Probably the screen in front of these CMS guys looks a bit more boring, but that's just the photographer's work :)",
"Thats from events in the CMS detector I use to work in that room.",
"is there a schedule so we can watch?",
"[Here's](_URL_4_) a look from inside the control room at CMS. You see an event happening on the screen in the background.",
"Download the LHSee app for your phone/tablet. Your brain will thank you!"
],
"score": [
890,
35,
15,
12,
9,
7,
4,
4,
3,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://news.bbcimg.co.uk/media/images/58492000/jpg/_58492170_57290145.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://op-webtools.web.cern.ch/op-webtools/vistar/vistars.php",
"http://cmsdoc.cern.ch/cmscc/cmstv/cmstv.jsp?channel=5",
"http://atlas-live.cern.ch/",
"https://market.android.com/details?id=com.lhsee",
"http://i.imgur.com/2jkce.jpg"
]
} | CERN People! Is this real data?
_URL_0_ Look at the backdrop of the leftmost display in this picture, is that just fancy eyecandy or is that real data? Like a current snapshot of one of them bang-in-long'pipe-chambers? Either way it feeds my brain teh munchies! | [
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|
4jw9y9 | PLOS Science Wednesday: Hi Reddit, we are Florian Markowetz and James Breton. We published a paper in PLOS Medicine showing resistance to cancer treatment may be related to the heterogeneity in the tumor, which has implications for drug effectiveness – Ask Us Anything! | Hi Reddit,
My name is Florian Markowetz and I am a cancer researcher at the University of Cambridge in the [Cancer Research UK (CRUK)](_URL_3_) Cambridge Institute. My lab and I try to understand how genetic variability between and within patients leads to differences in cancer progression and outcome.
And my name is James Brenton and I am a senior group leader at the CRUK Cambridge Institute, where I study the functional genomics of ovarian cancer and lead on translational studies in the clinic as a medical oncologist at Cambridge University Hospitals.
We recently published a paper titled [“Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in high-grade serous ovarian cancer: a phylogenetic reconstruction”](_URL_0_) in [PLOS Medicine](_URL_5_). The main hypothesis that we were trying to test was whether the magnitude of intratumoural heterogeneity in a patient’s ovarian cancer was a predictor of their outcome. For this, we developed new methods to parsimoniously reconstruct phylogenies using copy number profiles. We found evidence that resistance to treatment could be linked to the degree of genetic heterogeneity in the tumor. The more heterogeneous a tumor is, the more likely is it that the patient becomes resistant. Our study is small, but it identified what could be one of the key reasons why drugs stop being effective after some time.
We are looking forward to exploring this topic further with you and will be answering your questions at 1pm ET -- Ask Us Anything!
You can find out more about me (Florian) and my research at my [lab’s webpage](_URL_2_) and on my blog [Scientific B-Sides](_URL_1_). And don’t forget to follow me on Twitter [@markowetzlab](_URL_4_).
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"Do common xenograft tumor studies accurately capture tumor heterogeneity when mice are injected with cultured cancer cells?\n\nHow can animal tumor models be improved so that treatments that look good in mice translate to humans more effectively?",
"Very cool paper! I recently did a paper [from Boston looking at single-cell RNA-sequencing in melanomas](_URL_0_) for our journal club with a similar finding, i.e. that even before treatment begins there are populations of malignant cells that show characteristics of resistance.\n\nGiven the toxicity of these drugs, is a multi-drug regimen (like we employ for various infectious diseases such as HIV, where resistance can develop very rapidly) feasible? \n\nHow do these findings correspond with the ability of the immune system to detect and respond to these tumours? Presumably greater heterogeneity leads to a greater potential for expression of neoantigens (molecules that could be seen and responded to by the immune system). Might patients with chemotherapy-resistant tumours (due to heterogeneity) be good candidates for checkpoint inhibition therapy (which effectively increases the strength of immune responses) given that [mutation load correlates with response to anti-PD-1 therapy?](_URL_1_)",
"What do you propose (or foresee) will be the solution for patients? How will doctors treat heterogenous tumors effectively? Multi-drug therapies?\nI guess what I'm struggling with is that we know tumors are heterogenous, but in order to treat them effectively we still may need to find what cancer cells have in common (something that normal cells lack so that we can exploit whatever it is that makes them cancer) and that's proven to be very tough. We've got some hallmarks under our belt that vary even within a single tumor population so now what do we do?",
"Nice paper. \n\nThe idea that tumour heterogeneity is a prognostic and therapeutically-exploitable marker is not a particularly novel one ([1](_URL_3_), [2](_URL_4_), [3](_URL_4_)). Other than the fact that you report the phenomenon in HGSOC, what would you say was the most exciting finding from your study?",
"How real is the risk of biopsy resulting in the spread of cancer? \n\nAdditionally, how effective is anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy for refractory tumors? I read a paper in the journal of leukocyte biology that suggests it's promising, but the increased survivability seems to be meager at best, though I have almost no experience in oncology, so I could be very much wrong on this point.",
"Can you please comment on the implication(s) of your research with regard to clinical Next-Generation Sequencing? \n\nCurrently, heterogeneity is estimated int he Pathology lab before sample prep and sequencing, but I have never seen a workflow where different portions of the tumor are prepared separately due to an observed heterogeneity. \n\nHow should clinical NGS testing adapt the technology to be of the highest clinical utility?",
"Could you discuss your career progression a bit? How did you end up in this position? Was it something you originally set out to do? If a college student was interested in similar things, what would you suggest they do?"
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001789",
"http://scientificbsides.wordpress.com",
"http://www.markowetzlab.org",
"http://www.cambridgecancer.org.uk/",
"https://twitter.com/markowetzlab",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aad0501",
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1348",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4374162/",
"http://www.biochemsoctrans.org/content/ppbiost/38/2/374.full.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4281956/"
]
} | PLOS Science Wednesday: Hi Reddit, we are Florian Markowetz and James Breton. We published a paper in PLOS Medicine showing resistance to cancer treatment may be related to the heterogeneity in the tumor, which has implications for drug effectiveness – Ask Us Anything!
Hi Reddit, My name is Florian Markowetz and I am a cancer researcher at the University of Cambridge in the [Cancer Research UK (CRUK)](_URL_3_) Cambridge Institute. My lab and I try to understand how genetic variability between and within patients leads to differences in cancer progression and outcome. And my name is James Brenton and I am a senior group leader at the CRUK Cambridge Institute, where I study the functional genomics of ovarian cancer and lead on translational studies in the clinic as a medical oncologist at Cambridge University Hospitals. We recently published a paper titled [“Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in high-grade serous ovarian cancer: a phylogenetic reconstruction”](_URL_0_) in [PLOS Medicine](_URL_5_). The main hypothesis that we were trying to test was whether the magnitude of intratumoural heterogeneity in a patient’s ovarian cancer was a predictor of their outcome. For this, we developed new methods to parsimoniously reconstruct phylogenies using copy number profiles. We found evidence that resistance to treatment could be linked to the degree of genetic heterogeneity in the tumor. The more heterogeneous a tumor is, the more likely is it that the patient becomes resistant. Our study is small, but it identified what could be one of the key reasons why drugs stop being effective after some time. We are looking forward to exploring this topic further with you and will be answering your questions at 1pm ET -- Ask Us Anything! You can find out more about me (Florian) and my research at my [lab’s webpage](_URL_2_) and on my blog [Scientific B-Sides](_URL_1_). And don’t forget to follow me on Twitter [@markowetzlab](_URL_4_). | [
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|
vco04 | If the human brain were a computer processor, what would the technical specifications be? (GHz, mainly) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c53b8wx",
"c53g7ub",
"c53djve"
],
"text": [
"The brain is not really comparable to a computer processor in that kind of way. It stores, accesses and processes information very differently on all levels.",
"I used to use the following example when I was giving lectures on computer architectures: \"Consider the lowly mosquito: it has a near microscopic brain, yet it can fly, predate, evade predators, land on a moving object (you) in what to it is gale force winds. And it can mate, and find an appropriate place to lay its eggs.\" It does all of this with complete autonomy. If you had all the resources you could imagine, you probably would not be able to develop a system of any size, within your lifetime, which could do the same. Such is the power of neural networks and natural selection.\"",
"Each neuron can easily be emulated in low MHz cores. The brain works in parallel. \n\nAlso, the computation power of a processor is not necessarily measured by clock speed. You have to take account of its architecture and problem domain. Your GPU is better at processing graphics despite having a much lower frequency than your CPU."
],
"score": [
11,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If the human brain were a computer processor, what would the technical specifications be? (GHz, mainly)
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||
7sns41 | [Orbital Mechanics] What does burning radial out/in do? | Hi all,
I've begun playing around with Kerbal Space Program and there are some things that are unclear to me when it comes to orbital mechanics.
In orbital mechanics, speed and altitude are linked: a satellite or a ship orbits a body at a given altitude and a given speed (at least that's what I understand). If I increase the speed (by burning prograde) I will ~~increase~~ decrease my altitude and _vice versa_.
I also understand that if I burn normal (or antinormal) I increase (decrease) the angle of my orbit: this seems easy to understand when summing speed vectors.
What I don't get is burning radial out / in. Suppose I'm orbiting the body at 2000m/s @ 100km. If I burn radial out (away from the body), I will increase my altitude (because I'm providing thrust in that direction).
Then if I stop burning, let's say I'm now at 110km altitude, what happens? Well I'm at 110km altitude for which the orbital speed is supposed to be 2100m/s (for instance, haven't made the calculations), but I'm still going 2000m/s because I haven't accelerated in the direction I'm orbiting. So the ship / satellite should begin to lose altitude to get back to 100km, right?
Or am I missing something?
Another question that is related: how is it even possible to do orbital rendez-vous?
I mean if I'm trying to rendez-vous with a satellite orbiting the body at a certain speed (and thus altitude). If I come from "under", meaning if I have a lower altitude, then I have a higher speed. So I'm "gaining" on it. Suppose I time my prograde burn so that I rise to the target altitude (and speed) but I'm a few kilometers ahead of the target. Then I'm toasted right? Because if I'm a few kilometers ahead of the satellite and try to slow down a bit by burning retrograde so that it can catch up on me, then I'm also lowering my orbit.
I get that we have computer models that make very powerful computations, but when we are talking about docking a ship to the ISS, I suppose the computer models cannot compute a single burn that will place the ship at _exactly_ the correct position and speed, at mm/s and mm accuracy. So there has to be adjustment burns, even minor ones. But since altitude and speeds are always linked, how does one position exactly at the correct speed and altitude?
Sorry if this is obvious, but something's not ticking with me on this one :/
Thanks in advance :) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dt68ix4",
"dt678fs",
"dt6j6af"
],
"text": [
"Hi! Radial and antiradial thrust \"pivots\" orbits. Thrusting towards a planet would lower your altitude ahead of you, and raise it behind you. Thrusting away does the opposite. This doesn't change your orbital energy much, because the thrust is parallel to the center of gravity and at right angles to your orbital path, whereas normal/antinormal thrust is always at a right angle to gravity and orbital vector, so this adds energy.\n\n\n\nAnyways, orbital rendezvous - timing and precision is key. I'm going to explain the basics for anyone else who may read this. Like you said, altitude determines orbital speed. Lower means faster, and higher means slower. Two spacecraft in the same orbit (say, a 100km circle) take exactly the same time to complete an orbit. If these two satellites are orbiting the exact same line, but at different points, they are out of \"phase.\" Let's say satellite 1 is 30 minutes out of phase behind satellite 2 - how do we get them to meet? Well, make satellite 2 take a 30 minute longer orbit, or 2 15 minute longer orbits, or 30 orbits a minute longer. All you have to do is give it a bit more altitude, giving it a longer orbital period. Once you're in phase, match paths again - and do it as precisely as possible.\n\n\nIf you end up within a few kilometers, you're only very slightly out of phase, and close enough that you can maneuver directly relative to your target without worrying about what it does to your orbit. For example, let's say you are 1km directly under your target. Thrusting directly away from the planet and towards your target does alter the orbit some, but it balances out when you thrust in the other direction to slow back down.",
"You are missing something. First off, increasing the orbital radius *decreses* orbital velocity. Second, you would very rarely burn entirely radially, the radial vector is usually a component of your desired vector. You can for instance burn radially inward *and* prograde to give you more \"umph\" in a slingshot manouvre / gravity assist.\n\nBy burning radially, you essentially translate your orbit in the direction you are burning. Say you burn inward, your altitude decreases but on the opposite side of the orbit, your altitude will increase accordingly.\n\nHope you're enjoying the game and you should perhaps x-post to /r/KerbalSpaceProgram",
"> If I increase the speed (by burning prograde) I will ~~increase~~ decrease my altitude \n\nLooks like you've edited and corrected that, but I think it was better before.\n\nBurn prograde - > increase your speed - > increase your energy - > increase your altitude.\n\nProbably the confusion comes from the fact that higher orbits are slower. That's true, but only on average. Let's suppose from your example that you start from a circular orbit at 2000 m/s at 100 km. Increase your speed to 2200 m/s, then your orbit will become elliptical and the apoapsis (highest point) will become significantly higher than 100 km. The key point here is that *the speed along an elliptical orbit is not constant*, during ascent your satellite will slow down and reach the apoapsis slower than 2000 m/s. So maybe this is what made you think higher altitude = lower speed. But then the descending half of the orbit starts, and during this path the satellite will speed up again. When it reaches periapsis (lowest point) it will be the same place where you burned to speed up, same altitude (100 km) and same speed (2200 m/s). The elliptical and the circular orbit touch at this point, and the higher (elliptical) orbit is faster at this point though slower on average.\n\nSo the rule of thumb is speed up to get high, slow down to get low. See [Hohmann transfers](_URL_0_).\n\nGetting back to the question in the title:\n\n > What does burning radial out/in do?\n\nPrograde/retrograde burns are simple because you can just predict the new apogee/perigee using the [Vis-viva equation](_URL_1_). Radial burns are a bit more tricky. The problem is definitely solvable since there is a well-known method to determine the orbit from a position and a velocity, and both should be known from your manoeuvre. But since I'm a bit lazy to do the math I'll just go with the intuitive concept: you're changing the potential energy of your satellite, so burning outwards will definitely put you in a higher orbit. At the same time the velocity vector will no longer be perpendicular to the position vector, so your orbit will become elliptical as others said.\n\nRegarding the third part about orbital Rendez-Vous, that's a nice question. If you're far away from the target you must use orbital mechanics for phasing as others said. Move to a lower orbit to shorten your orbital period, or to a higher orbit to make it longer.\n\nOnce you've come close enough to your target you can ignore orbital mechanics completely and burn directly to it in a straight line. Why? Because it will be a short distance, it will take little to get there, so orbital mechanics won't have enough time to make a meaningful difference. Don't get me wrong, nature cannot be fooled and the effect of migrating to a higher orbit when you speed up will still be present, but if you're a few meters behind your target and this effect causes you to miss by a few mm, is it really a problem?\n\nThe conditions that must be satisfied in order to ignore orbital mechanics are:\n\n* The distance to the target must be negligible when compared to the orbit's length\n\n* The delta-v must be negligible when compared to orbital speed\n\n* The time it takes you to reach the target must be negligible when compared to the orbital period"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohmann_transfer_orbit",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis-viva_equation"
]
} | [Orbital Mechanics] What does burning radial out/in do?
Hi all, I've begun playing around with Kerbal Space Program and there are some things that are unclear to me when it comes to orbital mechanics. In orbital mechanics, speed and altitude are linked: a satellite or a ship orbits a body at a given altitude and a given speed (at least that's what I understand). If I increase the speed (by burning prograde) I will ~~increase~~ decrease my altitude and _vice versa_. I also understand that if I burn normal (or antinormal) I increase (decrease) the angle of my orbit: this seems easy to understand when summing speed vectors. What I don't get is burning radial out / in. Suppose I'm orbiting the body at 2000m/s @ 100km. If I burn radial out (away from the body), I will increase my altitude (because I'm providing thrust in that direction). Then if I stop burning, let's say I'm now at 110km altitude, what happens? Well I'm at 110km altitude for which the orbital speed is supposed to be 2100m/s (for instance, haven't made the calculations), but I'm still going 2000m/s because I haven't accelerated in the direction I'm orbiting. So the ship / satellite should begin to lose altitude to get back to 100km, right? Or am I missing something? Another question that is related: how is it even possible to do orbital rendez-vous? I mean if I'm trying to rendez-vous with a satellite orbiting the body at a certain speed (and thus altitude). If I come from "under", meaning if I have a lower altitude, then I have a higher speed. So I'm "gaining" on it. Suppose I time my prograde burn so that I rise to the target altitude (and speed) but I'm a few kilometers ahead of the target. Then I'm toasted right? Because if I'm a few kilometers ahead of the satellite and try to slow down a bit by burning retrograde so that it can catch up on me, then I'm also lowering my orbit. I get that we have computer models that make very powerful computations, but when we are talking about docking a ship to the ISS, I suppose the computer models cannot compute a single burn that will place the ship at _exactly_ the correct position and speed, at mm/s and mm accuracy. So there has to be adjustment burns, even minor ones. But since altitude and speeds are always linked, how does one position exactly at the correct speed and altitude? Sorry if this is obvious, but something's not ticking with me on this one :/ Thanks in advance :) | [
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|
qaary | A girl on my fb posted this claim about microwaved water. I'm skeptical. ....Can anyone tell me the true science and/or lack there of in this article? | The article starts out sopunding liek a straight foward science project but as the article goes on the claims seem more and more unbelievable.
link to article: _URL_0_
text of the article: "Below is a Science fair project presented by a girl in a secondary school in Sussex.
In it she took filtered water and divided it into two parts. The first part she heated to boiling in a pan on the stove, and the second part she heated to boiling in a microwave.
Then after cooling she used the water to water two identical plants to see if there would be any difference in the growth between the normal boiled water and the water boiled in a microwave.
She was thinking that the structure or energy of the water may be compromised by microwave.
As it turned out, even she was amazed at the difference, after the experiment which was repeated by her class mates a number of times and had the same result.
It has been known for some years that the problem with microwaved anything is not the radiation people used to worry about, it’s how it corrupts the DNA in the food so the body can not recognize it.
Microwaves don’t work different ways on different substances. Whatever you put into the microwave suffers the same destructive process. Microwaves agitate the molecules to move faster and faster. This movement causes friction which denatures the original make-up of the substance. It results in destroyed vitamins, minerals, proteins and generates the new stuff called radiolytic compounds, things that are not found in nature.
So the body wraps it in fat cells to protect itself from the dead food or it eliminates it fast. Think of all the Mothers heating up milk in these ‘Safe’ appliances. What about the nurse in Canada that warmed up blood for a transfusion patient and accidentally killed him when the blood went in dead. But the makers say it’s safe. But proof is in the pictures of living plants dying!!!
FORENSIC RESEARCH DOCUMENT
Prepared By: William P. Kopp
A. R. E. C. Research Operations
TO61-7R10/10-77F05
RELEASE PRIORITY: CLASS I ROO1a
Ten Reasons to dispose off your Microwave Oven
From the conclusions of the Swiss, Russian and German scientific clinical studies, we can no longer ignore the microwave oven sitting in our kitchens. Based on this research, one can conclude this article with the following:
1). Continually eating food processed from a microwave oven causes long term – permanent – brain damage by ‘shorting out’ electrical impulses in the brain [de-polarizing or de-magnetizing the brain tissue].
2). The human body cannot metabolize [break down] the unknown by-products created in microwaved food.
3). Male and female hormone production is shut down and/or altered by continually eating microwaved foods.
4). The effects of microwaved food by-products are residual [long term, permanent] within the human body.
5). Minerals, vitamins, and nutrients of all microwaved food is reduced or altered so that the human body gets little or no benefit, or the human body absorbs altered compounds that cannot be broken down.
6). The minerals in vegetables are altered into cancerous free radicals when cooked in microwave ovens.
7). Microwaved foods cause stomach and intestinal cancerous growths [tumours]. This may explain the rapidly increased rate of colon cancer in UK and America .
8). The prolonged eating of microwaved foods causes cancerous cells to increase in human blood.
9). Continual ingestion of microwaved food causes immune system deficiencies through lymph gland and blood serum alterations.
10). Eating microwaved food causes loss of memory, concentration, emotional instability, and a decrease of intelligence."
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3vzpma",
"c3vzr8w",
"c3vzp5c",
"c3vzxps",
"c3vzp6n",
"c3w0f9c",
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"text": [
"This is completely unphysical nonsense. The \"test\" is either completely faked or done without proper controls.",
"There is absolutely no true science anywhere in that article. Two plants do not represent a meaningful sample size. Their claims are preposterous (and it's easy to tell, because they use phrases like \"it is well known that,\" in place of real mechanisms of action.) Tap water is H2O plus a handful of ions; to say anything is \"carried\" with it is bullshit on the same order as homeopathy.\n\nIf anything, microwaves are somewhat healthier than other preparation techniques for certain foods. The charring produced by grilling actually *is* slightly carcinogenic; microwaves are much better suited to preparing food without burning it.",
"> it corrupts the DNA in the food so the body can not recognize it.\n\nStopped reading right there",
"Microwaves (at 2.4GHz) are going to interact almost exclusively through chemical rotations. The only chemical processes it can and will promote will be identical to thermal heating.\n\n1. Your body does not recognize DNA and process. The body processes food by breaking down chemical bonds, though it is true that some type of bonds will be harder to break down than others. The dangrous things are bonds that are going to actually change YOUR dna (benzene rings, free radicals).\n\n\nI'll comment on some if their direct points.\n\n > 1). Continually eating food processed from a microwave oven causes long term – permanent – brain damage by ‘shorting out’ electrical impulses in the brain [de-polarizing or de-magnetizing the brain tissue].\n\nAlmost 0 radiation is leaked though the microwave oven and will not cause any significant heating (collisional energy transfer > > > rate needed for heating at that power). Also brain tissue isn't magnitized. Memory is formed though chemical networks, not magnetic.\n\n > 2). The human body cannot metabolize [break down] the unknown by-products created in microwaved food.\n\nIt is true that there are compounds the body cannot break down. Though for the most part if it can't process them the body will just pass them (some metals and compounds may be mistaken and absorbed in the place of good ones though). In the end, for the most part the microwave will not create drastically different decomp products than thermal heating (some reactions DO proceed differently under MW heating though)\n\n\n > 5). Minerals, vitamins, and nutrients of all microwaved food is reduced or altered so that the human body gets little or no benefit, or the human body absorbs altered compounds that cannot be broken down.\n\nAgain decomp products will not drastically differ over thermal heating unless you are over microwaving.\n\n > 6). The minerals in vegetables are altered into cancerous free radicals when cooked in microwave ovens.\n\nFirst, MW radiation does not break bonds directly thus no free radicals can be formed selectively. Second if they are free radicals are almost always EXTREMELY unstable and react with the first thing they run into with almost 0 barrier. Thus they would be gone within microseconds of formation.\n\n\n\nFinally notice there is an extensive list with no source. This is always an indicator of complete and utter BS. If you do google the one \"source\" you end up with a bunch of yahoo group or conspiracy theory sites. Not one single reputable or peer reviewed source.",
"> It has been known for some years that the problem with microwaved anything is not the radiation people used to worry about, it’s how it corrupts the DNA in the food so the body can not recognize it.\n\nSeriously, what?",
"Same facebook drivel was [asked and answered](_URL_0_) a week ago.",
"there is nothing wrong with microwaved food, the idea that it is bad because our body cannot recognize the dna is just silly, it cannot do that with normal food, it digests by grinding and then dissolving with acid and enzymes. water is unaffected by microwaving, except possibly a change in temperature."
],
"score": [
32,
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3,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://2012indyinfo.com/2012/02/11/microwave-test-an-eye-opener-employee-news/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/comments/pqoq9/can_microwave_heating_turn_food_toxic_or/"
]
} | A girl on my fb posted this claim about microwaved water. I'm skeptical. ....Can anyone tell me the true science and/or lack there of in this article?
The article starts out sopunding liek a straight foward science project but as the article goes on the claims seem more and more unbelievable. link to article: _URL_0_ text of the article: "Below is a Science fair project presented by a girl in a secondary school in Sussex. In it she took filtered water and divided it into two parts. The first part she heated to boiling in a pan on the stove, and the second part she heated to boiling in a microwave. Then after cooling she used the water to water two identical plants to see if there would be any difference in the growth between the normal boiled water and the water boiled in a microwave. She was thinking that the structure or energy of the water may be compromised by microwave. As it turned out, even she was amazed at the difference, after the experiment which was repeated by her class mates a number of times and had the same result. It has been known for some years that the problem with microwaved anything is not the radiation people used to worry about, it’s how it corrupts the DNA in the food so the body can not recognize it. Microwaves don’t work different ways on different substances. Whatever you put into the microwave suffers the same destructive process. Microwaves agitate the molecules to move faster and faster. This movement causes friction which denatures the original make-up of the substance. It results in destroyed vitamins, minerals, proteins and generates the new stuff called radiolytic compounds, things that are not found in nature. So the body wraps it in fat cells to protect itself from the dead food or it eliminates it fast. Think of all the Mothers heating up milk in these ‘Safe’ appliances. What about the nurse in Canada that warmed up blood for a transfusion patient and accidentally killed him when the blood went in dead. But the makers say it’s safe. But proof is in the pictures of living plants dying!!! FORENSIC RESEARCH DOCUMENT Prepared By: William P. Kopp A. R. E. C. Research Operations TO61-7R10/10-77F05 RELEASE PRIORITY: CLASS I ROO1a Ten Reasons to dispose off your Microwave Oven From the conclusions of the Swiss, Russian and German scientific clinical studies, we can no longer ignore the microwave oven sitting in our kitchens. Based on this research, one can conclude this article with the following: 1). Continually eating food processed from a microwave oven causes long term – permanent – brain damage by ‘shorting out’ electrical impulses in the brain [de-polarizing or de-magnetizing the brain tissue]. 2). The human body cannot metabolize [break down] the unknown by-products created in microwaved food. 3). Male and female hormone production is shut down and/or altered by continually eating microwaved foods. 4). The effects of microwaved food by-products are residual [long term, permanent] within the human body. 5). Minerals, vitamins, and nutrients of all microwaved food is reduced or altered so that the human body gets little or no benefit, or the human body absorbs altered compounds that cannot be broken down. 6). The minerals in vegetables are altered into cancerous free radicals when cooked in microwave ovens. 7). Microwaved foods cause stomach and intestinal cancerous growths [tumours]. This may explain the rapidly increased rate of colon cancer in UK and America . 8). The prolonged eating of microwaved foods causes cancerous cells to increase in human blood. 9). Continual ingestion of microwaved food causes immune system deficiencies through lymph gland and blood serum alterations. 10). Eating microwaved food causes loss of memory, concentration, emotional instability, and a decrease of intelligence." | [
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|
kyiw2 | As a scientist, do you acknowledge that a process, or a series of processes created all of the matter and energy in the universe and do you think we could ever discover this process and create matter and energy as we see fit. | The big bang is not the answer I am looking for, that just seems to me like all the matter and energy was condensed to a single point, I am talking about the actual creation of matter, which is supposed to be impossible according to thermodynamics and other laws, but it all had to come from somewhere right?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ob0oe",
"c2oarmq",
"c2oayh6",
"c2ob0gm",
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"c2oaujp"
],
"text": [
"This question seems to be phrased oddly... are you trying to bring a theological discussion into AskScience, or looking for points to combat one?",
"Why? Conservation of energy is a consequence of what's known as time translation symmetry, and there exist situations where both are violated. There's no reason to presuppose that there must have been some creation process.",
"The current cosmological theory is that matter and radiation were created during the [\"reheating\"](_URL_3_) period at the end of [cosmic inflation](_URL_4_. It's thought that the energy for reheating came from the decay of the inflaton field (which itself does not conserve energy globally).\n\nWhere that came from is a more difficult question, and leads into some pretty weird territory ([eternal inflation](_URL_1_) and bubble universes), but it seems unlikely that we can utilize that process to make more matter and energy in the laboratory. It's a one-way process where, as far as we can tell, the universe went from a [metastable state](_URL_5_) (like a small dip on the top of a hill) to a more stable value of the [cosmological constant](_URL_2_) (the leading candidate for [dark energy](_URL_0_)).",
"Two ways to look at it:\n\n(Newtonian viewpoint): If the universe is exactly flat, then the negative energy bundled up in gravitational potential energy plus the positive energy in matter is exactly equal to 0.\n\n(Einsteinian viewpoint): Because our universe does not have time translation symmetry, there does not exist a globally conserved energy.",
"And where did that \"somewhere\" come from? Your argument could go on forever.",
"Nope.\n\nI acknowledge that we don't have all the answers.\n\nAt one point, we didn't understand why species appeared to be interrelated but were clearly distinct.\n\nAt one point, we didn't understand what physical processes explained the movement of celestial bodies across the sky.\n\nAt one point, we didn't understand the causes of most common infectious diseases.\n\nTime and understanding have provided adequate explanation for most of these issues, though research is ongoing.\n\nIt's not clear where the matter and energy that make up the Universe came from. If you wind the clock back far enough, you get everything condensed to a single point at which the curvature of space-time becomes infinite and the laws as we understand them break down. We can't \"see\" past that point - and we may never be able to.\n\nWe simply lack sufficient knowledge to address your question.\n\n\nEDIT: \"It all had to come from somewhere\" may not be a meaningful question, by the way. Similar to, \"A loop has to start/end somewhere, right?\""
],
"score": [
20,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_\\(cosmology\\)#Eternal_inflation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_\\(cosmology\\)#Reheating",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastability"
]
} | As a scientist, do you acknowledge that a process, or a series of processes created all of the matter and energy in the universe and do you think we could ever discover this process and create matter and energy as we see fit.
The big bang is not the answer I am looking for, that just seems to me like all the matter and energy was condensed to a single point, I am talking about the actual creation of matter, which is supposed to be impossible according to thermodynamics and other laws, but it all had to come from somewhere right? | [
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|
35it46 | What are the key differences between boa constrictors, pythons, and anacondas? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cr4tr2v",
"cr4zrl4",
"cr5wa0b"
],
"text": [
"Pythons live in Africa and Asia and are some of the longest snakes in the world. \nBoa Constrictors are slightly smaller than Pythons and live in parts of North, Central, and South America. \nAnacondas are in the Boa Constrictor family and live in South America. They are often treated as a separate group because of a genetic trait where they don't want none unless you got buns hon. \n\nSources: Wikipedia, Sir Mix-a-lot",
"In addition to what /u/allycis mentioned, pythons lay eggs while boas give birth. Some general differences with exceptions are that pythons tend to be longer but slimmer and boas are slightly shorter but much heavier. Boas (especially anacondas) are often also semi-aquatic and at home in water and ambush prey while pythons are more likely to actively hunt prey on land. One interesting thing both share that isn't found in more derived snakes is that a remnant of their evolution from limbed ancestors can be seen in their skeletons as [spurs](_URL_0_), especially in males. They sometimes still have tiny leg bones that poke out from a rudimentary pelvic area!",
"There are several species of boids found in from africa to asia. And a single pythonidae representative from mexico ( Loxocemus bicolor). Geography is a poor way to distinguish animal groups. Though in general pythons are egg layers and boas give live birth, a few boa species lay eggs that hatch imidiatly after oviposition (eryx jayakari and e. mulleri). The key difference you are looking for is that boidae do not have postfrontal bones or premaxilary teeth."
],
"score": [
44,
9,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvic_spur"
]
} | What are the key differences between boa constrictors, pythons, and anacondas?
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1g80fj | Does "burning in" headphones actually work, or is it a myth? | For those who don't know what burning in is:
Basically you play things like white noise (what you hear on those old TVs when you don't have a signal), pink noise (same but with more bass) and frequency sweeps. These are supposed to free up the speaker to allow more movement for a better sound.
Edit: I have [posted this same question](_URL_0_) on /r/audiophile for a comparison.
Edit 2: So it seems there is still no definitive answer, unsurprisingly. /r/audiophile didn't have a straight-forward answer either. | askscience | {
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"The suspension holding the speaker's diaphragm in place is made of some kind of manufactured flexible material. \n\nIt is totally conceivable that the mechanical properties of this diaphragm suspension material may be slightly different (a) immediately after manufacture, and (b) after some use. Most burn-in recommendations are to play the sound fairly loud - by kicking up the volume you also increase the amplitude of the vibrations. \n\nI don't know if you could predict *a priori* whether burning in would actually improve the qualitative sound of a speaker, but it is likely inevitable that the sound will be quantifiably different over time. Thus if the speaker manufacturer does their testing on units that have been burned in, then they won't sound like they are \"meant to\" until they have been burned in.",
"This question can only really be answered by the manufacturer on a case-by-case basis. There is a good deal of variance in headphone architectures, materials, and manufacturing processes. Some manufacturers may even have break in processes of their own (at a minimum, the final verification test of the headphones). They'll also have long-term usage test data, though whether or not they'll release it to you is another question.\n\nUnless you have two matched pairs of new headphones (very unlikely) and highly trained ears (extremely unlikely) there is no way for you yourself to conclusively hear any difference due to break in. Murphy's law for audiophiles tends to apply more often than not: If you think you hear a difference, you don't.",
"music and just about anything else you might want to listen to has the same amplitude spectrum, on average, as pink noise. that means that the amount of vibrations, big and small, will be the same.\n\nso, if you just listen to what you were going to listen to anyways, it has the same effect as running pink noise through the speakers.\n\nthen, picking up the speaker and setting it down, or shaking it, etc., will dump a bunch of impulses (basically, i am approximating there) into the device, which have amplitude spectra just like white noise. so you don't need white noise either.\n\nand frequency sweeps, depending on how they work, are equivalent to taking the contents of that white or pink noise and playing them one frequency at a time. so again, same influence on the overall motion of the speaker parts as 1) just listening to music and/or 2) moving the speakers around.\n\nso \"burning in\" speakers sounds silly to me.\n\ni am a psychologist, laugh if you want. my dissertation was on 1/f noise and nonlinear amplifiers used to model human vision, so i know some stuff.",
"Well, the intention of burning in headphones is to expedite a process; anything it allegedly accomplishes can be eventually accomplished with normal usage.\n\nThere is some evidence that headphones produce different sounds over time - _URL_0_ - but not very much. Of course, whether these changes constitute an improvement is subjective.",
"I spend a lot of time on car audio forums and this is a sort of beating the horse subject as there is no good answer. Klippel tests are used to measure the various T/S (Thiele/Small) parameters of the speaker which can be used to eastablish their theoretical dB response over frequency range. Some speakers exhibit a major difference, other little, and other none. Some drivers require 10 hours, other 24, and some days to \"break in\". One of the more interesting thories is that the MMS (moving mass) of the speaker is the more important parameter in whether or not a speakers response will change with \"breaking in\". With this theory, headphones would not change response with a burn in becasue their moving mass is extremely small, or the change would be extremely tiny (not noticable). It is a difficult topic in all, but generally considered most important to break in drivers that are 8\" or larger, and the rest can generally be ignored.",
"You could ask /r/audioengineering as well, and as a junior electrical engineering student, I would say it wouldn't make a difference, but I have very little experience with mechanical stuff.\n\nAlso, the audiophiles and the subject of audio \"quality\" are very subjective, and there doesn't seem to be enough measurements of anything, and everyone write what they hear. I don't think that even seeing is an accurate measurement of anything, so hearing is for me much more open to speculation. So, if you think that it will be effective, it will. Otherwise, it won't."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/audiophile/comments/1g93uf/does_burning_in_headphones_actually_work_or_is_it/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.innerfidelity.com/content/evidence-headphone-break"
]
} | Does "burning in" headphones actually work, or is it a myth?
For those who don't know what burning in is: Basically you play things like white noise (what you hear on those old TVs when you don't have a signal), pink noise (same but with more bass) and frequency sweeps. These are supposed to free up the speaker to allow more movement for a better sound. Edit: I have [posted this same question](_URL_0_) on /r/audiophile for a comparison. Edit 2: So it seems there is still no definitive answer, unsurprisingly. /r/audiophile didn't have a straight-forward answer either. | [
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|
8jkbm1 | Does a heart need to beat? Would we be able to replace the heart with something that continuously moves blood around with no pulse (using a pump/compressor of sorts)? Would there be complications by making the flow constant rather than pulsed/beats? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There is already a device out there that does what you are saying. A lot of people with severe heart damage will get put on a device called an LVAD (Left Ventricular Assist Device) which can either assist a damaged heart or just replace it entirely. These devices have a rotor that circulates blood continuously instead of making it pump. It connects to a battery pack outside the body. These people will often have no pulse and by extension no measurable blood pressure because there is no pulsitile motion to measure. These devices are usually used as a temporary measure until a heart donor can be found, but it's getting more common to be used in those that cannot undergo a heart transplant as well.\nHere's some more info if you want to read about it. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nI am an ED nurse at an LVAD center hospital so I see these fairly often.",
"Short answer - no, it can work.\n\nWith a lot of the early work on artificial hearts and assist devices it was assumed that blood flow had to be pulsatile - which makes sense given the use of stretch receptors in a lot of places to monitor pressure.\n\nHowever due to elasticity and resistance of the vessels, by capillary level a lot of the pulsatility has gone.\n\nIn the end this was solved by people making artificial hearts and assist devices which aren't pulsatile, and there are people walking around with them today.\n\nEdit: a fairly readable summary article - [The total artificial heart](_URL_1_)",
"This already exists - it's called a left ventricular assist device (LVAD). It is implanted in people who's heart is too weak to effectively pump blood at a sufficient perfusion pressure. \n\nBasically it consists of a pipe with a motor in the middle. One end of the LVAD is hooked up to the heart (left ventricle), the other end is hooked up to the aorta (largest artery carrying blood to the rest of the body), and in the middle there is a motor which generates a negative pressure which sucks the blood out from the heart (assists the heart) and into the aorta. The motor speeds are adjusted to optimize the pressures in the heart. It is powered by a battery that is worn outside the body, but connects to the LVAD through the abdomen. \n\nIt is used in those who are waiting for a heart transplant but would otherwise die waiting. In some it’s also used as destination therapy (they are not candidates for a heart transplant but this will keep them alive longer than if they didn’t have an LVAD).\n\nComplications include hemolysis (shredding of red blood cells) due to the motor. There is also a high risk of infection and also clotting.\n\nRegarding pulsatile vs continuous flow - no one knows for sure. However, it has been shown that continuous flow can lead to more stiffening of blood vessels which is one theory behind why so many patients with LVADs have kidney failure later (but of course, the alternative is death relatively sooner).\n\nLVAD simulation: _URL_4_\n\nLVAD review article: _URL_3_\n\nLVAD Kidney: _URL_4_",
"Look up LVAD. They are cool to look at, but if you need to be on one you’re in really, really bad shape. \n\nI did read some interesting things related to artificial hearts in one of my wife’s many medical journals that she gets. From an engineering standpoint, something with chambers that pump like an actual heart is much, much better. Other systems that would rely on blades to keep blood flowing damages cells and there’s the risk of buildup of cells on the blades. \n\nEdit: Sorry; LVAD was mentioned in another comment.",
"Sorry for formatting and bad English.\n\nYes, we could use a continuous pump, and everyone here told you to look after LVAD.\n\nThere's also another problem: laminar flow and turbolent flow of the blood.\n\nIn laminar flow, the blood moves without making whirls, like water in a straight tube.\n\nIn turbolent flow, the blood may become stagnant in critical points, such as right after heart valves. The stagnation leads to the formation of clots in that area, with potentially fatal consequences.\n\nIt takes time for a liquid to create turbolence.\nA pulsed movement of the blood \"kills\" the turbolence before it becomes too important.\n\nSource: biomedical engineering student and thesis on valve failure",
"Extra corporeal membrane oxygenation, or ECMO, is a device that removes deoxygenated blood from the body and turns it into oxygenated blood via a huge pump and then returns it back to the body. In lay terms, long term heart and lung bypass. There are two kinds, VA and VV ECMO. VA or veno-arterial uses the venous system and the arterial system and can provide cardiac support; both the heart and lungs can rest while this pump does all the work. Then there's VV or veno-venous; it returns blood to venous system and provides no cardiac support, mainly for lungs to rest.\n\nI work at a children's hospital and we use ECMO in all three of our ICUs, the NICU, PICU, and CICU or cardiac.\n\nWiki for general info. _URL_5_\n\nNot sure if this answers the question of if we need a heart beat, but if capable, people can walk on ECMO and don't need to be restricted to a bed but obviously do need to be in hospital. LVADs I believe can be used outside of hospitals, people can go home with those.",
"Continuous-flow total artificial heart, was first done in 2011 in Houston Texas.. The patient had no pulse, he was fully awake interacting with family and medical staff for more than a month. The body can be sustained on a continuous flow simply because blood flows continuously at the capillary level. \n\n[medical team press conference](_URL_7_)\n\n[article in popular science](_URL_6_)",
"I worked in blood vessel tissue engineering. What I know about endothelial cells is that they respond best to non-continuoua flow. I do not remember all the details of my studies but my intuition is that pulsatile stretching of the cell walls is also better.\n\nBasically, the heart and blood vessels have evolved to work together, and they work better this way. That doesn't mean a continuous blood flow would be a death sentence, but I would expect a list of negative consequences such as poorer blood flow regulation, fewer anti-clotting factors, weaker vascular walls (perhaps accompanied by media hypertrophy and higher blood pressure? No idea), etc.",
"I was on a plane to Houston with a cardiologist who is working the latest generation of this. I asked lots of questions and this question was the first. He said the body doesn't need the pulse, just flow. The device they were working on would speed up and slow down based on need, like a regular heart. Can't remember his name, but he was a cardiologist at Christ hospital in Cincinnati and I believe is now the chief Cardiologist at Texas A & M.",
"Okay, all of these answers are good, but they are very short-sighted to what the OP is asking. Yes, we have a system called a LVAD and it has complications. But come on scientists, think a little further down the road. Think to a time when we can manufacture a heart with small, but powerful batteries, motors, etc that could last indefinitely.\n\nShould that future synthetic heart be programmed to beat or simply flow as the OP is asking? What would be the pros/cons of an \"everflow\" system? If an engineer could design the ideal heart without energy constraints (which is why we have a beat to begin with; saving energy), what would it look like?",
"Yes it is possible. You can live with a pump that provides a constat stream (i.e without s heartbeat)\n\n[This man lived — even played basketball — without a human heart for 555 days before receiving a transplant](_URL_8_)",
"Cardiac care nurse here. There's a device called a VAD, which stands for a ventricular assistive device. Patient who receive them for their left ventricle; the largest chamber in the heart that pumps blood to the rest of the body, usually have them in place till they can get a heart transplant or long term as final therapy. The problem with using a pump and engine is that blood likes to clot and it often forms on the moving parts of the pump. We combat this by placing the patient on blood thinners, but this increases the risk of bleeding which is a high risk factor with VADs, more so with Left VADS. You also need to power the device. So VAD patients have an actual wire that comes out of the abdomen and plugs into a romote that runs off a battery or an outlet. Any foreign object entering the body is an invitation for infection and it's also a common risk factor with VADS. We also have total artificial hearts, witch are actually plastic chambers with valves that pump like a heart would. These are more rare and very loud because the machine that runs the device id constantly clicking and the external machine is about the size of a mini fridge.",
"I'm a med student and we've had a lecture not long ago about heart transplant and artificial hearts. The answer is that we really aren't sure yet, whether the pulse does anything. As others have mentioned, there are devices (LVADs) that are simply compressors and that pump blood in continuous fashion (ie. without pulse). And people can live with them. But there isn't enough evidence to say for sure, whether having a pulsile flow is beneficial or not. Some experts suggest, that pulse is useful for lymph drainage, since lymph flow is kind of passive. But it seems it definitely is possible to live without a pulse, and as far as I know, most research is currently focused on advancing continuous flow heart pumps, since they seem to be simpler/more practical.",
"A lot of people have already pointed out that LVADs are already a thing but one in particular is the Heart Mate. The Heart Mate II was the first widespread used of the line which uses a pump with constant pressure. Worked pretty well for people with heart failure who either aren't candidates for a heart transplant or wont live long enough to get one without support. Plus side is its compact and you can live a fairly normal life with it. Down side is all LVADs require constant anticoagulant therapy (heparin for example to prevent clots in the pump) and with the constant pressure it has an extremely heightened risk for GI bleeds and strokes. Enter the Heart Mate III which added pulsatility to the pump (constant pulse of ~40). Lower risk of stroke but still requires anticoagulant therapy. The Heart Mate II is still used because (I think) the III just finished trial and has strict requirements. Basically just looks like a small pump attached to the heart with a couple foot of garden house sitting in the abdomen. I work in a mediumish sized CVICU and we get a handful of these placed a week.",
"I worked for a major manufacturer of LVADs for over 10 years, and a lot of studies were done regarding organ function in the absence of pulsatile flow, etc. Turns out, you don't need a pulse!\n\nNevertheless, the newest device actually has a pulsatile mode. Also, many patients retain at least SOME heart function, so even with a continuous flow device many will still have some degree of pulse.",
"All these people talking about LVAD's and not a single one talking about the world's first truly artificial heart (in a backpack) [made by Syncardia.](_URL_9_) It's capable of being used for years, and people have run marathons with it.",
"No, the heart does not need to beat.\n\nThe reason it beats is because the limitations of muscle. Muscle can’t rotate on an axis to create a rotor pump. It can only contract and uncontract. The signal along the SA node and purkinjie fibers makes the heart contract, and this contraction forces blood out of the high pressure area to low pressure. \n\nThis process is what makes your heart “beat”. However this beat isn’t essential. \n\nBlood is vital because it carries nutrients, and oxygen. However there is nothing special about the delivery system. It’s just diffusion. As long as blood is moving, constantly picking up new nutrients, and new oxygen and getting rid of waste you will function. \n\nTL;DR \nNo, your heart doesn’t need to beat. Since blood gives out nutrients and oxygen through diffusion a constant flow would be completely compatible with the body.",
"It's been done. The heart beat is not required by other systems in the body, merely a sustained flow of oxygenated blood.\n\nThe creepy thing is a lack of pulse, considered a defining characteristic of life, both literal and poetic, since time immemorial.",
"Not sure if someone already posted this, but former Vice President Dick Cheney has a heart pump device (no pulse) simply circulates the blood. So as others have noted an implantable blood circulatory device does already exist and is able to keep a person alive for a significant amount of time barring other medical issues or complications.",
"Precepted at an LVAD clinic. The primary complication is arteriovenous malformations. From my understanding the continuous flow doesn’t allow the capillaries to relax and you get ballooning of blood vessels esp in the gut. \n\n_URL_10_",
"It is necessary for coronary circulation of heart but if you are considering about other parts of body, it is not. O.H. Frazier and colleagues work on complete cardiac implant with continuous flow. \n\nhere is the video of their project:\n_URL_12_\n\nhere is the one of articles of their patient series:\n_URL_11_\n\nhere is the review from O.H. Frazier about this subject:\n_URL_13_",
"Some studies say that the pressure pulses created by heart flushes metabolism products from the fluid space between brain cells. Another factor is breathing. Without these we are probably more prone to become cognitively impaired (dementia, alzheimers, ms-disease).",
"You also need the beat of your heart, the difference in pressure of the heart beat (systolic & diastolic pressure) is what allows your heart to get blood. \n\nEssentially, the difference in pressure causes a backflow of blood in the most proximal aorta, backing up to the aortic valve and the coronary arteries are right there so the blood flows into the coronary arteries to feed the heart. \n\nAdditionally the relaxation of the heart, the diastolic pressure allows a pressure gradient to have the blood go from there coronary arteries into the musculature of the heart.",
"Devices exist which do this however the structure of the circulatory system doesn’t seem to love them and they only keep people afloat for a few years or so.\n\nWe couldn’t tell you what combination of pulseless circulation versus the heart and circulatory system having already been in bad shape necessitating the device... but it’s typically used a temporary measure rather than something an elite athlete would be interested in.",
"I recently shot some video concerning an impella pump. It was being shown off to cardiologists and i was able to go into the exhibit. Basically it does this, and can assist the heart, allow it to rest, or work as an emergency pump in the case of cardiac arrest. Really neat device if you want to look into it. \n_URL_14_",
"Don’t have time for reading comments now but great question! Yes this works but there are a lot of unknown and partially known tid bits I’d imagine this would affect. Movement and activity for example are very important in circulating stuffs. So the pulsation probably helps keep things from stacking up or plugging up.",
"You could totally replace a heart with something that moves blood around, the issue you will run into is the heart is the epitome of an industrial machine. It's beating constantly with no maintenance for 80ish years. If you can manufacture something that does that, you win a few billion dollars.",
"It’s possible with an Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation machine. ECMOs are increasingly being used in hospitals when patients need organ transplants and can no longer stay alive on their own. Not sure if that’s entirely the same thing... people can go ahead and contradict me.",
"How is your cardio when you have one of these devices in. Say you’re perfectly healthy and have no complications from the machine, could you for example run forever? Or do strenuous activity for insanely long periods of time?"
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"url": [
"https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-treatments/l/lvad.html",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4703693/",
"https://youtu.be/mOZIYoq32SQ",
"https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-016-1328-z",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464048/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracorporeal_membrane_oxygenation",
"https://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-02/no-pulse-how-doctors-reinvented-human-heart",
"https://youtu.be/L4NATMQI4p0",
"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/06/10/this-man-lived-even-played-basketball-without-a-human-heart-for-555-days-before-receiving-a-transplant/",
"https://syncardia.com/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24830804/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22619284",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzTXaUltXUA",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26031698",
"https://youtu.be/GhWB7T5QxMI"
]
} | Does a heart need to beat? Would we be able to replace the heart with something that continuously moves blood around with no pulse (using a pump/compressor of sorts)? Would there be complications by making the flow constant rather than pulsed/beats?
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kp52o | Thoughts after the superluminal neutrino data presentation | Note to mods: if this information should be in the other thread, just delete this one, but I thought that a new thread was warranted due to the new information (the data was presented this morning), and the old thread is getting rather full.
The OPERA experiment presented their data today, and while I missed the main talk, I have been listening to the questions afterwards, and it appears that most of the systematics are taken care of. Can anyone **in the field** tell me what their thoughts are? Where might the systematic error come from? Does anyone think this is a real result (I doubt it, but would love to hear from someone who does), and if so, is anyone aware of any theories that allow for it?
The arxiv paper is here: _URL_0_
The talk will be posted here: _URL_1_
note: I realize that everyone loves to speculate on things like this, however if you aren't in the field, and haven't listened to the talk, you will have a very hard time understanding all the systematics that they compensated for and where the error might be. This particular question isn't really suited for speculation even by practicing physicists in other fields (though we all still love to do it). | askscience | {
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"According to the paper, the chance that this is statistical or systematic error is less than 1 in a billion. (This is a 6.0 sigma measurement.) \n\nHaving just finished reading the paper, I have to admit it's an impressive measurement. They've carefully examined every source of systematic error they could imagine (see Table 2), and included enough events (about 16,000 events, or 10^20 protons) to bring statistical error down to the range of systematic error. Their calibrations were performed in a blind way -- so that they could remove any bias from this process -- and, according to the paper, the unblinded result fit quite nicely with expectation, without any further tinkering necessary (see Figure 11). I'd also commend them for being dutiful experimentalists, and not wasting their breath speculating on the phenomenological or theoretical implications of this result. They know the result will raise eyebrows, and they don't need to oversell it with talk about time-traveling tachyons and whatnot. \n\nThe authors are also upfront about previous experimental results that contradict their own. Specifically, [an observation of lower energy neutrinos from the 1987A supernova](_URL_0_) found an upper-limit to neutrino velocity much closer to the speed of light. (In this new paper, they go so far as to break up events into high-energy and low-energy neutrinos, to see whether maybe there is an energy dependence for their observed result. They do not find any such energy dependence. See Figure 13.) \n\nThis measurement does not rely on timing the travel of individual particles, but on the probability density function of a distribution of events. Therefore, it's critical that they understand the timing of the extraction of the protons, which will arrive at the graphite target with a bunch structure (see Figure 4), as it is the timing of the arrival of these bunches at the target (and the resulting blast of neutrinos it will receive in response) that will be detected at LNGS. \n\nBy far, their largest source of systematic error in timing is an uncertainty in the amount of delay from when the protons cross the Beam Current Transformer (BCT) detector to the time a signal arrives to the Wave Form Digitizer (WFD). This delay is entirely within measurements upstream of the target. The BCT detector is a set of coaxial transformers built around the proton beamline in the proton synchrotron, detecting the passage of the protons before they are extracted for this experiment. The WFD is triggered not by the passage of the protons, but by the kicker magnets which perform the extraction of those protons. To tamp down some of the uncertainty in the internal timing of the BCT, the researchers used the very clean environment of injecting protons from the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) into the LHC while monitoring the performance of the BCT. All that said, I don't have the expertise to identify any issues with their final assignment of 5.0 ns systematic uncertainty for this effect. \n\nI won't delve into each of the other systematic errors in Table 2, but I can try to answer what questions you might have. \n\nIf I were eager to debunk this paper, I would work very hard to propose systematic errors that the authors have not considered, in the hopes that I might come up with a significant oversight on their part. However (perhaps due to a lack of imagination), I can't think of anything they haven't properly studied. \n\nThe simplest answer (and scientists so often prefer simplicity when it can be achieved) is that they've overlooked something. That said, it is my experience that collaborations are reluctant to publish a paper like this without a thorough internal vetting. They almost certainly had every expert on their experiment firing off questions at their meetings, looking for chinks in the armor. \n\nIt will be interesting to see how this holds up.",
"I can't believe they used Word instead of LaTeX for this paper. Your equations look like crap.",
"I'd like to go on record saying that I believe a post-data presentation thread is warranted and that this thread should remain. I too am very curious as to what the data presented means, but lack the know how to understand it without assistance and I'd rather not have to sift through an old thread to find all the new information.",
"For anyone completely baffled by what's going on, this might help.\n\n[Brian Cox explains on Radio 6](_URL_2_)\n\nIt was recorded this morning, before the webcast, but explains some of what's happening and even suggests one mechanism that could explain the phenomenon.\n\n\nEDIT: BBC News updated their article on the subject for anyone in need of [more background](_URL_2_)",
"While I understand that this isn't \"Ask and Provide Links\", there is some conversation going on at the Guardian. Physicists are answering questions in the comments section, so it is a bit hard to follow, there are bits of good info in there:\n\n_URL_3_",
"Don't know if anybody has raised this before, but an official [press release](_URL_4_) of the Italian ministry of research talks about the \"**tunnel** between CERN and Gran Sasso\". Please, have a look and a (sad) laugh.",
"At 1 hour 52 minutes, someone makes a joke saying that \"they still need to find some tau events\", and the entire room starts laughing. Can someone explain this joke to me?",
"From the paper; the distance and time measurements are entirely dependent on GPS. That worries me quite a bit.\n\nGPS is an American military installation with secret construction plans and cannot be independently peer reviewed. It was designed to bring missiles into target, that means it has to show good positional accuracy. Correct length measurements over large distances are not required and errors would be hardly noticeable in practice.\n\nI would like to see that removed from the dependencies. The time synchronization could be done by just physically driving a clock around. Length measurement is tricky, I have no good idea yet.\n\nIf this is really confirmed by Fermilab, it would be worth the trouble to set up the experiment across a large valley, and send a laser beam in sync with the neutrons and directly measure differences in arrival time. That would be much more convincing. It could also be done much more precise this way.",
"As a kind of follow up question, when this is answered, can you reply in layman's terms to this comment so the rest of us can understand it? Thanks in advance :)",
"Can someone tell me what type of instruments were used to \"clock\" the speedy neutrino?",
"The thing is that they didn't say anything new from what it was already posted in the arvix paper, they just presented the results. They also said that they're not gonna make theoretical analysis on their data.\n\nI watched the whole thing, and mostly the first our I was staring at the screen asking what the fuck they were talking about (all the technical details), and when they got to the conclusions, well, I had read them before. :P So nothing really changed, they just officialized everything",
"> is anyone aware of any theories that allow for it?\n\nThere was a guy early in the Q and A part of the conference who said that he had a theory about faster than light travel in special relativity, if I'm not mistaken. He also asked that the presenter would read some mail that he had sent, but they obviously didn't go any further with it at the moment.\n\nI don't know who he was, but I thought that it should be mentioned and looked further into if possible.\n\n**Edit:** Now that the recorded conference has been published, I'll just add that the person I mentioned has the mic just after 1h 15m.",
"I'll just ask this here rather than make a new topic since it is related.\n\nIf I understand correctly, neutrinos are everywhere, so how do they 'mark' ones for testing?\n\nI'm picturing this like trying to hold a race with a billion people wandering along the track, how do scientists mark 'their' neutrinos so they can observe the right ones and not a photobombing neutrino?\n\nIs there a method of keeping all the other neutrinos off of the 'track'?",
"I know that if the results regarding faster-than-light neutrinos at CERN prove accurate, it will seriously undermine the correctness of relativity, seeing as \"nothing can go faster than light\" is one of its main tenets. However, what effect, if any, does this have in the field of quantum physics? Additionally, what does this mean for the search for a TOE (theory of everything)? If there is already a thread on this, please direct me to it!",
"Layperson here. What other parts of modern physics would be threatened by overturning Special Relativity? The data for (for instance) quantum entanglement relies on the assumption that there's no faster than light signalling. And I'd imagine that similar assumptions are made in many other areas."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.4897",
"http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1384486?ln=en"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v58/i14/p1490_1",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15017484",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15034852",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/blog/2011/sep/23/speed-light-broken-neutrinos?CMP=twt_gu",
"http://www.istruzione.it/web/ministero/cs230911"
]
} | Thoughts after the superluminal neutrino data presentation
Note to mods: if this information should be in the other thread, just delete this one, but I thought that a new thread was warranted due to the new information (the data was presented this morning), and the old thread is getting rather full. The OPERA experiment presented their data today, and while I missed the main talk, I have been listening to the questions afterwards, and it appears that most of the systematics are taken care of. Can anyone **in the field** tell me what their thoughts are? Where might the systematic error come from? Does anyone think this is a real result (I doubt it, but would love to hear from someone who does), and if so, is anyone aware of any theories that allow for it? The arxiv paper is here: _URL_0_ The talk will be posted here: _URL_1_ note: I realize that everyone loves to speculate on things like this, however if you aren't in the field, and haven't listened to the talk, you will have a very hard time understanding all the systematics that they compensated for and where the error might be. This particular question isn't really suited for speculation even by practicing physicists in other fields (though we all still love to do it). | [
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|
9oxnqa | Some species don't breed in captivity. Why? What's keeping them? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e7xxnby",
"e7xy6hh",
"e7y4z7b"
],
"text": [
"It depends, which species are we talking about? Some are lacking the proper natural and biological signals they would get in their natural habitat signaling breeding season, or for other species just a general depression from being held captive. Other species may just reject the mate chosen for them or be unable to find a suitable mate among the limited number of potential mates in their vicinity. Yet others, like rabbits or dogs for example, will hump and try to impregnate anything that moves and has a heartbeat regardless of if they’re in a natural ecosystem or a 4’x4’ wooden box with no food or windows. And don’t even get me started on *humans...*",
"Behaviors specific to the species that can't take place in a confined environment. \n\nHoney bees *Apis mellifera* can be raised in complete captivity, fed sugar water and pollen or pollen substitutes. This is not how we normally raise them however, under normal conditions they have open access to the outdoors. They will never mate under those confined conditions however. \n\nHoney bee queens fly soon after emerging from the pupal stage to [Drone Congregation Areas](_URL_0_) (DCA) and mate there. DCA are areas where drones from the surrounding hives gather and await virgin queens. Drones typically fly only about 900m (0.5 miles) to one but queens fly to ones further away so they won't mate with their brothers. The mating takes place 15-40 meters above the ground and involves all of the drones chasing the queen in flight. She will mate with on average a dozen or more drones before returning to the hive.\n\nDrones will show no interest in mating with a queen outside of a DCA. We are not entirely sure why but believe various pheromones are involved. \n\nKeeping honey bees inside a giant enclosure with acceptable distances and height won't work either. Honey bees do the vast majority of their navigation using the sun and they do badly in spaces where they can not see it and use it properly constantly trying to get out. They tend to get stuck in the corners.\n\nThe requirement for flight, the distances involved, the height above the ground, and the release of pheromones to trigger mating only under the right conditions all means honey bees will not breed in captivity.",
"Ocean fish are really bad with breeding in captivity. Salmon has been figured out, Sturgeons on a smaller scale and progress has been made for the important Bluefin Tuna. \nMost of the rest... no one knows. There is big, big money to be made for people who figure out how to breed an economically important fish species on a large scale. Looking at the examples above, individual allowances have to be made for every species in question so it's an uphill battle."
],
"score": [
22,
5,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://honeybee.drawwing.org/book/drone-congregation-area"
]
} | Some species don't breed in captivity. Why? What's keeping them?
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azoez6 | How do Gyroscopes in electronic devices work? | I've been trying to wrap my mind around how these things work, after playing on a switch for the first time and seeing that the gyro not only detects rotations and flips but also when you turn. So if I sit in a swivel chair and hold the switch in front of me it will detect the full spin of the chair.
I can't wrap my head around how it does this. My first theory was some kind of gyro with a compass to show which way you are facing, but even fast movements are precise, where a compass would wobble a bit.
How exactly are these things detecting full range of motion? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ei98rtq",
"ei9j2gp",
"eiahhtv"
],
"text": [
"A combination of input data from a [Vibrating Structure Gyroscope](_URL_1_) and an [Accelerometer](_URL_0_) are used to compute orientation and precise movements in space.",
"A more interesting approach consists in a light gyroscope. It is made of two circular wire wrapped in clockwise and counterclockwise directions; each movement is detected by measuring the delay of the two laser beams. In a steady state they are perfectly synchronous, a movement in a direction or the other slightly changes the length of the path by decreasing the former and increasing the latter. Think as a moving walkaway in airports: by moving the wires you are moving \"the ground under the laser beam\".",
"Typical consumer devices don't actually use a gyroscope, they use a MEMS rate sensor. These sensors can be made very small and economical. The measured rate is integrated to provide a somewhat accurate orientation\n\n[_URL_4_](_URL_5_)\n\nMore serious equipment, like airplanes, uses optical gyros based on lasers and fiber optics\n\n[_URL_4_](_URL_5_)\n\nThey work great, but are expensive"
],
"score": [
35,
6,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrating_structure_gyroscope",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical\\_systems",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring\\_laser\\_gyroscope",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_laser_gyroscope"
]
} | How do Gyroscopes in electronic devices work?
I've been trying to wrap my mind around how these things work, after playing on a switch for the first time and seeing that the gyro not only detects rotations and flips but also when you turn. So if I sit in a swivel chair and hold the switch in front of me it will detect the full spin of the chair. I can't wrap my head around how it does this. My first theory was some kind of gyro with a compass to show which way you are facing, but even fast movements are precise, where a compass would wobble a bit. How exactly are these things detecting full range of motion? | [
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3ou35w | Before the media blows up reporting on how we've found a Dyson Sphere what does the paper for KIC 8462852 actually say? | [deleted] | askscience | {
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"Short version: this paper is saying \"there are a bunch of theories, all of them fail one metric or another except this one low probability theory\" (Edit: that theory is not aliens either; still natural).\n\nThat's all the paper says. Solutions to that paper would be: a) the low probability thing happens occasionally or b) some other idea that wasn't theorized yet.\n\nSo, the SETI guy (Jason Wright) is putting up an alternative theory (which he is working on writing a paper for): that it's an alien megastructure. Alien megastructure, IMO, is going to be a hard theory to disprove because there's always room for \"we haven't imagined the right type of megastructure to produce this result, because we're not as advanced as they are\". Now, we could theorize on a couple specific megastructures (like Dyson Sphere) and make predictions of those and either confirm or rule them out. As another comment points out, Dyson Sphere probably doesn't match the data (should emit low energy radiation and shouldn't have any variation in the output). Of course, if we continue to rule out specific megastructures, we should continue to keep aliens far down on the list of possible ideas, and try to come up with new physics that can possibly explain the data and test those theories.\n\nEdit: [Jason Wright just published this to his blog](_URL_0_). It's a good read. tl;dr - \"Tabby’s team tentatively settles on a plausible but contrived natural explanation for it: a swarm of comets recently perturbed by the passage of a nearby star. I would put low odds on that being the right answer, but it’s the best one I’ve seen so far (and much more likely than aliens, I’d say). If I had to guess I’d say the star is young, despite all appearances. I can’t back that up.\" Also, the British Tabloids are dumb.",
"Straight from the abstract: \n\n > By considering the observational constraints on dust clumps orbiting a normal main-sequence star, we conclude that the scenario most consistent with the data in hand is the passage of a family of exocomet fragments, all of which are associated with a single previous breakup event. We discuss the necessity of future observations to help interpret the system. \n\nThere's two big challenges to the analysis, first, the lack of excess infrared signal puts some severe limitations on what could be causing the dips, for instance an oddly shaped protoplanetary disk is disfavored. The second is that a predicted dip (from debris of a possible planetary collision) might or might not have occurred in April of 2015, but the system was unobserved—so there's a lack of data going on here too. They recommend further observation. \n\n > Observations of KIC 8462852 should continue to aid in unraveling\nits mysteries. First and foremost, long-term photometric\nmonitoring is imperative in order to catch future dipping events. It\nwould be helpful to know whether observations reveal no further\ndips, or continued dips. If the dips continue, are they periodic? Do\nthey change in size or shape? On one hand, the more dips the more\nproblematic from the lack of IR emission perspective. Likewise, in\nthe comet scenario there could be no further dips; the longer the\ndips persist in the light curve, the further around the orbit the fragments\nwould have to have spread. \n\n* _URL_1_ \n\nAll of this is more reasonable than aliens. This isn't my field, but I will say the drop in flux is kinda nuts, I was under the impression \"common\" exoplanet transits produced drops of only on the order of a ~~few~~ percent and not the massive drops of 15 and 22% observed here. Any exoplanet people willing to chime in on that?\n\nI'm not an expert in what a Dyson sphere or alien megastructure would look like spectroscopically, but I'm pretty sure the lack in IR would also be a huge problem for that idea too. The star's energy has to go somewhere and unless the aliens figured out how to hijinks thermodynamics, a megastructure should glow in IR.",
"> Before the media blows up reporting on how we've found a Dyson Sphere\n\nToo late.\n\nBasically, they have observed the light from a star periodically changing over time in an unusual way. The light from stars frequently changes as other objects pass between it and the Earth, and indeed, this is one of the main ways we detect exoplanets. But the changes they've observed here are both regular and irregular, and astronomers are having a hard time picturing a scenario that could make that happen.\n\nThe most likely explanation is that we're not seeing just one uniform process, like a planet regularly passing in front of the star, but several different processes, like a regular swarm of debris coupled with the debris from a relatively recent major impact event, like the collision that is thought to have created Earth's Moon. IOW, something chaotic and energetic is likely happening, and we're not just seeing uniformly-orbiting stuff.\n\nBut there is no reason at all to conclude that anything artificial is at work, and indeed, the paper's abstract reasonably concludes that we're seeing the aftermath of a recent impact event.\n\nBut that's boring, and \"massive alien structure\" is sexier, so that's what is getting reported.",
"How far away is this star? I ask this because if it's 1000 light years away, and it is in fact being harvested by alien life, we may slowly watch this star dim out. It's mesmerizing to imagine what impact this could have on the human race, knowing there's a species way more advanced than us, 1000 years ago.",
"Wrong paper. The \"aliens\" guy is Jason Wright, who's not an author on the paper you link. The news articles say that Wright is going to publish a paper about the alien theory, but it's apparently not available yet, not even on the arxiv.\n\nUpdate: Wright's [blog post](_URL_2_) about all this, including a link to his paper.",
"I'm late to the thread, but Kepler Scientist with the SETI Institute here. It's a real signal (i.e. not an artifact from the spacecraft or camera) and it doesn't resemble a planet or anything we're used to seeing. Kepler has uncovered all sorts of new, natural phenomenon though since its launch. It's what happens when you suddenly collect observations at an unprecedented level of precision.\n\nThe comet theory is plausible. Perhaps others. To jump to an artificial conclusion now is premature. In the 1960's we hear LGM radio signals (little green men), which turned out to be pulsars. I'm the 90's we found GRBs which we now know are due to supernovae. We'll figure this out as well. Until we start seeing prime numbers or something unmistakably artificial, I'm not gonna think much about ETs.\n\nBut this is still exciting cause anything new in this universe is exciting :)",
"Can we stop with the unfounded Dyson Sphere stuff? It could be anything. What if it's massive starship construction? Or a deathstar? Or some arcane space weather control device. Or a warp gate. Or a sculpture to their emporer. Or I could go on?\n\nNot to mention a Dyson Sphere is about the least likely thing I could imagine. It is distracting from the validity of this discovery in a way imho.",
"I have a related question, for anyone with knowledge in this area. \n\nI see a lot of people commenting on this in social media etc about how \"it can't be alien structures because it's 1500 light years away, meaning it was made during a time when we didn't even have basic electricity\" etc. \n\nNow, it should be obvious that this is completely irrelevant. An alien structure's complexity and advancement does not depend on our technology whatsoever. In the grand scheme of the universe, 1500 years is nothing. It's totally possible for an alien race to be advanced enough to have built something like this 1500 years ago. \n\nBut, here is my actual question - is there anything related to the age of KIC 8462852 and/or nearby planetary bodies that would rule this out entirely? Obviously the age of the light that has reached us to make this observation possible is not a concern, but what about the age or conditions of their star system? Or is it too far/we have too little info to even know?",
"\"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof.\" Carl Sagan.\n\nI am perfectly happy to chalk this up to a natural phenomenon until someone presents some really compelling evidence to the contrary.\n\nI wonder if this phenomenon is recurring or if the occlusion wanes and/or increases in intensity and if there's any regularity to the intensity of the occlusion (i.e. does it occur at regular intervals, that could be explained by orbital mechanics)? Additional observation will clear up a lot of questions.\n\nFascinating times we live in.",
"I don't understand the dip profiles: shouldn't a huge transiting object produce, as time progresses, a decline in flux levelling off to a stable \"floor\", and then a symmetric increase back to full luminosity? For a transiting object to produce inverted spikes, its shadow would have to subtend the same angle as the star, right? It would have to be almost precisely as wide as the star's diameter in order to begin exiting visibility the same time it finishes entering....",
"Putting on my sci-fi hat...\n\nWhat if the light is being redirected or focused in a way that sends the excess light and heat away from us. It should require a lot less mass to build mirrors than a Dyson Sphere which makes it more plausible. A possible reason for doing this would be to colonize a world in the solar system much further away from the star. The redirected light could then be focused on the world to create an artificial sun with sufficient brightness. \n\nSo if the light were used to heat up another planet not in a direct line from the star and earth, would we be able to detect it? Also any excess light not hitting the planet would be heading away from us and thus be invisible.",
"In any case, whether or not it's aliens how can you NOT resist pointing a telescope at that thing? Especially if it means discovering something not yet theorised. If it's aliens then cool..but unlikely we'll be able to get to them unless we break Physics and invent FTL travel.",
"Answering the second and third questions.\n\nAround [800 days into the observation period](_URL_3_) about 16% of the light is blocked. At 1500 days, 22% of the light is blocked.\n\nSo how big do the intervening objects have to be? Depends on where they are relative to us and the star. If they were 1 foot away from the star, they'd have to cover 16/22 % of the star. That's huge. If they're closer to us than the star, and the star appears as a point source, then they don't have to be very big, e.g., they could be planets, moons or asteroids depending on position.\n\nThat suggests to me that a plausible explanation could be we're observing the star through a debris field that's orbiting a brown dwarf that sits between us and the star. We can't see the dwarf because it's too dim but its debris field would be directly on our line of sight to the star generating these occultation events.\n\nOr the star might have a densely populated Kuiper-belt like structure for some reason.",
"Dyson \"Cloud\". Distinctly different from a Dyson \"Sphere\" or \"Ring\" (a la Ringworld). A Dyson Cloud would be indistinguishable, by us, from a whole crapton of debris. \n\nNo current models of solar system formation can account for the amount of debris found around the target star. \n\nSo ... either our models are lacking, or Aliens. So ... Aliens. Because we've never been wrong before. *cough*",
"I've asked this elsewhere, but I'm still curious...\n\nNASA's Geoffrey Landis said this in 2005 about one of the rarest phenomena in all the universe:\n\n“If the wormhole is exactly between you and another star, it would defocus the light, so it’s dim and splays out in all directions. But when the wormhole moves and it’s nearer but not in front of the star, then you would see a spike of light. So if the wormhole moves between you and another star and then moves away, you would see two spikes of light with a dip in the middle.”\n\nThat sounds an awful lot like the behaviour we're seeing. Has a wormhole been substantively ruled out?",
"So the companion star is 130 Billion miles away from KIC8462852. That's pretty close. Less than a 1000 AU. Does that make it a Binary Star system?\n\nIf the companion was the same distance from our Sun, that would put it well outside Pluto and the Kuiper Belt but closer than our Oort Cloud? KIC8462852 is larger than the Sun so its Oort Cloud would normally be further away, yes?\n\nWouldn't it make things fairly unstable? Or would it have a calming effect like Juptier does for us by sweeping out asteroids/comets?\n\nThe big dips have a period of over 700 days. Does that mean the object(s) are in a similar distance orbit as Mars, but not quiet as far as Ceres. Where would one assume the habital zone of this F class star to be?\n\nIf (yeah, I get it, big IF) this was some sort of solar collector object, is there an ideal distance for these type of things? If we were to build something similar, is there any way to speculate that we would put ours at 1au, or closer to the sun, or further? I guess may depend on the material used and other properties and engineering of the object. Probably no way to say at this point based on our idea of how this technology would work.",
"The magnitude of the drop is itself evidence against aliens. A massive amount of material is needed to cover 20% of a star; for this to be aliens, they must both have the ability to do this, and the need for such massive amounts of power to make it worthwhile.\n\nIt's more likely that something is passing between the telescope and the star. A dark planet and moon, with exactly the right alignment and much closer to us than to the star, could feasibly produce a result like this. But, that's a low chance, and it may never reoccur if this is the case."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://sites.psu.edu/astrowright/",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1509.03622v1",
"http://sites.psu.edu/astrowright/2015/10/15/kic-8462852wheres-the-flux/",
"http://sites.psu.edu/astrowright/wp-content/uploads/sites/9476/2015/10/8462852_all-1024x572.png"
]
} | Before the media blows up reporting on how we've found a Dyson Sphere what does the paper for KIC 8462852 actually say?
[deleted] | [
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|
11n1r3 | How is it possible my brain keeps track of time so well when I'm asleep that I wake up 7:59 on the dot, but I don't have this precision while I'm awake? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"This happens to me as well but rarely enough for me to attribute it to [confirmation bias](_URL_0_).\n\nIf it really does happen as frequently as you say, I'd also be interested to hear why.",
"Here's a potential explanation _URL_1_ (if someone wants to track down the original paper be my guess)\n\nIt sounds like some form of conditioning to me. I wonder if you shocked someone every day at 4pm they would start tensing up right beforehand.",
"Do you have some kind of mechanical alarm clock? Perhaps it is making a small sound as it prepares to go off.",
"Can you see the clock from your position in bed as you wake up? For a balanced test, you may want to try with the clock facing away. That would eliminate the possibility of you seeing the clock while (mostly) asleep, an act which your conscious brain might not remember but which might be enough to prompt you to wake when the alarm is just about to go off.",
"Well here's my 2 cents:\n\nThe circadian rhythm is a biological clock that we depend on to tell time. It responds to light and dark environments, eating patterns and periods of rest and stress. It is a chemical process at the end of the day but it can be quite accurate.\nWhat you say happens to me alot, but my guess is that it only happens to you if your circadian rhythm is correct in periods of good sleeping and eating habits. If you pull off all nighters and eat randomly your rhythm goes haywire and might need \"resetting\" so to speak.\n\nI remember there was an experiment back in 60s that showed that our real circadian rhythm pattern (once deprived of all that can give us a feed back on time such as light and what not) is actually cycles of 48 hours! There was even a reddit post about it a while ago.\n\nMy sources are my studies in medicine, sorry for being too lazy to back up my claims. Just wanted to share my opinion since the top post is an anecdote..unusual for /r/ask.science eh!",
"It part of a stable sleep cycle. OP probably goes to bed around the same time every night as well.",
"Same for me. I wake up most days 1 minute before the alarm goes off. I wake up, roll over and look at the clock, and usually I can hit the button before the alarm goes off. It's so consistent that when the alarm actually goes off I am startled because I so rarely hear it.",
"I never used a watch and practiced keeping time in my own head - pre-cellphones I was able to tell time to about 5 min accuracy. Cellphone usage has made this skill worse and nowadays I can tell time to about 15 min accuracy - so I guess it's a matter of working on it."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias",
"http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/199905/the-stirring-sound-stress"
]
} | How is it possible my brain keeps track of time so well when I'm asleep that I wake up 7:59 on the dot, but I don't have this precision while I'm awake?
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19kqbf | How would one explain the apparent disparity between the size and speed of electrons, and the amount of work we can extract from their movement? | WTH, electricity? I don't really understand how something with such little mass, moving incredibly slow, can be used to drive a 2 ton car at 60mph. Maybe I'm wrong on a fundamental level, so I'll go over what I think I know:
I'm aware of the wave/particle duality, but for my purposes I'll imagine them as little ping-pong balls.
Electrons can move fast, but in a conductor, while producing usable electricity, they actually move a *few* miles per hour, depending on the size of the conductor.
They're not used up in the process, so it's not like they were storing energy that is now drained. You can keep moving the same electron and continue getting work from it as long as he and his buddies are still moving.
I just don't get it. I used to think about the movement of electrons producing a wave of electricity, and we can capture that wave and use it to do work. The more electrons you have moving the larger the wave and the more the resulting wattage. Much in the same way as if I were to walk quickly through waist deep water. I'll produce waves from my movement and if you're creative enough you could capture those waves and have them do work. I'm not used up in the process, so as long as I keep moving you keep getting work. The problem is that I'm not some nearly massless particle moving a few millimeters per second, so how could it possibly produce a useful wave? I read once that all the electrons that power the internet at any given time would amount to something about the size of a strawberry. That wouldn't produce much of a wave, but if I hooked the internet to a single copper cable I could vaporize a small building....I'm just lost on how that could be the case. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Conductors are like a water filled pipe, where the electrons are the water. In order to do work you give the pipe a good spank from one side, which will cause a pressure wave to propagate to the other side of the pipe. Just like in water the individual electron won't move much in the process of the wave propagation, but they can transmit the momentum of your initial stroke to their respective neighbors and this is why current moves so quickly compared to the individual electron, just like sound waves in water.",
"I think that the best way to explain it is, first of all, we're not just talking about movement, but rather acceleration. This distinction is important, because an object that is merely \"moving\", without accelerating, can just as easily be considered \"at rest\" and thus would not require any special explanation. So the question really is, how can something as tiny as electrons cause the acceleration of something huge and heavy, like a car?\n\nThe simple answer is that accelerations are caused by forces, and electrons have *charge*, which means that they provide a field in accordance with Coulomb's Law. A single electron doesn't provide very much force, but there are just tons and tons of electrons. A tiny paperclip has about 3×10^24 electrons.\n\nThose electrons don't do much work, because a paperclip is electrically-neutral. But imagine what would happen if you could separate the paperclip from it's electrons. You'd have a bundle of 3×10^24 electrons and a bundle of atomic nuclei with approximately 3×10^24 protons. If you could move these bundles a kilometer apart, they would exert a force on one another of almost 9 billion Newtons. So, the electrical force is incredibly powerful when you're dealing with this many electrons. In many ways, it dominates the universe. It's responsible for chemical reactions and the apparent rigidity and solidity of objects. We just aren't used to dealing with it much because, at our scale, most things seem electrically-neutral and so they don't seem to interact much with electrical fields (outside the occasional bolt of lightning or static snap when you touch a doorknob).\n\nI suppose, though, that this only gives a sense of how electrons can cause the high forces needed to accelerate a car really fast -- that sense being that there are a *lot* of electrons. However, my guess is that most mechanical movement comes from exploiting the magnetic force, not the electric. The magnetic force is caused by *moving* charges, as you may well know. \n\nTo explain how we get so much magnetic force out of tiny, slow-moving electrons, the final answer is the same: there are a *lot* of electrons. The strength of the magnetic force is proportional to the current moving through the wire. The current is simply the amount of charge moving past a point each second. The electrons themselves may be moving quite slowly, but there are so many of them, that the amount of current, and thus the strength of the associated magnetic field, is large enough to do the job.\n\nEdit: formatting",
"[WTH, water](_URL_0_)? I don't really understand how something moving slowly that doesn't get used up in the process can do any work.\n\nOne difference between a copper wire and a river, that you seem to be focusing on, is that there's a lot less mass involved in the electrons moving in the wire than in the water. However, the other, more important difference, is that the river deals with mass/gravity (water running downhill) while the electrons deal with charge/electromagnetism.\n\nAnd the electromagnetic force is literally [1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000](_URL_1_) times stronger than the force due to gravity. That's why you need the whole mass of the Earth to be pulled to it, but a table can repel a coffee cup.",
"Because electricity doesn't depend on size. The \"waves\" created are based on charge, not mass. In your pool analogy, imagine that instead of your size displacing the water it was your intelligence. And you could be really small and still displace a lot of water because your size didn't matter."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://ryan.skow.org/mill/pics/WheelWater1.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction"
]
} | How would one explain the apparent disparity between the size and speed of electrons, and the amount of work we can extract from their movement?
WTH, electricity? I don't really understand how something with such little mass, moving incredibly slow, can be used to drive a 2 ton car at 60mph. Maybe I'm wrong on a fundamental level, so I'll go over what I think I know: I'm aware of the wave/particle duality, but for my purposes I'll imagine them as little ping-pong balls. Electrons can move fast, but in a conductor, while producing usable electricity, they actually move a *few* miles per hour, depending on the size of the conductor. They're not used up in the process, so it's not like they were storing energy that is now drained. You can keep moving the same electron and continue getting work from it as long as he and his buddies are still moving. I just don't get it. I used to think about the movement of electrons producing a wave of electricity, and we can capture that wave and use it to do work. The more electrons you have moving the larger the wave and the more the resulting wattage. Much in the same way as if I were to walk quickly through waist deep water. I'll produce waves from my movement and if you're creative enough you could capture those waves and have them do work. I'm not used up in the process, so as long as I keep moving you keep getting work. The problem is that I'm not some nearly massless particle moving a few millimeters per second, so how could it possibly produce a useful wave? I read once that all the electrons that power the internet at any given time would amount to something about the size of a strawberry. That wouldn't produce much of a wave, but if I hooked the internet to a single copper cable I could vaporize a small building....I'm just lost on how that could be the case. | [
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7fzxo8 | How do chemical reactions work on the quantum level? | I'm an undergrad student studying chemistry and biology where (especially in organic chemistry) we do a lot of "arrow pushing" (i.e. drawing arrows to signify where electrons travel during a chemical reaction). Earlier today I was watching a video in which Sean Carroll (physicist) goes on to explain how electrons actually form a "cloud" of probability around an atomic nucleus, where according to its wave function you can predict where you might find that electron if you went looking for it. He also stated, most importantly, that the electron is actually just a cloud of probability until you look for it, that the electron isn't anything more than a wave function until we look. What does that mean for my arrow pushing? If the electron is just a wave function does it collapse when chemical bonds are formed? What exactly goes on in this sense? | askscience | {
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"Arrow pushing is a way of visualizing the quantum processes. When you push two electrons from the valence shell of an atom to an \"empty\" orbital of another atom, these blend to make a new bond.\n\nFor example, you can take two electrons from an s orbital and put these into an empty s orbital of another atom. The spherical cloud of each s orbital then blends together to form an oblong sigma bond cloud of probability. The sigma bond is now just as the original s orbitals were a cloud that describes the probability of finding the two electrons in a given place.\n\nBasically, the orbitals, which are clouds of probability, blend together when you push the arrows, so to speak, and create a newly shaped cloud of probability that spreads out between the two nuclei. \n\nThis is nicely illustrated by two p orbitals interacting. For example, if you are forming an alkene, you already have a sigma bond between the C atoms. The p orbitals then can interact, through for example beta elimination, and form a pi bond. The p orbitals' clouds of probability have an hourglass shape, and the resulting pi bond (or double bond) looks like hotdog bun that wraps around the sigma (single) bond with no probability of finding the electrons on the C--C axis, just as the p orbital has no probability of an electron at the center of the hourglass.\n\nSo a chemical reaction creates a new wave function (sigma bond), a new cloud of probability. Collapsing the wave function refers to observing where exactly the electron is at any particular moment. This means that you no longer have a cloud of probability, but an actual measured location for that electron. In a sigma bond, that electron could be found near one atom, near the other atom, or in between the two.",
"Chemical bonds basically represent a (locally) minimum energy state. This can be illustrated with a 2-hydrogen model.\n\nSuppose you have 2 hydrogen nuclei (protons) and 2 electrons. Usually it is a fair approximation to not consider the proton wavefunctions and instead just consider them to be Coulomb potentials. Thus, there are 2 coulomb potentials, you get a potential that looks something like that:\n_URL_0_\n\nAs in this case there are only 2 electrons, they can occupy the same ground state with differing spins (Fermi statistics). This ground state would have lower energy than the original ground state of an electron surrounding an isolated proton, as the potential field is more spread out. This is a somewhat hand-wavey explanation, but it is true; a wider or more negative potential well would allow bound states to have longer wavelengths and lower energy.\n\nThe bond length would also be determined by the lowest total system energy. If we only look at electron energies, the optimal bond length would be zero; the electron ground state energy would be minimised by two protons forming a nucleus. However, nuclei also repel electrostatically (which is why fusion is hard). Hence, the optimal bond length is the tradeoff between electron ground state energy and the energy gained from repelling nuclei.\n\nWith larger atoms a lot more things come into play, such as inner shell electrons shielding the nuclei, etc. It becomes more complex, but the basic idea is still the same; bonds happen as long as the energy can be minimised, and the magnitude of the energy change is at least of the order of k*T (k is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature). As an example for why bonds don't happen sometimes, you could look at Helium. As there are 4 electrons now (2 per He atom), the ground state isn't enough, 2 electrons would fill the ground state and 2 will fill the next highest energy state, known as the anti-bonding orbital. That does not result in a significant reduction in energy, hence Helium doesn't bond very strongly.\n\nThe explanation I gave is basically a condensed version of that in Chapter 6.2 of Simon, \"The Oxford Solid State Basics\". If you are really interested in more details, I suggest heading to a library and reading Chapter 6 of that book. That text only assumes readers have a basic understanding of undergraduate level quantum mechanics. This only explains bonding of course. Reactions are more complex as they are transient and can't be analysed with time-independent quantum mechanics, but in the end would still follow the rules that minimise energy. There are however other considerations that come into play, such as if an intermediate high-energy bond has to form the activation energy might be too high and the reaction might be slow.",
"The electron's _state_ can be described as a 'cloud of probability', better known as an orbital. To say that it's 'not anything more than a wave function' is a bad way of putting things. First off, it invokes a highly contentious and philosophical matter of what the wave function is, and whether this mathematical object should be considered as having any kind of physical reality or not. Second, it doesn't really say anything useful anyway.\n\nElectrons do not have precisely defined positions. They can, 'if you go looking for it', but in chemical contexts you're not actually doing that. You'd have to bombard the electron with photons or other electrons or muons or something of very high energy to determine where exactly an electron is within an atom/molecule, and doing so would impart so much energy to the electron it'd not remain in the molecule afterwards. I.e. so it's not useful anyway.\n\nThe wave function of the electrons don't collapse. Under ordinary conditions they remain delocalized, by which I mean they're not in any sharply defined location. However, this does not mean they're not more likely to be in some locations than others. The density of the electron 'cloud', of the orbitals, is not homogenous, and nor is their shape. Electrons are more likely to be in some places than others.",
"Arrow pushing is a heuristic tool (rule of thumb) that tells you what reaction is most likely to happen. Although it has no obvious connection to physics, its usefulness for summarizing chemical experience makes it an important tool of the trade for synthetic chemists. \n\nThe quantum theory of chemical reactions is a fairly specialized branch of theoretical chemistry. The central idea is that molecule formation is broken down into a sequence of steps, each of which consists of a specific configuration of the nuclei in a pair of reacting molecules (say A, B) that has been compressed together by a collision. Each configuration has its own electronic ground state, and can be thought of as an unstable A-B molecule (known as a transition state). The transition state may spring apart into new molecules, say C, D if there exists an energetically feasible path for it to do so. The dynamics of what happens is determined by the motion of the nuclei, which are governed by the repulsions by other nuclei. The electrons follow the nuclei, not the other way around as in the arrow pushing model. The main role of the electrons is to screen the repulsive interactions between nuclei.",
"Aside from the hard scientific explanations of which you already have a few; there is this video made by the YouTube channel acapella science that goes in to this, or some tangent of it. It explains the way quantummechanics manifests itself in chemical reactions clearer than anything else I've seen yet: _URL_1_\n\nNote: This is not directly meant to answer your question but may provide some intuition in an entertaining way."
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} | How do chemical reactions work on the quantum level?
I'm an undergrad student studying chemistry and biology where (especially in organic chemistry) we do a lot of "arrow pushing" (i.e. drawing arrows to signify where electrons travel during a chemical reaction). Earlier today I was watching a video in which Sean Carroll (physicist) goes on to explain how electrons actually form a "cloud" of probability around an atomic nucleus, where according to its wave function you can predict where you might find that electron if you went looking for it. He also stated, most importantly, that the electron is actually just a cloud of probability until you look for it, that the electron isn't anything more than a wave function until we look. What does that mean for my arrow pushing? If the electron is just a wave function does it collapse when chemical bonds are formed? What exactly goes on in this sense? | [
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|
8cc4h7 | Why does the strong force work keeping protons and neutrons when the electrostatic force would push them apart? | Why does the strong force work keeping protons and neutrons when the electrostatic force would push them apart?
For example, a proton and neutron would go together fine with the strong force, but a proton and another proton won't fit in together because of the electrostatic force.
I'm not an expert, but I feel this is a simple scenario that a high school student could fit in together. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dxds1pz",
"dxe006d",
"dxeb9py"
],
"text": [
"The electromagnetic force between protons is repulsive, but the residual strong force is attractive at short distances (although it becomes repulsive at *very* short distances).\n\nWithin the range of distances where the residual strong force acts, it's usually much stronger than the electromagnetic force.",
"What does it mean to say a force becomes attractive or repulsive at different ranges?\n\nI mean, that sounds self explanatory, but is there a 'sensible' way of thinking about it? A macroscopic example?",
"Yes, the electromagnetic force will push two protons apart from each other, but the strong force is, well, stronger! (Hence the name) At short distances, protons attract each other via the strong force and the electromagnetic repulsion is too weak to counteract that."
],
"score": [
14,
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why does the strong force work keeping protons and neutrons when the electrostatic force would push them apart?
Why does the strong force work keeping protons and neutrons when the electrostatic force would push them apart? For example, a proton and neutron would go together fine with the strong force, but a proton and another proton won't fit in together because of the electrostatic force. I'm not an expert, but I feel this is a simple scenario that a high school student could fit in together. | [
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|
17yxg5 | Are there any gems or minerals or anything like which is fairly uncommon in the Universe, but common on Earth? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8a6uz2",
"c8a7130",
"c8a7zz7"
],
"text": [
"Relatively speaking, any type of matter is fairly uncommon. Most of the universe is empty.",
"In a very real sense, most of what you're familiar with on Earth is uncommon in the universe at large. Approximately 98% of all ordinary matter in the universe is hydrogen (about 3/4 of this 98%) or helium (about 1/4 of this 98%). Everything else is quite rare. There's about 1% in oxygen, 0.5% carbon, and the rest are even rarer still. See [this link](_URL_0_) for more data.\n\nIn addition, ordinary matter itself forms the minority of the universe. There is about 5 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter in the universe, and there is slightly less than 3 times as much dark energy as ordinary and dark matter combined.",
"Well, it couldn't necessarily be said to be common on Earth, but all of the elements with atomic number 99 or above, the synthetic elements, are far more common on Earth than anywhere else in the Universe (so far as we know). _URL_1_"
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.periodictable.com/Properties/A/UniverseAbundance.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_element"
]
} | Are there any gems or minerals or anything like which is fairly uncommon in the Universe, but common on Earth?
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uu88h | I'd like to get the facts straight on evolution. | I'd really like to understand what, specifically, is and is not true about this topic. My education on the subject was rather biased, so some of these questions will sound really stupid. Humor me.
* I've read that as you go back through history, eventually life had to come from nonliving substances. Spontaneous Generation is pure bunk - maggots don't magically appear from rotten meat, after all - but is the origin of life in any way related to said obsolete theory? And if it's not, how bad does that make someone saying it is look?
* How would interspecies evolution work? Could fish eventually breed their way into becoming cats, given enough time? Is even that how evolution works? How do entirely new species form from old ones?
* Most sane people agree that Natural Selection (for example, the more heat-tolerant of a lizard population surviving to breed in the desert) is valid. But doesn't it make species *less* diverse, by stamping out less useful traits? How does it factor into new species developing?
* How much of a role do mutations play in evolution? Is evolution possible without mutation? How? Aren't mutations harmful to an animal 99% of the time, rather than beneficial?
I appreciate any answers you can give me. I want to know the *truth*, not plug my ears and wish it wasn't exactly that. | askscience | {
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"I'm not terribly knowledgeable on [abiogenesis](_URL_3_), so I won't comment on it. Others may be able to fill you in on the RNA world hypothesis, metabolism first models, etc.\n\n > How would interspecies evolution work? Could fish eventually breed their way into becoming cats, given enough time? \n\nFrankly, they already did. We, along with cats, are descended from a common ancestor we share with [teleost fishes](_URL_1_). In fact, just for a fact that should really blow your mind, [phylogenetic analysis tells us that we are more closely related to teleost fishes](_URL_2_) than either [we](_URL_4_) or [teleosts](_URL_6_) are to sharks. That's not to say that modern teleost fishes *are* our ancestors. Not at all. They've undergone 400 million years of evolution since then as well. However, they stayed in the ancestral environment, and thus there was never any selection pressure to create such massive morphological change as you've seen in land going animals, and thus they probably looked somewhat similar to modern fishes, even if there's been significant amounts of genetic change and evolutionary divergence in that time.\n\n > How do entirely new species form from old ones?\n\nThe first thing to realize is that the concept of what a species exactly *is* is a not all that clear. We often use what's called the \"biological species concept\", which states roughly that two populations are separate species if their members cannot, or do not interbreed (note that this not a perfect concept: what about asexual organisms? What if two populations *could* interbreed but they live on separate continents? What if two populations of a flowering plant are perfectly capable of interbreeding, but one blooms two weeks before the other, and thus they don't ever interbreed, even though they'd produce perfectly fertile offspring if you artificially crossed them? What if they do interbreed, but they do so less frequently than they do within their own populations, and the offspring are less fertile? In most of these cases the biological species concept would consider them separate species. But how do we apply this concept to dead stuff that's in museums? etc.). *Speciation* is a process. In most cases, it seems that it happens because two different populations get separated and gradually evolve in different directions. It generally takes hundreds of thousands of years, and if you were to bring the two \"proto-species\" back together before reproductive isolation is complete, you might collapse them back into a single species.\n\nBut I'm talking about how two populations of a single species split away from one another. You asked about how new species evolve from \"old\" ones. What I hoped to accomplish with the above paragraph is to convince you that the idea of what a species is is not a simple as it would appear at first glance. Species are something that makes sense when you take a horizontal slice through time and examine the organisms that inhabit it (although there are boundary cases where classification breaks down, as alluded to above), or when you take two distant points in time and compare them. But from one generation to the next, you just have small changes. The individuals with the genes that make them more likely to survive tend to survive more often (the tautology that is *natural selection*), some individuals survive or don't survive simply by a small amount of random chance (formalized in the concept of genetic drift; selection dominates in large populations, drift dominates in small ones), and you get a small handful of new mutations.\n\nOver the course of a *long* time, these very simple \"forces\" are sufficient to generate the radical changes we see in the fossil record, and infer from [phylogenetics](_URL_7_), and cause one species to \"evolve into\" another.\n\n\n > Most sane people agree that Natural Selection (for example, the more heat-tolerant of a lizard population surviving to breed in the desert) is valid. But doesn't it make species less diverse, by stamping out less useful traits?\n\n**YES**, absolutely! This is one of the major questions people in my field seek to answer. Both selection, and the previously mentioned process of [genetic drift](_URL_0_) (which results in random loss of mutations fromt the population), result in less diverse populations, so how is genetic diversity maintained? Some hypotheses, all of which have some amount of theoretical and empirical support (and which are all likely to contribute), are:\n\n* balancing selection, which can result either from [heterozygotes](_URL_5_) being more fit than either homozygote, or from consistently fluctuating environments, in which it may vary on short time scales as to which variants are most advantageous\n\n* frequency dependent selection, which results from situations in which having rare traits (and genes) makes you more likely to survive or reproduce, so no one variant can ever become fixed in the population\n\n* mutational pressure: new mutations are constantly being introduced into the population by random chance (this happens because the DNA copy mechanisms that cells use to reproduce themselves aren't perfect, and occasionally make mistakes), although at a very slow rate\n\n > How does it factor into new species developing?\n\nYou're asking questions that are the topic of entire text-books, so I apologize if I'm a bit brief in some of these responses. Much of speciation is about *ecological divergence*. That is, two populations must generally come to fit slightly different ecological roles, such that they don't come into contact with one another (or at least do so rather infrequently), so that they cease interbreeding, and thus stop exchanging genes. This allows them to continue diverging in different directions, and eventually become full isolated. Much of this divergence is also driven by natural selection, so that, as described above, over a long enough amount of time, a population accumulates enough change that it becomes radically different from its distant ancestors.\n\n > How much of a role do mutations play in evolution? \n\nThey are essential. Although the first two selection mechanisms I listed above can aid in maintaining variation for some amount of time, only mutation can introduce new variation into a population. Without mutation, eventually all variation will be lost from a population, and then evolution can no longer occur.\n\n > Aren't mutations harmful to an animal 99% of the time, rather than beneficial?\n\nNope. This is a common misconception. It is somewhat difficult to measure the spectrum of fitness effects that mutations have, but our best estimates at the moment are the most are relatively neutral, with some slightly advantageous, some slightly deleterious, and some fraction that are extremely deleterious (which are quickly removed from the population by selection).\n\nOk. I hope that was useful. Let me know if you have any questions. Also, if you want a book to pick up, I'd recommend Jerry Coyne's \"Why Evolution Is True\".",
"For your first question, read up on this: _URL_8_ \n\nA species evolves through random genetic mutations. Mutations that increase survival, are passed down to the next generation, and increase in frequency among a population. If two populations of fish (across the world, say) had different selective pressures, different mutations could benefit one population while hindering the other (for example, enzymes functioning better at certain temperatures if one population is tropical and the other is not). The point at which a fish from one population cannot mate with a fish from the other population to produce fertile offspring, the two fish are said to be different species.\n\nNatural selection doesn't have to be stamping out certain bad traits, it can also be gaining a valuable trait and gain an upper hand. For instance, if aquatic animals near the shore, through mutation, gain the ability to hop around on shore briefly, they have access to food that the other animals do not. Similarly, if an animal develops a longer neck (in giraffes) it can reach food that others cannot and has less competition. \n\nEvolution is dependent on genetic variability, which is heavily dependent on random mutations. Mutations that are harmful will be more likely to affect the survival of the animal, and not be passed down. \n\nHope this helps!",
"It almost sounds like you are trolling. First you claim to not have an idea about how fish could evolve into mammals. And then, all the sudden you want to know details about natural selection and mutations. \n\nBy the way, no, 99% of mutations are not harmful. Most of them simply don't have any effect one way or another.",
"1) Origin of life is not really related to evolution other than life is necessary for evolution to occur. \n\n2) Interspecies evolution isn't really a meaningful concept. Fish and cats do share a common ancestor; and that ancestor likely would be classified as a fish (or some sort of aquatic animal). Bear in mind, the concept of a species is a human one. There is no cut and dry definition of a species that is perfect. Generally, we say sexual species are different when two populations cannot exchange genetic information. Yet even this is flawed. See hybrid species (Lion and tigers can make Lygers, yet we define them as separate species.) And how do we say species are different at the unicellular level? \n\n3) You are correct, selection (whether its natural, artificial, or sexual) does reduce variation. That variation is replenished through mutations. \n\n4) Mutations are the source nearly all genetic diversity. However, evolution is still possible without mutation. The definition of evolution is \"a change of the frequency of alleles in a population.\" For example, say we have 100 people, and everyone is homozygous for AA, except 2 persons are homozygous for aa. Next generation there are still 100 people, but one of the persons who was homozygous for aa died. Now 99 people are homozygous for AA and one person is homozygous for aa. The population evolved; even if there were no mutations.",
"so, briefly, the answer(s) to your question is huge. start reading [here](_URL_9_) or [here](_URL_10_) or even [here](_URL_11_) and remember to read all the links/subsections, too.",
"I'll address this point by point.\n\n1. It's called abiogenesis. For evolution to work, there are two requirements: You need something that can self replicate, and mutate over successive generations. Anything that meets those requirements is subject to evolution, even if it's not a living organism. We know that complex organic chemicals naturally form from a solution of simple chemicals given time. All that's required for the origin of life is a chemical capable of replicating itself, similar to RNA, and when you've got a laboratory the size of the ocean to do it in, it becomes a statistical certainty.\n\n2. No. But a fish could turn into a cat *like* creature given enough time. No modern species can ever turn into another modern species, but two modern species can share a common ancestor. Imagine if some disaster wiped out all land based life. Eventually, sea life would evolve to live on land and take advantage of the unused resources, and you'd probably end up with something that looked fairly similar to mammals. But they wouldn't be mammals in the modern sense. They'd just be filling the same niche.\n\n3. Imagine if the climate changes, so that over the course of a few thousand years, the northern part of the desert becomes wetter and changes into a rainforest, for example. The lizards in the northern section of the desert would be forced to adapt to the new environment, but the lizards in the southern section wouldn't. After a million years or so, you'd have two entirely different species.\n\n4. Evolution is impossible without mutation. If a species replicates itself perfectly every time, then adaption is impossible. And yes, mutations are generally harmful. But an organism with a harmful mutation will rapidly die out, so even if harmful mutations outnumber helpful mutations 1000 to 1, the helpful mutations will propagate and the harmful mutations won't."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleost",
"http://timetree.org/index.php?found_taxon_a=9606%7Chomo+sapiens&found_taxon_b=7898%7Cfish&action=",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis",
"http://timetree.org/index.php?found_taxon_a=9606%7Chomo+sapiens&found_taxon_b=7777%7Cfish&action=",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterozygote#Heterozygous",
"http://timetree.org/index.php?taxon_a=chondrichthyes&taxon_b=bony+fishes&submit=Search",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller–Urey_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution",
"http://evolution.berkeley.edu/",
"http://www.newscientist.com/topic/evolution"
]
} | I'd like to get the facts straight on evolution.
I'd really like to understand what, specifically, is and is not true about this topic. My education on the subject was rather biased, so some of these questions will sound really stupid. Humor me. * I've read that as you go back through history, eventually life had to come from nonliving substances. Spontaneous Generation is pure bunk - maggots don't magically appear from rotten meat, after all - but is the origin of life in any way related to said obsolete theory? And if it's not, how bad does that make someone saying it is look? * How would interspecies evolution work? Could fish eventually breed their way into becoming cats, given enough time? Is even that how evolution works? How do entirely new species form from old ones? * Most sane people agree that Natural Selection (for example, the more heat-tolerant of a lizard population surviving to breed in the desert) is valid. But doesn't it make species *less* diverse, by stamping out less useful traits? How does it factor into new species developing? * How much of a role do mutations play in evolution? Is evolution possible without mutation? How? Aren't mutations harmful to an animal 99% of the time, rather than beneficial? I appreciate any answers you can give me. I want to know the *truth*, not plug my ears and wish it wasn't exactly that. | [
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1795uh | How far north or south do you have to go before time zones stop making sense? | Since time zones converge at the poles, I was curious what is done at research centres in the Arctic and Antarctic for time keeping. Do they have a time zone they use? Is there a point when time zones stop making sense and they just use UTC time? | askscience | {
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"The physical point at which time zones no longer \"make sense\" is largely subjective. I would presume that it depends largely on whether or not the individual is traveling and how rapidly. I've found this information regarding the logistics of time at the poles.\n\n > As a practical matter, having all of the time zones means there is really no time zone for the polar regions. In Antarctica, the U.S. stations uses New Zealand time because most Americans who go to Antarctica for the U.S. Antarctic Program fly to and from there via Christchurch.\n\n > Once you arrive in New Zealand for the U.S. Antarctic Program, you could fly to Antarctica, everywhere that a U.S. airplane could take you on the continent, and back to Christchurch without ever having to change the time on your watch.\n\n > Since the only station at the South Pole is the U.S. station, the time used there is New Zealand time.\n\n > Other nations tend to use their home time zones in Antarctica, which makes radio and e-mail contacts simpler.\n\n > The permanent research stations in the Arctic are in countries, such as the Barrow Science Center in Barrow, Alaska, and these use the local time. When researchers venture out onto the Arctic Ocean ice, they can use any time the wish. But, in most cases it's probably easier to use the time for the institution, such as a university, that you are working for.\n\n-[USA Today](_URL_0_)\n\n**TL;DR: Time keeping is a free-for-all at the poles. It largely depends on whatever is most convenient for communication with the country of origin of the travelers.**",
"Applying math to your question - \n24 time zones in 360 degrees means each time zone is generally 15 degrees wide. (They use some variations for geographical reasons to keep certain areas conveniently on the same time.)\nAt the equator, the earth's circumference is 24901 miles or 40075 km, so each time zone is about 1038 miles or 1670 km wide.\nNew York is about 40 degrees north latitude, the circumference there is 19102 miles or 30742 km, so time zones at that latitude are about 796 miles or 1281 km wide.\nEureka, in Nunavut, Canada is about 79 degrees latitude, where the circumference is only 4767 miles or 7671 km, so time zones there are about 199 miles or 320 km wide.\n\nYou need a definition of where a time zone doesn't \"make sense\". I would guess that if you have to change zones when travelling less than one hour, that would qualify. So if you look for where zones become less than 60 miles or 100 km wide, that is about 87 degrees latitude (north or south). \n\nSource for circumference at latitude: _URL_1_",
"Well [these are the time zones](_URL_2_) for Antartica. It dosen't make geographical sense, it is more about where the supplies are flown in from. For example, the Amundsen-Scott Station, South Pole, is on New Zealand time because that's where they fly in from. The red areas on the map actually have no official time zone.",
"It depends on the time of year.\n\nIf you're in the [Arctic Circle](_URL_3_) there will be at least some parts of the year (around the summer and winter solstices) when the sun either rotates continuously around the horizon without setting (Polar Day) or stays below for the entire day (Polar Night). The closer to the pole you are, the longer those periods will be, until you get to the pole and simply alternate between 6 months of day and 6 months of night.",
"It is a subjective matter, but time zones stop making sense when:\n\n* there are extended periods of light or dark\n* when the climate is so inhospitable you aren't going to spend much time outside\n* when you have few, if any local neighbors to interact with\n\n73^o is roughly the point where you won't have normal day/night cycles for half the year.",
"Amundsen-Scott seems to be the only research station that's within 10 degrees of a pole. It uses New Zealand time because people arriving at/departing from the station always travel via NZ.\n\nTo answer your second question, local time only makes sense if the sun has a high point in the sky. This is technically the case as soon as you're not directly on a pole, but you'd probably want it to be noticeable to consider it such. Since there are no research stations (that I could find) between 80 and 90 degrees, the exact point is somewhat moot.\n\nEdit: Not McMurdo.",
"This is a pretty informative BBC presentation on time zones, you should watch the video \"Where Time Collides.\"\n\n_URL_4_",
"Saw this the other day that show the timezones used in Anarctica: _URL_5_",
"This may not be a complete answer, but I went to Wikipedia and found the following link:\n\n[Research Stations in Antarctica](_URL_6_)\n\nIt notes the time zones of some stations, but not all. I am unsure whether that means they use UTC time, or there just isn't available information.\n\nSo even some places in Antarctica, time zones are still observed, but perhaps not all."
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"url": [
"http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/resources/askjack/2004-12-28-polar-times-_x.htm",
"http://www.easysurf.cc/circle.htm#cetol1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UTC_hue4map_ATA.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_circle",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-12849630",
"http://www.geeksaresexy.net/2013/01/22/time-zones-in-antarctica-pic/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_stations_in_Antarctica"
]
} | How far north or south do you have to go before time zones stop making sense?
Since time zones converge at the poles, I was curious what is done at research centres in the Arctic and Antarctic for time keeping. Do they have a time zone they use? Is there a point when time zones stop making sense and they just use UTC time? | [
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9q3jkq | How do lakes deep underground maintain an ecosystem with no energy input from the Sun? | askscience | {
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"Underground aquifers could support primitive microbial life-forms if they were adapted to living off the minerals, and hydrogen seeping into the water from the surrounding rock. They may also adapt similarly to deep sea life that lives off of/near hydrothermal vents if they're present in the underground aquifer",
"Any chemical can serve as an energy source if there is a more thermodynamically-stable energy state, such as glucose being oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Both of those are more stable than glucose and the oxidation of glucose into them produces energy.\n\nThere are many such compounds such as methane, decaying plant matter, and minerals that might come from another source and drive the ecosystem. For example, in the deep ocean organic matter falling from above can feed lower life. Deep lakes can have material washed down into them from the surface or they can feed on previously-buried matter.\n\nThere are also other sources of energy such as geothermal and nuclear decay that can provide energy to an ecosystem.",
"A lot of cave dwellers are sustained by rare calorie inputs from surface sources, so they too rely on the sun for food. For example, bats bring nutrient-rich guano into caverns, enough to feed a whole ecosystem of amphipods, cave crickets, and centipedes. Many troglodytes are also adapted to have extremely slow metabolisms so that they can take advantage of the rare bit of food that comes into their cavern from the outside world. The [olm](_URL_0_), a cave salamander, is able to enter stasis when food is scarce, and can re-absorb organs when it needs the calories (and grow them back once it finds a morsel of food). They can last as long as ten years in between a meal. As for what they eat, the olm only lives around underground rivers with connections to the surface, so every so often an insect or a small crustacean will get washed into the cave from outside and the olm is there to grab and devour it.",
"It’s pretty much already been explained by others here but perhaps you’d enjoy looking up online about “chemo-heterotrophs” I believe this is the life you are speaking of.\n\nThe “chemo” part meaning energy is derived from chemical compounds in the environment, whilst we also have “photo-heterotroph” which derives energy from sunlight (photosynthesis).\n\nThis greatly increases the possible habitable environments on other planets/moons (i.e. IF there is life on Titan they’d be too far away to receive sunlight benefits and may be chemo-heterotrophs, or similar).",
"So, I'm kind of late to the party here but this is actually my area of expertise so I'm excited to see someone asking about stygobionts (subterranean aquatic animals). As stated by others, energy sources for living organisms in caves and aquifers can come from two places: organic material from the surface that washed into the cave, or there can be \"in house\" biologic production via chemolithoautotrophic bacteria. These bacteria take sulfur ions (among others) and either oxidize them or reduce them and glean a small bit of energy from this reaction. It's much less energetically favorable than photoautotrophy (like plants) or heterotrophy (eating other organisms), so these bacteria grow very slowly. They also need a carbon source, in plants this comes from CO2 in the air and in heterotrophs it comes from the food they eat. Caves are made of limestone generally, which is calcium carbonate. Thus, cave waters have abundant carbon in the form of CO2 and HCO3. These specialized bacteria are able to uptake and use this carbon. In this way, they are literally made of rock! \n\nCertain caves have such a good environment for this chemolithoautotrophy, the bacteria grow abundantly enough to form the base for an entire ecosystem of organisms including vertebrates. The Edwards Aquifer in central Texas is the most bio diverse aquifer in the Americas, and probably the world once all the diversity is described. The diversity in the Edwards is truly astounding for a ground water sustem. One well-studied site, the San Marcos Artesian Well has 43 described animals, and probably nearly double that in undescribed species. These include a blind salamander, numerous crustaceans and insects, worms, and lots of tiny planktonic organisms. The reason for the hyper diversity of the Edwards has to do with its large size, old age, and excellent porosity. And also because it has a saline zone that is a source for those sulfur ions that the bacteria need. Diversity is highest in the zones near this freshwater-saline interface. If you'd like to know more about food webs in aquifers, I suggest the 2016 paper by Hutchins et al. in Ecology.",
"Also, when animals in the upper part of the water column die - especially larger fish, whales, etc - their corpses decay, break apart, and chunks float down to the sea floor. We watched a video in my marine biology class of a whale carcass on the sea floor, and it was absolutely SWARMING to any and all types of deep sea life - they can smell the food from miles away and they all gather to get as much of this nutrient-rich food source as they can. Decaying carcasses are a small part of their diet, but are definitely an important one.",
"Not sure specifically what like to cave/lake you're thinking, but in caves, there are ~~cynao~~bacteria that can derive energy from oxidation of chemicals/minerals like sulphur with carbon dioxide. They're called chemoautotrophic bacteria. These often form of the \"base\" food source of any ecosystem that survives down there (excluding critters that go in/out of the cave to feed).",
"Marine snow.\n\nWhen you get deep (mostly in the ocean but it's somewhat true in lakes too) there is a constant \"snow\" fall that looks very pretty. It's made of feces and dead stuff. This can provide some energy for ecosystems.",
"So many wonderful, thoughtful replies! But couldn't we simply and accurately say \"chemosynthesis\" rather than photosynthesis? I thought that was the explanation for hydrothermal vent communities so it would apply elsewhere as well.",
"To break things down: Life could be sustained either through allotropy (food from basic building blocks) or heterotropy (digesting available premade nutrients). As plants are the basis of heterotrophy, without sunlight heterotrophy is impossible. Without sunlight you can go through chemosynthesis, which is an allotropic way of creating energy stored in chemical bonds. As this way of “feeding” creates relatively little energy, life forms thriving this way are rudimentary (single celled organisms). An example (omitting complex details) are methane producing archaea (bacteria like creatures). They get energy from carbon and water to create methane. Some archaea break down methane for energy. Surprisingly lots of these archaea live next to each other in deep water wells (aquifers) sustaining each other, for millions of years now.",
"Energy originally from the Sun can be stored as chemical energy in molecule such as glucose (especially molecules rich in Hydrogens where the potential energy of the electrons is high) and harvested through oxidation (essentially breaking it down). These energy containing molecules could get into the ecosystem in a number of ways. \n\nThere are also autotrophs (organisms that make their own ‘food’) through chemical means, rather than using sunlight. For example, the tube worms at the bottom of the deep ocean.",
"I've never studied lakes (assuming freshwater) but I imagine most of the same fundamentals apply.\n\nIn the oceans, some systems are supplied organic matter from cold water sinking down through valleys on the seafloor, this leads to cold water coral reefs like that of Lophelia pertusa. These systems are still provided for by photosynthesis they just don't exist in the light directly (mostly).\n\nOther systems are chemosynthetic. In the case of life around a hydrothermal event, instead of a plant photosynthesising light to produce organic matter at the base of the food chain certain specialist bacteria synthesise the rich source of chemical compounds discharging from the seabed. Specialist organisms either house the bacteria to benefit from them or cultivate them on their body as a food source. Then like any other system it moves through to predators and scavengers etc. of these specialists. Plenty of these species have 'Alvin' in their latin names due to the sub used to explore the vents and find them.",
"There is a good documentary on amazon prime about \"the real lost world\" and it details what they find on the giant Mesas in South America. It's not exactly underwater like what you said but it's still a desolate region with very little resource, but in the documentary the only legitimate scientist there actually finds microbial life living off some weird way I'm not sure. She received an NSF Grant to continue research on it though. Life is able to survive in the darndest of places.",
"You'd likely get a fair amount of ammonia-oxidising bacteria which can make use of ammonia and inorganic carbon, like carbon dioxide. Some of the products they make will then serve as food for other organisms when they die.\n\nThe thing to note is that the growth may be slower depending on the bottleneck, but EVERYTHING would run off that timing anyway.",
"It's a common myth that all life comes from the sun... hydrothermal vents and cave ecosystems are testament to that.\n\nIt is my personal opion that life originated from chemosynthesis and broadened to include photosynthesis",
"Do you have a specific lake in mind?"
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8lfkjh | What things were predicted by math before their observation? | Dirac predicted antimatter. Mendeleev predicted gallium. Higgs predicted a boson. What are other examples of things whose existence was suggested before their discovery? | askscience | {
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"I think the [discovery of planet Neptune](_URL_0_) is a very famous example. The position of Neptune was predicted using the unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus by Urbain Le Verrier, and was observed shortly after that.",
"[Edmond Halley used Newton's math to predict the return of a comet in 1758](_URL_1_). This was a verification of Newton's theories. The comet was named Halley's comet in honor of Halley.",
"Rutherford predicted the neutron in 1920. He was wrong about its composition, but it was nonetheless discovered in 1932 (though first generated in 1931).\n\nThe neutrino was predicted by Pauli in 1930, coincidentally also called the neutron in the theoretical literature. The neutrino was detected in 1956.\n\nGeneral Relativity was formaly presented by Einstein in 1915 with many predictions. Specifically, light bending consistent with GR was first observed in 1919, gravitational redshift was observed in 1954, and frame dragging was finally confirmed in 2011.\n\nRichard Feynman offered a theoretical proof that gravitational waves could be detected in 1957 (this had been in debate since 1893), and they were finally directly observed in 2016.",
"I think one of the big ones is the [cosmic microwave background](_URL_2_) which was predicted nearly two decades before observational data confirmed its existence.\n\nThe CMB is considered to be the best evidence to date for the Big Bang model of the formation of the universe and also forms the punchline to a very famous [XKCD](_URL_3_) comic.\n\nScience works :)",
"Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth by measuring shadows, thousands of years ago. Not only did he prove that the earth was round, he calculated its size with pretty incredible accuracy.\n\n_URL_4_",
"Lee and Yang predicted in 1956 that parity might not be conserved in the weak interaction, meaning that the mirror image of the decay process will be distinguishable from itself, and this was verified a year later by Chien-Shiung Wu by performing experiments on cobalt-60 decay. Until this point most people were assuming this was a perfect symmetry of nature (since parity is conserved in electromagnetic interactions). This won Lee and Yang the Nobel prize in 1957.",
"IMHO the most important mathematical prediction we have not yet verified is Neil Ashcroft predicted in 1968 that [metallic hydrogen would be a room temperature superconductor](_URL_7_). This theory has undergone repeated attempts at verification but so far no group has achieved the required pressure to make metallic hydrogen due to its tendency to diffuse into the materials applying the pressure. \n\nThere are many other theories that are unsolved or unobserved and you can read about some of them here:\n\n_URL_8_\n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_5_",
"Previous theories and speculation, although usually grounded in some mathematics, about \"negative\" or \"opposite\" matter were readily dismissed by the scientific community at the time, but in 1928 Paul Dirac realised that his relativistic version of the Schrödinger wave equation for electrons predicted the possibility of antielectrons, and Carl D. Anderson discovered them in 1932.\n\nThe idea of [space-time crystals](_URL_9_) was first put forward by Frank Wilczek, a professor at MIT and Nobel laureate, in 2012. During the few years a number of papers were published dispelling - even *rubbishing* - the idea, but in October 2016, Christopher Monroe at the University of Maryland, claimed to have created the world's first discrete time crystal and later in 2016, Mikhail Lukin at Harvard also reported the creation of a driven time crystal. There have been additional developments since.",
"The value of the speed of light was discovered while they were observing Jupiter moons. When the Jupiter was close to earth the moons were ahead of schedule and when it was further from the Earth the moon orbits were behind the schedule. They were able to calculate the schedule of Jupiter moons using newly discovered Newton's laws of gravitation and calculus.\n\nI will let Richard Feynman do describe it better than I can: _URL_10_ See at about 3:50",
"The charm quark was predicted based on observations made with the three light quarks ([GIM mechanism](_URL_11_)). The bottom and top quarks were predicted based on observations made with the four lighter quarks (CP violation).\n\nW and Z bosons were predicted based on observations of the weak interaction at lower energies.",
"Maybe not as interesting as most of the other answers, but a lot of juggling tricks were not discovered until a proper mathematical notation was invented by Jeff Walker in 1982. \n\nIt is used to describe the height of the throw, and whether or not the ball changes hands, and by generalising a set of rules from the notation, new tricks, that were previously unknown, could now be proven to be possible.\n[The Wikipedia article on the subject](_URL_12_)\n[Numberphile video](_URL_13_)",
"Joseph Fourier predicted the greenhouse effect. [[wiki source](_URL_14_)] \n\nHis contributions to enriching the calculus also led to developments in sound technology, and his research continues to change the world, perhaps most recently with the invention of noise cancelling headphones.\n[Source: \"BBC Podcast, A Brief History of Mathematics, Joseph Fourier episode.\"\n\nThis guy is in the running to match Newton as my personal Math hero.",
"Max Planck - The COBE mission which looked at the background microwave glow of the universe and found that it fit perfectly with the idea that the universe used to be really hot everywhere. This strongly reinforced the Big Bang theory and was one of the most dramatic examples of an experiment agreeing with a theory in history -- the data points fit perfectly, with error bars too small to draw on the graph. It's one of the most triumphant scientific results in history.\n\n_URL_15_",
"Special relativity for space and time. Time dilation can be shown to be true with some relatively simple math. The Lorenz transform was created before Einstein but Einstein was the first person to understand its implications. It’s almost as if it was discovered mathematically before anyone really realizes it.",
"Not exactly math, but the Australian doctor Frank Macfarlane Burnet published his own theory of how the human adaptive immune system works, with little direct evidence. He published his ideas in an obscure journal, then 30 years later got proved that his theory was basically correct and described how the human immune system works.",
"This is a minor thing, but Stellar Forge in Elite Dangerous \"predicted\" Trappist-1 system. It put a nearly identical system pretty much exactly where the real thing is.\n\nStellar Forge isn't random, it uses some kind of a mass-related algorithm to create systems and planets, and AFAIR it's fueled by real data.",
"Climate change! In the 1850s, [Eunice Foote](_URL_17_) and John Tyndall each contributed to the discovery that CO2 was a greenhouse gas and hypothesized that increased concentrations in the atmosphere would warm the Earth.\n\nQuantitatively, the first climate model to attempt to project real-world future temperatures was in 1973 and was [pretty close](_URL_16_). Many more specific climate models have been made since then, and they have been quite skillful as well.",
"On a more biological note (although still linked to physics), Alan Turing came up with the first models predicting how stripes and spots would originate. This is essentially the base theory for [morphogenesis](_URL_18_), and I suppose it's been confirmed in several cases (although it might not explain *all* of pattern formation)",
"The existence of Helium. Which was discovered through absorption spectra lines in sunlight before the element was ever seen on earth.\n\nBlack Holes were predicted by relativity before being observed.\n\nMan made climate change and the effects of Carbon Dioxide on the climate was predicted in the early 20th century, following the discovery that CO2 absorbed photons of a particular band of wavelengths.",
"We shouldn't gloss over Dirac's \"prediction.\" He was working with an equation to combine special relativity with the quantum realm and when he took the square root of a squared number related to the charge of an electron, he realized the root could be negative OR positive. The math worked, the number just popped out. He tried to ignore it as an anomaly, but ultimately had to admit that his equation predicted a particle just like an electron, but positively charged. Pure math, no idea such a thing might exist previous to this. Carl David Anderson discovered the positron on August 2, 1932, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1936. For his achievement Dirac was awarded the Nobel prize for physics in 1933 at the age of 31. Currently we use antimatter to find metastatic cancer EVERY DAY...it's a commercial enterprise, no one even thinks anything about it. 70 years ago most people had no clue it existed, or thought it probably didn't.\n\nThis raises the question, of course, how the HELL math and the universe are intertwined. A particle previously unknown just pops out of an equation and lo and behold it actually exists \\(along with a host of other antiparticles\\). Is the math informing the universe, or the universe informing the math? Or something more subtle? Try to imagine a universe where math doesn't work to describe it...it's hard to do \\(although I can argue I live in a universe where 45\\+45 does not equal 90...I can demonstrate this any time you ask me to make you a picture frame, doh!\\)\n\nPretty F\\-ing cool!",
"[Displacement Current](_URL_19_) was pretty cool.\n\nBasically, there was Ampere's Law, which was missing a term that reflected the rate of change of the electric field. Maxwell added this term. Then, \n\n1. This allowed the PDE to be rewritten as a wave equation\n\n2. We knew the speed of light was 'c' at that time\n\n3. But it turns out that the velocity term of that wave equation is equal to 'c'\n\nThrough this change it was discovered that optics, electricity, and magnetism were actually all the same phenomena.",
"In the 1950s, Rudy Marcus predicted the existence of the \"inverted regime\" in electron transfer reactions. Generally, the energetic barrier to a chemical reaction decreases as the driving force behind the reaction increases. In other words, reactions get faster as they become more favorable. Marcus Theory predicts that, beyond a certain turning point, extremely favorable electron transfer events will actually start to slow down as they become more favorable. This is the inverted regime.\n\nIn the 1950s and 60s, Marcus was a bit of a laughing stock in certain circles of the chemical community. Experimental support for began to accumulate in the 1970s, and a 1984 study at the Argonne National Laboratory all but confirmed his theory.\n\nThe chemists who laughed at Marcus in the 60s weren't so quick to ridicule when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1992.",
"A lot of the history of the atom model was prediction that ended up holding true.\n\nOne that I found interesting was that Louis de Broglie predicted that small particles of matter could behave like a wave. It may not have been \"math\" that predicted it, but de Broglie pretty much said \"Hey if light - a wave - can act like a particle, why can't a particle act like a wave?\"\n\nHe said \"I betcha electrons can do that\" and started drawing some standing wave patterns for electron orbitals.\n\nSure enough, years later it was proven that electrons diffract through a pinhole just like electromagnetic radiation.",
"Famously Albert Einstein's general theories of relativity predicted that gravity would bend light. Therefore during a total solar eclipse you would be able to see starlight where the sun was. The light from the other star would bend around the sun's gravitational field and was proven correct during the 1919 eclipse by Sir Arthur Eddington\n\n_URL_20_",
"Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of the element technetium (Tc) when assembling his periodic table in 1871, based on a gap in the table; technetium was not observed until 1925, and not confirmed until 1936.",
"The discovery the speed of light. Today we know it’s about 3×10^8 m/s, but obviously back then there was no way to measure it for sure. This Danish astronomer was able to calculate by determining the delay of Io’s eclipses of Jupiter between different times of the year, and determined it to be 2.3×10^8 m/s, remarkably close to the modern measurement. It was rejected at the time because it was way too large, but the Michelson experiment a few centuries later confirmed it.",
"The [equatorial bulge](_URL_22_). In the *Principia* (1687) Newton suggested that the Earth is not a perfect sphere, but instead bulges out at the equator due to its rotation. This prediction caused debate, but was confirmed by an expedition to the Arctic Circle in 1736. More about it [here](_URL_21_).",
"[Maxwell](_URL_23_) predicted radio waves with his famous [equations](_URL_24_) published in 1865. The first to observe them was [Hertz](_URL_25_), more than 20 years later.",
"I know this does not count because it is really just math discovering math. Archimedes was sooo ahead of his time. He was so close to discovering calculus that he was giving formulas for the area under the curve of a spiral. but those notes were lost so calculus did not end up happening for another 2000 years",
"The atomic bomb is one we never really think about. Feynman talks a bit about it in one of his books. Imagine hiring a bunch of college students and everyone just agreeing that ripping open an atom will go the way you say it will.",
"That DNA uses codons of length 3 to encode all of the amino acids present in proteins. \n\nGiven ~20 unique amino acids and 4 unique nucleotides (A, G, T, C). Length 2 (4^2) gives you 16 which isn't sufficient complexity and length 3 (4^3) gives you 64 which means there would be redundancy in the codon/amino-acid table — exactly what was eventually proved to be the case.\n\n_URL_26_",
"If i remember correctly, John Herschel discovered Neptune by predicting its orbit based on a pattern of disturbances to uranus' orbit, he mathematically concluded that in order for a disturbance to happen in such a specific pattern that something else is affecting it, and based on his math he had a predicted location in the sky and when he looked there he discovered a new planet.\n\nHis father, William, talked him into being an astronomer when John was having a hard time enjoying his tutorship at cambridge in the 1840's or somethin like that. \n\nWilliam Herschel, was an astronomer and a very renown scientist. He was actually the person to discover uranus, the planet his son would observe and base his neptune prediction off of. \n\nJust think its crazy that a father discovers a planet, convinces son (who was reluctant as hell) to be an astronomer, and after a few years he continues his fathers work on uranus and discovered his own new planet. Shit is crazy.",
"An unsatisfying answer is that this is basically how all of physics works. You come up with a theory that explains the known predictions and do the math that comes up with new ones. Then if new experiments confirm those predictions, we gradually start to accept that hypothesis.\n\nThat’s why the answers on this page are basically a tour of various discoveries in physics.",
"I can't go into historical detail like others are, but gravitational waves were predicted before it was possible to observe them. Then we built an enormous instrument to detect it. Waves were then detected within a few months of turning it on indicating that gravitational waves are not only possible, but probably common.",
"This kind of thing is why I wish I was better at math... I'm woefully poor at even basic math, yet there are people predicting paths of interstellar objects and discovering undiscovered particles, using mathematics. I'm terrible at math, but intelligent enough to perceive its boundless uses. Who's cutting onions in this thread? 😢",
"I’m surprised I haven’t seen anything about gravitational wave theory here. Henri Poincaré and Einstein made the theory in 1905 and 1916 respectively and that was proven through observation of a gravitational ripple in 2016.",
"The mathematical foundations of computer science predated general-purpose computers.\n\nMuch of the initial work was undertaken to prove mathematical arguments.\n\nActually, it's a little difficult to tell where mathematics ends and computer science begins; theoretical computer science is often seen as a sub-field of mathematics.\n\nGeorge Boole developed Boolean algebra, which is at the heart of digital computers, in 1854. Konrad Zuse and Claude Shannon independently implemented Boolean algebra in electronic circuits in 1936-1937. Nearly every computer today uses electronic Boolean logic gates derived from Shannon's work.\n\nIn 1933, Kurt Gödel and Jacques Herbrand developed a concept called *general recursive functions* (or μ-recursive functions).\n\nAlan Turing's 1936 paper *On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem* built on Gödel's recent work on the incompleteness theorems, responding to David Hilbert's *Entscheidungsproblem* (decision problem), which essentially asked for an algorithm that would determine whether a proposition can be proved from a set of axioms using the rules of first-order logic. Turing's response was formulated in terms of a \"universal computing machine\" - which we now call a Turing machine. But his paper wasn't about computing; he introduced the Turing machine as a mathematical construct to prove a mathematical assertion - that the *Entscheidungsproblem* was not decidable.\n\nAlonzo Church independently developed the lambda calculus to answer the *Entscheidungsproblem*, and published his paper independently of, and nearly simultaneously with, Turing's paper. Turing's proof is more famous, but Church's work is arguably more useful - the lambda calculus provides a generalized model of software. \n\nChurch, Turing, J. B. Rosser and Stephen Kleene quickly realized that general-purpose computation, Turing machines, the lambda calculus, and general recursive functions are all equivalent notions. So if you can prove that something is equivalent to one, it's equivalent to all. Typically you'd prove that some system can simulate one of the above; things so proven include cellular automata, Dwarf Fortress, and Magic: The Gathering. \n\nAll of this came about in the world of pure mathematics - Turing and Church set out to answer Hilbert's mathematical question, and the computer theory stuff was just a byproduct. \n\nAll of it was discovered before suitable computers even existed. The first Turing-complete computer was Z3, built in Berlin by Konrad Zuse in 1941 and destroyed by Allied bombing in 1943. But Z3 wasn't proven Turing-complete until 1998. ENIAC, completed in 1945, was the first general-purpose computer known to be Turing-complete at the time it was operating. \n\nThe lambda calculus was, as noted above, known to correspond with the general notation of computation since the late 1930s. The first computer programming language to implement the lambda calculus was Lisp, first developed in 1958. Many of Lisp's descendants are widely used today, including JavaScript, which generated the page you're reading right now. (JavaScript isn't a proper Lisp dialect, but it's heavily influenced by Lisp.)\n\nThe list goes on.\n\nRegular expressions were described by Stephen Kleene in 1951, but their practical uses weren't developed until the late 1960s and early 1970s. \n\nCategory theory was formalized by Saunders Mac Lane and Samuel Eilenberg starting in 1945, and was well established in the 1950s. Category theory explores the foundations of mathematics and generalizes notions between different fields of math; some mathematicians lovingly call it \"abstract nonsense\". It wasn't until the 1980s that theoretical computer scientists realized that category theory has a very deep connection to computation; applications of category theory to computer programming began in the 1990s, and it's an active field of research and development today.",
"The prediction of the magnetic moment of electrons.\n\nIn 1965 Richard Feynman won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his theory of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). One of the key\ninsights he had was that because we can't directly observe quantum phenomena, we have to assume that every possible action\ntakes place and factor them into our equations. Maybe the electron emits a photon and then absorbs a second one. Maybe the\nsecond photon spontaneously creates an electron-positron pair and the positron annhiliates the first electron. We can't know,\nbut each possibility carries with it a probability of happening that affects the outcome of our measurements. To help with\ncounting all of these possible interactions Feynman invented a method of diagraming that bears his name.\n\nThe good news is, the more complex the diagram the less likely that particular set of events will happen. That means\nphysicists can decide beforehand how accurate they need to be -- how many diagrams they have to make. There's simply no\nreason to estimate a number to 7 significant digits if our instruments can only measure effects up to 5. That's important\nto keep in mind because each component of each diagram represents a complex equation you need to solve. But how far do\nyou go if what you're measuring has wide-ranging effects across all of physics?\n\nThe anomalous magnetic moment of an electron is a measure of how much different quantum mechanics is from classical physics.\nThat is, we can arrive at a classical value for the magnetic moment of an electron from first-principals, and it happens\nto be a nice round, dimensionless number: 2. However, experimentally this number is never 2 and is always slightly greater.\nQED explains the difference (anomally) between the experimental value and the classical value. In fact, the more Feyman\ndiagrams you incorporate into your calculation the more accurately your prediction will match experimental results. To date,\nthe most accurate prediction for the anomally required 12,000 Feynman diagrams and matches the experimental value to within 1\npart in 1.5 billion! This is the most accurately verified prediction in the history of physics.",
"We thought that the electron was a variable, and even though there's controversy about it. In 1897, JJ Thomson said that electrons have a definite mass and charge based on his calculations from the electrode experiments. He claimed that the particles had to exist and that they were 1800~ times smaller than a hydrogen atom, and yet carried a charge of equal but opposite value of a proton. For a while, physicists assumed that the charge was variable. It wasnt experimentally shown until 1909 when Robert Millikan made his oil drop experiment that the value of charge, *e*, could be quantifiable. The controversy surrounding these experiments is that Millikan approached showing his results kind of shadily, throwing out data points which worsened his percent error with the mindset that anything other than a quantifiable, integer multiple of a basic value would be wrong.",
"Another not math example, but the discovery of *Tiktaalik*, a species thought to demonstrate the transition between fish and amphibians\\-\\-was predicted \\(both in terms that there would *be* a transitional fossil\\-\\-duh\\-\\-and where they found it\\).\n\nBasically, Ted Daeschler, Neil Shubin \\(who wrote a great book about it that was made into a [good documentary](_URL_27_)\\) and their colleagues looked for possible locations where one might expect to see rock from the period \\(about 400 million years ago\\) and poked around. It took about five years of research expeditions to Nunavut, Canada, to find it, but they came up with a near perfect fossil of a \"fishapod\" that demonstrates the evolutionary transition.",
"The curvature of spacetime. Gravitational waves. Lasers.\n\nUFI regarding gravitational waves and lasers: Einstein broke down the math that predicted both the existence of gravitational waves as well as the mechanism of stimulated emission for lasers. A piece of me is sad that, in his lifetime, he didn't witness the laser interferometer (the first one was built about a dozen years after his death, and it wasn't until 2016 that a much larger laser interferometer actually detected gravitational waves. The best part: Einstein never figured his pioneering work on lasers would ever be used to prove the existence of his prediction of gravitational waves.",
"It's by no means my field of study so someone my need to correct a few minor details, but Bill Gates found a faster way to do a pancake sort algorithm and managed to prove a lower bound on how fast you could actually get using this algorithm. A few decades later it became useful in the field of biology because it just so happened certain proteins can be modeled using the same pancake sort algorithm.",
"Eugene Parker predicted the existence of the solar wind based on the observed density and pressure of the interstellar medium being inconsistent with the pressure fall off as you move away from the sun. He concluded there must be material being carried away from the sun in a \"wind\" like fashion for the solutions to match, and sure enough the solar wind was observed years later.",
"Huxley and Hodgkin did various experiments mostly with squid giant axons where they recorded voltage changes, and worked out that the propagation of nerve signals must be due to selective ion channels with specific opening and closing characteristics. Iirc their key joint paper was in 1952. It took another 30 years before experimental science caught up with their mathematical model, and the individual channels were identified.",
"The assembly dynamics of naturally occurring closed symmetrical polymers (such as protein compartments and virus capsids) seem to have been predicted from models and preliminary data in the 90s, and then finer details were observed over the next 25 years...\n\nThere are also some engineered structures (like metal mediated ferritin assemblies) that conform loosely to the models.",
"After the discovery of Uranus in 1781, astronomers noticed that the planet was being pulled slightly out of its normal orbit.\n\nUsing math, they predicted another planet... And then they discovered Neptune. \n\nInteresting note: scientists are predicting a 9th planet with a mass of 10 earths somewhere far past Neptune.. Maybe they will find it",
"I think the biggest one recently was gravitational waves. They were predicted by Einstein’s theories but they weren’t officially detected until two years ago. My super chill physics professor came in looking like he’d been partying all night so it was a pretty big deal to physicists that this one had been confirmed.",
"Einstein's theory of general relativity predicted [gravitational lensing](_URL_28_). I believe after he died scientists set up a telescope and conducted an experiment, and the empirical data proved that Einstein was correct."
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_Neptune",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet#Computation_of_orbit",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background#History",
"https://xkcd.com/54/",
"https:/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen#Superconductivity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_crystal",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9F8Wn4vf5Y",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIM_mechanism",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juggling_notation",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7dwgusHjA0Y",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier#Discovery_of_the_greenhouse_effect",
"https://www.explainxkcd.com/wiki/index.php/54:_Science",
"https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-how-well-have-climate-models-projected-global-warming",
"http://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/09/02/the-woman-who-identified-the-greenhouse-effect-years-before-tyndall/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chemical_Basis_of_Morphogenesis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_current",
"https://www.space.com/37018-solar-eclipse-proved-einstein-relativity-right.html",
"http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath182/kmath182.htm",
"https://squishtheory.wordpress.com/the-earths-equatorial-bulge/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_codon_table",
"http://www.pbs.org/your-inner-fish/home/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens"
]
} | What things were predicted by math before their observation?
Dirac predicted antimatter. Mendeleev predicted gallium. Higgs predicted a boson. What are other examples of things whose existence was suggested before their discovery? | [
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kwd4w | are human languages all equally expressive, and what can "expressive" mean in this context? | Hey guys,
I'm a Computer Scientist, so to me languages are all equally expressive as long as they have an alphabet and context-free grammar, because then you can express really whatever you want just by freely combining terms of the alphabet.
When it comes to expressiveness in terms of semantic richness, like in poetry or music, maybe, I don't think that just "being able to express whatever" is a sufficient condition to declare that all languages are equally expressive.
For example, I'm Italian and, probably biased by my not perfect English (i.e. not native), I think that my language is *more* expressive than English is, because of the much more ways in which we can conjugate our verbs, for instance. But still, English has Shakespeare as much as Italy has Dante, which is probably a silly point anyway.
I'm really confused on this matter. Does anybody have thoughts on that? Is "poetic" expressiveness of a language measurable in some way? Or does this question simply make no sense at all? I'd love to discuss, if you're interested too. | askscience | {
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"It is widely accepted among linguists that all languages are equally expressive. This means that anything that can be expressed in one language *can* be expressed in another language. \n\nIt doesn't, however, mean that all languages are equally efficient at expressing the same things. In places where the climate is very cold, the language used might have lots of ways to describe different kinds snow. In places where it never snows, they might not even have a word for 'snow'. That doesn't mean 'snow' can't be expressed - it just takes more words ('cold white stuff that falls from the sky..' or whatever). But it *can* be expressed.\n\nChek out [r/linguistics](_URL_0_)",
"I Am Not A Linguist, and I misinterpreted your post, so all I can offer is this peripherally-related link to keep you occupied until the experts can weigh in:\n\n[A fascinating article on semantic density comparisons between languages](_URL_1_)\n\nAnd since that wasn't particularly helpful, I'll throw in an unscientific personal anecdote as well. I am bilingual (French and English), with French being my first language. Growing up, I also believed that French was more expressive. (Since French and Italian are both latin-based language, I think there are similarities that are applicable to this question. Both, for example, have fiendish complexity in conjugation options.)\n\nHowever, since then my fluency in English matched and then exceeded my French, because 99% of my communication since High School has been in English (I am 32). As a result of this, I am considerably more expressive in English, and I find myself constrained when speaking French.\n\nI think a significant contributor of what we deem to be \"expressiveness\" is probably a result of knowing a lot of synonyms to help describe emotions and characteristics with a greater sense of specificity. If you only know the English word for \"happy\", you will find it a poor language to express yourself in; but if you also know \"blissful\" and \"ecstatic\" and \"effervescent\", then you are better equipped.",
"As a fellow computer scientist, I wonder: do you mean to relate the expressiveness of a programming language with its grammar? Machine code has a regular grammar, but is more expressive than, say, simply-typed lambda calculus (which can't express non-terminating computations).\n\nCheck out Matthias Felleisen's [On the expressive power of programming languages](_URL_2_) for more.",
"This is a little odd. I'm also a computer scientist, and I asked almost exactly this question in r/linguistics a month ago. [The resulting discussion was pretty interesting](_URL_3_).",
"(I'm a linguistics student.)\n\nOther comments have already pointed out that the general consensus amongst linguists is that all languages are equally expressive.\n\nTo address your specific examples, having a boatload of verb conjugation does not make a language more expressive. It may mean that something is expressed through verb conjugation in one language, while it's expressed through maybe a pronoun in another language (e.g. Sp. *habl**o*** vs. Eng. ***I** speak*). Each language has its own way of doing things--subject dropping (like Spanish and Italian--dropping subjects is related to having all those verb conjugations) is not a *better* method than overt pronouns (like English), they're just two different ways to express something. When you add everything up, all languages do an equally good job at communication and expression in the end.\n\nSo, as you suspected, your feeling that Italian is more expressive than English is pure personal bias. Your knowledge of Italian is better than English, therefore you can express yourself better in Italian. Objectively, one is not more expressive than the other.\n\n\"Poetic\" expressiveness is not measurable since that's subjective. Any one poem will be a beautiful work of art to one person and utter nonsense to another. So the question doesn't make too much sense to me, no.\n\nAny language is able to express different nuances in meaning as well (which I'm guessing is what you mean by \"semantic richness\"?). Just not necessarily the *same* nuances (just like not all languages are equally expressive on one specific topic). If you want to go with lexicon size then English is the grand champion, and in English many shades of meaning are expressed through our vocabulary choice (there are a lot of words with the same basic meaning but different nuances--compare *ask* and *inquire*, for example). But again, English or Italian or whichever language is not more nuanced than other languages.",
"I think a concept like \"poetic expressiveness\" is a little too vague to define. For example, an English-speaking person may find the phrase \"strong as an ox\" to be very expressive, while a Chinese person may find the equivalent phrase 九牛二虎 (literally 9 cattle 2 tigers - means strong as an ox) to be very expressive. The phrases are basically equivalent, yet I'm sure a native of either language could make the case that *theirs* is more expressive.",
"Appealing to the computer science side, not all Turing-complete programming languages are equally [[practically](_URL_4_)] expressive. The untyped λ-calculus is more expressive than the simply typed λ-calculus with recursion, because it admits e.g. the Y-combinator as a term.\n\nBeing a native speaker of Russian and English (and having studied French and lojban), I have noticed certain things being easier to say in one language than in another (the biggest one that comes to mind is a lack of difference between a restrictive relative phrase and an incidental relative phrase in any of the three natural languages).",
"All languages are equally expressive in that they can all express anything a human could think of. Granted, not all languages have words for everything, but this is easily remedied by borrowing words from other languages or creating neologisms.",
"something relevant to this context could be \"Lojban\" _URL_5_\nit is essentially a language created to be syntactically unambiguous´thus eliminating misunderstandings in communication"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://reddit.com/r/linguistics",
"http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2091477,00.html",
"http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=138493",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/linguistics/comments/j65tn/are_all_languages_really_equally_expressive/",
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Expressivity_%28computer_science%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lojban"
]
} | are human languages all equally expressive, and what can "expressive" mean in this context?
Hey guys, I'm a Computer Scientist, so to me languages are all equally expressive as long as they have an alphabet and context-free grammar, because then you can express really whatever you want just by freely combining terms of the alphabet. When it comes to expressiveness in terms of semantic richness, like in poetry or music, maybe, I don't think that just "being able to express whatever" is a sufficient condition to declare that all languages are equally expressive. For example, I'm Italian and, probably biased by my not perfect English (i.e. not native), I think that my language is *more* expressive than English is, because of the much more ways in which we can conjugate our verbs, for instance. But still, English has Shakespeare as much as Italy has Dante, which is probably a silly point anyway. I'm really confused on this matter. Does anybody have thoughts on that? Is "poetic" expressiveness of a language measurable in some way? Or does this question simply make no sense at all? I'd love to discuss, if you're interested too. | [
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|
oob88 | What exactly is an analog computer and how do they work? | I have been reading up on this trying to understand it but I still don't get how something like [this](_URL_0_) would work. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3iseb5",
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"c3iscnw",
"c3ir3im",
"c3itcqt"
],
"text": [
"The computer described in the comic is a 1 dimensional [cellular automaton](_URL_1_), specifically one called [Rule 110](_URL_2_). (note the pattern of triangles is similar to that of the ones in the comic) It is actually an extraordinarily simple digital computation engine. Towards the end of the article you can see how it can be made to act like a computer that can perform operations on a string of bits.\n\nThe rules are like so: lay out an initial row of stones in the top row of a grid, this is where you input the beginning state of the machine. For the next row down, take each square and consider the 3 squares just above it in the original row (above, above and left, above and right). Leave the space blank if the above squares are all full, all empty, or if there is only a rock in the above-left square. Otherwise put a stone there. That's it. That's enough for a [*universal*](_URL_3_) computation machine, given that you have enough rocks and time.\n\nThis is possible because there are a few patterns that propagate reliably through such a system, and these can be exploited to perform computations. It turns out that you actually need to start with an infinite pattern for them to work forever, but since the signal can only travel a maximum of one space left or right for every space you go down, you can make the grid wide enough to finish a computation before the edges of the grid mess up the middle. \n\nIt's not currently known if the true laws of physics are actually computable, but you could surely make the simulation close enough that it would look very much like our kind of universe. Which may or may not be the same thing as that universe existing in the same way ours does. (hmm...)\n\nBtw a [slide rule](_URL_0_) is an example of a computer that is actually analog. It gives results by matching two lines on some sticks and reading the answer from another part of the stick, so it doesn't perform operations on bits of data.",
"The linked example is actually a digital not an analog computer. The idea in that comic isn't that complicated. A digital computer keeps track of 1s and 0s as electric current and based on those does operations to them. Well, there's no reason you can't do something similar with stones, say having a stone by itself represent a 0 and having a pair of stones represent a 1. Now, you can then follow through and do everything single operation to move the stones just like a computer would. If one is patient and follows through the detailed instructions (in your comic the person is a very bored immortal), you could run any calculation a computer could run.",
"The people calling the thing in the comic a Turing machine are mistaken.\n\nIt's actually a giant 1 dimensional [cellular automaton](_URL_4_).\n\nFor a Turing machine, you'd need a gigantic shopping cart full of rocks and you'd just walk back and forth along the same line, adding ~~and~~ or removing one rock at a time.\n\nWith a cellular automaton, there's no pointer moving back and forth. Rather, on each tick of the clock (represented by each new row of rocks in the comic) the entire system is updated at once.\n\n**edit:** fixed the link syntax, minor grammar tweaks",
"A computer is basically any device or method which can satisfy or solve a complicated inquiry or problem faster than a human brain would be able to figure out. See a [slide rule](_URL_5_), for a good example.",
"I would like to add to what others have said by saying that you have touched on what is perhaps the most amazing hypothesis in all of computer science. We believe that *anything* that can be computed by a regular series of steps can be computed by a simple little device know as a Turing Machine. The \"machine\" given in the linked comic isn't a Turing Machine, but it is equally as powerful. \n\nThis means that anything that could be done with a fancy new computer could be done using pen and paper and lots of time. In fact, if the conjecture is true, anything that could be done on *any* machine could be done using pen and paper and lots of time."
],
"score": [
5,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://xkcd.com/505/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_110",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_computation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule"
]
} | What exactly is an analog computer and how do they work?
I have been reading up on this trying to understand it but I still don't get how something like [this](_URL_0_) would work. | [
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|
5jkcgg | Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away!
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"dbj2hwn",
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"dbi40pr",
"dbjgkhk",
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],
"text": [
"Hi, I'm a first year Mechanical Engineering undergraduate, and I was just wondering how much of a part creativity plays in a career within the field. Is this creativity something you get better at as your career moves on? What is your creative process when presented with a problem? Having just been introduced to the discipline of engineering drawing, is this not a very constricted way of communicating ideas within for example a team of engineers of different specialisms or is it something you can be fluent at?",
"My mechanical watch weighs 172 grams. It is rated to withstand a shock of 5000 g forces. From how high can i drop it onto a concrete surface without exceeding 5000 g's ?",
"What mathematical conjecture would have the most impact if proven tomorrow? And why would this be the case",
"I understand how limits work for discrete sequences and series. Comparison tests, integral tests, and so on.\n\nHowever, what if my object isn't a linear sequence? What if I have a tree-like structure, where each element spawns n more? What if some branches of the tree converge to some value, some converge to another, and yet others diverge? What mathematical tools can I use to talk about the behaviour of such an object?",
"the lab i attend is only starting and wants to test how hard the food the company produces is. we've been doing it by hand for over a year and then just rating it, but how would we go about calculating it?\nit's a soft cheese.\n\ni don't think a durometer would work sadly.",
"Why can I feel the electrical current in my ceiling fan chain? Is this dangerous? Should I call an electrician?",
"How will quantum computers affect current programming languages. Will they be the same, altered or completely rewritten?"
],
"score": [
10,
4,
4,
3,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3exo6p/askscience_panel_of_scientists_xiii/"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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1vvljt | What happens to the individual protons in a patient inside an MRI machine when an RF pulse is applied? | This problem has had me stumped for a while now. I'll start by telling what I do understand.
When a patient is placed in an MRI machine, his protons align to the external magnetic field along the Z axis. This produces a "net vector" in the patient. These protons are precessing about the Z axis, most of them parallel and a few of them antiparallel. This difference between parallel and antiparallel results in a net vector pointing in the Z axis in the positive direction. This is known as the longitudinal magnetization.
Since the precessing protons are not in phase, even though they have individual transverse magnetization vectors, the net magnetization vector has no transverse component or precession since they all cancel out each other.
This would be the equilibrium state where M0 = Mz, and Mx = My = zero. (M0 is the net vector, Mx, My and Mz are the components of the vector in the three axes.)
Now let's say an RF pulse is applied, that flips this net vector by an angle of 90 degrees and brings it to the X axis. The net vector is now pointing in the X axis. Why does that happen?
1. Is is just because the protons are now precessing in phase and therefore not cancelling out each others' transverse magnetic components?
2. Or is it also because the individual protons have flipped and aligned themselves along the x axis?
The books I have consulted mention that after an RF pulse, the number of antiparallel protons increases and causes the longitudinal vector to drop from M0 to zero and that protons start precessing in phase which causes net transverse component to increase from 0 to M0. What they don't explain is whether the individual protons also flip into the x axis.
Because (and this is what is confusing me) it seems impossible that you can flip M0 from the Z to X axis by decreasing longitudinal vector to 0 (by increasing antiparallel protons) and increasing transverse vector to M0 (by producing phase coherence) when they are two independent processes. What's more is that you can't measure M0 when it is in the Z axis so how would you know how much phase coherence to produce in order to get Mx to rise to M0 strength.
I apologize in advance if the text above is confusing. I'm a student of Radiology and physics and complex mathematics are not really my forte. But I like to get into a little basic understanding of concepts of the things I have to learn and this question has been bugging me for a while. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"See, @thetripp's explanation for an answer of your other questions. I just want to highlight one misconception here:\n\n > These protons are precessing about the Z axis, most of them parallel and a few of them antiparallel.\n\nThis is a common misconception. In actuality the number of protons aligned vs anti-aligned to the magnetic field tends to be around 50:50. The magnetic field creates a slight excess population in the aligned state, but this is a very small number compared to the total number of atoms, we're talking about 50.00001% vs 49.99999%. You can actually calculate this differential for different conditions (temperature, magnetic field strength, etc.) but it's always very, very small compared to the total population at magnetic field strengths achievable with human technology.",
"I always tell people that the more you dig into the physics of MRI, the more complicated it gets. This question is a good example of that.\n\nWhen you look at individual protons under an RF pulse, the motion just becomes more complex. The \"main\" magnetization (B0) causes the protons to precess about the z-axis. The RF pulse essentially creates a secondary field (B1) which causes the protons to also precess about a different axis (in the xy plane). This motion (precession about two orthogonal axes) is called \"nutation.\"\n\nMy understanding is that if you calculate the net magnetization under this motion, what you get is a vector that points somewhere in the xy plane (for a 90º pulse). I've been looking at google image search results for \"nutation\" but I can't quite make sense of it either.",
"I would echo what /u/thetripp says - the more you dig, the messier it gets. It becomes especially headache-inducing if you start trying to mix the (mostly) classical approach with the quantum approach. \n\nI'd suggest checking out [this website](_URL_0_) to start, and ponder on that GIF animation of how the net magnetization arises and then evolves under RF irradiation (it's a full 360 degree pulse that is simulated, in case you don't catch that, so it ends where it starts).",
"Don't think about it as two separate processes like that. Those processes describe more individual components of the process, rather than a more intuitive, holistic view. It's like if you're traveling North, and you follow a curve to go East, you _can_ break it down to say you're decreasing the northbound vector while increasing the eastbound vector, or you can say you're rotating the velocity vector.\n\nLikewise, here, instead of breaking it down into two processes - increasing antiparallel protons and producing phase coherence - you should view it as a rotation of _all_ magnetic moments. The classical view of it is that the net magnetization behaves just like any other magnetic moment, so if you apply a net field B0+B1 that has a transverse component, it will begin to precess about that field vector and gain a transverse component. With the right field strength and right duration, the net magnetization will lie completely on the transverse plane.\n\nWith regards to producing phase coherence, think about it this way: M0 _already_ has \"phase coherence\" in the sense that the longitudinal component is non-zero. When you rotate the net magnetization onto the transverse plane, that's where it \"gained\" phase coherence. Viewing it as a rotation eliminates the apparent need for an \"intelligent\" way of increasing phase coherence.\n\nThe simplest way I can think of in helping you visualize this is imagine you have a sphere. You put dots on the sphere to represent individual magnetic moments of protons. The density of dots are actually pretty uniform across the surface, but because of the applied field, you should draw slightly more dots on the Northern hemisphere than the Southern hemisphere, to reflect the population difference. Now spin this sphere along the North-South axis - that's your normal, equilibrium state, where all magnetic moments are precessing about B0. Introduce a new spin about a transverse axis, and you'll end up turning the North-South axis onto the transverse plane. The population difference is still the same between the two hemispheres - except now the net magnetization is on the transverse plane."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.drcmr.dk/MR"
]
} | What happens to the individual protons in a patient inside an MRI machine when an RF pulse is applied?
This problem has had me stumped for a while now. I'll start by telling what I do understand. When a patient is placed in an MRI machine, his protons align to the external magnetic field along the Z axis. This produces a "net vector" in the patient. These protons are precessing about the Z axis, most of them parallel and a few of them antiparallel. This difference between parallel and antiparallel results in a net vector pointing in the Z axis in the positive direction. This is known as the longitudinal magnetization. Since the precessing protons are not in phase, even though they have individual transverse magnetization vectors, the net magnetization vector has no transverse component or precession since they all cancel out each other. This would be the equilibrium state where M0 = Mz, and Mx = My = zero. (M0 is the net vector, Mx, My and Mz are the components of the vector in the three axes.) Now let's say an RF pulse is applied, that flips this net vector by an angle of 90 degrees and brings it to the X axis. The net vector is now pointing in the X axis. Why does that happen? 1. Is is just because the protons are now precessing in phase and therefore not cancelling out each others' transverse magnetic components? 2. Or is it also because the individual protons have flipped and aligned themselves along the x axis? The books I have consulted mention that after an RF pulse, the number of antiparallel protons increases and causes the longitudinal vector to drop from M0 to zero and that protons start precessing in phase which causes net transverse component to increase from 0 to M0. What they don't explain is whether the individual protons also flip into the x axis. Because (and this is what is confusing me) it seems impossible that you can flip M0 from the Z to X axis by decreasing longitudinal vector to 0 (by increasing antiparallel protons) and increasing transverse vector to M0 (by producing phase coherence) when they are two independent processes. What's more is that you can't measure M0 when it is in the Z axis so how would you know how much phase coherence to produce in order to get Mx to rise to M0 strength. I apologize in advance if the text above is confusing. I'm a student of Radiology and physics and complex mathematics are not really my forte. But I like to get into a little basic understanding of concepts of the things I have to learn and this question has been bugging me for a while. | [
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149848 | AskScience Panel of Scientists VII | **Calling all scientists!**
The previous thread is archived, but available for viewing [here](_URL_0_). If you are already on the panel - no worries - you'll stay! This thread is for **new** panelist recruitment!
**Please make a comment to this thread to join our panel of scientists. (click the reply button) **
The panel is an informal group of Redditors who are professional scientists (or plan on becoming one, with at least a **graduate-level familiarity** with the field of their choice).
You may want to join the panel if you:
* Are a research scientist, or are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences.
* Are able to write about your field at a layman's level as well as at a level comfortable to your colleagues and peers (depending on who's asking the question)
You're still reading? Excellent! Please reply to this thread with the following:
* Choose **one** general field from the side-bar. If you have multiple specialties, you still have to choose one.
* State your specific field (neuropathology, quantum chemistry, etc.)
* List your particular area of research (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in Parkinsons patients, etc.)
* Give us a synopsis of your education: have you been a post-doctoral research scientist for three decades, or are you a first-year PhD student?
* Link us to one or two comments you've made in /r/AskScience, which *you* feel are indicative of your scholarship. If you haven't commented yet, then please wait to apply. We'd prefer it if the comments have a reference, so we can more easily check if it's B.S. without specific domain knowledge.
We're not going to do background checks - we're just asking for Reddit's best behavior here. The information you provide will be used to compile a list of our panel members and what subject areas they'll be "responsible" for.
The reason I'm asking for comments to this post is that I'll get a little orange envelope from each of you, which will help me keep track of the whole thing. These official threads are also here for book-keeping: the other moderators and I can check what your claimed credentials are, and can take action if it becomes clear you're bullshitting us.
*Addendum:* Please don't give us too much of your personal details. We don't need it, we don't even want it; please be careful and maintain your reddit/internet privacy. Thanks!
**Bonus points!** Here's a good chance to discover people that share your interests! And if you're interested in something, you probably have questions about it, so you can get started with that in /r/AskScience. Membership in the panel will also give you access to the panel subreddit, where the scientists can discuss among themselves, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators can talk specifically to the panel as a whole. | askscience | {
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"Mathematics | Numerical linear algebra/Numerical analysis\n\n* I work in developing and applying regularization theory for discrete ill-posed problems (and inverse problems in general). This is in application to mostly aerospace engineering and biomedical engineering problems, though I'm working in an advisory capacity on problems related to numerical simulation in other areas (such as chemical physics). I work for an agency of the U.S. federal government.\n\n* I received my PhD in mathematics this year, and have worked in this field for my employer at the MSc level for about 4 years.\n\n* I'm co-inventor on a pending utility patent for a biomedical digital signal processing technology.\n\n* I taught a mix of college level mathematics courses for about 2 years during my graduate studies.\n\n* Aside from linear algebra, I still have an academic interest in pure mathematics (mostly functional analysis and number theory). I have a pretty solid background in both applied statistics and mathematical statistics. \n\nOn Reddit, I tend to lurk more than comment; though this has started to change. \n_URL_0_",
"Here's mine:\n\nGeneral field: Neuroscience.\n\nSpecific field: Cognitive neuroscience (work in a Psychology department but degree is in Neuroscience)\n\nParticular area of research: Executive function, e.g., working memory and attention (using fMRI/EEG/behavioral research methods)\n\nSynopsis: 2 years as a research assistant, received PhD after 6 years (from a top-tier USA school) in 2011, currently in second year of an assistant professorship overseas\n\nComments: Some of my (subjectively) better although not most-upvoted:\n\n* [On tinnitus](_URL_4_)\n* [On insects feeling pain](_URL_4_)\n* [On what neuropsychiatry is](_URL_4_)\n* [On what heritability means](_URL_4_)",
"I'll have a go at this.\n\n\nComputing|Cyber Security|Cryptography\n\n\nI'm working on my MS in Cyber Security currently and I'm not finished because I've been actively working in that capacity full time for more than 9 years now. I do have my Security+ certification and I'm working toward my CISSP and CEH simultaneously. All this work has been in the realm of national defense and the government doesn't require higher level certifications or graduate degrees with my skillset, so I simply work on all of that in my spare time. \n\n\n[Here's an example of helping on a computing question just recently, though it's not in my realm of cyber security.](_URL_5_)\n\n\n*Formatting",
"* General Field: Engineering\n\n* Specific Field: Biomedical Engineering, Tissue Engineering\n \n* Particular Area of Research: Cartilage Tissue Engineering, Application of Mechanical Forces, Chondrocyte Metabolism.\n\n* I have a PhD in Mechanical Engineering (Biomedical/Tissue Eng). First year post-doc in another engineering related field.\n\n* [Reply to surface area affecting friction](_URL_7_)\n\n* [Reply to the need for warm-up prior to physical activity](_URL_6_)",
"Hi, \n\ncurrently a 2nd year PhD student in chemistry hoping for a research career. I specialize in materials chemistry, my current research being in materials for nuclear waste remediation.\n \nSome of my posting history;\n[one](_URL_9_),\n[two] (_URL_10_), [three]\n(_URL_8_)",
"General field: (Materials) Physics\n\nSpecific field: solid state condensed matter\n\nParticular area: sample synthesis, magnetism and superconductivity\n\nI have had my PhD for about 4 months, currently working as a postdoc\n\nApparently no one asks about my field:\n\n/r/AskScience:\n\n[structure of gas giants](_URL_12_)\n\n[parent was deleted, but I was answering a question about interstellar travel and whether there could be galactic level extinction events](_URL_16_)\n\n[universality of scientific principles](_URL_11_)\n\n/r/science:\n\n[empirical adequacy](_URL_14_)\n\n/r/astrophysics:\n\n['dense regions' in astronomy terms](_URL_15_)\n\n/r/Physics \n\n#[scientific theory validation](_URL_13_)\n\nEDIT: fixed my lazy links",
"Engineering:Electrical Engineering:Semiconductor Manufacturing/Reliability \n \nBSEE; over 20 years experience in the semiconductor industry; graduate level coursework in reliability engineering. \n \n_URL_18_\n\n_URL_19_ \n \n_URL_17_\n \nEDIT: Added a better link (1st one).",
"Computer Science\n\nEmbedded Firmware / RTOS\n\nI'm a software/firmware engineer with close to 10 years experience designing custom real time operating systems (RTOS) for handheld professional test and measurement equipment in the fiber optic field. I am proficient in C/C++, Java, VB (w/ .NET) and assembly. I have a BS in computer science with plans for my MS (waiting on my employer...)\n\nI haven't been here long and I only have 1 comment so far in /r/askScience that I believe demonstrates my knowledge of this field (though many others relating to theoretical physics, which is a hobby of mine), top comment in that thread:\n\n_URL_22_\n\nIf you absolutely have to have two I guess this would be the second one:\n\n_URL_20_\n\nThis comment also supports that I am who I say I am:\n\n_URL_21_",
"* General field: Physics\n* Specific field: Nanoscience | Quantum information\n* Area of research: Spin qubits in GaAs quantum dots\n* Recently started my _URL_24_. programme. I have a bachelor degree in nanoscience. \n* Example post: [Response to someone requesting an ELI5 about Pauli blockade](_URL_23_)",
"Physics | Nanophotonics | Silicon Optoelectronics\n\nI am working on a PhD in this field. \n\n[This](_URL_25_) is in /r/science, but it's a pretty good indication of my photonics background. [This](_URL_26_) is in /r/askscience and is an indication of my physics background.",
"Sorry if this is irrelevant - but if you ever decide you have space for an (assistant) geneticist - I'm nearing the end of my BSc (Hons) in the topic! UK University - so one specialism (no majors/minors). Particular interests are human genetic disorders and development.\n\nI'm currently writing my undergraduate thesis on the viability of using C. elegans as a model for human genetic disorders with particular focus on Malignant Hyperthermia and caffeine susceptibility (a brand new topic which has never been assessed before, my paper is the first!)\n\nI say this because I've noticed a fair few inheritance/development based questions which end up typically being answered by biochemists and biologists with knowledge of the field but no particular specialism!\n\nIn the meantime, keep doing what you're doing, this subreddit is one of my favourites!",
"* Engineering\n* Solid state/Semiconductor Physics\n* MBE growth specialising in Quantum Dots and their properties\n* Also well versed in plasma-physics [(patent on HDP-CVD)](_URL_27_) and TEM.\n* 3rd Year PhD research student\n\nMy degree is very practical, I'm not sure where to place it. My undergraduate degree is in Electronic Engineering, and I'm still within the Electronic Engineering dept, but I deal with low dimensional physics and quantisation of carriers in semiconductors, as well as the applications of the varying structures I grow on the MBE reactors I use (single photon detectors, quantum cascade lasers, VCSELs etc etc etc)\n\nI'd like to be involved but I don't know how much the quantum world is called into question? Either way, this is me!\n\nedit: I accidentally a word",
"General Field: Physics\n\nSpecific Field: High Energy Physics, Theoretical Physics\n\nResearch Areas: Scattering, Strings, Elementary School Science (I also teach elementary school science...didn't know how to work this in.)\n\nEducation: Currently 3rd year of a PhD program in physics. Already have a masters degree in physics and bachelors degrees in mathematics and physics.\n\n(Having trouble with linking, so sorry about the lengthy reply below)\n\nHere (_URL_30_) is one of my comments discussing the movement of electrons.\n\nHere (_URL_29_)is one of my comments explaining why certain political philosophies are fundamentally against basic science research. (blue sky research)\n\nHere (_URL_28_) is a comment referring the reader to some texts/papers to get more knowledge about and advanced subject.",
"Yo.\nPhysics|Complex Systems|Biophysics|Nonlinear Dynamics|Computational Physics\nI am near the end of my doctoral degree in physics, having received my MS already. I specialize in evolutionary dynamics where I apply nonlinear dynamics and statistical mechanics to simulated phenotypic evolution. The main focus of related physics problems is in percolation phase transitions. I have also done some research on neuron models and neural networks. I haven't had much chance to comment on things exactly related to my subfield, but [here](_URL_32_) and [here](_URL_31_) are my two physics related contributions thus far in /r/AskScience. I have many more in a few other similar subreddits.",
"- *General Field:* Engineering\n- *Specific Field:* Simulation/CAE/Software\n- *Research:* IC Engine Combustion Simulation\n- *Education:* M.S. Mech.Engr. 2000. 12 years developing software for scientific computation\n\nI looked through my posting history and noticed that I've seldom made posts related to my educational field (engineering):\n\n- _URL_35_\n- _URL_33_\n\nMost seem to be more about computing:\n\n- _URL_36_\n- _URL_34_\n\nSo perhaps 'Engineering' is the wrong field, or perhaps I don't belong on the panel. If I haven't made more in-field contributions in the first two years, it seems unlikely that I will in the future.",
"General field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific field: Neuroendocrinology\n\nArea of research: Endocrine interactions in cognitive aging\n\nEducation: BA in Biology in Neuroscience, currently a sixth-year PhD student in a Behavioral Neuroscience program\n\nA couple of comments: [1](_URL_38_), and [2](_URL_37_)\n\nNo one seems to ask much about DHEA or aromatase (my pet projects), but once they do I will be in my element. Other members of my lab work a lot on circadian rhythms which tend to be a popular topic around here, so I've found that to be my most common contribution.",
"Here's my application:\nGeneral Field: Engineering\n\nSpecific Field: Semiconductor Process Engineering; I specifically have the most expertise in chemical mechanical planarization but have to work with other process modules quite a bit since the company I work for makes tools for nearly every process in a semiconductor fab.\n\nEducation: I only have a BS, but have several years of work experience in the industry.\n\nComment 1: _URL_40_\n\nComment 2: _URL_39_\n(I think the whole comment series here is nicely representative.)",
"I'm a first year PhD student, with a bachelors in Medical Genetics.\n\nGeneral Field: Medicine\n\nSpecific Field: Endocrinology and Metabolism\n\nArea of Research: Potential therapeutic use of metformin to prevent obese maternal programming of metabolic dysfunction susceptibility in their offspring during pregnancy. \n\nA couple of comments. My specific field doesn't come up too often(!), but I do like discourse on diabetes and obesity questions.\n\n - [role of fetal programming 1](_URL_42_)\n - [role of fetal programming 2](_URL_41_)",
"Love this sub, and would love to contribute more.\n\n* Physics / Computational Neurology / Modeling of Auditory Cortex\n\n* Currently a 3rd year PhD student in physics, doing research in a systems neuroscience lab.\n\nExamples of answers in askscience:\n\n* [Explanation of refraction at the quantum level](_URL_45_)\n\n* [Why we don't feel the Sun's pull](_URL_44_)\n\n* [Why energy is still conserved in a double-slit experiment](_URL_46_)\n\n* [Why frequency decomposition does not make speech-recognition easy](_URL_43_)",
"Microbiology - \n\n- Specialties: Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Infectious Disease, Laboratory Informatics\n\n- Education: Bachelor's of Science in Medical Technology\n\n- Certification: Medical Technologist (ASCP) and Specialist in Microbiology (ASCP)^CM\n\n- Co-authored and presented 4 posters at 3 national conventions (available on request, but will take a little digging to find).\n\n- Links to comments: \n\n > [Bacterial Vaginosis](_URL_49_)\n\n > [Pneumocystis pneumoniae](_URL_48_)\n\n > [False positive pregnancy tests](_URL_47_)",
"Well this is going to be fun!\n\nGeneral field: Computer science\nParticular field: Network traffic analysis, modelling and generation. Side dish of studying user behavior.\n\nI am a fresh post-doc (6 months). I got a PhD on studying network traffic of Wolrd of Warcraft. I have posted most comments in gaming forums and not on ask sience as i study games. Here is one [recent](_URL_50_).",
"Physics (with theoretical physics as a sub field if you want). I have an M. Sc. and [here](_URL_51_) is a comment I just made for my application, as all my others are drowned out in my recent history by comments on other subreddits so I couldn't find them back right away :)",
"Is the panel in need of any economics/marketing/business panelists? I have a BComm and and MBA in Operational efficiency and socio environmental responsibility.",
"PhD- Chemical/ Biochemical Engineering focusing in protein engineering. Am NSF postdoctoral fellow doing protein engineering at small company",
"i notice that you don't have an astro guy - i can be that guy.\n\ni'm just starting a second postdoc. i did my phd in the netherlands, working on the evolution of galaxies over ~80-90 % of the history of the universe. now i'm working on censuses of the relatively nearby universe, and trying to establish a new picture for how galaxies evolve. i just got a three-year grant to pioneer a new way of measuring the dark matter around individual galaxies, which i humbly believe is going to be a pretty big deal.\n\ni haven't yet been a big contributor to r/askscience, but i see this as a great opportunity to start.\n\nhere are some comments i've made in r/askscience, r/science, and r/astronomy. no big karma, but i'm australian, and i miss the big American traffic time. i'm trying to show the quality and care of comments.\n\n* [/R/astronomy, do you get paid to do what I love?](_URL_55_)\n\n* [/r/astronomy Why are we not placing radio telescopes at L-4 L-5 Earth Sun or Earth Moon orbits for as big a receiver as possible?](_URL_52_)\n\n* [/r/askscience Why does light travel at the speed it does? and what is the mechanism which propels it at this speed?](_URL_58_)\n\n* [/r/askscience Question about the Higgs Boson](_URL_54_)\n\n* [/r/science Unexplained new 'species' of ultra-red galaxy discovered almost 13 billion light-years from Earth](_URL_53_)\n\n* [/r/askscience Could someone explain why we only recently found out neutrinos are possibly faster than light when years ago it was already theorized and observed neutrinos from a supernova arrived hours before the visible supernova?](_URL_57_) - see followup comment, too.\n\n* [/r/astronomy NASA and a lot of observatories use false color to highlight features... so what would we see if we imaged everything in just visible light? Would the universe suddenly appear muddy and dark?](_URL_56_)\n\nlike i say, i may not be your ideal candidate, but i think i can fill an important hole (snicker) in the expertise of the panel, given the volunteers appearing here.\n\nlemme know; my fingers are crossed.",
"Well, I've noticed a lack in the social sciences. Maybe I could be a little bit of help.\n\nOfficially, I would fit best under:\n\nPsychology| Legal psychology| Eyewitness testimonies, lie detection (cognitive load specifically), false confessions, and trial consulting. \n\nMy bachelor's is in Psychology, minor in Economics. Spent a year performing research at a top psych/law graduate school, and am now earning my Ph.D (though that is in Criminology, so feel free to ask any Crim questions too!). If I am unable to answer, I have access to many people who certainly could. \n\nI have commented elsewhere regarding these topics, as there is almost never any legal-related topics here. [This comment](_URL_60_) should show a little knowledge, along with [this comment](_URL_61_)\n\nI also contribute to r/psychlaw, though that is pretty much defunct now. If you are looking for more of a psychology person, I can hopefully help there, though again, I am more social psychology. [Here's a comment](_URL_59_) discussing introspection.\n\nCheers!",
"> Are a research scientist, or are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences.\n\nI'm a scientist, but not MS or Ph.D. I'll throw my creds in the ring anyway.\n\nEngineering: Materials Science: Technical Ceramics \n\nJunior level Engineer on a variety of research projects including molecular sieves, fuel cells, heat exchangers, and ceramic/composite joining. I've published/presented several papers on these topics.\n\nBachelors in Materials Science & Engineering, 5+ years professional work.\n\n-We call it re-search because if we didn't have to do it over and over again, we'd just call it search.",
"Okay, I'll bite:\n\nGeneral field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific field: Cognitive neuroscience/psychology\n\nParticulars: Emotion processing, particularly looking at how the neural system supporting this function is altered by someone's genetics or using common psychiatric drugs (hello, escitalopram)\n\nEducation: Completed a bachelor's degree in psychology with a bit of RA/TA work on the side, and am about to submit/defend my PhD thesis in neuroscience.\n\nRoyal sampler of comments:\n\n* [Fresh one on sensory perception.](_URL_63_)\n* [Reflexes.](_URL_62_)",
"Here's mine:\n\n* General field: Psychology\n* Specific field: Radical Behaviorism\n* Particular area of research: Reduction of SIB in those with ASDs and other DDs\n* Synopsis: I'm a Board Certified Behavior Analyst, and I received my MA, specifically in behavior analysis (not just an emphasis) from a top-tier program in the world for the subject\n* Comments:\n* [Why absence makes the heart grow fonder](_URL_64_)\n* [Why fecal smearing happens](_URL_65_)",
"Hey there, I'd like to help out where I can.\n\nGeneral Field: Physics\n\nSpecific Field: I'm still reading at undergraduate level, but my degree scheme is Theoretical Physics with Computational Physics.\n\nNowhere near as qualified as many of the other posts here but I have a good idea of what I do have a good understanding of and what I don't. [Here is an example](_URL_66_) of one of my /r/askscience answers.",
"I am a biologist specializing in genetics, immunology, and development. My main reseach area is in immunolgical and genetic characteristics of amphibian populations exposed to varying environmental stress. I am in my first year as an assistant professor; my doctorate is in genetics with a heavy molecular/cellular immunology slant and I did a 2 year post-doc in salamander development/regeneration.\n\n[On evolution of gametes](_URL_67_)\n\n[On inflammation](_URL_68_)",
"Computing | Computer Architecture | Multicore Memory Systems and Distributed Operating Systems\n\nAreas of Research (w publications):\n\n * Distributed operating systems on multicore.\n * Parallel network stacks (eg TCP).\n * Multicore cache architecture.\n * Parallel architecture simulators.\n\nEducation:\n\n * MS, BS\n * 5th year PhD\n\nComments:\n\n_URL_72_\n\n_URL_71_\n\n_URL_69_\n\n_URL_73_\n\n(outside my main field) _URL_70_",
"Astronomy | Stars and Planets | Numerical Simulations\n\nI'm a second year _URL_79_. student. My _URL_76_. is in Physics and Physical Oceanography, and my _URL_79_. is in Physics and Astronomy. \n\nSome comments:\n\n[Can planets be stars?](_URL_78_)\n\n[Planet transit probabilites](_URL_75_)\n\n[More on planet detection](_URL_77_)\n\n[Is andromeda still there?](_URL_74_)\n\nEdit: Skipped with no explanation? ;-;",
"It's a pity there isn't flair like \"Guy who really likes planes\" or \"Artilleryman who knows a lot about ballistics\" or \"Dude who knows a little bit about a whole bunch of things\" or some other such flair for non scientists. That would possibly add more interest to discussions.",
"Biochemist, specifically Chemical Biologist / Analytical Chemist.\nSpecific area of research : analyzing electrophilic modification of proteins and nucleic acids and their links to inflammatory related disease.\nPh.D. is in Biochemistry (2010); M.S. in Physiology (2005)\nCurrently in 2nd year of postdoc in world renowned laboratory (in US).",
"Here's my info:\n\nGeneral: Biology\nSpecific: Medical microbiology\nResearch: molecular pathogenesis of human and animal fungal pathogens\nEducation: PhD in Microbiology, immunology and cancer biology, currently a post-doctoral fellow, total of 7 years research experience\nComments:\n1) [warts!](_URL_81_)\n2) [DNA testing](_URL_80_)",
"I am Medicine, Cellular Biology, and Molecular Biology\n\n* NYS EMT (Basic, the Critical Care) for 6 years\n* Bachelor of Science in Cell and Molecular Biology\n* Medical Student OMS I, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine\n(_URL_82_)",
"Neuroscience | Cognitive Neuroscience\n\n- time perception (using EEG)\n\n- I've got my Ms. degree this year\n\nComments:\n\n- [exercise & depression](_URL_83_)\n\n- [fMRI bloodflow] (_URL_84_)"
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} | AskScience Panel of Scientists VII
**Calling all scientists!** The previous thread is archived, but available for viewing [here](_URL_0_). If you are already on the panel - no worries - you'll stay! This thread is for **new** panelist recruitment! **Please make a comment to this thread to join our panel of scientists. (click the reply button) ** The panel is an informal group of Redditors who are professional scientists (or plan on becoming one, with at least a **graduate-level familiarity** with the field of their choice). You may want to join the panel if you: * Are a research scientist, or are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences. * Are able to write about your field at a layman's level as well as at a level comfortable to your colleagues and peers (depending on who's asking the question) You're still reading? Excellent! Please reply to this thread with the following: * Choose **one** general field from the side-bar. If you have multiple specialties, you still have to choose one. * State your specific field (neuropathology, quantum chemistry, etc.) * List your particular area of research (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in Parkinsons patients, etc.) * Give us a synopsis of your education: have you been a post-doctoral research scientist for three decades, or are you a first-year PhD student? * Link us to one or two comments you've made in /r/AskScience, which *you* feel are indicative of your scholarship. If you haven't commented yet, then please wait to apply. We'd prefer it if the comments have a reference, so we can more easily check if it's B.S. without specific domain knowledge. We're not going to do background checks - we're just asking for Reddit's best behavior here. The information you provide will be used to compile a list of our panel members and what subject areas they'll be "responsible" for. The reason I'm asking for comments to this post is that I'll get a little orange envelope from each of you, which will help me keep track of the whole thing. These official threads are also here for book-keeping: the other moderators and I can check what your claimed credentials are, and can take action if it becomes clear you're bullshitting us. *Addendum:* Please don't give us too much of your personal details. We don't need it, we don't even want it; please be careful and maintain your reddit/internet privacy. Thanks! **Bonus points!** Here's a good chance to discover people that share your interests! And if you're interested in something, you probably have questions about it, so you can get started with that in /r/AskScience. Membership in the panel will also give you access to the panel subreddit, where the scientists can discuss among themselves, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators can talk specifically to the panel as a whole. | [
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|
2ueuuk | Why can't you tie an "anti-knot"? | If you tie a knot on a string, why is it impossible to tie a second knot that undoes the first?
Edit: Thanks everyone for you insightful and informative responses! I think I understand the reasoning now, and have a good idea of where to look for more info on the subject. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"co7xm55",
"co7uzfc",
"co7wehn"
],
"text": [
"I'll ask (and answer) a related question. Suppose you start with a string and first tie a knot K in the string, then tie a knot J on another part of the string. Finally, you close up the endpoints of the string so that it forms a single closed path. In mathematics, we call the resulting knot the [connected sum](_URL_2_) of K and J, and denote it K#J. So let's ask an approximation of your question in this setting.\n\n**Question:** Is it possible that both K and J are non-trivial knots, while K#J is trivial?\n\nThe answer is well-known to be no, this situation is never possible. To learn why this can never occur, we need to learn a bit about the [Seifert genus](_URL_0_) of a knot. \n\nEvery knot is the boundary of (many) compact, connected, oriented surfaces embedded in 3-space. Such surfaces are called [Seifert surfaces](_URL_1_) of the knot. The [genus](_URL_3_) of an orientable surface is non-negative number that roughly \"counts the number of holes\" in the surface. The Seifert genus, denoted g(K), of a knot K is defined to be the minimum genus of any Seifert surface of the knot.\n\nA closed disk is the genus zero surface with one boundary component, and the trivial knot is the only knot that has a disk Seifert surface, i.e. the only knot whose Seifert genus is zero is the trivial knot. Moreover, one can prove that Seifert genus is additive with respect to connected sums, i.e. g(K#J) = g(K) + g(J). \n\nThis is enough to show that the answer to the question is impossible. Suppose that K and J are non-trivial. Then g(K) > 0 and g(J) > 0. Therefore g(K#J)=g(K) + g(J) > 0. Since the Seifert genus of K#J is not zero, it cannot be the trivial knot. (In fact, we only need at least one of K or J to be non-trivial to make this work.)\n\n**TL;DR:** In a certain mathematical setting, there is a complexity measure we can put on knots such that the only knot that gets assigned zero is the trivial knot. In the set-up described by OP, the complexity measures of the two knots in the string add up to give the complexity measure of the resulting knot. So it is impossible to untie a knot by tying in another knot.",
"When you untie something you are already tying a knot. Weaving a string through this loop to unravel it, etc.\n\nIn the case of a shoelace knot, you actually start an antiknot (which we call a bite) by having the end of the string go back the way it came. When you untie a knot, you are doing the exact opposite of what you did to tie it.",
"In the case of a [tricolourable knot](_URL_4_), we can add a knot anywhere along it and it will still be tricolouable (simply by colouring the new knot the same colour as the place you add it) so it must still be non-trivial (ie still a knot). I know very little about knot theory so I'm afraid I can't help beyond that"
],
"score": [
128,
8,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seifert_surface#Genus_of_a_knot",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seifert_surface",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_sum#Connected_sum_of_knots",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_%28mathematics%29#Orientable_surface",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricolorability"
]
} | Why can't you tie an "anti-knot"?
If you tie a knot on a string, why is it impossible to tie a second knot that undoes the first? Edit: Thanks everyone for you insightful and informative responses! I think I understand the reasoning now, and have a good idea of where to look for more info on the subject. | [
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4pa593 | AskScience AMA Series: I am /u/pengdrew, a physiologist that studies Penguins! I study the physiology of aging in wild penguin species and am here to any questions you have about penguins, aging and physiology/ecology! AMA! | Hi Reddit!
I am a PhD physiologist and ecologist studying the physiology of aging in wild penguins! I am currently in the second year of my PostDoc studying stress hormones, aging, and ecology in Spheniscus penguins. Specifically my work explores the relationship between stress hormones, telomeres and life-history decisions (reproduction, mating, growth, etc) in a very long-lived seabird!
I'm excited to talk about:
* Penguin Biology
* Physiology of Aging / Physiological Ecology
* Penguin & Seabird Ecology
* General Physiology/Ecology
* Graduate School & PostDoc in Biology
* Other fun stuff!
A few other notes on me:
* B.A. in Biology from a small Liberal Arts College (gasp!)
* PhD in Biology from a Top R1 University.
I will be here from 12:00pm - 2:00pm PST (15 ET,20 UTC) to answer your questions…[AMA](_URL_0_)!
| askscience | {
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"I've heard penguins can get a bit...rapey. There was even a paper that got published, and then was retracted by its author because he was so shocked by penguins sexual behaviors. \n\n1. What makes it so shocking ?\n\n2. Is there a way that paper will ever be republished?\n\n\nThanks!",
"In 2005 the Ignobel-prize in the category FluidDynamics has been awarded to a team of scientists for using basic principles of physics to calculate the pressure that builds up inside a penguin, as detailed in their report \"Pressures Produced When Penguins Poo—Calculations on Avian Defecation\".\n\n\nSo: What makes Penguin-pooping so special? Are there major differences in pooping mechanisms between penguins inhabitating different climate zones?",
"I've never been so excited for an AMA before! I hope you dont find my questions too silly or simple since I just love penguins and don't really have a science background:\n\n1) emperor penguins get the most recognition (Happy Feet & March of the Penguins) but do any other species go through the same trials? \n\n2) How accurate was the information portrayed in March of the Penguins? Was there anything you think should've been included?\n\n3) What's the least well known penguin species?\n\n4) What's your favorite species? Why?\n\n5) What poses the greatest danger for the penguin population besides global temperature changes?\n\n6) Non arctic penguins don't get a lot of love or recognition to my knowledge...why?\n\n7) What is the name of one of the penguins prehistoric ancestors? For example people consider wooly mammoth related to elephants - what's the penguin equivalent?\n\n\n8) least well known fact about penguins?\n\n9) how did you choose your specific focus/specialty and why? Why the sphenuscus species?\n\nYou are basically living my dream. I would've majored in ecology if i didnt struggle in physics so much (major requirement) AND penguins are my favorite animals.",
"How old do penguins get? And what do you hope to learn by studying their aging process?",
"Can you briefly summarize your PhD thesis? \n\nI like penguins alot.",
"I'm aware that penguins are fairly social creatures living in colonies, how exactly does aging affect this i.e. what happens if a penguin becomes too old to feed themself? Do they just starve to death or will the colony sort of feed them?",
"Could you keep a penguin as a pet? \n\nIf yes, would you need more than one so it isn't lonely?",
"In 2011 I visited Magdalena island to walk amongst the penguin colony there. While most of the penguins seemed pretty chilled out there was this one who waddled up to me, and latched onto the leg of my pants with its beak. It then shook its head from side to side, similar to how a dog shakes a toy, whilst simultaneously slapping my leg with its wing. It kept this up for a couple seconds until it left me alone only to waddle up to the person next to me and repeat the process.\n\nI have struggled to come up to a reason why this penguin was doing this. This was sometime in December and there were chicks with their fluffy feathers around yet other (presumably mothers) didn't seem to mind us walking by them which to me rules out that this penguin was trying to protect its young. \n\nWould you happen to know what might motivate a Magellanic penguin to do this?",
"This is probably a very simple question for someone with a PhD in the topic, but could you explain why I can't get a clear answer on how many species of penguins there are? The sign at my local zoo's penguin exitbit claims 17, except for the sign the room over that says 18, in contrast to the book I bought from them that says that there are twenty. What's going on here?",
"I read somewhere that penguins sometimes form colonies of hundreds of individuals and I've got questions about the dynamics of such groups:\n\n* Is there some sort of alpha individuals that gets to decide where to move/time to eat and so on? Maybe old penguins are the leaders, or strong ones... Or is everything just anarchy and on the spot hivemind decisions? \n\n* Wouldn't such large groups quickly exhaust the reserves of preys, forcing them to migrate frequently?\n\n* What happens if two different colonies meet up? Do individuals recognize their own and experience a feeling of tribe belonging?\n\nThank you for your time!",
"I met a penguin once at an aquarium who apparently likes one person out of the entire crowd whenever people go in. That person ended up being me. Why would this happen?",
"Just how mightier is the penguin than the swordguin?",
"I may be a cynical biology research assistant, but what kind of job are you looking for after your post doc ends? Would love to pursue research in my chosen field but post phd I'm not sure where I'd be going.",
"How does the life of a penguin end? I mean, do they have predators? Specific diseases? (Epidemics?) Do they get cast out and wander to the ice shelf to die? Are there vast penguin burial grounds there somewhere?\n\nI think I've heard that stressed-out parrots pluck their own feathers. What does a stressed penguin do?\n\nAlso, penguins don't fly. How different is penguin physiology from that of a bird that does?\n\nI apologize for the diarrhea of questions, but see username.",
"I remember reading somewhere that penguins ingest so much vitamin A that, per volume, it'd kill a human. I also remember reading that vitamin A is linked to tumor suppression. Does this mean penguins are more resistant to tumors?",
"Do you have any penguin tattoos? Because it sounds like you need one. You couldn't have picked a cooler, more adorable animal to study unless you chose to study sloths or elephants, so good on ya.",
"Can you domesticate a penguin like you can other birds? How hard would it be to take care of one?",
"Will you please name your next baby penguin Crosby? Thanks",
"Hi! I'm a biochemist / physiologist. For this kind of research, do you need to write grants and look for public fundings to be able to do your research? If so, is it really hard to get fundings?",
"Have penguins, either in the wild or in captivity, ever been observed mating with other breeds/species of penguins? If so, would it be possible for them to produce viable offspring?",
"What are the most aggressive kind of penguins?",
"I've heard you can only tell a female penguin from a male penguin with a DNA test. Is there any truth to this? If so, why is it so difficult to tell?",
"Would penguins be okay living in warmer weather? Say 50° F",
"What is the main cause of stress for penguins?",
"1. There's a book that made controversy a while ago about penguin homosexuality, is this true? 2. How's a penguin's general behaviour like in a group? 3. What stress hormones are there in penguins that are/aren't similar to our? Tq!",
"How did you get in this field to begin with? Do you really just *love* penguins or is it just a portion of something you felt you could contribute useful knowledge to?",
"How were your emotions when the Pittsburgh Penguins won the Stanley Cup? And did the real Penguins understand what this means for their species?",
"what is something about penguins, you couldn't believe the first time you learned about it ?",
"What's the first step for someone to make a career out of studying penguins?",
"Not exactly a question, but do you have videos of your work? Can you link? Most of the penguin videos are David Attenborough-ish, obviously filmed with the intention of showing to the public. I'd like to see scientific recordings of their behavior. \n\nAlso, have you seen [Science Penguin](_URL_0_)? How often do penguins approach humans (especially researchers) in the wild, and why?",
"Your research definitely seem interesting! A couple questions that arise from my experience in clinical epidemiology research:\n\n* telomere appears to be a biomarker for aging for human. Is it also true for penguins? \n* is there any relationship between stress (cortisol?) and telomere length in penguins? \n* what stresses a penguin? Food? Mating? Predators? \n\nThanks for doing this AMA!",
"In march of the penguins we see that penguins are incredible parents and will also steal to help their young. Some tragically lost their young penguins. Do they go through a process of mourning? If so, how long does it usually last?",
"What are some facts about Penguins that validate the choice of naming a professional sports team the 'Penguins'?",
"Do female Penguins' reproductive abilities diminish with age? How do their roles in the group change with age?",
"If I tried stealing a penguin, can I get In trouble? Can penguins get violent with humans?",
"Have you had the chance to travel to places such as Antarctica as part of your work?",
"Is the current drastic climate change affecting all species of penguins? And how so?",
"Does Pinguin offspring bond with their parents after they are \"independent\"/grown up?",
"How did you pick this field to study?",
"I volunteer at a bird rescue where they have a penguin (new zealand) and feel as though this isn't a good place for it to live as it can often get pretty hot. What is the warmest climate a penguin can get accustomed to?",
"How big of a factor do you think a Penguin's speed is when it comes to winning the Stanley Cup? Is Phil the fastest Penguin? How badly does a Flyer wish he could just be a Penguin?",
"I watched a Warner Herzog documentary in which penguins would wander away from their group towards the heart of the Antarctic continent. Even when researchers turned them around back toward their group, the penguin would turn around again and run back for the heart of the continent. They allegedly did not stop until dead. Can you shed some light on this phenomenon?",
"About five years ago, it was observed at one zoo that two male penguins adopted a rock that they mistook for an egg. This caused quite the commotion as it was the first known incident of a same-sex \"marriage\" in animals. Has this behavior been observed in the wild as of yet or is this a behavior only seen in captivity?",
"What are some of the techniques/methods used to understand the physiology of penguins? Do you measure the metabolic rates? If so, how would you expect their thermal nuclear zone to change in response to climate change? Also is there any difference in metabolic rates in non-flying avians compared to high metabolic flying avian species?",
"What are the main effects of high stress on a penguin? Do all penguins react to stress in the same way or do some manage it better than others? \n\nAlso, I LOVE PENGUINS, thank you for doing this!",
"For someone who is interested in studying/working with animal in the wild, could you give suggest some good classes or programs to take while in college?",
"Has a penguin ever befriended you or are they not inclined to like people working around them? Has a penguin ever attacked you?",
"How does captivity effect penguins in regards to breeding, personality, stress, habits, and so on? If negative, how can we improve on this?",
"Have you ever hugged a penguin and how did it feel or how do you think it will feel?",
"Do you think the Penguins should trade Fleury to the Flames for a first round draft pick?",
"What's your take on [Benedict Cumberbatch's pronunciation](_URL_1_) of 'penguin'?",
"When finding and engaging with their mate, they later find the \"perfect pebble\". Are there different penguin species that are more attracted or enticed with a different \"perfect pebble\" in different regions than others? (Probably based on what land they live on where those pebbles can be found.) Is it something that could be similar with the different eras how humans have gone through with what their \"perfect pebble\" is or what they think is more beautiful in that time?",
"Is there any work done on the evolution of the supraorbital gland? I'm curious what type of physiological changes you would need for the organs to excrete the salt, if the genetic and developmental causes of these changes are known. How similar is the histological structure compared to other avians with supraorbital glands? Any papers you could recommend would be great, thank you.",
"Thank you for doing this AMA, in my opinion, penguins are one of the most interesting and entertaining animals to research or learn about. I'm curious, what are some of the primary factors that decrease the lifespan of your average Sphenicus penguin? And what type of penguin has the longest lifespan, and how long is it averagely?",
"Hello! I learned that penguins have specially designed flippers where they keep the blood flow and muscles towards the top of the flipper near the body. This apparently protects them against the cold.\nMy question is, how exactly do the muscles/tendons work in their flippers?\nThank you!",
"Can you recommend ways to become involved in penguin research? I'm aware of sites like penguin watch, but I am wondering what other possibilities are out there.",
"Given the various environmental and predatory pressures on them, do you think penguins will go extinct in the foreseeable future? If yes is it inevitable?",
"_URL_2_ there anything unusual about penguin that nobody really knows\n\n2. Is there a fact that would ruin penguins for everyone evermore",
"What was your personal reason to pursue the study of penguins? If you don't answer, I'm going with Happy Feet.",
"Do you think your last name had something to do with you getting a job studying penguins?",
"I'm curious about the potential pooping pressure of penguins myself, I even collect Penguin art.",
"Is it true that homosexual penguin couples adopt baby penguins if their parents die?",
"How does the penguin aging process differ from the human aging process?",
"What's your favorite penguin and why is it Sidney Crosby?",
"Is there anything accurate about animated penguins in movies?",
"How big is the biggest penguin you've ever seen?",
"Are penguin mouth-spines hard, firm but pliable, soft?",
"In what ways are penguins similar to humans?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I am /u/pengdrew, a physiologist that studies Penguins! I study the physiology of aging in wild penguin species and am here to any questions you have about penguins, aging and physiology/ecology! AMA!
Hi Reddit! I am a PhD physiologist and ecologist studying the physiology of aging in wild penguins! I am currently in the second year of my PostDoc studying stress hormones, aging, and ecology in Spheniscus penguins. Specifically my work explores the relationship between stress hormones, telomeres and life-history decisions (reproduction, mating, growth, etc) in a very long-lived seabird! I'm excited to talk about: * Penguin Biology * Physiology of Aging / Physiological Ecology * Penguin & Seabird Ecology * General Physiology/Ecology * Graduate School & PostDoc in Biology * Other fun stuff! A few other notes on me: * B.A. in Biology from a small Liberal Arts College (gasp!) * PhD in Biology from a Top R1 University. I will be here from 12:00pm - 2:00pm PST (15 ET,20 UTC) to answer your questions…[AMA](_URL_0_)! | [
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qswq1 | Is there evidence that working out improves mental acuity in the young? | I've seen articles stating the mental health benefits of regular exercise among the middle-aged and elderly. For an 18-30 year old, is there evidence that an increase in physical activity leads to high academic performance (or other positive increases in brain activity)? If so, what is the biological basis? | askscience | {
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"Exercise increases hippocampal neurogenesis (cell growth), with the hippocampus being critical for learning, memory, and various cognitive functions. [Cotman and Berchtold (2002)](_URL_1_) suggest that approximately 15% of the benefits of exercise are anti-aging related, meaning that the rest of those benefits may not be age specific.\n\nYour question is difficult in that most of this research is done with respect to alzheimers, which obviously takes place in geriatric samples. However, some research has occurred in young adults and children, but the results are not especially clear. For example, [Hillman et al.](_URL_0_) discuss a metanalysis in which children's academic and cognitive performance was evaluated and correlated with physical activity: physical activity was correlated with positive outcomes in everything except memory (which we would expect a correlation in, give what we know about the hippocampus).\n\nTL;DR: Yes exercise is beneficial although research in the age group you mention isn't as clear as one would think. The positive impact on cognition is thought to be mediated by hippocampal neurogenesis which is produced by aerobic exercise.\n\nSorry if links don't work, got them through an institutional license",
"_URL_2_\n\n6 Benefits of Roughhousing for Kids\n\n1. Roughhousing makes kid smart.\n\n\"This is fascinating: Roughhousing fertilizes our brain. For real. This kind of physical play releases a chemical called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) which really is like fertilizer for our brains. Roughhousing stimulates neuron growth within the cortex and hippocampus regions of the brain, responsible for memory, learning, language, and logic. Animal behaviorists have found that the youngsters of the smarter species engage in physical play, so it isn’t surprising that roughhousing actually boosts school performance. Who knows? If your kid wrestles everyday, he might win a scholarship to Yale!\"\n\nEdit: The above is a cut and paste for the lazy linker.",
"Would lack of exercise also have an impact on cognitive function for young adults, as oppose to just increase in exercise?",
"If physical activity does increase mental acuity, does doing extremely strenuous activities, like running marathons, increase it more than a regular routine in the gym?",
"According to this book, yes:\n\n[Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain](_URL_3_)\n\n[Program website](_URL_5_)\n\n[Authors homepage](_URL_4_)\n\nThey tried it out in a school and it went from being below average to above average.",
"Numerous animal studies suggest that, yes, an increase in physical activity is associated with an increase in cognitive function (I'm assuming based on your second question that by \"mental health\" you mean \"cognitive function,\" but there are plenty of studies of the effects of exercise on mood as well). A couple different possible reasons for this, that probably interact:\n\n* Increase in blood oxygenation increases hippocampal neurogenesis. ([but motivation is important:](_URL_8_) if the animal is forced to run the effects are weaker) (for whatever reason I'm not finding sources for this in a quick search; if you want them I can look deeper)\n* [Exercise induces certain neuronal growth factors, which promote synapse formation](_URL_9_) (synapses, particularly in the hippocampus, are one of the major underlying mechanisms of memory)\n* Exercise can reduce stress/cortisol--long-term elevation of cortisol can be detrimental to memory\n\n\nObviously less data in humans (keep in mind, with observational studies there is a major chance of spurious correlations here), but [here's a review in children/adolescents](_URL_7_) suggesting children with higher levels of physical activity perform better cognitively. [This review](_URL_6_) is pretty decent, and notes that fewer effects are seen in 18-35 year olds, but there is still some correlation between level of activity and cognitive function. \n\nIn general, physical activity has stronger effects in the aged because those individuals' brains are more taxed. Starting to lose synapses, mental speed/acuity is decreasing, so it's easier to see benefits. Younger individuals may have a \"ceiling effect,\" in other words, cognitive function in HEALTHY young adults is good enough that you won't get much more of a benefit with exercise. However, add in the number of 18-35 year olds that are NOT healthy (especially with regard to depression/anxiety), and you can see that for many in those age range exercise certainly could help cognition.\n\n\nI can provide more sources if needed."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v9/n1/pdf/nrn2298.pdf",
"http://resulb.ulb.ac.be/facs/ism/docs/behaviorBDNF.pdf",
"http://psychcentral.com/lib/2011/6-benefits-of-roughhousing-for-kids/",
"http://www.amazon.com/Spark-Revolutionary-Science-Exercise-Brain/dp/0316113506",
"http://www.johnratey.com/newsite/index.html",
"http://sparkinglife.org/",
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/111/5/1505.long",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21807669",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21549157",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22155655"
]
} | Is there evidence that working out improves mental acuity in the young?
I've seen articles stating the mental health benefits of regular exercise among the middle-aged and elderly. For an 18-30 year old, is there evidence that an increase in physical activity leads to high academic performance (or other positive increases in brain activity)? If so, what is the biological basis? | [
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|
3d71qy | Why do scientists use logarithmic scales for some measurements and linear scales for others? | This came up in a discussion about the Richter scale and how a lot of people don't know that its a logarithmic scale.
(In their defense the vast majority of scales in our daily life are linear and there is nothing in the name to indicate the scale is logarithmic, or even what the base is. So, why use it?) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ct2j923",
"ct2m2kz",
"ct2p1s7"
],
"text": [
"From my schooling and professional experience, each scale is used to best illustrate/explain the respective data for the given situation. \n\nSieve analysis for example uses a log scale (base 10) because it best shows the grain size and percent distribution.\n\nPermeability with respect to unconfined compressive strength in terms of development of a soil-slag-bentonite clay matix is arguably linear. Obviously there are other factors that can alter the results (fines content of the soil for example)\n\nNot everything can be plotted linearly just as not everything can be put on a logarithmic scale. Graphs need to be developed to make the data useful. \n\nIn the end, in my opinion, a graph is used to make data useful and allow it to be converted between different units. Ideally, for the pubic/uninformed everything would be linear; however, that isn't possible. Some things need to be plotted on a log scale because otherwise it simply wouldn't make sense.\n\nHope that helps. Let me know if you want to discuss this more.",
"Some items are plotted on a log scale because they cover a wide range of data values. Somethings are plotted on log scales because they are linear or nearly so on a log scale. This happens a lot in electrical engineering. In EE I think I plotted almost everything in a log scale. Some units, like db are already in log units so it makes sense to plot it in log scale.",
"Numerous reasons, but one in particular comes to mind.\n\nSuppose something is decaying exponentially, perhaps some radioactive substance. A simple equation for these dynamics is `y=exp(kt)` If you were to plot the concentration of this substance in semilogarithmic coordinates, then the slope of the line is the time constant `k`, which gives important information about the substance. In this example, a steeper line means that the substance decays quicker, and thus gives information about the size of `k`."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why do scientists use logarithmic scales for some measurements and linear scales for others?
This came up in a discussion about the Richter scale and how a lot of people don't know that its a logarithmic scale. (In their defense the vast majority of scales in our daily life are linear and there is nothing in the name to indicate the scale is logarithmic, or even what the base is. So, why use it?) | [
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|
76ne3p | AskScience AMA Series: European Southern Observatory announcement concerning groundbreaking observations. | ESO announces observations of an astronomical phenomenon that has never been witnessed before. The session will take place after ESO's press conference on **16 October 2017 at 16:00 CEST (10 AM ET)**, which can be watched live at [_URL_0_](_URL_2_).
-----
Summary
ESO's fleet of telescopes in Chile have detected the first visible counterpart to a gravitational wave source. These historic observations suggest that this unique object is the result of the merger of two neutron stars. The cataclysmic aftermaths of this kind of merger — long-predicted events called kilonovae — disperse heavy elements such as gold and platinum throughout the Universe. This discovery, published in several papers in the journal Nature and elsewhere, also provides the strongest evidence yet that short-duration gamma-ray bursts are caused by mergers of neutron stars.
Besides the science, the collaborative global effort to make this discovery possible was also very interesting. On 17 August 2017 a gravitational wave event was detected. About two seconds later, two space observatories detected a short gamma-ray burst from the same area of the sky. As night fell in Chile ESO's telescopes as well as many others, peered at this patch of sky, pinpointing the source in visible and infrared light. Observations continued as night arrived in Hawaii, as well as for weeks after around the globe.
Details on the discovery can be read here: _URL_1_
Guests:
* Stephen Smartt, Professor of Mathematics and Physics at the Queen’s University Belfast. He can take questions on the electromagnetic event, kilonova, r-process, chemical enrichment, heavy elements, telescopes and surveys, finding kilonovae.
* Joe Lyman, Post-doctoral researcher at the University of Warwick. He can take questions on the host galaxy and environment of the kilonova, as well as the observations done at ESO’s La Silla Observatory.
* Marina Rejkuba, Associate Astronomer at the European Southern Observatory and head of ESO's User Support Department. She can take questions on ESO, telescopes, instruments, and generally the observations carried out for this event.
* Andrew Levan, Professor of Physics at the University of Warwick. He can take questions on neutron star mergers and electromagnetic follow-up from gamma-ray to radio, observations from the facilities of the European Southern Observatory and the Hubble Space Telescope.
* Paolo A. Mazzali, Professor of Astronomy, Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University and Max-Planck Institute for Astrophysics.
* Avneet Singh, Doctoral researcher, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik (Albert-Einstein-Institut). He can answer questions on sources and searches for gravitational waves, general relativity, cosmology and physics of extreme matter.
* Alex Nitz, Postdoctoral researcher, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik, Albert-Einstein-Institute. He can answer questions on the design of gravitational-wave instruments, the theory behind gravitational waves, gravitational waves from compact binary mergers, how we find signals, and measure their astrophysical parameters.
We have been involved in this discovery, either operating ESO’s telescopes when the event happened or analysing the data received and drawing the conclusions. We'll be on starting at 18:30 CEST/12:30 ET. AMA!
-----
The ESO group thanks you all for the great questions. They wish to point you to the continuing discussion on reddit, specifically tomorrow, 17 October at /r/IAmA/ starting 8am PDT, 11am EDT, 5pm CET, where ~ 50 scientists of LIGO-Virgo and EM partners will be answering questions. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Are there any ideas yet about why LIGO has seen a 1.1 solar mass neutron star in this binary, but we have *never* seen such a low mass neutron star before either as pulsars or in X-ray binaries? How do you make such a low mass neutron star? \n\nEDIT: 1.1 is the lowest NS mass, but it looks like the distribution is not so tightly peaked as I was thinking: _URL_0_",
"That periodic table showing which types of stars produce each element was awesome. Found a [copy](_URL_1_) if anyone is interested.",
"Congrats to everyone involved!\n\nOn the LIGO livestream they said that VIRGO didn't detect the signal. However it actually helped them localize the source since they knew to look into VIRGO blind spots. Would a VIRGO detection actually have helped localizing the origin of the signal or made it harder?",
"Are there any neutron star interior models (equations of state and whatnot) that are immediately ruled out by the observations?\n\nDoes the non-detection of neutrinos constrain anything further?",
"How powerful would these gravitational waves at the source have been? What sort of effects would the gravity waves have had on planets (if there were any) in that system? \n\n\n\nDo events such as these help us understand what goes on inside the event horizon of a black hole?",
"How would a future gravitational wave detector built in space be different from the gravitational wave detectors that have been built on Earth?",
"From the paper, the mass of the secondary object is between 0.86-1.37 or 1.17-1.37 solar masses. This is below the Chandrasekhar limit, so how do we know it was two neutron stars and not a neutron star and a white dwarf?",
"We've been reading about increasingly sensitive gravitational wave detectors for many years - its fantastic to see that they've finally crossed the threshold where they can detect real astronomical events, now correlated with electromagnetic observations. Two questions:\n\n- What was the relative observed signal strength of this latest detection, compared to the earlier detections of merging black holes?\n\n- What will it take to get to the next level of sensitivity and directionality of gravitational wave detection?",
"Amazing discovery! Short GRB's really are due to BNS merger, I can't believe it!\n\nMy question relates to [the standard siren paper](_URL_2_), which I can't access for some reason. If GRB 170817A was in one of Virgo's blind spots, then does that mean that the polarization of the GW's was not measured (since the two LIGO's have similar orientation)? I'm really curious to see if these events correspond to face-on inspirals, i.e. if the EM emission is beamed along a collimated jet. And similarly, does that mean that the distance measurement for this source is less precise than typical sources at this distance? Basically I'm wondering if LIGO distances from BNS inspiral are so accurate that they can produce a competitive determination of H0 in a few years.",
"So I guess one of the next big milestones after a concurrent gravitational waves + EM radiation observation is seeing something with neutrinos, too. How realistic is that, and what kinds of astrophysical processes would be most likely to be detected that way?",
"Congratulations to all of those involved. \n\nIn what ways will you be able to use this data/experience in the future? Is there an overall point of interest that this phenomenon might lead to?",
"What are the heaviest nuclides you would expect to be produced in an event like this, and via what kinds of reactions? Is it all just r-process?",
"1. How often do such mergers occur in terms of our ability to observe them? Will we see another one in our lifetimes?\n\n2. Is it possible to have advanced knowledge of such an event? Could we learn more if we knew where to look ahead of time?",
"I heard about this on the news today, so I apologize if this is a dumb question, but what are the odds of a similar event happening close enough to cause danger to us?",
"Thank you for the interesting presentation. Is the much longer duration of the gravatational waves of a neutron star merger than that of a black hole merger due to there being no event horizon around a neutron star merger?",
"Wow, now I'm feeling pretty excited; that was awesome! Congratulations to everyone who worked on this.\n\nI was wondering if there was anything in the data during the merger that would suggest a deviation from general relativity and shed light on a quantized theory of gravity. As far as I understand, it is unknown whether a black hole was formed or if the result of the collision was another neutron star, and I have only read on the possibilities of gravitational waves from black hole collisions containing data on the quantum nature of gravity, but would neutron stars have the required energy to observe deviations from relativity or are black holes absolutely necessary for that?",
"Is the distance measurement of the host galaxy of 40+/-8 Mpc at all constraining as a calibrator for OTHER distance measures of the galaxy (e.g. tip of the red giant branch or similar - I don't know what methods have been used for this galaxy already)? Is this going to be useful to calibrate the distance ladder or is it \"just\" an independent confirmation of distances measured through other means? (Which is still huge on its own of course!)",
"Congratulations on the great work!\n\nMy question is, how come that we needed a century to detect gravitational waves for the first time and now we are able to detect them more often and even find their visible counterpart? Can we tell how often these kinds of events happen in the observable universe?\n\nIs it because we know what to look out for now?",
"Called it last night. The pre-announcement didn't leave much mystery. Congratulations to the thousands of people whose decades of theoretical and experimental effort made this possible.",
"So for the uneducated of us, what does this mean? And how is this usable?",
"How do these gravitational waves affect Earth as a planet? Are we able to feel it in anyway or is it so slight only specialized sensors can pick it up but we don't notice it? Is the affect on Earth (if any) large enough to cause a slight change or disruption in how we calculate time?\nThank you!",
"Sorry if these questions are a bit broad!\n\nWhat comes next in this field of study (where will this discovery lead us)? And what are you most excited about in the future of gravitational wave study?",
"This is an incredible achievement! Congrats to all involved.\n\nIs it understood why there was a 2 second delay between the gravitational wave detection and the GRB detection? I imagine there's some scattering of the gamma rays that could occur along the voyage but don't have a sense of whether that could account for 2 seconds of variation.",
"If neutron stars are made mostly of neutrons, then how can two neutron stars colliding create elements such as gold and silver when they require protons?\n\nIs it because neutron stars are `mostly` neutrons but still contain enough protons to create these elements, or something else?",
"Have a Neutron Star and Black Whole ever collided? What happened/would happen?",
"Hi Marina, we met when I was observing at Paranal on the 15th of August with MUSE right after the AOF commissioning, just before all this happened. What was the atmosphere like at Paranal on the 17th? \n\nSecondly do you think there are any steps ESO (and other observatories) can take to better prepare for very high priority targets of opportunity? For example overriding visiting programmes for these special requests, maybe with compensation. Or maybe attempting to clone Son of X-Shooter for other telescopes across the world, perhaps in Australia at the AAT. - Ruari",
"In you opinion, how many years do we have to wait until this kind of astronomical science becomes part of standard Physics undergrad education or even high school education at a very basic/conceptual level?\n\nThanks for all the science!",
"Grats to everyone involved. Hope to read articles on subj. Now two questions:\nWas Integral observatory used somehow?\nAre there any ideas on how to enhance telescope systems basing on this experiment, maybe need of new type of instruments?",
"If one wanted to go to college and major in gravitational waves and detecting them, how would one go about that?",
"Congratulations!\n\nIs this observation going to assist in the quantification of baryons in intergalactic space recently announced? The missing mass?",
"One of the things that the reports on this have noted is that, while it doesn't completely rule out the gravitational effects traversing at different speeds to light, it does tie them to a 'very close level' (Best wording I've found). What sort of level is this?\n\nOne other thing, that I've not seen addressed anywhere despite searching for it - is it possible that gravity is actually a very low/high frequency light? If not, why not? (I know that's a bit 'prove a negative', so please assume complete ignorance on my part - I'm merely an interested party, and definitely not a scientist in anyway)",
"So on all the graphs of the detected waves, the gravitational wave signal was identified as being very long (longer than 60s), but what does that mean exactly? Is it talking about the period of the waves? If so, shouldn't there have been more than one wave? Or was it just a buildup of multiple waves passing through our detectors?",
"Dear all,\n\nI sign off for now; others may still be answering. If you have more questions, there is another AMA tomorrow (Oct 17) on r/IAmA/ where you can join more than 50 other LIGO-Virgo scientists and EM partners. Questions open at: 8am PDT, 11am EDT, 5pm CET. See some of you tomorrow!\n\nAS",
"So what is the significance of the 2 second delay from LIGO to the GRB? Shouldn’t they both travel at the speed of light, and get here at the same time?",
"Will your team be able to submit alerts to the GCN alert system? Considering the gravitational waves happen prior to the collision, this may allow earlier reporting, and potentially earlier observations.",
"Does this event reveal any information regarding modern discoveries in physics such as dark matter or dark energy?",
"The NYT article said that the gamma rays were detected about 2 seconds after LIGO detected the gravitational wave disruption (sorry for my non-sciencey paraphrase). Does that mean that mean gravity is \"faster\" than the speed of light, or does it just have something to do with limits to what ranges of different spectrums our instrumentation can discern?",
"Congatulations to the teams for this magnificent discovery. What was the vMag of the object during the discovery?",
"So, what's up with us detecting the gravitational waves before detecting the accompanying GRB?",
"Congratulations to all the people involved in making this amazing discovery! My two questions are: \n\n(i)Besides explaining the origin of majority of short GRBs & heavy elements, what other astrophysical questions does this discovery answers? \n\n(ii)How will the knowledge gained from this discovery help in making others in future or what is the impact of this discovery on the future of gravitational wave astronomy or astronomy in general? \nThank you.",
"Supernovas could be very damaging to life if they occur too close to earth. Is a kilonova more dangerous? Why?\n\nI loved reading about the excitement and quick collaboration among researchers at many facilities around the world! Is there a communications protocol in place to facilitate quick reaction during events like these?\n\nThanks!",
"Hello all, and congrats on the discovery! My question is, Can the gravitational waves and/or gamma burst that were detected have any effect on our Global climate (i.e. Hurricanes, earthquakes) ? Seems coincidental that these sudden Climate changes and unprecedented disasters are occurring around the same time as this detection. Thanks again.",
"The light and gamma ray emissions could still be seen from the kilonova several hours after the gravitational waves had stopped being detected. Is this because the waves were still there but too small to be detected, or perhaps that the waves travel faster than light?",
"Assuming fancy new larger Gravitational Wave Detectors would be built. \n\nWhat do you expect they could show, what current detectors don't show?\n\n/e: woops, [asked](_URL_3_) and answered, sorry.",
"How long ago did this event actually occur, I.E. how many light years away?",
"How will these discoveries help advance future astronomy?",
"Could gravitational waves have some sort of practical purpose? (Of course theoretically.)\n I know we use many of the waves contained within the electromagnetic spectrum for practical purposes such as cooking food and examining the skeletal system. I know gravitational waves differ immensely from these waves as gravitational waves are ripples within space time as opposed to electromagnetic radiation. But could we actually use these ripples? Could we theoretically (for example) use these waves for time travel?",
"Reading the [Wikipedia on this event ](_URL_4_) If I am understanding this correctly, there were observations by different observatories at different times. First the gravitational waves, then a gamma ray burst, then visible light, and later x Ray and radio... \n\nWhat causes the delay? Do different EM wavelengths have different speeds. I was taught in school the speed of light is 3.0x10^8 m/s, is I different for other parts of the EM spectrum?",
"This is incredible news! How frequentley (based on current estimated levels of elements heavier than iron in the universe) do you think events like these occur? I'm not too familiar with the elemental composition of the universe nor other events that may cause elements heavier than iron to form so excuse me if this question is somewhat stupid.",
"How would we know what happened to the stars involved:\n\nIf they simply make a *larger* neutron star, would we see continual bursts that could be studied, or would one GRB be the only event for us on Earth? \n\nAre they capable of forming a black hole? If so, what could we expect to see in its creation?",
"Articles like the one on _URL_5_ mentioned that this is groundbreaking and the step into a new era. Why is this the case? Hadn't we already detected gravitational waves before? Why does being able to see light emissions from the neutron star collision make it groundbreaking and what does it mean for the future of astrophysics?",
"The EM signal came 1.7 seconds after the GW signal. What is the cause of this delay? Is it simply the refractive index of the interstellar (or intergalactic) medium? Has this refractive index ever been measured before? Is it a big deal?",
"I've read that gravity waves are expected to travel at the speed of light. Light waves will slow down when passing through materials like glass or water. Is there anything that could potentially slow down a gravity wave?",
"What are the chances that this event has sterilized the host galaxy of any life that had existed there? If not the whole galaxy, how much of it?",
"How quickly were these two neutron stars orbiting each other before the kilonova? Also, is kilonova the proper term as of this discovery?",
"What is the cause of the ~2 s delay of electromagnetic signals to the gravitational ones?\n\nThank you for your amazing work!"
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"www.eso.org/live",
"https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1733/",
"https://www.eso.org/public/live/"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://stellarcollapse.org/sites/default/files/2016-05/table_0.pdf",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/512px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaap/ncurrent/full/nature24471.html",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/76ne3p/askscience_ama_series_european_southern/dofytp4/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW170817?wprov=sfla1",
"phys.org"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: European Southern Observatory announcement concerning groundbreaking observations.
ESO announces observations of an astronomical phenomenon that has never been witnessed before. The session will take place after ESO's press conference on **16 October 2017 at 16:00 CEST (10 AM ET)**, which can be watched live at [_URL_0_](_URL_2_). ----- Summary ESO's fleet of telescopes in Chile have detected the first visible counterpart to a gravitational wave source. These historic observations suggest that this unique object is the result of the merger of two neutron stars. The cataclysmic aftermaths of this kind of merger — long-predicted events called kilonovae — disperse heavy elements such as gold and platinum throughout the Universe. This discovery, published in several papers in the journal Nature and elsewhere, also provides the strongest evidence yet that short-duration gamma-ray bursts are caused by mergers of neutron stars. Besides the science, the collaborative global effort to make this discovery possible was also very interesting. On 17 August 2017 a gravitational wave event was detected. About two seconds later, two space observatories detected a short gamma-ray burst from the same area of the sky. As night fell in Chile ESO's telescopes as well as many others, peered at this patch of sky, pinpointing the source in visible and infrared light. Observations continued as night arrived in Hawaii, as well as for weeks after around the globe. Details on the discovery can be read here: _URL_1_ Guests: * Stephen Smartt, Professor of Mathematics and Physics at the Queen’s University Belfast. He can take questions on the electromagnetic event, kilonova, r-process, chemical enrichment, heavy elements, telescopes and surveys, finding kilonovae. * Joe Lyman, Post-doctoral researcher at the University of Warwick. He can take questions on the host galaxy and environment of the kilonova, as well as the observations done at ESO’s La Silla Observatory. * Marina Rejkuba, Associate Astronomer at the European Southern Observatory and head of ESO's User Support Department. She can take questions on ESO, telescopes, instruments, and generally the observations carried out for this event. * Andrew Levan, Professor of Physics at the University of Warwick. He can take questions on neutron star mergers and electromagnetic follow-up from gamma-ray to radio, observations from the facilities of the European Southern Observatory and the Hubble Space Telescope. * Paolo A. Mazzali, Professor of Astronomy, Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University and Max-Planck Institute for Astrophysics. * Avneet Singh, Doctoral researcher, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik (Albert-Einstein-Institut). He can answer questions on sources and searches for gravitational waves, general relativity, cosmology and physics of extreme matter. * Alex Nitz, Postdoctoral researcher, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik, Albert-Einstein-Institute. He can answer questions on the design of gravitational-wave instruments, the theory behind gravitational waves, gravitational waves from compact binary mergers, how we find signals, and measure their astrophysical parameters. We have been involved in this discovery, either operating ESO’s telescopes when the event happened or analysing the data received and drawing the conclusions. We'll be on starting at 18:30 CEST/12:30 ET. AMA! ----- The ESO group thanks you all for the great questions. They wish to point you to the continuing discussion on reddit, specifically tomorrow, 17 October at /r/IAmA/ starting 8am PDT, 11am EDT, 5pm CET, where ~ 50 scientists of LIGO-Virgo and EM partners will be answering questions. | [
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8d5anh | When your body responds to changes in temperature by doing things like sweating or shivering, is it our minds’ perception of the temperature that causes this or does the temperature somehow directly do this? | Since that was probably a confusing title, here’s an example: if you were sitting in the snow and it was below freezing out, yet somehow in your mind you were completely convinced that it was warm out and that you weren’t cold at all, despite your internal temperature dropping, would you still start shivering? | askscience | {
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"It's all regulated by your brain, but it's not a conscious thing. As an interesting example of this the reason you feel chills when you have a fever is because there are chemicals being released in your body in response to an infection which increases your body's \"thermostat\" to a higher level. In the time between your body raising the \"set point\" (a rapid change) and actually increasing the temperature to the new \"set point\" (a slower change), your body thinks it is colder than it should be, inducing the chills in spite of an actually elevated temperature. So manipulation of the brain via medications such as antipyretics can also change how the body interprets its thermodynamic state to some degree. That being said, this is not a conscious decision, so you wouldn't be able to run around outside in the cold and not shiver, in the same way you can't will yourself to not feel pain or hunger.",
"Body temperature is controlled by the [hypothalamus](_URL_1_), which contain neurons that respond to changes in body temperature as well as neurons that serve to signal thermoregulatory responses in the body, such as sweating or shivering ([Review Source](_URL_0_)). \n\nThese temperature-sensing neurons respond to some combination of changes in both the periphery (ie, skin) as well as core (ie, viscera and brain). This is achieved through signalling both from neurons that are intrinsically temperature sensitive (sensing core temperature) as well as through the spinal cord (sensing peripheral temperature).\n\nIn terms of answering your question, if you were legitimately convinced that you were warm, even though your core temperature was dropping, then that would be a sign of serious problems within your hypothalamus. This is not a region of the brain which can normally be willfully controlled, although certain mental states can affect it.",
"Your body's sensory \"afferent\" signals would be bombarding your brain with input about how cold it is. You may be able to tell yourself that you're warm, but in reality, your autonomic nervous system is telling you that it's COLD so your body would involuntarily start shivering as a natural response. So yes, even though you're telling yourself it's warm... your body and mind perceive otherwise and you would start shivering.",
"your body has thermoreceptors in the spinal cord and near the skin for measuring core body temperature and ambient temperature. The latter is what makes you \"feel\" cold. The former is what controls thermoregulatory mechanisms such as sweating or shivering. \n\nThey both go to the anterior hypothalmus.",
"> if you were sitting in the snow and it was below freezing out, yet somehow in your mind you were completely convinced that it was warm out and that you weren’t cold at all, despite your internal temperature dropping, would you still start shivering?\n\nMy first response to this is impossible, shivering is controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and is activated by a drop in core temperture. We are not conscious of the ANS. It runs on automatic, hence its name, \"autonomic\", which literally means \"self controlling, working independently\".\n\nHowever, a lot of other ANS control mechanisms can be influenced by higher brain function. For example some people can exert influence on heart rate and blood pressure by mediation. Breathing is also mainly controlled by the ANS which means we usually are breathing without thinking about it, but this can 100% be consciously overridden. \n\nFinally, there is still a lot of things we don't understand about the brain and nervous system, [and a lot of the circuitry that connects brain structures that control shivering is still unknown](_URL_2_)\n\nSo i guess what I'm trying to say is while I find it extremely unlikely that you could do what you are asking, I wouldn't be totally surprised if someone was discovered that could.",
"Your body doesn't care about temperature, it cares about heat transfer.\n\nWater = high conductivity = more transfer = humidity is cold when air is lower than body temperature and humidity is warm when air is higher than body temperature.\n\nAir at 21°C is warm. Lake/ocean at 21°C is cold.\n\nWind = high convection = warm particules near your body are removed and replaced by others.\n\n----\n\nYour body wants to maintain 37°C. Your body generates waste heat like all thermal engines. Your body has various methods to change the speed of heat transfer.\n\nFor example, the dilatation in high temperature is why you need to increase the size of your watch bracelet in summar or when doing sport. Dilatation means higher surface of contact.\n\nSweat is another method of removing heat.\n\nThere are probably other subtle methods.",
"Ever read the book Night by Elie Weisel? I believe this is the book that describes how during the “Final Solution” in the Holocaust, the mental damage done by all the events leading up to the walk they were on, and the malnourishment that the walk caused triggered their minds to believe that the snow was warm. Most of them didn’t have shoes, socks or even coats, and they would simply stop walking and lay down in the snow. They were convinced that it was warming them, but in reality they were all allowing themselves to freeze to death. The mind is an interesting thing.",
"Derren Brown did an experiment where he hypnotized a man to not feel cold and then submerged him in an ice bath. A thermal camera still showed his body temperature dropping drastically, and there was still a risk of hypothermia, but the man showed no signs of feeling cold. I believe a strong case can be made that reacting to temperature is a subconscious process in the brain very similar to pain response (and how sometimes you injure yourself, but it only starts to hurt once you notice it).",
"Hmm as a kid I used to be stubborn and like to fight cold(live in Canada,with winter jacket) I'd shiver a lot, but then I'd tell myself, this is all bs (kid thinking) stop shivering, stand up straight, you are NOT cold. This method has abled me to stay out in the cold a lot more comfortably. It always led me to believe that somehow I can control my bodys reaction to temp. For awhile there I thought I had super powers hehehe."
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"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4870994/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627318301430?via%3Dihub"
]
} | When your body responds to changes in temperature by doing things like sweating or shivering, is it our minds’ perception of the temperature that causes this or does the temperature somehow directly do this?
Since that was probably a confusing title, here’s an example: if you were sitting in the snow and it was below freezing out, yet somehow in your mind you were completely convinced that it was warm out and that you weren’t cold at all, despite your internal temperature dropping, would you still start shivering? | [
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|
l4nm5 | Why are some human internal organs asymmetric, or located on one side of the body? | Doesn't nature strive for symmetry? Also, are there any animals that are naturally asymmetric externally? Like they look different on one side compared to another.
Thanks! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Evolution is trial and error, symmetry works well for things like eyes (depth perception, field of view, etc.), ears (identifying the directions of sounds), and limbs (motion by legs/feet work well in even pairs). Internally it's a different story for mammals like you pointed out. \n\nIt has little to do with what looks nice or what you could use more of (I want two livers... purely for science) it's just what works with what space and resources you have. Externally human's are only symmetrical in one plane. Some animals are more symmetric (like a jellyfish) and others much less symmetric (like a fiddler crab).\n\nEvolution isn't like the creature creator from Spore, every subtle change is a tiny accident, most of the time the adaptation is negligible, useless, or harmful.\n\nTL;DR Nature doesn't strive for symmetry, it strives for reproductive advantage and goes with what works, not what looks nice.",
"On your assumption on symmetry: Symmetry *might* not be what is striven for—it's could just be that it's easier to encode for. Just a thought.",
"My favorite theory about this is that at some point the ancestor of chordates basically fell over, with one side eventually becoming the top and the other side becoming the bottom. The external features rearranged to become bilaterally symmetrical again, but the internal organs stayed jumbled up. However, this theory is kind of off the wall (which is why I like it). A more straightforward explanation is that internal asymmetry allows for more complicated organs. For instance, your intestines can be longer because they curl all over the place instead of running straight down the middle. \n\nThis page details all these ideas and some others: _URL_0_",
"> Doesn't nature strive for symmetry?\n\nDoes it?\n\nYou need to look at the whole picture, not just a single organ. For example look at [this image](_URL_1_). If you look at each individual organ sure it is asymmetrical, however it is kind of like tetris, it all fits in there in between each piece. Also this anatomy is fairly similar between most mammals."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.palaeos.org/The_Fall_and_Rise_of_Orders_of_Symmetry",
"http://imgur.com/z7gBn"
]
} | Why are some human internal organs asymmetric, or located on one side of the body?
Doesn't nature strive for symmetry? Also, are there any animals that are naturally asymmetric externally? Like they look different on one side compared to another. Thanks! | [
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|
tl8o0 | Do we naturally think in Base 10 (with 10 numbers!) or is it a cultural influence? | * I understand that we have 10 fingers and it is therefore natural to think with 10 numbers but is this the only reason?
* Are there any other more fundamental, logical reasons as to why we use Base 10?
* How hard is it to think in Bases other than 10?
* Do we as humans find it harder to think in other Bases if we taught to use them from an early age? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4nkrnl",
"c4nl9gx",
"c4nlh0s"
],
"text": [
"Other cultures have had different number systems. [The Babylonians had a base-60 system](_URL_1_), for example.\n\nAlso, the Roman system didn't have zero, so it didn't have a base per se. Just symbols for different values. It made arithmetic very hard. The number system we use now is [the Arabic system](_URL_0_).",
"I believe it's been demonstrated (through interactions with modern pre-mathematics societies) that humans naturally think in a logarithmic base, and can only naturally (\"instinctually\") identify rough halfs/doubles of given values.\n\nI'll try to find a citation.\n\nAs for your other questions, plenty of advanced societies used differing number systems. Already mentioned are Babylonians and Romans. Ancient South-American civilizations used mixtures of base-60 and base-13, as well. Ancient Chinese used base-1 for some things.",
"To last two points: thinking in Bases other than 10 is not really that different and one can learn to be proficient in arbitrarily chosen base given enough practice, child or not. So no, we don't really find it harder to thing in other bases, as displayed by cultures that use[d] different numeral systems such as Duodecimal (base 12) or even Sexagesimal (base 60)."
],
"score": [
31,
13,
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_numerals"
]
} | Do we naturally think in Base 10 (with 10 numbers!) or is it a cultural influence?
* I understand that we have 10 fingers and it is therefore natural to think with 10 numbers but is this the only reason? * Are there any other more fundamental, logical reasons as to why we use Base 10? * How hard is it to think in Bases other than 10? * Do we as humans find it harder to think in other Bases if we taught to use them from an early age? | [
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|
stk2m | Should you throw out the entire box of strawberries if a few are covered in white fuzzy mold? | Ive heard that if ones moldy, theyre all moldy. You just cant see it yet. The visible fuzzy mold is merely the reproductive phase of the molds life cycle.
Is this true? Can I eat the unmoldy looking ones or not? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Slightly related: for the future, rinse your berries with white vinegar, then with water, to prevent mold growth!\n\n_URL_0_",
"You can eat the unmoldy ones. However DO NOT cut off the mold and eat the fruit on the moldy ones. Fungae grow vast networks below the reproductive structures (the fuzz) so you'd still be eating the mold",
"Well, generally with molds they only become visible once they are fruiting, which means making spores. They have already infected a much larger area that you cannot see because not all of it is fruiting. Same applies for bread. The mold isnt JUST in the area that you see mold, its actually created a network throughout the bread. The only part you see is the fruiting body.",
"Fungi have two types of structures. The fungi begins to grow as mycellium, which is a white network of fibers that absorb nutrients. After the mycellium has esablished a foothold in the ecosystem, the mycellium begins to produce fruiting bodies, which disperse spores. The part you see is usually the fruiting body. So by the time the fruiting bodies from, there is typically a vast network of mycellium that wouldn't be as easily visible. \n\nThats why you throw out an entire loaf of bread even if there is only mold at the end. Mycellium has likely already established itself throughout the entire thing.",
"_URL_1_\n\n\"Fruits and vegetables, SOFT\n(such as cucumbers, peaches, tomatoes, etc.)\t Discard\t SOFT fruits and vegetables with high moisture content can be contaminated below the surface.\"\n\nI doesn't say anything about fruits *with* the moldy fruit though. I think it indicates it's okay. While there are certainly spores on the other strawberries, spores aren't actively producing toxins and breaking down the strawberry the way an active culture is.",
"Does the same hold true for moldy slices of bread? If two slices are moldy, but others are not, is it likely that the mold has permeated these slices but simply haven't produced spores?",
"_URL_3_\n\nThis video is all I can think of when eating moldy things. Obviously the risk is low. \n\n_URL_2_"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/LifeProTips/comments/q2p5f/lpt_prevent_fresh_berries_from_getting_moldy/",
"http://www.fsis.usda.gov/FactSheets/Molds_On_Food/#2",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001672/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZmHkC2JM53c"
]
} | Should you throw out the entire box of strawberries if a few are covered in white fuzzy mold?
Ive heard that if ones moldy, theyre all moldy. You just cant see it yet. The visible fuzzy mold is merely the reproductive phase of the molds life cycle. Is this true? Can I eat the unmoldy looking ones or not? | [
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48q18t | If I had a rope on earth and someone was at the sun with the other side of the rope then one person tugged on one side, would the other instantly feel it? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"No, the tug would travel at the speed of sound over the rope and that is assuming no energy losses duo to friction.",
"This is a very commonly asked question, which is answered in the FAQ.\n\n_URL_0_",
"No. Let's leave aside the elasticity of rope for a moment. Even if you had a solid steel rod connecting the two points, the physical impulse can travel through the medium at (essentially) the speed of sound in that medium *at most.* \n\nSo assuming ~5.9 km/s as the speed of sound in steel, you could expect the pull to be felt on the Sun ~294 days later. If you insist on a very elastic thing like rope, then it is entirely possible the pull would be completely absorbed by the rope, and never get there at all.",
"I'm no expert, but as far as my grasp of physics goes, you would not. This is because each piece of the rope must move slightly before the next tiny piece is affected. \n\n\nI'm going to change your analogy slightly to get the concept across. Imagine, instead of a rope, you had a big tube filled with water. As you know, if you use a piston, you can push the water back and forth. If you push the water, it will compress slightly just in front of the pistonhead, then that layer of water will push on the next, and then that the next, *ad nauseum*, until it finally reaches the other end. Now, lets take the smallest possible movement, a shockwave, you might interpret it as sound, in the water. Imagine the same process I just described, but with a very small movement, this sound. It will take time to reach you, in fact, it would take about 76 years, and that's from the surface of the sun. Essentially, the material can only compress it's neighbour so quickly, the top speed of which is the \"speed of sound\" of the material.\n\n\n So, despite taking some liberties with your question and doing some hand-wavey science, the answer to your question is a very solid \"no\".",
"The other question with this I was always curious about, is what if I had a pole and started spinning in circles near the speed of light, would the end of the pole spin faster than the speed of light (obviously it will be no)? Or would the pole suddenly become like a wet noodle?"
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"url": [
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} | If I had a rope on earth and someone was at the sun with the other side of the rope then one person tugged on one side, would the other instantly feel it?
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9phhkl | I've been trying to teach myself a little about time, but as someone with little knowledge to base my understanding off of, I am having a hard time understanding why time passes differently if you are standing on a mountain than if you are sitting in a valley. Could you explain this concept to me? | askscience | {
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"There's a few different ways to answer your question.\n\nFirstly, you might be talking more about cognitive dissonance than lack of understanding. We tend to assume that time is universal and passes everywhere at the same rate, so when someone comes along and says that time doesn't work that way, we find it difficult to accept. This is because we're working backwards. The only reason we tend to think of time as universal is because it's a simple approximation that's *close* to true. Except in extreme environments, time dilation is such a small effect that it's difficult to even measure that it exists, and so it's simpler to think of time as universal. But we have to keep in mind that universal time is not the reality. It's best to have the understanding that, fundamentally, time is not universal, and ask why it *seems* to be universal sometimes rather than vice versa.\n\nSecondly, we can talk about how we *know* this sort of thing is true. The proofs originally came from observations of light, and electromagnetism in general. Light shows unusual behaviour, in that the speed of light appears to be the same for all observers. This doesn't add up if you have a universal frame of reference for space, and universal time. You can come up with ad-hoc excuses for why light is weird, but none of these have held up to experimental tests. Instead, we have to come to the conclusion that the fundamental equations for motion and time are not what we used to think they were, and this gives us stuff like time dilation at high relative speeds or in a strong gravitational field.\n\nBut, thirdly, the question might be \"how\" or \"why\" does the universe have these fundamental equations of motion and time. And this is essentially getting into the realm of philosophy. Part of this is just accepting that the universe is more interesting than it appeared superficially (as in the first paragraph) - i.e. why shouldn't the universe be this way? But you can go much deeper than this: why should the universe follow any sort of rules at all? Even if we discover more fundamental laws behind our current understanding of physics, it won't really answer this question - it just pushes it back a level, and we still will be asking why the fundamentals of the universe are the way they are and not something else instead. It's not really something that can be answered with scientific methods.",
"The first thing that needs to be accepted is that the speed of light is absolutely constant, regardless of your own motion, or that of the light source.\n\nWhere speed is distance over time, and the speed of light is absolutely constant no matter your frame of reference, then distances and time intervals must change between different reference frames to keep this constant. This is where the theory of relativity comes from.\n\nLight is also bent by gravity. if you imagine a laser beam as a precession of flat wave fronts moving through space, the laser being bent down by gravity means that the tops of the wavefronts are spaced farther apart than the bottoms of the wavefronts, or that the top of the laser beam is moving faster than the bottom. However, because the speed of light is an absolute constant, it is actually that time is flowing a little faster the higher you go. This sounds nuts, but has been verified with very sensitive experiments.",
"That delta is small. It gets significant when you consider GPS satellites at 22Km in geosync orbit. It’s basically that time is relative. It’s not the same for all observers and relative speed matters. Hence twins paradox used often to talk about this where one speeds off at speed of light. There are some great layman’s books about Einstein’s theories.",
"To understand it, you'll need to understand General Relativity. I can give you a very simplified version of how you get there, if that will help.\n\nFirst, Special Relativity shows how time and space are distorted by relative motion.\n\nBut when you try to handle acceleration with Special Relativity some strange things happen. In particular, in an accelerating rocket, time passes more slowly near the engines than it does toward the tip.\n\nEinstein managed to incorporate gravity into Relativity with his \"equivalence principle,\" which said that gravity and acceleration are equivalent. (In a restricted sense, you can't tell them apart.)\n\nThat means that the same temporal gradient you see with an accelerating rocket will also apply in a gravitational field.\n\nYou can get as far as the accelerating rocket with nothing more than high-school calculus, but getting past that is a lot harder."
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} | I've been trying to teach myself a little about time, but as someone with little knowledge to base my understanding off of, I am having a hard time understanding why time passes differently if you are standing on a mountain than if you are sitting in a valley. Could you explain this concept to me?
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1pro5a | How does Kalman filter work? | I seem to be missing an intuitive understanding of how it works and what it does. Why and when do we need to use it, as opposed to other, perhaps simpler filters? Can you provide an intuitive and easy to visualize example of when some other filter performs worse than the Kalman filter?
Apologies if this is a wrong subreddit, but I can think of no better place to ask this question. Thanks in advance! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cd5k9xi",
"cd5f9we",
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],
"text": [
"Hey I programmed an approximation of the kalman filter this summer for the use of filtering the data noise out of the data coming in from the Kinect Sensor. I say approximation because I only have 2 metrics of prediction and I made it a hybrid with a PID controller algorithm. \n\nThe concept behind the Kalman filter is easier than you think, and I'll try my best to explain it to you without getting egg on my face:\n\nYou have incoming data from a signal source (Kinect for example) that you recognize has an inherent measurement error, typically due to limitations in the hardware. Let's say you are trying to measure the angle a ball is flying through the air at, and you realize there is a difference between your measurements and the real values of the angle, and this measurement error is +/- 10% the real value.\n\nNow, you have no idea what the real value really is, only that you have a measurement error. So you now want to use clever mathematics and algorithms to *predict* what this true value is, and compare this prediction against what your incorrect measurement is. So what form does this prediction take place? \n\nLet's say my measured angle is 23 degrees, and the error associated with that is 10%, but my calculated prediction gave me 21 degrees, and I trust it 95% of the time (or a 5% error is associated with it, and you would expect it to be less than the measured, otherwise why use it). Now I want to use both of these values, the predicted and the measured, to create a new angle that is much closer to the absolute/real value than either of them (on average). I do this by creating a weight for the measured and then doing the following: \n\nnew angle = measured*(W) + predicted*(1-W). If you are satisfied, this can be the new angle value you send to your servo or data center, for instance. BUT WAIT! This is what I believe to be the most accurate angle of where the ball is *right now* and so I want to use this accurate angle to *predict* what the next angle will be, so I have something more accurate to compare the next measurement to. So I take this current value, and predict what the future angle will be by a few choice metrics. In the case of the ball, you might say for a velocity metric \"over the past 10 angles, it has increased/decreased on average by +/- 2.1 degrees, therefore I predict it will increase/decrease again by the same amount\" to give you the most basic example possible. So the current calculated angle (combination of weighted measured and past predicted angle) is 22.5 let's say, and based on this velocity metric, I predict the next angle to be 24.6 degrees! \n\nThe measurement comes in and it's 24.3 degrees. Great, pretty close, but neither of them are the real value, so let's put them both through the same weighted calculation before... etc... \n\nThis is the most basic kalman filter you can construct. The idea is you are checking your experimental data against predicted values, and then updating your predicted values based on previous comparisons and through the use of different predictive metrics. Using these basic principles in a more complex way, I was able to change a vectorization algorithm with 73% accuracy when checked against absolute/known angles into 96.7% accuracy when the kalman filter was applied. \n\nPlease realize this is a simplified version, but that it does demonstrate the basic concept. Let me know if you have any questions!",
"These might be helpful: [State observer](_URL_0_)\nand [State estimation](_URL_1_)\n\nBasically, for a linear time-invariant system, if we have a Luenberger observer (L) such that (A-LC) is a \"stable\" filter, it will cause the error between the internal state of the simulated system and the true system to converge to zero as time approaches infinity.\n\nThe Kalman filter is simply a particular choice of a Luenberger observer that is optimal for additive white gaussian noise.",
"Speaking to the reasons to prefer it over other filters, the [wikipedia article](_URL_4_) has the following to say which sum up the use cases pretty well:\n\n > The Kalman filter has numerous applications in technology. A common application is for guidance, navigation and control of vehicles, particularly aircraft and spacecraft. Furthermore, the Kalman filter is a widely applied concept in time series analysis used in fields such as signal processing and econometrics.\n\nIn practice, I've found it to be more useful than a lowpass filter when working with [realtime motion-tracking](_URL_4_) systems in virtual reality. In virtual reality, the position of the user's head needs to make it through to rendering within ideally 50-100ms or it can result in [cybersickness](_URL_3_), so the latency that comes along with other filters are completely unworkable."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_observer",
"https://www.cds.caltech.edu/~murray/wiki/images/b/b3/Stateestim.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_capture",
"http://www.cybersickness.org/what_is_sickness.asp",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalman_filter"
]
} | How does Kalman filter work?
I seem to be missing an intuitive understanding of how it works and what it does. Why and when do we need to use it, as opposed to other, perhaps simpler filters? Can you provide an intuitive and easy to visualize example of when some other filter performs worse than the Kalman filter? Apologies if this is a wrong subreddit, but I can think of no better place to ask this question. Thanks in advance! | [
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1kprrx | Did ancient cultures experience inflation? | I understand that ancient cultures did not have economic systems exactly like ours, and that inflation is dependent on a lot of factors, but in general, did cultures like ancient Rome or feudal Japan experience inflation? These economies existed for thousands of years, so did inflation move more slowly because the economy moved more slowly? In America, a cheeseburger used to cost five cents less than 100 years ago, and today costs $5. What will a cheeseburger cost in a thousand years?! | askscience | {
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"/r/askhistorians might offer a more complete response, but the short answer is yes. One of the most famous examples is Mansa Musa, the Malian king who was so free with his wealth during his pilgrimage to Mecca that he triggered a crushing devaluation of gold throughout the region, with prices spiking to reflect the sudden boost in the average person's nominal wealth.\n\nRealizing what he'd done, he then borrowed all the gold he could from moneylenders in Medina, Mecca, and Cairo at high interest rates to restore the gold market.",
"Inflation and deflation exist in any society that engages in trade (even societies that don't explicitly use \"money\"). For instance, any society that engages in net-savings of some monetary instrument, say furs, waits for the price of furs to increase, then engages in net spending of furs will incur inflation, as the influx of furs in the market place will devalue them in relation to other goods.\n\n However, modern-day inflation, as you referenced in the prompt, generally only exists in a society that has a \"banking sector.\" That is, a society in which financial institutions issue guarantees, rather than actual money, as a lending instrument. In the US, financial institutions are required to keep only 10% of their outstanding loans in actual reserve. This essentially means that a bank can loan money in the form of a guarantee, which is deposited into another bank and used as reserve for the second bank to make loan times 10 in guarantees, etc.. This has the potential for rapid inflation (as was the case during much of the 15th-19th centuries) unless held in-check.\n\nIn the modern-day, governments still allow for fairly rapid inflation at times as it increases the present-value of money and causes an increase in consumption expenditure (ie, why not spend money today if it will be worth less tomorrow).",
"Yes, they did sometimes have fast economic changes like that. Take a look at David Graeber's recentish book [Debt: The First 5000 Years](_URL_0_) for a bunch of examples, and also for someone talking about the nature of money from a fresher perspective than you usually see.",
"The answer to you question can best be answered by what is inflation.\n\ntl;dr: \n\n* Prices: exchange ratio of money for goods\n* Inflation: Change in price levels\n* Inflation in an exchange (barter) economy would still exist if one good gets massively over produced. \n* Inflation in a coin/gold standard currency economy: Same thing as above except the baseline is now revolving around gold/precious metal. It is more or less impossible to avoid.\n\n---\n*The long answer:*\n\nInflation describes the growth or shrinking of prices. Price as we know is a rate of exchanging money for goods. In modern days we use something called fiat currency, where there is a separate pool of money and a separate pool of goods. We can grow both of those pools independently of the other. So if we have grow the money a ton, prices change and the value of a single dollar (relative to goods) would plummet. \n\nWe know that there are new inventions and new goods all the time, this also makes an economy expand, and literally creates new money (the kind backed by goods). Now theoretically speaking, this would mean that the [money supply](_URL_5_) and goods grow identically. But we know this is not the case. Most of the money in the economy is not cash. Instead, money is usually just numbers in banks ( [demand deposits](_URL_5_) ). Now corporations can simply pay you more, and this would increase the dollars in the economy and then the ratio of dollars to goods would change (inflate). The key here is we don't know how many new goods will be produced in any year so we make our best guess. When the guess doesn't line up, we get a little inflation, which is OKAY. A quick extension of this idea is GDP. GDP is the total amount of goods and services that is produced in a single year. If we put a dollar value on it, it would be the same as all the goods and services that are sold in a year. And thus it is also all the income in a single year. This ratio of GDP per capita is both how productive the average person is in the country, and how much they make!\n\nThere are many other things that contribute to [inflation](_URL_5_), such as [bond prices](_URL_5_), [fiscal policy](_URL_5_), and several other factors. \n\nSo finally to help you answer your question, what happens in historic economies with say gold as currency? Well if we suddenly strike a rich gold vein in a mine and get a ton of gold coins, then suddenly we flood the market with currency, and the value of gold (relative to goods) drops! We can also think about barter economies. Suppose you raise cattle and you sell cattle to people for milk or meat. Well in one year you have a ton of calves (what a wind fall right?). However while this will technically increase the amount of goods in an economy, it also drops the value of each cow/bull because the ratio of each cow/bull:(all other goods) is has changed. If you had one cow and it was the only cow in the entire village, it would be worth a lot. The analogy is a bit crude because it ignores monopoly influences, and consumer preferences but hopefully you understand the point of money supply:goods produced.\n\nOne last comment: If I missed anything let me know. You asked some pretty big questions so I tried to give you an overview and a few tools to try and figure it out.\n\nedit 1: to add the last comment\n\nedit 2: added tl;dr",
"Other people have said yes already but just to chip in, it was a crippling economic problem for the Roman's in the 3rd and 4th centuries. The problem was compounded by the fact that the complexity of their economic analysis didn't was sufficient to understand what drives inflation. So they went through a number of failed attempts and laws to address the issue.\n\nDuring the rule of Diocletian (285-305AD) the Roman state abandoned collecting taxes as money because the value of currency had completely collapsed. Taxes were collected as requisitions of goods from landowners, farms or merchants instead of collecting cash. This had a marked positive effect on the economy of the states as it was able to collect all the goods it need to continue functioning, instead of collecting cash and buying those goods. However Diocletians other attempts at addressing inflation and restoring the value of currency were marked failures.",
"Inflation is the rise in price for goods and services in an economy over a period of time with respect to a particular currency or store of value. \n\nIn the short run, supply and demand dictate the price of goods. So inflation (or deflation) is caused by shocks in supply in demand - think of the oil embargo of 1973 where OPEC and Arab nations simply stopped shipping oil to the US (supply driven inflation) or any consumer goods craze like Beanie Babies (demand driven inflation). \n\nIn the long run, inflation is predicated by the supply of money or simply how much money we have circulating in our economy - the more money, the higher the inflation, usually. In a modern economy like the US, that money supply is controlled by our central bank, the Federal Reserve, in what is called Open Market operations - they simply purchase or sell new Treasury securities in the market to increase or decrease the amount of money in our economy. The amount of money that has been printed by the Fed is what has people worried about inflation right now. \n\nAncient cultures were subject to same the short term supply and demand shocks as our economy - think of a bad crop harvest (supply shock) or a new demand product craze (tulip mania). Over the long run, ancient economic inflation was primarily caused by what is called debasement. Debasement is the systematic reduction in quality or quantity of materials that physically comprise a coin or medium of exchange. Think of it like penny made entirely of copper which is one day redeemed by the government for a new penny containing 50% copper and 50% tin or new penny which is half the size. Over night your new penny can only buy half the amounts of goods and services at did the day before. This was fairly common practice and wikipedia has a good picture of it - _URL_7_\n\nTable 9 on Reinhart and Rogoff's \"This Time is Different\" paper has a good history of some not necessarily ancient but historical currency debasements. It can be found on page 42 - _URL_6_\n\nUntil fairly recently, US dollars were convertible on demand at banks for physical gold. Up until 1933, 1 troy oz of gold could be exchanged for $20.67. In 1934, the conversion rate changed to $35 which was a significant debasement of the dollar. The rate changed several times until the convertibility and backing of the USD changed from gold entirely in 1976."
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"url": []
} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/426794447",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_bond#Currency_and_inflation_risk",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_policy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_supply",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_deposit",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation",
"http://www.nber.org/papers/w13882.pdf?new_window=1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_currency#Debasement_of_the_currency"
]
} | Did ancient cultures experience inflation?
I understand that ancient cultures did not have economic systems exactly like ours, and that inflation is dependent on a lot of factors, but in general, did cultures like ancient Rome or feudal Japan experience inflation? These economies existed for thousands of years, so did inflation move more slowly because the economy moved more slowly? In America, a cheeseburger used to cost five cents less than 100 years ago, and today costs $5. What will a cheeseburger cost in a thousand years?! | [
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lu71r | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA Medical Physicist working in a radiation treatment clinic | Hey /r/AskScience!
I am a physicist/engineer who switched over to the medical realm. If you have never heard of it, "Medical Physics" is the study of radiation as it applies to medical treatment. The largest sub-specialty is radiation oncology, or radiation treatment for cancer. The physicist is in charge of the team of technicians that determine exactly how to deliver the right dose of radiation to the tumor, while sparing as much normal tissue as possible. There are also "diagnostic" physicists who work with CT scanners, ultrasound, MRI, x-ray, SPECT, PET, and other imaging modalities. [More info on Medical Physics here](_URL_0_)
I have a Ph.D. in Medical Physics, and work as a researcher in radiation oncology. My current projects involve improving image quality in a certain type of CT scan (Cone Beam CT) for tumor localization, and verifying the amount of radiation delivered to the tumor. Some of my past projects involved using certain nanoparticles to enhance the efficacy of radiation therapy, as well as a new imaging modality to acquire 3D images of nanoparticles in small animals.
Ask me anything! But your odds of a decent response are better if your question is about radiation, medical imaging, cancer, or nuclear power (my undergrad degree). I am also one of the more recent mods of AskScience, so feel free to ask me any questions about that as well.
edit: Thanks for all the questions, and keep them coming!
edit2: I am really glad to see that there is so much interest in the field of medical physics! If anyone finds this thread later and has more questions, feel free to post it. For those that aren't aware, I get a notification every time someone posts a top-level comment.
| askscience | {
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"Do you think directed therapy, like focused ultrasound or magnetic nanoparticles, will become widespread?\n\nWhat's the next new imaging modality? Cerenkov based detectors?\n\nWhat's the coolest thing you could do with one of your machines if your boss was on vacation?",
"I'm currently studying physics at school right now. I've been interested in medicine all my life, but I'm almost positive that going to medical school would be a mistake. What are some other sub-specialties of medical physics? How did you find out about and become interested in radiation oncology? Being in research, I'd assume you use plenty of physics on a daily basis--but how about in practice?",
"Thanks for taking the time to do this!\n\nI think you and I have briefly discussed this before, but I'm curious to hear your thoughts in a little more depth. From your perspective, how problematic is \"misinformation\" about radiation treatments and radiation science (i.e., risk of neoplasm from exposure to radiation treatments)? Do you think popular media, conspiracy theorists, etc are having a significant impact on medical patients' decisions to engage in radiation therapy? Is the push for \"natural\" or \"alternative\" therapies having a significant impact?",
"Studying physics in undergrad currently, but I was thinking of going the MD route, and possibly do research in radiology. \n\nWhat are the main differences between what you would do on a day-to-day basis and what a radiologist/radiation oncologist would do? And also, is it much more competitive to find a PhD program/get a job as a medical physicist? And is there a similar \"residency\" type of program?\n\nSorry I have a lot of questions but I'm trying to decide whether I want to go the Medical physics route or the MD route. Thanks for your time! \n\nedit for clarity",
"What are your thoughts on the theory that small amounts of radiation above background are beneficial? I know regulatory agencies generally dismiss it because it not like they're going to start irradiating people intentionally if a positive link is found.\n\n(I work in the nuclear industry and am curious how a medical prefessional looks at it. Also interested to see how the latest generation (ie me) is effected, since current studies are from workers of the past decades, when dose limits were higher, harder to count, and taken less seriously)",
"Should the United States build more nuclear power plants instead of coal plants? What are the pros/cons of nuclear power?",
"I volunteer in the ER. A lot of folks that come in request to get an X-Ray or CT scan of an injured area, even against the doctor's opinion that it is not necessary. So, I have heard many doctors telling patients that getting X-Rays greatly increases their chances of getting cancer just to scare off the patients so that they don't waste our resources and time. On the flip side, some patients need X-Rays but are worried about the radiation. These same doctors then tell the patients that the amount of radiation is very, very minute and rather harmless.\n\nI am perfectly fine with the persuasion tactics used by the doctors and I feel as though it is sometimes necessary. I just want to know: how much radiation do we REALLY get exposed to in X-Rays and CT scans (try putting it into perspective)? I believe that it is very little, though I'd love to have an expert weigh in.",
"I'm assuming you work with MDs so is there a disconnect when you deal with them. By this I mean is there a communication barrier due to differing training backgrounds (is there jargon that they use that you don't understand and vice versa)? If there is a communication barrier, then how do you think it can be overcome (seeing as medicine and technology are converging rapidly)?",
"Where do you see the field going in the next 50 years? It seems like most of the innovations are relatively small gains, especially compared to the revolution going on in medical oncology (with targeted therapies). Do you think radiation oncology's \"turf\" will be lessened over the coming years due to expansion of medical therapies?",
"What are your thoughts on gold nanoparticle treatment? It seemed to be a hot topic a few years ago but I haven't heard much since.",
"My husband is currently battling Ewing's Sarcoma (bone cancer) and had to have emergency surgery due to a tumor that caused a T5 spinal cord compression. The doctors mentioned that we may want to do post surgical radiation. Does radiation therapy still work after the surgery? He also has the cancer in other bones and they told us they would not operate until after he recieved radiation.\nAlso, do you know about how many greys are commonly used to treat bone cancers?",
"I'm a cancer patient with multiple myeloma. I have skeletal surveys done twice a year. I'm planning on living for many many years with this disease. Can you summarize the radiation dosages of x-ray (localised Vs. whole body), CT scans and radiation treatments. My intuition tells me not to worry about the monitoring x-rays and CT scans, but I would love to have some numbers to back it up.",
"As an imaging/radiation professional, do you have an opinion on the Xray scanners currently used by the TSA in airports? Are there safety risks associated with the widespread and commonplace use of radiation in screening for weapons? Are there safety risks associated with non-medical, lightly-trained personnel using and maintaining such equipment, and if so, can those risks be quantized?",
"I am currently enrolled in a Masters Program in an accredited Medical Physics program. What is your opinion on the masters vs PhD if they already know they want to do therapy? \n\nI am leaning towards getting a PhD since residency are highly competitive but its always nice to hear another Medical Physicists opinion.",
"I'm a current Radiologic Technologist working with CT and general radiography. Thank you so much for doing this and doing it well! Your answers are succinct and clear up so many common misconceptions. Just had to give kudos!",
"Radiation seems so brute force to me - like killing a fly with a 12ga shotgun .. Do you worry that by using radiation to kill cancer cells, you may induce it in other cells by accident?",
"My mom went through radiation treatment for cancer. The doctors would not irradiate the same region more than once, even if the tumour regrew. Why is that?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA Medical Physicist working in a radiation treatment clinic
Hey /r/AskScience! I am a physicist/engineer who switched over to the medical realm. If you have never heard of it, "Medical Physics" is the study of radiation as it applies to medical treatment. The largest sub-specialty is radiation oncology, or radiation treatment for cancer. The physicist is in charge of the team of technicians that determine exactly how to deliver the right dose of radiation to the tumor, while sparing as much normal tissue as possible. There are also "diagnostic" physicists who work with CT scanners, ultrasound, MRI, x-ray, SPECT, PET, and other imaging modalities. [More info on Medical Physics here](_URL_0_) I have a Ph.D. in Medical Physics, and work as a researcher in radiation oncology. My current projects involve improving image quality in a certain type of CT scan (Cone Beam CT) for tumor localization, and verifying the amount of radiation delivered to the tumor. Some of my past projects involved using certain nanoparticles to enhance the efficacy of radiation therapy, as well as a new imaging modality to acquire 3D images of nanoparticles in small animals. Ask me anything! But your odds of a decent response are better if your question is about radiation, medical imaging, cancer, or nuclear power (my undergrad degree). I am also one of the more recent mods of AskScience, so feel free to ask me any questions about that as well. edit: Thanks for all the questions, and keep them coming! edit2: I am really glad to see that there is so much interest in the field of medical physics! If anyone finds this thread later and has more questions, feel free to post it. For those that aren't aware, I get a notification every time someone posts a top-level comment. | [
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|
j9q62 | What is the "best" design for a fan? | How and why are all of these [fan-blade designs](_URL_0_) different (beyond just aesthetics)?
Would someone like to give a basic explanation of the aerodynamics of fan blades, and electric motor efficiency? I'd like to understand why some applications use few blades, and others use many. How does blade width, length, shape, and pitch affect its ability to move air? How does fan housing/shrouding contribute to the issue? And how much does an optimal blade design contribute to airflow when compared to motor efficiency improvements? I expect that there are some efficiency envelopes that would need to be calculated. Has anyone already done the math? If so where can I find it?
I expect that these are complicated issues I'm asking about, so I'd appreciate some general knowledge and explanation, and then if you could, point me to further reading. Thanks! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You're asking for someone to explain 4 years worth of university fluid dynamics to you in a few paragraphs.\n\nWhen I build up the courage I'll give it a shot!\n\nFor now you should know though that there is no \"best design\". Fans are different shapes because they are serving different purposes, and have different design considerations.",
"Well some of them are turbines and not fans, so that explains some of the difference.\n\nThen some are optimised for different speeds. And one looks like it may be a propeller for use in water.",
"Something you might be interested to know: whales have been found to have bumps on their flippers, not a smooth fin like would be expected",
"Fans do two fundamental things: they can cause air to move, and they increase the pressure of the air. A \"squirrel cage\" blower, for instance (the cylindrical thing, bottom right) produces more pressure at a lesser rate of flow. The simple fan blades (most of them) produce more flow, but less pressure. To move air around in a room, you'd want the blades. To make air move a long distance through ductwork, you want the squirrel cage blower. The thing above the blower looks like a radial-flow compressor. That makes even more pressure, but even less flow, than the blower would.\n\nThe number of blades and their aspect ratio (width compared to length) also affect airflow vs. pressure, and also affects how efficient the fan is at a given speed and how much noise it makes. \n\nThere is also the expense to manufacture. Fan blades tend to be most efficient if they have an airfoil shape (thicker in the middle than the edges). But that's expensive to make. It's cheaper to make them out of bent sheet metal, even if they don't work as well. \n\nThe bottom three things you show are windmills. The one on the right is an old-style farm windmill. It's goal is cheapness; the blades are simple shapes cut from sheet metal, a farmer could make it with the same hand tools and materials he'd make his barn roof out of. Middle one is a modern wind turbine. Those blades are airfoils. Much more expensive, needs to be made in a factory, but more efficient. The one on the left is a vertical-axis windmill. It's primary characteristic is that it works from any angle. Generally useful in places where the wind changes direction a lot.",
"Here's an interesting (but unfortunately, brief) article on the differences in blade design between wind turbines and ceiling fans: _URL_0_"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=wind-turbine-fan-blades"
]
} | What is the "best" design for a fan?
How and why are all of these [fan-blade designs](_URL_0_) different (beyond just aesthetics)? Would someone like to give a basic explanation of the aerodynamics of fan blades, and electric motor efficiency? I'd like to understand why some applications use few blades, and others use many. How does blade width, length, shape, and pitch affect its ability to move air? How does fan housing/shrouding contribute to the issue? And how much does an optimal blade design contribute to airflow when compared to motor efficiency improvements? I expect that there are some efficiency envelopes that would need to be calculated. Has anyone already done the math? If so where can I find it? I expect that these are complicated issues I'm asking about, so I'd appreciate some general knowledge and explanation, and then if you could, point me to further reading. Thanks! | [
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5vb8va | If a stalactite or stalagmite were constantly exposed to air currents as they formed, would they grow in a slanted or curved direction? | askscience | {
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"In short, yes. Just recently attended a lecture given by a geotechnical engineer where this was mentioned. He showed us a picture of curved mini-stalactites he found working on the Gathright Dam in Virginia (1974). They determined it was the strong wind currents that led to their formation.",
"They are called \"[Deflected stalactites](_URL_0_),\" and [here](_URL_1_) are a couple of [pics](_URL_2_).",
"I'm not sure if it's evidence one way or not but I recall in one room on the extended tour of Carlsbad Caverns there was a group of stalactites that all curved in the same direction and air flow was believed to be one of the reasons for the formation. Been a long time since I took that tour.",
"This doesn't relate to wind but is relevant to growing sideways, or even up. _URL_3_\nEdit: I actually started reading this article, looks wind is a possible explanation for how these form but not the leading theory. \n\n\nI knew about these from visiting Mt Timpanogos Caves in Utah, which the article mentions has a large number of them. I remember seeing the upward growing structures and the guide talking about them but I had to look up what they are called. Anyway, thought you might find this somewhat relevant.",
"Assuming a constant flow, I would say slanted rather than curved.\n\nMy argument: consider a drop having slidden to the tip of the stalactite. The (constant) air flow pushes it away with some force, causing it to be in a position that is slightly off from the place it would be without wind. The offset only depends on the strenght of the wind, so this offset is constant. This means the stalactite grows straight, from a constant angle (as opposed to curved).",
"Yes, they can grow both curved or slanted, it depends on the direction of the air currents. Say there's a small opening to the surface and a gentle current flows through the passage for 1,000's of years exiting from another small opening, the result will be a slanted structure, the size of which is greatly determined by the amount of water. For it to grow curved would mean a drastic change would have to happen to the airflow, as in the source of the current be blocked by collapse. It's possible then for the deposits to grow downwards if there is no other air current source, but if there is a new, opposite current it could look like it was curved. Kinda rare, but possible.",
"The stalactites would be angled but the stalagmites would be curved. The curvature of the bottom structures (stalagmite) would be due to the quickening of the droplet delivery as the two structures approach each-other. The stalactites would be unaffected by the quickened delivery. \n\nEdit: My intuition tells me both would be curved - nature seems to prefer symmetry.",
"In my many years of spelunking and working around these formations I've seen it happen more often to stalactites than stalagmites given the fact that water has the capabilities of being manipulated by the wind current when depositing it's minerals on a stalactite before gravity takes a hold of it. Stalagmites have a lesser opportunity for maintaining mineral depositing water that is being effected by wind current as it just splashes. Also maybe somebody with a little more knowledge than me can elaborate on this than me, but at that point would then not be a fork of helectite?",
"I believe so, yes. \nThey are formed by water droplets carrying tiny amounts of sediment. So wherever the water makes its deposit is where it grows. \nLook at elephant ear stalactites. Not caused by wind but how the water seeped. \nI imagine if a cave was incredibly dry so the droplet evaporated before it could drip the stalactite would grow relatively incredibly fast as a full sediment deposit would be made. Theres a million was they could be altered"
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} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=deflected+stalagmites&rlz=1C1GNAM_enUS685US685&oq=deflected+stalagmites&aqs=chrome..69i57.5854j0j3&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#safe=off&q=deflected+stalactites",
"http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave/deflected/deflect.html",
"http://mysticcaverns.com/blog/?tag=cave-formations",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helictite"
]
} | If a stalactite or stalagmite were constantly exposed to air currents as they formed, would they grow in a slanted or curved direction?
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1clv9v | What would happen if I fill up a box with deepsea water and take it to the surface? | Would it spill when I open it again at the surface, because the tension on the water would be released? Or would it even explode? | askscience | {
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"Water is only very slightly compressible, so you wouldn't notice much when you opened the box. To quote [wikipedia](_URL_0_), even at 4km depth, there's only a 1.8% decrease in volume. So if the box were absolutely full then you might spill a few drops, but it's not going to come gushing out in a torrent or anything.",
"Having detonated glass chromatography columns due to overpressurizing liquids contained inside, I can definitely say that pressurized liquids can do some damage. It's definitely different than compression of a gas however. When something explodes due to too much gas inside, it is quite explosive, often with chunks scattered everywhere as the gas pushes on it while trying to escape. However, when breaking this specific column, the glass shattered but did not fly outward, because water is mostly incompressible. As stated below, the related change in volume at sea level and the bottom of the ocean is not terribly great. As such, only a small percentage of water much exit the pressure vessel before the pressure is equalized again. Contrast this to pressurized gas, which is easily compressible. In order to depressurize a container with gas inside, the vast majority of the gas inside must be released to equalize the pressure with the environment, which leads to large amounts of gas immediately rushing away from the container when it is opened.\n\nAnswering your question, as soon as the box was opened, there would be a powerful but brief rush of water out of the water. It definitely depends on the shape of the opening in the box. If you opened a small pinhole, you would get an incredibly powerful narrow stream out of the hole. If the opening was larger, you would get a somewhat less impressive release of pressure. \n\nThe largest real world issues however would be merely designing a box to withstand such pressures. Even if that were possible, as soon as the box is opened, the shear forces around the openings would be immense, and probably enough to tear the opening even wider.",
"It's true that water doesn't compress much as you go a few kilometers down, but neither do most non-gaseous things. Water isn't special in this regard. In fact, anything with a bulk modulus greater than that of water will compress less than water as it sinks, thus becoming more buoyant. Most solids are well above this threshold. For example, glass has a bulk modulus around 20 times that of water, steel around 70 times, and diamond about 200 times. (see _URL_1_)\n\nWe can make submersibles that withstand the pressure of the deep ocean, so there's no obvious reason we can't make something that survives going from deep ocean pressures up to the surface. For example, a steel sphere whose thickness is roughly comparable to its interior diameter will do, if made from strong steel. If well-sealed, it will not depressurize considerably while rising.\n\nAs for how much energy there is in the box, people keep saying that opening it won't be a big deal because the water only expands a few percent, which is wrong. What's relevant is the energy in the compressed water. Take a typical fish tank of 200L. If the water is compressed 2% at a depth of 4km (I'm trusting arble's numbers here; they look fine) that's an energy of about 200 kJ (pressure * volume * compression factor), or enough energy to accelerate all the water to close to 100mph. It would not \"trickle out\" or \"bubble out\". If you opened a small jet, it could initially shoot out at nearly 1,000 mph (based on energy density at that pressure), easily enough to slice right through you. So, no, it would not be fantastically hard to build, and yes it would explode.",
"There is a [great answer](_URL_2_) to this very question on a mostly unrelated thread about deep sea fish. TLDR version: it would be very hard to make a box that was strong enough, yet inflexible enough to keep the water under pressure as you carried it to the surface.",
"Not a scientist here, but wouldn't the pressure on the water instantly change as soon as you close the box?"
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"url": [
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_modulus",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1bzaj5/could_a_deepsea_fish_depth_below_4000m13000ft/c9bmjqb"
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} | What would happen if I fill up a box with deepsea water and take it to the surface?
Would it spill when I open it again at the surface, because the tension on the water would be released? Or would it even explode? | [
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|
5ml0gf | My six year old daughter asked after clapping her hands, "How does the sound come out?" | Can you help me explain it to her? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There's actually [a paper about that](_URL_0_). The sound is produced by the air escaping from between the palms as they come rapidly together. It's like a little explosion.\n\nYou'll notice you can clap very softly with your fingers, but the loudest clap is palm to palm. The palms are slightly cupped, and the compression of these two cup shapes together encloses a larger volume of air, which then has to explode out of the space as the clap progresses.\n\nIf you clasp your hands palm to palm and then squeeze, you can hear the air coming out. Clapping is like that, but faster, so the sound is more explosive.",
"There's an excellent magic school bus episode about how sound is made that I think would explain this really well. Ms. Frizzle takes all the kids to a sound museum, and they illustrate sound waves and how they are generated from everything, and how there are different vibrations and wave lengths to the sounds.\n\nEdit: I guess The Magic School Bus has its own wiki and here's a link to the specific episode I'm refrencing _URL_1_\n\nI also just checked Netflix to see if they have it, and they do :).",
"This is how I explained to my toddler: Sound comes from things shaking a little bit, very fast. Faster and smaller than you could do on purpose (a tuning fork or similar is a good teaching aid here). Hitting things together is one way to make them move this way. When a thing shakes like that, it shakes the air beside it, and that shakes the next bit of air, over and over until the shaking gets to your ear. Inside your ear is a very fragile part (that you mustn't touch because it would hurt), and the way you hear is by that thing getting shaken by the air touching it. Just like how your hand can feel something doing big slow shakes against it, your eardrum can feel the tiny fast shaking in the air. Sound can even go through other things that are solid or liquid, because they can shake the same way, some of them even better than air (I had her put her ear to a picnic table while I knocked on it). This is how you can hear underwater, even with no air inside your ears. \n\nThis might all be pitched a little young for a 6-year-old, but it seemed to be an acceptable explanation when I tried it.",
"Get her to slap still water in a bathtub with the palm of her hand and point out the waves that form, then tell her that when she claps her hands, she's making waves like those but in the air. What might also help is putting a very low frequency sound (~1-2Hz) on a speaker cone, so she can see and then feel the cone vibrating, then increasing the frequency slowly so she can see and feel the cone vibrating faster.",
"Tell her that air is actually made up of a sea of tiny little objects called atoms, and that when you clap it disturbs those object and makes waves just like in water. Those waves vibrate against the ear drum, and that's what we hear as sound.\n\nHave her clap her hands right in/on the surface of a still basin of water and show her the ripples heading out. Explain that the same thing happens in air.",
"Fill a bowl with water and then tap your fingers together in it. Tell her that the waves in the water are kind of like the waves in the air that we hear. Then let her mess around with it, splashing in different ways and seeing how the water behaves. Probably best to go outside first.",
"Before reading this, put the image of a spring in your mind, and how it acts when compressed.\n\nTake your daughter to the bathtub, and have her put her palms flat on the water surface. Instruct her to push down rapidly, and to watch as a hollow in the water is made, before the water that she is not touching rushes back in from the sides, crashing in the middle. (The water that she *is* touching will also rush back through her fingers, because of the added pressure from the compressed water below.)\n\nAt this point, she knows how fluids (liquids and gases) behave on a large scale. This is one part of what happens when you clap your hands: you're forcing too much air into a small compartment (between your palms), and when it escapes it's moving fast.\n\nBut the actual sound comes from the wave that is created by this explosion. Waves do not displace the actual fluid, but instead is energy traveling through the fluid. (As can be demonstrated by how a plastic duck in the bathtub stays pretty much in place against waves in the water, just bobbing up and down with the surface.) You give energy to the fluid when you upset its resting state by moving matter around, just like when you charge a spring by compressing it.\n\nThe fact that sound is a wave can be shown by using a hollow container, such as an empty plastic milk carton in a room with sounds. The container should be completely open in one end, and held close to the closed end. Turn on some music (preferably you have a sound system with a dedicated bass), and let your daughter walk around with the hollow container. For certain frequencies (pitches) of sound and at certain places in the room, the container itself will start vibrating. This is because the sound finds resonance in the container, which depends on the shape of the container and the frequency of the wave.\n\nFrequency is a measure of how many times per unit of time (second) the crest of a wave turns into a hollow and then back into a crest again. Higher pitch sounds have higher frequency, but the sounds caught by the milk carton resonance box will likely be deeper sounds with a lower frequency, which is where the bass comes in.\n\nConcepts that are important to this is to understand that individual air particles behave like little balls the bounce around. But when seen as a system and all together, they instead behave like a three-dimensional spring.\n\nI hope this helps, and sorry if my English is weird.",
"In addition to the other excellent answers here, you can explain that your ears must be super sensitive to pick up vibrations through the air, and that other mediums can conduct sound waves as well.\n\nTry attaching 2 strings to a metal coat hanger, one in each bottom corner, and then tie the other ends of the strings into loops. Loop one string over each index finger, then get someone to hit the coat hanger with a stick. Not very loud, is it? Now bend forward and put the index fingers with the strings in your ears, and strike the coat hanger again. It sounds like a huge gong, as the vibrations travel up the strings into your ears. A fun experiment for kids to try!",
"When you clap your hands you catch a small piece of air between you palms. When you slam your hands together the last bit of air has to escape out of your hands somewhere. And even though it's trapped, as it shoots out between your hands really fast and it makes a loud noise which is the sound you hear.",
"She is six so she can understand physics intuitively. Fill up the sink with water. Put glitter in the cup of your hands and dip your hands under water. Then squeeze your hands together to shoot the glitter out of your hands. Tell her that when you clap, you are squeezing sound out of your hands really fast kind of like what happens with the glitter. She will get it. Although more questions might ensue.",
"The thing to remember (and marvel at) about air is that it's like Silly Putty(tm). That's why you can walk around in it without giving it a second thought, and also why it can take and faithfully propagate marvelous impressions from violent actions such as vocal apparatus vibrations or the clapping of hands.",
"You'll notice you can clap very softly with your fingers, but the loudest clap is palm to palm. The palms are slightly cupped, and the compression of these two cup shapes together encloses a larger volume of air, which then has to explode out of the space as the clap progresses."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.acoustics.asn.au/journal/2013/2013_41_2_Fletcher_paper.pdf",
"http://magicschoolbus.wikia.com/wiki/In_the_Haunted_House"
]
} | My six year old daughter asked after clapping her hands, "How does the sound come out?"
Can you help me explain it to her? | [
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25kpdk | During a spacecraft launch and flight, for example a spaceship travelling to and docking at the ISS, how much of travel is calculated before hand and how much of the flight is reactionary? | E.g. do they know exactly where the ISS will be at the time of arrival or do they control the shuttle during the flight?
Just a question I recently started thinking about and have not found an answer of yet. Really curious to know! | askscience | {
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"What you're talking about sounds like open loop control. Flight software is almost always done with closed loop algorithms that use feedback to adapt to the environment.\n\nFor many vehicles, the entire flight is simulated in advance. Computer simulations are developed that run the very same flight software as the onboard computers. They also simulate noisy navigation data coming from sensors, as well as the reactions of the hardware control systems. \n\nThere will be environmental factors, hardware issues, errors in the simulation, etc that cause the trajectory to deviate from the planned one. When developing simulations, monte carlo analysis is used to ensure that the flight software algorithms will succeed in closing the loop in the face of these uncertainties.\n\nSo while the capability must always exist to adapt to changes, engineers try to anticipate those changes as much as possible before flight.",
"They pretty much know where the ISS will be at the time of rendezvous, within a certain accuracy. Most of the trip is calculated and simulated beforehand, yet there's still error to cover. So for one the control systems try to keep the vessel on the wanted path, and especially at the end there's adjustments made on the fly to adapt to the presented situation. There's different phases in a docking procedure (there's some more but to keep it simple...):\n\n* ascent to orbit: you launch the vessel on a path and at a time that it will wind up in the same orbit (altitude and speed) and the same phase (location around the circumference) as the target. This can get you as near as a couple of kilometers.\n* approach: slowly you adjust the orbit to the actual position of the target. This is still calculated in a bigger scale, but now you know exactly where your target is, so you can make short term corrections...because you don't want to smash into or shoot past the target, and you want to be at a nice attitude for the final phase. This phase tries to reduce the error induced by the previous phase.\n* proximity operations and docking: you're very close now, only a hundred meters or so, until you actually dock. That's the phase that is very much in the situation, and controlled on the fly without pretty much any previous calculations. There's small errors that now have a big impact, and those need to be corrected right there... imagine the target is on an orbit slightly (3m) lower than expected. This does not have a big impact on the orbit phase where you're still targeting a quite large area, and also the approach is still fine. However if you want to actually dock, you're just inches from the target, and you're 3m off, things get messy pretty quickly.\n\nThe ELI5 version is: it's like playing golf. Long drive, iron to the green, put.\n\n*Edit: I missed half a sentence.*",
"All of the location information is known beforehand; this is why you have specific launch windows for missions. If you launch when your target (say, the ISS) is not in an optimal position for rendezvous, then you must expend more fuel to correct your orbit, which means a larger launch stage, which means higher cost.",
"If you're interested in how the mechanics of orbiting, maneuvering and other factors play into a launch, I highly recommend downloading the kerbal Space Program Demo. It's taught me a lot about maneuvers and burns and I just crashed into the \"Mun\" for the first time. It's a lot of fun.",
"The path that is calculated beforehand is called the reference trajectory. Engineers craft reference trajectories, and they take into account all known and predictable physical effects. This field is called guidance, and it applies to almost every space mission. Designing a trajectory to Saturn? Guidance. Designing a flight path for Mars entry, descent, and landing? Guidance.\n\nAssuming everything goes exactly as predicted, guidance is enough. But nothing ever goes exactly as planned. There always disturbances: things we did not know about or things we cannot predict. A gust of wind during launch, a tiny piece of space debris hitting the side of a spacecraft, a tiny hiccup in the engine. So we have control systems that perform the \"reactionary\" role you're thinking about. A control system figures out how far off the spacecraft is from the reference trajectory, and tries to get it back on track. It will reject the disturbances.\n\nIn short: guidance gives us the pre-planned trajectory, and control keeps us on that trajectory in the face of disturbances. In general, the majority of the actual flight path is pre-planned, with minor excursions as the control system fights disturbances.",
"To extend this past ISS ... take the LADEE mission (Lunar orbit). The trajectory changes were charted out in advance, but after each burn, it was still necessary to find out the exact results and figure out what best to do at the next burn."
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} | During a spacecraft launch and flight, for example a spaceship travelling to and docking at the ISS, how much of travel is calculated before hand and how much of the flight is reactionary?
E.g. do they know exactly where the ISS will be at the time of arrival or do they control the shuttle during the flight? Just a question I recently started thinking about and have not found an answer of yet. Really curious to know! | [
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|
72za7r | Do humans have a vestigial tail wagging response? Is it detectable? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Not really, no. Animals wag their tails for a variety of reasons, but the happy=tail wagging response in dogs is unique to them. (Interestingly, foxes that were domesticated as part of an experiment also began [wagging their tails in greeting](_URL_0_) after several generations of breeding for tameness. So the potential for tail-wagging in excitement and happiness when bred for juvenile traits is present through a lot of the canine family tree.) A cat wagging its tail is most likely annoyed or agitated, or at least overstimulated. There is no hardwired environmental or behavioral reason for tail wagging that all animals share. (EDIT: And yes, a dog can also wag its tail when it isn't happy; I was specifically referring to the common, stereotypical behavior of the happy tail-wagging doggo.)\n\nApes 'lost' their tails at least 14 million years ago, well before the human branch of the family tree had even begun to split. Human responses that involve butt-wiggling (for lack of a more specific term) like dancing or squirming are coming from a different behavioral source that has nothing to do with tails.",
"No, but Humans have other limbic reactions that signify happiness pretty much across the board. Watch someone's feet next time they are very excited or happy; it's where the phrase 'happy feet' comes from. Closest thing I can think of to tail wagging",
"Wouldn't this be similar to laughing or smiling? Yes, you can control this response but it does happen immediately and sometimes uncontrollably especially when greeting someone you have missed. I didn't take your question as is we had internal tails or something but more of a question of an uncontrollable happiness response. \n\nEdit: wait did you mean the people who are actually born with tails?",
"> A case of a tail in a 2-week-old infant is reported, and findings from a review of 33 previously reported cases of true tails and pseudotails are summarized. The true, or persistent, vestigial tail of humans arises from the most distal remnant of the embryonic tail. It contains adipose and connective tissue, central bundles of striated muscle, blood vessels, and nerves and is covered by skin. Bone, cartilage, notochord, and spinal cord are lacking. The true tail arises by retention of structures found normally in fetal development. It may be as long as 13 cm, \n**can move and contract**, and occurs twice as often in males as in females. \n\n_URL_1_",
"No.\n\nFirst of all, the coccyx does not retain the muscular functionality of a tail, but it does act as an anchor point for tendons, ligaments, etc. Second, while tail-wagging is a trait present in *some* primates, such as lemurs, it is far from ubiquitous, and there is no evidence of tail-wagging in any of our closest primate relatives.",
"By tail-wagging, I assume that you are referring to tail-wagging as it is seen in dogs (to my knowledge, primates do not wag their tails; if anybody has evidence to the contrary please correct me). The thing is, humans didn't evolve from dogs or any dog-like species; rather, humans and dogs have a common ancestor which existed over 100 million years ago, which probably did not have a tail-wagging response. The tail-wagging response likely evolved after the evolutionary \"split\" that occurred at our common ancestor with dogs. Your question makes the false assumption that there was a time in our evolutionary history that humans had a tail-wagging response, but that's probably not the case, and you'd have to provide evidence that there was tail-wagging in our ancestors. So, to answer your question, it may be the case that humans have never had a tail-wagging response to \"lose\" in the first place, and for that reason, we probably don't have a vestigial tail-wagging response.",
"all these answers at the top gave nice scientific responses. but I don't see anybody trying to make the connection between dogs wagging tails and anything humans may do with body language to show happiness/excitement...?",
"Fun fact : some humans (not everyone) have a muscle attaching their sacrum to their ischium (hip bone). It used to be the muscle that was moving our tail horizontally... When we had one ^^\n\nOfc we don't use it anymore and that's the reason why not everyone has one. \"Inconstant\" organs like this are pretty frequent in human body.",
"We do have what's called a \"vestigial\" tail, meaning that it's a sort of evolutionary leftover. It's visible in embryos, but by the time we're born, we just have a few small bones that can't be seen from the outside. Most people don't even know they have tailbones unless they break one. Occasionally, a baby will be born with a tail, but it is usually removed surgically.\n\nWhy did the ancestor of the apes and people lose their tails? No one really knows. Things don't disappear just because they are not being used. One gene can cause many different things. It is possible that a gene that was helpful to this species had a few effects, including the loss of the tail. It is also possible that having a tail came with a price. Individuals that had small or no tails would have been able to leave more offspring with the no-tail gene."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Domesticated_Red_Fox#Genetic_experimentation",
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} | Do humans have a vestigial tail wagging response? Is it detectable?
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s5nnk | Can someone explain how a mass spectrometer works? | I think I have a basic understanding, but if someone could go in depth and explain it well, I'd be greatful as this has been bugging me for a while. | askscience | {
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"Awesome! I finally see a question I'm qualified to answer! :)\n\nA mass spectrometer is an instrument that ionises a molecule and then utilises the unique mass to charge ratio on that particular ion to move it in such a way that it can be detected (hopefully) individually by a mass analyser.\n\nIt takes a molecule (which we will call M) and blasts it with electrons to knock one or more off, leaving a radical. So the formula for that would be:\n\nM + e- ----- > M- (it is now a radical with a charge of -1; excuse my shoddy keyboard equations)\n\nThere are various other ionisation methods, for example you can also blast it with protons giving a positive charge and an extra unit of atomic mass. But the basics are still the same:\n\nHit a molecule with something in order to impart a charge.\n\nOkay so you now have a ion (charged molecule)! Horray! The next step is to pass that ion through a magnetic field. As it flies through the field the charge interacts with it thereby causing the molecule to change direction! \n\nYou can adjust the magnetic field so that ONLY ions with a specific mass to charge ratio (exact mass DIVIDED BY charge) can fly through in a straight line and hit the detector. Thus at different fields different charged/massive molecules hit the detector and the frequency of each impact can be determined. Hence we can determine the ratio of the mass/charge unit being observed compared to other mass/charge units.\n\nSo it's important to note that a mass spectrometer will NEVER tell you what molecule you have unless you already have some idea what you're looking for and can work out the ions. There is also the small possibility it could be a different molecule present with the same mass/charge ratio. \nBut in general if you put in a molecule and see signals at a mass/charge ratio corresponding to multiple possible ionisations and fragmentations then you can confidently attribute them to your molecules presence.\n\nHope that helps! And wasn't to full on. I tried to keep it simple.\n\nNote: exact mass is kind of like atomic mass, it is NOT the actual amount of product put in.\nAlso note: Not all paths to detectors are *straight*. But for simplicities sake I'm assuming a quadrupole mass analyser (four magnets) which usually is.",
"It really depends on the type, but they all have some similarities:\n\nIonization: Mass Spectrometry measures the mass to charge ratio, so you need to have ions. \n\nIon Separation: The ions have to be separated by an electromagnetic field. \n\nDetection: The separated ions are detected.\n\nThere are a wide variety of ways to do each of these steps, but each type of MS requires these steps. If you have any more specific questions I'd love to answer them.",
"Take some molecules. Zap them with electrons say. End up with ions. Guide them through a special electric field to sort the ions by mass. Record the signal intensity during the sorting. The output is what a mass spectrometer gives you. From all these features, you can piece together what the original molecule is."
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} | Can someone explain how a mass spectrometer works?
I think I have a basic understanding, but if someone could go in depth and explain it well, I'd be greatful as this has been bugging me for a while. | [
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pgfrb | Why do 3D models of the universe look like an hourglass? | In programs like Celestia and Galaxy Explorer, the visible universe is hourglass shaped [like this.](_URL_0_)
Does the universe really look like this, or is it just a distorted vision of how we see it from earth, or what? | askscience | {
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"Because we can't see very far in the direction of the galactic plane, because the Milky Way blocks our view.",
"Interesting! [These](_URL_0_) are the only models I have ever seen. I wonder what the differences are.",
"Things that other commenters have said are correct (iorgfeflkd). Deep surveys of galaxies and clusters of galaxies take a lot of observing time as well. Hence, the large and deeps surveys only look at certain portions of the sky. A couple main examples are the [Sloan Digital Sky Survey \\(SDSS\\)](_URL_2_) and the [2-degree Field \\(2dF\\)](_URL_2_) survey.\n\nThe specific image you link is from SDSS which has only mapped 35% of the sky. The surveys look at the North and South galactic poles since the rest of the Milky Way blocks our view otherwise. Hence the hourglass shape.\n\nThe image posted by vasion is from a numerical N-body simulation of the evolution of the universe. Hence it can be modelled as a cubical volume and each point in that image is a galaxy (like the OP's linked image).",
"because the areas that are shown as \"empty\" are just the areas that fall behind the disc of the milky way galaxy\n\nwe can only see \"up/down\" from the milky way disc, which produces the shape you posted\n\none obvious give-away of this is that \n\n1. we aren't at the center of the universe \n\nbut\n\n2. the earth is at the center of the picture you posted",
"That a 3D plot of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (their 3rd data release, I think.) The survey measures the distance to galaxies and quasars by taken spectra and measuring the redshift of absorption lines the the stars of those galaxies. Since the telescope used in the survey is in the northern hemisphere (in New Mexico) the entire sky is not visible, so that limits the coverage of the detector. As other people have said, our Milky Way gets in the way too, so that further reduces the sample. The survey is still ongoing (_URL_3_), so it should be possible to build a more complete map than the one that you have.",
"if the milky way is blocking our view of the rest of the universe...how come the spots obscured by the milky way are black? shouldn't it be saturated with stars from the milky way? or were the photos taken in a way that excluded the milky way region? sorry, honest question, don't mean to sound stupid.",
"Here is a pretty good representation of the hourglass shape, with actual units for the diagram and an explanation: _URL_4_"
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} | {
"url": [
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]
} | {
"url": [
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_FqXD7nfEOzk/ScMbUjRTb5I/AAAAAAAAC6I/mtTBEnF8MpM/s400/Computer+universe+simulation+1062_web.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey",
"http://www.sdss3.org/",
"http://www.astr.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/largescale.html"
]
} | Why do 3D models of the universe look like an hourglass?
In programs like Celestia and Galaxy Explorer, the visible universe is hourglass shaped [like this.](_URL_0_) Does the universe really look like this, or is it just a distorted vision of how we see it from earth, or what? | [
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|
b8hqa7 | AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! | Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.
[Autism](_URL_1_) encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.
Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.
Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like [pesticides](_URL_3_), [air pollution](_URL_0_), and [phthalates](_URL_4_).
Her [recent work](_URL_2_) shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.
Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the [NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study](_URL_5_), which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.
Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!
**Your hosts today are**:
* Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!
* Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the
Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, thank you so much for this Q & A session! I have a question: Dr. Schmidt mentions that taking folic acid whilst pregnant reduces the chances of the autism in the infant. But women with the mthfr gene mutation have trouble processing the folic acid. That mutation and the folic acid consumption is known for an increased number of autism cases. Women with the mthfr mutation are encouraged to use folinic acid instead of folic acid. So my question is: shouldn't all women be encouraged to use folinic acid - and NOT folic acid - because the majority of women do not know if they carry the mthfr mutation?",
"There are many people on the autism spectrum who do not view autism as a disorder or a disability, and so do not necessarily feel as though autism is something that needs to be prevented. (For instance, [here's an op-ed](_URL_0_) by Nikki Stevenson, who chairs a UK autism charity, which argues against a disease/disability model of autism.)\n\nHave you come across anyone who feels that way? How do they feel about your work to reduce or protect against the occurrence of autism? If an autistic person were to tell you that they feel as if your work to prevent autism at least indirectly leads to a perpetuation of negative perceptions of autistic people, how would you address their concerns?",
"I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.\n\nIt’s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.\n\nWhy does this research have to be age specific?",
"Since autism is generally described as a \"group of [...] disorders\" rather than a single disorder [NIH fact sheet](_URL_2_), does this influence of folic acid in general or vitamins more broadly represent a uniform reduction in autism, or are there certain parts of the spectrum that are more or less effected that suggest that this is only influencing one way autism is expressed or potentially caused?\n\nA related question with this would be that since autism has high comorbidities with many other conditions, does the reduction in autism correlate with a reduction in these other diagnoses as well, or only the autism rates? So, for example, an autism diagnosis is outlined in [DSM-V](_URL_2_) as something that may or may not have an accompanying intellectual impairment, but said impairment isn't part of an autism diagnosis. Does the impact of vitamins result in a decrease in intellectual impairment as well, or just a reduction in autism rates?",
"There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago). Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?",
"Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?",
"Hi there! Thanks for coming. I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.\n\nI note that many of your publications rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \"). Even your recent study (_URL_3_) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome). By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:\n\n > Alpha: 0.05 R: 5\n\n > **With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests= 0.2262 (22.62%).**\n\n > Adjustments with no correlation\nFor an overall alpha level of 0.05\n\n > Sidak's adjustment, for each test:\nLower the 0.05 to 0.0102062\n\n > Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01\n\n**When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**\n\nIn other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance. The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons? When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (_URL_4_). In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.\n\nA long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?** With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?",
"I’m aware that girls autistic “symptoms” can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later. \n\nIs gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won’t effect your data?",
"Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?",
"Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?",
"I’ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I’m interested in your perspective and insight.",
"Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD? \n\n[this position statement ](_URL_5_) from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD? \n\n\nAppendix has this additional suggested reasearch: \n• Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.\n\nAre you aware of any current research into this? \n\nThanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)",
"What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a “necessary” ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.",
"A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA. \n\nHave you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?\n\n_URL_6_",
"What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?",
"Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?",
"Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I’m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd. Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn’t use sophisticated language they can understand. \nMany parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. “Google” doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..",
"Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it’s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?",
"Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?",
"What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?",
"How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!",
"What are the largest and most common sources of the environmental contaminants you mention?",
"What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?",
"Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?",
"Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you? \n\n & #x200B;\n\nHow many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?",
"Is it possible to be an adult and be in the spectrum without knowing it?",
"I understand you specialize in environmental factors, so my question is a little off-topic / two parts. My oldest child, is low functioning, on the severe end of the spectrum. \n\n\nWe just had our second child, two months ago and I have been paranoid beyond belief. I've been getting myself convinced I can get our 2 month old to talk and end up disappointing myself. That's not the question or point though. \n\n\nThere is evidence (in some research, I can site if needed) Autism has a genetic factor. If that's potentially the case, would the environmental factors come in to play at all? Hypothetically, if we were passing down some gene, would environmental adjustments possibly help reduce the severity?",
"Is there any indication that the use of folic acid during pregnancy may have an impact on the microbiome, as the microbiome itself was linked in a study last year to autism as well?",
"Can environmental factors cause late development of autism? \n\nI apologize if this question is literally the dumbest thing you've read in a while, but you said ask anything and I am actually wondering.",
"Dr Schmidt , has anyone looked into the possible epigenetic implications? Do we know if autism is correlated with certain mthfr mutations?",
"Is there any correlation to the rise in the use of plastics with the rise of Autism rates. I was an aid back in the late 70’s and the rates then were like 1 in 2 million. Now they are what 1 in 20. If not plastic/ petrochemicals, are there any environmental suspects?",
"Hi,\n\nI live right by large sanitary landfill and since moving here I have noticed a lot of children that were born in this area have autism-at least 4 on my street. Has there been any research to see if there is a correlation between landfills and autism?",
"Do you believe \"high functioning Autism\" and autistic people who reside in the realm of almost total dysfunction actually have the same disorder?",
"I am curious, how much of the increased incidence of autism in recent decades is due to better and earlier diagnosis?",
"Hi Dr. Schmidt and Dr. Lawler, thank you so much for doing this session! My first question is how do toxicants like pesticides and phthalates affect the developing embryo? Does it disrupt cell signalling? Second, how does folic acid counteract these effects, and in addition, would folic acid still be as important if contamination from sources such as these was not an issue? My last question: At what point in development is folic acid more important? If you only begin to take supplements later in the pregnancy will it still be as beneficial as taking folic acid over the entire gestational period? \nThank you so much for your hard work and taking the time to educate us all!",
"As a preface, how big a role does the use of antibiotics during pregnancy have in terms of an impact on the rate of ASD?\n\nAnd more specifically, do other factors, such as age, term, genetic predisposition, etc., increase the rates in an **exponential** manner with an exposure to antibiotics?\n\nFor clarification, let’s say one factor increases the rate by 5% and another factor increases it by 2%. Are there any known examples where those two factors, present together, increase the rate of ASD by more than 7%?",
"Hi! In my practice I meet many autistic patients. This is really big differences in the matter of grade and pattern. Some patients are more sensible for changes, some for social stress, and so one. Do you really think that so different clinical picture can depend on one cause? Do you think that different causes make one autism disorder with many manifestation, or do you think that autism's manifestations and various constellations of clinical traits are really bunch of different disorders, similar to each other?",
"Thank you for this. As a person who evaluates children for the presence of ASD, what Developmental History information would you consider to be a less widely known “red flag” that we as evaluators should know about? Of course the common “sibling with ASD” would be one, but are there any that you find surprising links that we may want to keep our eyes open for?",
"Would exposure to disease increase the chances of a child developing autism? I know enough about childhood disease that it can delay development, but I don't know to what extent it can delay development. I also happen to be on the autism spectrum, and I was sick often as a child, due to a genetic disorder. Not to mention I experienced childhood trauma as well.",
"I just read the book Brain Maker by David Perlmutter , MD, and it seems to claim that a lot of modern neurological disorders, including Autism, are caused by an unhealthy micro-biome that results from overuse of antibiotics and the typical modern American diet.\n\nAre you familiar with his work? If so, what is your opinion of his conclusions?",
"Hello, is there any link between Mobile/cell phones use in young children to autism? Apparently my local newspaper just put some lines stating that there is increased risk of autism if 2-3 year old are at high risk of autism of they use mobile phones. I know it's BS. But still want to confirm. Thanks!",
"Any correlation with mosquito populations? I often wonder if the reason there is an association with areas spraying for mosquitos isn’t because of the insecticide, but rather the mosquitos themselves.\n\nAnd give the Zika virus, is it possible there is a viral infection transmitted by mosquitos responsible for at least one vector to Autism?",
"Hi Dr. Schmidt! I used to work on the CHARGE and MARBLES studies so it’s really exciting to see you here on Reddit. I don’t have any questions but just wanted to say it’s always great to see the impact of the research on our understanding of genetic and environmental risk factors for ASD.",
"In saying environmental factors contributing to ASD, do you refer to any specific compounds/pollutants/toxins? Also, to how much of an extent do they have a bearing on the chance that a child will have ASD, compared to the genetic factors?",
"Several studies show states of inflammation occurring in the brain in people with autism; is this most likely due to an autoimmune response or is there some other likely cause for the inflammation?",
"How well do shows like the good doctor (which is about an autistic doctor who excels in his field) portray autism. How often is it a benefit?",
"Is your lab, or do you know of any labs, researching the reason for the increased ASD prevelance in males compared to females?",
"What would be a comphrensive list of current \"best practices\" over a pregnancy for reducing the risk of autism?",
"Is there a link between Round up and autism?",
"Can allergies/food and environmental sensitivities be a contributing factor?"
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"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Joint+effects+of+prenatal+air+pollutant+exposure+and+maternal+folic+acid+supplementation+on+risk+of+autism+spectrum+disorder",
"https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/conditions/autism/index.cfm",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Association+of+Maternal+Prenatal+Vitamin+Use+With+Risk+for+Autism+Spectrum+Disorder+Recurrence+in+Young+Siblings",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Combined+Prenatal+Pesticide+Exposure+and+Folic+Acid+Intake+in+Relation+to+Autism+Spectrum+Disorder",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Prenatal+exposure+to+phthalates+and+autism+spectrum+disorder+in+the+MARBLES+study",
"https://health.ucdavis.edu/mindinstitute/research/marbles/index.html"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2015/jul/16/autism-doesnt-have-to-be-viewed-as-a-disability-or-disorder",
"https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Autism-Spectrum-Disorder-Fact-Sheet",
"https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html",
"https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608",
"https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4",
"https://www.endocrine.org/-/media/endosociety/files/advocacy-and-outreach/position-statements/2018/position_statement_edcs_in_the_european_union.pdf?la=en",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything!
Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children. [Autism](_URL_1_) encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States. Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy. Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like [pesticides](_URL_3_), [air pollution](_URL_0_), and [phthalates](_URL_4_). Her [recent work](_URL_2_) shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology. Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the [NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study](_URL_5_), which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism. Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD! **Your hosts today are**: * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons! * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies! | [
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|
3lpgka | Why do I get the conservation of energy when I solve the Euler-Lagrange equation? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cv879p9",
"cv8af63",
"cv8l4ea"
],
"text": [
"If a Lagrangian has no explicit time dependence, then the system exhibits conservation of energy. The energy turns out to be the Hamiltonian H associated to the Lagrangian L (i.e., H is the Legendre transform of L with respect to the velocity variables).",
"There's a theorem called Noether's Theorem that says that when a Lagrangian (or the action) is invariant under a particular transformation, the system exhibits a symmetry pertaining to that transformation. \n\nIn the case of conservation of energy, when we shift the system from q(t) to q(t+dt), you can easily see that the action is invariant.",
"Strictly speaking, no explicit time dependence in the Lagrangian means that the Hamiltonian, H, is a constant of the motion, which will not necessarily be the total energy of the system. While in many cases of course it is, there are fairly simple systems you can construct where H is conserved, but it does not correspond to the total energy."
],
"score": [
16,
15,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why do I get the conservation of energy when I solve the Euler-Lagrange equation?
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7oyzqx | Do babies have reason, or is their behaviour dictated solely by their insticts? (since they haven’t learned having habits like kids and adults do) | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I’m not a behavioral scientist but did take a animal behavior course when I got my degree so I think I can answer this.\n\nBy reasoning I think you mean making decisions. Almost every behavior has an innate and a learned component to it. Even bees have learned components to their behavior when they search for places to make a hive.\n\nHuman babies definitely have a lot of innate behaviors or else we wouldn’t know what to give them. If a baby had to learn how to cry this way or that way to get this or that then they would suffer for it. So, certain baby cries in general across all babies mean the same. The frequency of certain cries or tone will change though if it elicits a response from the caretaker that is favorable for the baby.\n\nNow do they have reason? In the sense that they make decisions, yes. It may be basic but their decision making is only rudimentary because at that stage they are just trying to grow. The need to be socialized and learn habits is in no way beneficial to them. They need food, comfort, sleep, and stimulation at that stage.\n\nNot sure if I answered your question but that’s what I got on the subject.",
"The first three months of a human baby’s life is basically the fourth trimester. They’re pretty larval. But beyond that, they’re very intelligent. And the intelligence grows exponentially. Well before the end of the first year they’re pretty damn smart- will use objects as tools, push a stool up to something to climb up, etc.\n\nThe problem is language. They get frustrated because they can’t communicate in great detail. And we can’t really test reasoning ability before the kid can reliably talk.",
"Not necessarily germane to the discussion, but possibly useful?\n\nOne of the \"Self Awareness Tests\" that is used by scientists is to test if a creature can recognize itself in a mirror. As in, understand that the image in the mirror IS the creature, not another one or one that looks like it.\n\nThe usual method is to place a mirror in the creatures environment for some time to allow it to get used to it. Then they subtly place a dot on the creatures head where it would see it in a mirror, taking care not to leave any real sensation (a wet spot for example might draw attention to it). The next time the creature is exposed to the mirror they see if the creature reacts to the dot.\n\nNow, it's not necessarily conclusive when a creature ignores the dot, as it is certainly possible they recognize themselves but either do not or cannot care about the dot.\n\nHowever, for some creatures such as elephants, dolphins, and certain birds, they usually clearly understand that the dot is on them and take some form of action about it (elephants rub at it, birds will preen, I forget what dolphins do).\n\nNow, as to how this relates to babies, the average human baby does not pass this test until 18 months of age.",
"The wording of your question, though I get where you're headed, is a little off for the answer I think you're looking for. Compared to many animals, babies are born very under-developed. A simple example is many animals are able to walk at birth. Newborn babies aren't even aware they have limbs, and they're definitely not able to control them. Babies can't even see past ~10 inches (or ~25 cm). I think it's more accurate to think of babies as reacting to this big new world they were just born into, rather than reason their every move.\n\nLook up baby's month by month progression. There are many sites that explain what's going on with their development!",
"A lot depends on where in their developmental cycle they are. A newborn baby isn't going to have nearly the capacity to reason (i.e., likely none at all) versus a 3 to 6 month old.\n\n[Even 2.5 month old infants can reason about hidden objects](_URL_0_), as they offer behavioural cues about their expectations. For instance, if you hold a ball in your hand, move your hand behind an obstacle, the infant may look to the other side of the obstacle where they expect the ball in your hand to emerge. This shows the capacity to understand that just because the ball is hidden does not mean it no longer exists, as well as extrapolating motion, and comprehending distance (e.g., occluding obstacles are closer than the object being tracked)."
],
"score": [
104,
29,
17,
10,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4215973/"
]
} | Do babies have reason, or is their behaviour dictated solely by their insticts? (since they haven’t learned having habits like kids and adults do)
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n2rhk | What are some major everyday things that would not exist without NASA/The Space Race? | I always hear about how we received a lot of significant technological advances thanks to the space race, like computers, Tang and frozen dinners, I'd like to find some sources that explain exactly how and what technologies were developed through NASA that shape the modern world. | askscience | {
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"_URL_0_\n\nhere is a short list from NASA's website",
"Just thinking about some fields which the space race would have provided major advances in.\n\n* Robotics - this one is obvious robot arms etc were developed for carrying out space missions.\n\n* miniaturised computing. Spaceships needed powerful yet small computers.\n\n* Materials - a very obvious one, teflon is one example but ultralight aerogels, ultra strong, heat resistant metal alloys etc also came from space exploration.\n\n* Television, almost all boradcasts go through a satellite at some point!\n\n* Weather forecasting, satellites have massively helped ability to forecast weather.\n\n* GPS - a very everyday device wouldnt be possible without space exploration\n\n* Fuel cells - these weren't really that popular a tech till apollo developed them further\n\n* Spacesuits contain a lot of health monitoring equipment that needed miniaturisation.\n\n* Freeze dried food.\n\n* Solar panels\n\n* Memory foam and memory metals\n\n* advances in safe sewage treatment\n\nI am sure there are literally hundreds more things, you can probably find dozens of things in your house that nasa is responsible for helping invent/develop for space use.",
"I think it's a very difficult, if not impossible question to answer based on how it's worded. Just because NASA invented something (possibly during the space race), doesn't mean it would not have later been invented by someone else for some other reason.\n\nFor example, NASA invented the robotic arm (based on one of the comments below), but someone else could have very well invented a robotic arm later for a different use.",
"I think you should split the question into *manned* and *unmanned* space flight. NASA claims many inventions that actually didn’t come from them (few companies complain, as association with NASA is great advertisement). Some inventions they fostered by supplying money (NASA Small Business Programs) to develop various technologies (not necessarily space related). I’ll venture that you can’t list *one* everyday thing directly originating from manned space flight.\n\nThe so called Spin-Off from NASA is a quagmire of mythology.",
"If you google:\n\nbenefits space program\n\nyou'll see a couple of good sites for this"
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} | What are some major everyday things that would not exist without NASA/The Space Race?
I always hear about how we received a lot of significant technological advances thanks to the space race, like computers, Tang and frozen dinners, I'd like to find some sources that explain exactly how and what technologies were developed through NASA that shape the modern world. | [
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8ju2yb | I found these circles on a map which are weird formations; what made them? | I'll try to make this brief. I was looking on a local satellite map in my area, Thumb of Michigan, USA, and I found several circles, all in the area, if not the same section.
Some of it's state land, so I hiked out there to see what it was. There's no trails (new or old distinguishable) to any of these. They're a section of land, about 300-400 feet round, with...20-30 feet of water, like a moat, around it. There's no markings or telling of equipment that I could see that made these. I've asked people who know about the CCC, local historians, soil testing people, and a few logging gurus, and none of them can tell me what it is.
As best as I can tell, the trees are 70-135 years old on these patches of land.
Here's a picture from Imgur _URL_0_
And I found it originally from here: _URL_1_
You can see a view on Google Maps, but it must have to do with leaves covering it or what not. On the GIS map, there's 20+ of these. | askscience | {
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"Considering the location, I would suspect they are collapsed pingos from the era when the land was tundra at the end of the last glacial era. [Pingos](_URL_0_) are hills that rise in permafrost zones when a pocket of underground water freezes and heaves the land up in to a small conic shaped hill. If/when the area warms, the ice melts and the hill subsides into small round ponds (illustration of one in the netherlands is shown in the wiki link above)",
"There's an area near me that has a fair number of earthworks that look like these, called [Mounds State Park](_URL_2_). The ones at Mounds are Native American ceremonial mounds, dating back to the Adena culture in 1000-200BC.\n\nBased on some very brief research, there [have been Native American mounds identified](_URL_2_) in what I think is your area, although I don't see Indian Fields township specifically mentioned (also couldn't find out if that township existed in 1944).",
"It's probably from native americans before michigan was settled by Europeans.\n\nMichigan used to be covered in earthworks made by the native americans. Much of these earthworks have been obliterated by farming/development. It looks like this area hasn't because it is too swampy. \n\nHere's an old, but very detailed, book describing Native American artifacts and earthworks in Michigan, \"Primitive Man in Michigan\"\n_URL_3_\n\nHere's an image from that book _URL_4_ it shows the number of authenticated mounds in each county.\n\nEDIT: I just noticed there are petroglyphs over in Sanilac. That's like 30 miles down the Cass river. Native americans were in the area for thousands of years, it's not surprising some signs are left after a few hundred years of the white people.",
"These features don't fit any obvious geological feature. I would have to inspect them in person to really tell but I'd assume they're man made. But if they are natural features, they must be glacial features. A combination of kettle and a kame.",
"[Here is a closeup from google maps of the same area, this time with greenery.](_URL_5_)",
"Cool question! I see few commenters are trying to explain why the \"bullseye\" feature occurs. Say you want to build a mound, maybe because you want a dry platform above the swamp, maybe for spiritual reasons, maybe because you just think mounds are cool. What's the easiest way to build that mound? Simple- go around the mound site in a circle, digging up dirt and shoveling it into the center. When you're done, you have a raised area in the center with a depressed ring all around the outside. Since the water table is so close to the surface here, that ring floods and becomes a moat.\n\nAlthough I think it's most likely that humans were the \"mound builders\" in this instance, other animals are responsible for a similar phenomenon. [Mima mounds](_URL_6_) are (much smaller) mounds created by prairie dogs or other burrowers when the water table is close to the surface. Unlike /u/shiningPate 's suggested pingos, a single mima mound shares the ring moat feature from your picture.",
"Without knowing more its impossible to say. Have you visited these sites? How did you determine the age of the trees?\n\nI will preface what I am about to say that this is all very speculative and that more information is needed if you want a more accurate conclusion\n\nThey almost look similar to burial mounds used by some of the neighboring native tribes. My apologies for merely speculating but it's the closest I can get without seeing something more than an aerial photo.\n\nThis is the \"Great Mound\" of Mounds state park located in Anderson Indiana. They could share some similarities. \n\n_URL_7_",
"op, I see that you've posted to a couple of good communities but would recommend reaching out to r/geography and r/forestry and r/ecology. \n\nPersonally, I doubt that this is mound\\-builder work. Mound builders lived pretty far south and to my \\(amateur\\) knowledge never did they create any moats. The Anishinaabeg who lived in the area at contact \\(and by my cursory research likely for some time before\\) and were never known to make any such constructions. Furthermore, the lack of actual mounds here means that if someone did dig these moats then they removed the soil by some distance... this would require quite a bit of work that it stretches the imagination to assume the pre\\-columbians in this area would dispose of lightly. Perhaps as a system of agriculture, some experimentation with irrigated farming in wetland similar to what the Maya would accomplish on a large scale?\n\nThat being said, the uniformity of these features is uncanny and while that does not exclude the possibility of non\\-human origin it does seem to indicate that. If this is the work of Native Americans, it would probably be huge... I suspect that if these are anthropomorphic features that they are of a more recent vintage. I notice that all of these features are on state land, mostly DNR, and I suspect that the state put them there. It's of course possible that settlers erased these features from their lands when they converted the land to farming but I would expect at least some scarring of the landscape to be visible today."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://imgur.com/a/aRt3C0N",
"https://www.tuscolacounty.org/gis/"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingo",
"https://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genpub/1265156.0001.001/34?page=root;size=100;view=text",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mounds_State_Park",
"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015015368973;view=1up;seq=7",
"https://imgur.com/a/qODkanR",
"https://www.google.com/maps/place/W+Bliss+Rd,+Caro,+MI+48723/@43.4310982,-83.4271363,143m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x88241026e80cbaf1:0x41f14f9d2c9c57bf!8m2!3d43.4230936!4d-83.4201249",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mima_mounds",
"https://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/0c/3b/82/ee/this-is-the-great-mound.jpg"
]
} | I found these circles on a map which are weird formations; what made them?
I'll try to make this brief. I was looking on a local satellite map in my area, Thumb of Michigan, USA, and I found several circles, all in the area, if not the same section. Some of it's state land, so I hiked out there to see what it was. There's no trails (new or old distinguishable) to any of these. They're a section of land, about 300-400 feet round, with...20-30 feet of water, like a moat, around it. There's no markings or telling of equipment that I could see that made these. I've asked people who know about the CCC, local historians, soil testing people, and a few logging gurus, and none of them can tell me what it is. As best as I can tell, the trees are 70-135 years old on these patches of land. Here's a picture from Imgur _URL_0_ And I found it originally from here: _URL_1_ You can see a view on Google Maps, but it must have to do with leaves covering it or what not. On the GIS map, there's 20+ of these. | [
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3j4tjv | Is there any evidence of people time travelling? | If people in the future had perfected time travelling, wouldn't we be able to see them? Or would there possibly be some sort of "time travelling laws"? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cumd10u",
"cumfv36",
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"cumuswd"
],
"text": [
"This question is not as far fetched as you imagine. [Nemirof and Wilson](_URL_0_) looked for evidence of people googling certain news items like \"Pope Francis\" before they became news, to see if people from the future were googling things from their time in the past. They found nothing.",
"Stephen Hawking hosted a party for time travelers. Nobody from the future showed up. Hawking has stated that backward time travel is impossible: _URL_1_\n\nBut going into the future by reaching relativistic speeds is well accepted.",
"Time dilation allows us to (theoretically) travel into the future: get in a rocket, blast off approaching the speed of light, and come back, and you'll be a year older (or however long it took you to fly away and come back) while Earth will have aged decades, centuries, or even millennia. \n\nTraveling backwards in time is not possible, but as a mind exercise consider this (impossible) scenario: take a rocket ship and travel faster than the speed of light away from Earth. Now take the giant telescope you brought with and point it at Earth: you'll see the Wright brothers' first flight, the building of the pyramids, or even dinosaurs roaming around.",
"I hope someone could clear this up for me: \nI am having a hard time wrapping my head around the twin paradox atm. \nI tried to undestand it with [this video](_URL_2_). \nI still do not understand why the traveller is the \"true travelling\". \nFrom his PoV it's earth that travels isn't it? So how come the situation is not symmetrical? \n\nI mean in reality it's easier. We have more frames to choose from and can easily say that it's really the traveller who is moving near c not the earth. But blending out anything but the traveler and earth gives us only 2 frames which are symmetrical/ the same for each observer?"
],
"score": [
29,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1312.7128",
"http://www.space.com/28000-physicist-kip-thorne-wildest-theories.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K6iMAjfz1k8"
]
} | Is there any evidence of people time travelling?
If people in the future had perfected time travelling, wouldn't we be able to see them? Or would there possibly be some sort of "time travelling laws"? | [
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|
wn6fe | Do humans actually contain everything a human body needs in an available form? | It's often joked referring to cannibalism that the human body contains literally everything a human body needs. But is that necessarily true?
I was thinking about polar explorers being forced to eat their dogs and losing their hair and getting ill. The livers of the dogs were poisonously high in vitamin A.
Would similar problems turn up in human cannibalism? Are there any nutrients that, once consumed, are locked up in an indigestible form? I'm thinking things like the keratin in hair, which is basically locked up protein.
I'm aware this is a weird and even morbid question, but it's something I've never heard come up before in 'stuck on a desert island' scenarios. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5ewoyy",
"c5err7q",
"c5eu0xw",
"c5estia"
],
"text": [
"Half of the 20 major amino acids we require can't be produced by the human body and need to be incorporated through diet. As we don't store excess amino acids, in regards to your cannibal example, humans could not live exclusively on humans alone unless those being eaten were obtaining amino acids from eating other things in their diet. [University of Arizona's Bio Department has a nice little write-up on amino acids](_URL_0_) if you want more details.",
"As an additional question: does the main problem lie with our limited metabolism?",
"The human body only different from the body of another omnivore (say, a bear) in one way: every disease that is in the meat *will* infect the eater, so if you're going to eat human make sure you cook it well done.\n\nThere are populations of humans (eskimos, for example) whose diet consists almost solely of meat. There have been a couple of studies (article about studies [here](_URL_1_)) where people subsisted entirely on red meat (no suppliments) for varying amounts of time, so it seems to be possible.",
"> Would similar problems turn up in human cannibalism?\n\nPrions are a problem with regular cannibalism.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_"
],
"score": [
46,
30,
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4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/aa/aa.html",
"http://inhumanexperiment.blogspot.com/2009/09/two-brave-men-who-ate-nothing-but-meat.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru_%28disease%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creutzfeldt-Jakob_disease"
]
} | Do humans actually contain everything a human body needs in an available form?
It's often joked referring to cannibalism that the human body contains literally everything a human body needs. But is that necessarily true? I was thinking about polar explorers being forced to eat their dogs and losing their hair and getting ill. The livers of the dogs were poisonously high in vitamin A. Would similar problems turn up in human cannibalism? Are there any nutrients that, once consumed, are locked up in an indigestible form? I'm thinking things like the keratin in hair, which is basically locked up protein. I'm aware this is a weird and even morbid question, but it's something I've never heard come up before in 'stuck on a desert island' scenarios. | [
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14dr09 | Is there a theory for or a way classifying errors that occur only sometimes? | Within the little programming experience I've had it generally seems that either theres an error in my code and it will compile or it wont. I know that then there are run time errors or exceptions that can occur when a possibility isn't accounted for. Furthermore I know that in C you have to free up memory after its use otherwise a perfectly functional program can take up more and more space over time and eventually just crash every time it opens. The point is that these all seem to me like examples of a pathological problems that will at one point or another render the program unuseable.
However, while browsing the internet or on my smart phone I often encounter errors that can easily be solved by resarting the app or refreshing the page. Sometimes they happen rarely, other ones happen half the time you try the action, but the other half the time it works. Are these really just a coffeed out programers who put a > instead of a > = hidden somewhere in 1000 lines of code or is there something about complex, multi layered programs that generates this kind of behavior that you wouldn't see in a simple one? | askscience | {
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"Senior developer here.\n\nI have seen problems that appear infrequently (observed/reported in less than 1:100.000 cases) or that are extremely hard (or impossible) to reproduce in a controlled environment; they're extremely hard to fix because of the lack of information about the conditions under which a problem occurred. There is, indeed, a huge problem whenever there seems to be an issue that does not have 100% reproduction rate, with clearly defined steps.\n\nA few examples of underlying causes of the tricky problmes include:\n\n* uninitialized variables - might have a default, predictable behaviour in controlled environments but will produce random results in the field\n\n* lack of error checking - parameter validation, handling failures (e.g. temporary loss of Internet connectivity)\n\n* sequencing problems - thread synchronization, access to shared resources, deadlocks\n\n* subtle problems residing at very low levels - drivers, API calls (operating systems and frameworks aren't perfect)\n\n* system configuration - other software or mods interfering with the normal, expected behaviour of your own software\n\nThese usually reflect some kind of bad practice, either at the programming level (e.g. based on assumptions, without proper handling of unexpected scenarios) or at the product management level (e.g. \"if it works don't mess with it\", \"it's ready for the market\", etc.)\n\nThe proper way to beef up your existing code is to use tests:\n\n* [unit tests](_URL_1_) - whenever you write/change a portion of code (e.g. a function) you should write associated tests that check if it (still) behaves in the intended way\n\n* [integration tests](_URL_0_) - usually applied for larger modules / groups of modules, taken as black boxes (i.e. \"I don't know how it works but I know what it should do\") and checking for proper functionality\n\n* code coverage - using tools that determine what logical branches of your code have been used in the previous cases; lack of coverage means that there are pieces of code that haven't been used, and implicitly tested properly, which means you need to write even more tests\n\n* beta testing - preferably using an enhanced product to save information about usage habits and detailed information about problems that appear\n\nIt is important to test both against \"acceptable\", expected use and also erroneous use (e.g. passing invalid arguments, having exceptions thrown or or errors returned by dependencies).\n\nFrom the management point of view, problems can be avoided by:\n\n* establishing a good set of specifications for the product(s) and checking against them regularly\n\n* setting workable deadlines (there's a whole theory on risk management here - the bottom line is that you can lose more money by releasing a faulty product than postponing its release)\n\n* planning for refactoring & maintenance - managers will usually shy away from these things because it involves time spent with no immediate benefit (e.g. no new features)\n\nOf course, there are a lot more bullets for each list and lots to talk about each one; this should give you a brief overview of the process and some of its points of potential failure.",
"Aside from amoralnihilist's answer, which was mostly adequate, there is something else to consider:\n\n > Are these really just a coffeed out programers who put a > instead of a > = hidden somewhere in 1000 lines of code \n\nMaybe, but that wouldn't be the whole story...\n\n > or is there something about complex, multi layered programs that generates this kind of behavior that you wouldn't see in a simple one?\n\nThink about the examples you gave: the internet and a smart phone (the internet, or some kind of network, again). Any number of things could cause an error and they might not be local to your phone.\n\nIf some system between you and the server you are communicating with drops some packets or something somewhere takes too long to respond then you might get an error that you wouldn't get when everything works as planned. These errors might put your application in an unstable state and restarting might solve that.\n\namoralnihilist makes a good point, but I don't think he is necessarily touching on your exact question. You seem to be asking about a program being deterministic, and it should be. With the exact same input (including random number seeds/random numbers, etc.) it should behave exactly the same every time. But with the level of complexity of today's programs, that input is rarely actually exactly the same. For example, any program that has the current time as an input will essentially never have the same input and therefore will not necessarily behave the same way every time it is run. Whether it runs correctly according to that input brings us into amoralnihilist's point.\n\nBut what you are observing has more to do with a program's input changing and therefore its behavior changing. Occasionally that change in behavior manifests as an error that didn't normally happen given some other different input.",
"Edit: Ignore me. Garthenius did a better job.\n\nOthers in this thread have given reasonable answers for the concept of non-deterministic input. There's a second piece to that however and that's the program's state. \n\nPulling back for a moment any program can be broken down into one or more finite state machines. Some of these machines are running in parallel (I.E. multi-threaded). At any given moment the system (the program, OS, hardware, etc) is in a given state. From a given state with a given input you will transition to another specific state.\n\nThe issue is that the state of a system is a very complex thing and in most situations is not known to the programmer. There are some circumstances when it is (you're running in a debugger etc) but for the most part during run time the state can only be inferred by what is going on with the output.\n\nWhen you hit refresh the system is actually in a different state than when you initially loaded the page. Some things will be in the cache that weren't the first time, the server has likely cached some things from the last request etc.\n\nInterestingly this same problem of state is why rebooting a computer solves a lot of problems. You are returning it to a known state (fresh boot) from an unknown (and likely unrecoverable) state.\n\nOK, now to poke at your actual question: Yes there are classifications of runtime errors that occur very rarely or only under very specific circumstances. Overall they are called 'hard to reproduce' errors. Within these you have two major categories - out of bounds and race conditions.\n\nOut of bounds errors occur when the program receives input it is not able to handle. This could be as simple as trying to put a number too large into a signed variable (and thus flipping it to negative) or as complex (and unpredictable) as a [soft error](_URL_2_).\n\nRace conditions are much harder to deal with. That is when you have two functions where you cannot tell which will complete first (they're running on different threads) but you assume that one of them will always complete first and your code reflects that assumption. This is not always easy to detect as that kind of assumption can result in very subtle code errors. The best example of this I heard about in the 1990's when there was a microwave that would toggle the coils when you opened the door and also when the timer hit 0. If you manage to open the door in the same clock cycle (we're talking millionths of a second) that the timer hit 0 it would turn the microwave off and right back on... with the door open.\n\nNeedless to say that kind of chance isn't something that ever happened in testing. I only know about it because my professor still has the scar under his wedding ring where the microwave superheated the gold in the half a second it took him to realize what was happening and shut the door again.\n\ntl;dr: Yes.",
"I like these answers, but as a programmer I can add a bit. They are correct but they don't come up to the level of the application experience you're describing. Code, generally speaking, is deterministic within a static set of parameters. Translation: Give it the same input, and unless something's woefully wrong, you're going to get the same output. Even seemingly random code events (random number generators, for example) will give the same output when given the same input. If you ask Java for a random number and give it a seed of zero, you're going to get the same number back every time. So instead of zero, you seed it with the current time - this number is always changing, so you get a closer-to-random number...but the algorithm is still deterministic. \n\nSo why does a program run today and crash tomorrow? \n\nThere are a lot of parameters associated with a complex application. Networking delays and broken connections can throw the application into a block of code with a bug where a working connection would never run into that bug. Resource availability (app runs out of memory, for example) may or may not be handled correctly by the programmer. Bugs exist in all but the simplest code, from the operating system up to the GUI of your application. \n\nMy point is that a a vast majority of complex applications are not deterministic in the real world. When your inputs change, your outputs can change if the variability is not accounted for. Some of these situations are indeed programmers typing > where they meant > =, leading to a bug which won't show up until a comparison between identical values is made. Other problems come from lack of foresight. The programmer simple does not plan for a situation that arises. \n\nHope that helps!",
"> is there something about complex, multi layered programs that generates this kind of behavior that you wouldn't see in a simple one?\n\nIn general, you can't tell what a program is going to do with a given input until you run it. This is true of any Turing-complete programming language (basically all general-purpose languages: C, Java, Python, Javascript, Haskell, [Whitespace](_URL_3_, all of them). The [halting problem](_URL_4_) is one example of this principle.\n\nTesting can ensure that, for some inputs, a program is correct. For simple programs you might even be able to list by hand all the possible inputs and the expected outputs (which suggests that you don't need a program to solve your problem, you need a table). But complex programs usually have complex input spaces, so it's impossible to cover even a small fraction of them with tests. So there will almost always be important cases that were not tested and some of those will have errors.\n\nSome languages have features which eliminate broad classes of programming errors. For instance, garbage-collecting languages such as Java eliminate many issues related to memory safety and memory leaks. Statically typed languages such as Haskell eliminate type errors.\n\nBut for a language to be useful, it also has to be dangerous: in any language, you can always write a program that won't halt, or that will blow the stack, or exhibit other behavior that the programmer didn't intend. In every Turing-complete language it's possible to shoot yourself in the foot.\n\nProgramming ends up attacking a problem from two ends: at one end, eliminate common errors and make the language \"do what I mean\" as much as possible. At the other, test parts of the input space where the program is likely to have errors. The two approaches can never meet in the middle, but with some savvy they'll make the program correct for most of the important cases.\n\n**TL;DR you can never guarantee your program is correct**",
"Why restarting helps: a program has an internal memory state, and when this gets corrupted due to a bug it can take a while until the effects start to appear. First perhaps one number in the memory is wrong, but because that number is wrong other code that depends on that number starts to go wrong as well, corrupting even more state. In a complex application a lot of code runs at unpredictable times in response to user input or other I/O. For example suppose there is some internal state of the program that gets modified both when you click on some button and when a network request is received by your program. When these two happen at overlapping times (this happens very rarely) then it can be that the mouse handling code is in the middle of modifying the state and meanwhile the network request code starts working with the state that is halfway modified, thus corrupting stuff.\n\nAs for why these kinds of errors that happen rarely or at unpredictable times occur most often in real world applications, the explanation is simple: if an error happens often it will be noticed by the programmers and if it is predictable it will be easy to fix. If an error that happens rarely and the effects unpredictable and happen some time after the memory is already corrupted it is very hard to detect and it's hard to find the root cause, thus these errors tend to get fixed less often.",
"I'm currently doing research with fault and failure prediction models for my master thesis and as far as I can tell software engineering hasn't been around for long enough (60 years I believe?) to give us enough data about software life cycles (we haven't been collecting data for all of these 60 years) with which to build a proper theory of software engineering (i.e. if you build/maintain your software in X way then you will have Y fault/failure events per Z units of code and T units of time....or something to that effect). More so, new programming paradigms seem to be introduced and adopted every 10 years or so and thus what may have been a great development process for some batch software would produce a crap oop application. We currently have many different software life cycle models which are designed to minimize the amount of fault/failure events and they do just that to a certain extent. What is evident every time your phone/pc/xbox craps out is our ignorance of the way huge multi-million line pieces of software interact with themselves as well as with each other in the real world. It sucks that the best I can tell you is shit *just* happens with your computers a small percentage of the time, but at the same time it's exciting for people like me because there's new science in those faults and failures.\n\nEdit: I a word."
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]
} | Is there a theory for or a way classifying errors that occur only sometimes?
Within the little programming experience I've had it generally seems that either theres an error in my code and it will compile or it wont. I know that then there are run time errors or exceptions that can occur when a possibility isn't accounted for. Furthermore I know that in C you have to free up memory after its use otherwise a perfectly functional program can take up more and more space over time and eventually just crash every time it opens. The point is that these all seem to me like examples of a pathological problems that will at one point or another render the program unuseable. However, while browsing the internet or on my smart phone I often encounter errors that can easily be solved by resarting the app or refreshing the page. Sometimes they happen rarely, other ones happen half the time you try the action, but the other half the time it works. Are these really just a coffeed out programers who put a > instead of a > = hidden somewhere in 1000 lines of code or is there something about complex, multi layered programs that generates this kind of behavior that you wouldn't see in a simple one? | [
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qspt7 | What are some of the consequences of human skull elongation? | Looking at [this image!](_URL_0_) it just looks so unnatural. Will the brain of a person with an elongated skull function normally, or will there be any specific negative consequences? | askscience | {
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"Please everyone: If you make a top level comment, do not make jokes and make sure to cite your material. No more alien jokes please, they will just get deleted as soon as they are made.",
"The archaeological record shows no evidence of any cultural indicators (different burial practices, grave goods) that would suggest that they were considered to be any different from individuals with non-modified crania. In spite of this suggestion of cognitive comparability, archaeologists and osteologists are generally of the opinion that this would have almost certainly led to significant changes in the brain. \n\n**TL;DR: Without modern examples it is hard to know for certain whether or not it led to abnormal brain functioning, but it almost certainly would have.**\n\nSources: [Anton 1989](_URL_1_), [Ortner 1981](_URL_0_), and me, because it's what I study.\n\nEdit: Sources and formatting",
"I don't know how to phrase this tactifully or intelligently so I'll just come out and ask: WTF happened to those people's heads?",
"If the brain case is not filled completely with brain matter there will be a much higher possibility of mechanical damage. I've really no idea as to wether or not the brain would fill these spaces if the there is an artificial increase from normal volume. I'd need an MRI/CT with a brain inside to give an idea. Assuming there is an increase in overall volume, you'd most likely see an increased rate of cervical spinal injury due to increased weight of the skull. \n\nI've had a look through PUBMED and there is some information in regards to the mechanics of how it is done but I was unable to find any specifics regarding physoliogical effects of it. Probably due to the scarcity of people exhibiting this sort of deformation in modern times.",
"Here is an [article](_URL_2_) on the subject you may find interesting. \n\nAlso, you may find more discussion on the topic over on r/Anthropology. \n\n**Abstract**\n\n*Building upon recent studies of settlement patterns and material cultural, this paper focuses on human body modification\npreserved in human bone as a complementary means of studying diversity in ancient societies. A review of ethnohistorical\nsources in conjunction with a human osteological study of cranial shape modification offers original data\nregarding diversity in Tiwanaku society, which was situated in the southern Andes from ca.AD500–1100. The study sample\nincludes 412 individuals from the site of Tiwanaku, surrounding sites in the Tiwanaku and Katari valleys, and Tiwanaku-\naffiliated sites in the Moquegua valley of southern Peru. Adistinct regional pattern is clear in the ways in which head\nform was modified. In the Moquegua valley, solely fronto-occipital modification was employed, while in the Katari valley\na distinctly different, annular modification was practiced. In contrast, individuals interred in the capital city of Tiwanaku\ndisplayed both head form styles. These results suggest that diverse groups of people from neighboring areas were drawn to\nthe Tiwanaku capital in the highlands, and cranial shape modification was involved in symbolic boundary maintenance at\nthe juncture of two distinct environmental niches, the precise location of the capital site of Tiwanaku.*",
"As several other people here have noted, varying levels of artificial cranial deformation have, in some parts of the world in the past, been practiced. This seems to have been most commonly accomplished using bindings, sometimes on their own and sometimes in tandem with cradleboards.\n\nAnd we also see what we think is unintentional deformation from the use of cradleboards.\n\nAs far as we known, there are no negative cognitive or anatomical/physical consequences to this. The brain is a developmentally plastic organ and grows / expands in the shape it's given. We do see sometimes what have been called wormian or \"Inca bones\" (from the Inca skulls where this practice has been observed), small additional bones and sutures in the cranial vault, but these are not dangerous and as the skull's sutures close during life, these bones / sutures fuse with the rest just as any of the cranial bones do.",
"Not as pronounced as your image but perhaps my story has some relevance:\n\nWhen my son was three days old he was diagnosed with saggital craniosynostosis. Basically, part of his skull was fused tight and would not grow normally to accomodate his developing brain. What you end up with is a very elongated head as the brain grows, finding the paths of least resistance. My son had some tests to determine if there would be any impairment to his eyes (they were fine) and we were assured that there would be no negatives as far as cognitive development. Correcting the craniosynostosis was classified as a cosmetic surgery. And everything went perfectly and my boy's head looks the same as any other for his age.\n\nHere's an example of a sag baby: _URL_3_\n\nTL;DR: the brain adapts to its own skull's shape and usually does just fine.",
"Question, not response:\n\nWhat would the consequences of the elongation be in terms of cranial trauma? Were these people especially prone to fractures? Assuming that the brain may or may not grow to fill the augmented space, would the distortion seem to leave certain lobes especially unprotected against blunt force?"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/ParacasSkullsIcaMuseum.jpg"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://books.google.ca/books?id=k4WnC6U2YfoC&lpg=PP2&ots=LU3z5-tubN&dq=ortner%20putschar%201981%20&lr&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.1330790213/abstract",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278416504000510",
"http://www.gentryvisualization.com/C-E4.html"
]
} | What are some of the consequences of human skull elongation?
Looking at [this image!](_URL_0_) it just looks so unnatural. Will the brain of a person with an elongated skull function normally, or will there be any specific negative consequences? | [
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|
1qpegr | How does digestion work when you're upside-down? If hung upside-down, would you eventually starve, even if you had food? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cdf6n89",
"cdf8wc1",
"cdfarf1"
],
"text": [
"No, the smooth muscles in your esophagus will push the food down into your stomach independent of gravity. This is why you can take a gulp of water upside down.\n\nAs for the stomach and intestines, they also have layers of smooth muscle called tunica muscularis that maintain peristalsis in order to keep the food going in the right direction.",
"Your digestive system works by peristalsis not gravity. Peristalsis is the process which causes your muscles in your digestive system to contract and relax, in doing this it can push food throughout your digestive system.",
"You can actually do some self-experimentation with this. Stand on your head (lean against a wall if you have to), and bite into an apple. Chew and swallow. You'll feel the bolus of food rise up toward your feet."
],
"score": [
32,
8,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does digestion work when you're upside-down? If hung upside-down, would you eventually starve, even if you had food?
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||
2ce5oi | Did NASA really just say they performed an apparently successful test of a reactionless drive? | [This /r/technology thread](_URL_1_) and its comments suggest that NASA engineers tested some kind of reactionless thrust device with positive results. From the comments I was led to [this abstract on a NASA website](_URL_3_), but I can't penetrate the jargon well enough to get a clear idea of what it's saying, nor find the full paper. Commenters and [other articles](_URL_0_) I found say that the NASA device is kind of like something called the EmDrive, the description and [wikipedia page](_URL_2_) for which come across like so much snake oil to me.
Can someone with a better understanding explain if the thing NASA's talking about is really a reactionless drive? And are they really saying they got a test result indicating such a thing might work? Or is this just another case of misinterpretation and overstatement? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cjeny8p",
"cjeo3t6",
"cji5uyi"
],
"text": [
"Effectively, yes. Everyone is still relatively skeptical, as is natural, but basically, three independent agencies, one of which is NASA, have tested one of two variants on this drive. The one China and Argentina (I believe) is the EmDrive, and NASA tested a version called the Cannae Drive. The one NASA tested seems to have generated less thrust than the EmDrive due to its design, but they say their preliminary testing has indeed detected thrust. \nBasically, it amounts to this: NASA has done basic testing and determined that the results show there is something there worth investigating further, that it's not snake oil yet. A lot more testing has to be done, and you won't be seeing any satellites or probes with this drive anytime soon.",
"Yes! NASA has avoided explaining the physics behind it so far, which is an entirely reasonable move considering it seems to counter a few things we think we know, BUT they have confirmed that an electronic drive can create a very small amount of thrust by using microwaves. From what I've read the scientists were very careful about the control variables and the test results are reliable. It will probably be a while before drives like this are used in anything as scientists will want to learn more about them.\n\nThere is always a chance this is being over hyped and that a mistake was made somewhere, but for now it looks like it's real. Woo!",
"[NASA's full test paper](_URL_0_) for anybody interested in more than the pitiful abstract that's been linked in nearly every article. It's got pictures."
],
"score": [
12,
7,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/space/improbable-thruster-seems-work-violating-known-laws-physics/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/2ccbot/nasa_new_impossible_engine_works_could_change/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EmDrive",
"http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20140006052"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.scribd.com/doc/235868930/Anomalous-Thrust-Production-from-an-RF-Test-Device-Measured-on-a-Low-Thrust-Torsion-Pendulum"
]
} | Did NASA really just say they performed an apparently successful test of a reactionless drive?
[This /r/technology thread](_URL_1_) and its comments suggest that NASA engineers tested some kind of reactionless thrust device with positive results. From the comments I was led to [this abstract on a NASA website](_URL_3_), but I can't penetrate the jargon well enough to get a clear idea of what it's saying, nor find the full paper. Commenters and [other articles](_URL_0_) I found say that the NASA device is kind of like something called the EmDrive, the description and [wikipedia page](_URL_2_) for which come across like so much snake oil to me. Can someone with a better understanding explain if the thing NASA's talking about is really a reactionless drive? And are they really saying they got a test result indicating such a thing might work? Or is this just another case of misinterpretation and overstatement? | [
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|
3uw7di | Are there any "ungraphable" functions? | Are there any functions that cannot, for whatever reason, be represented on a plot of y against x? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"I'm not really sure what you mean by \"ungraphable\". The graph of a function y = f(x) is defined as the set of all points (x,y) in R^(2) such that y = f(x), and this set always exists. I'm guessing that by \"ungraphable\" you mean that the graph has some property that makes it difficult or impossible to create a visual plot. So let's call that \"unplottable\". But what criteria would you actually use?\n\nEven something as simple as y = x^(2) cannot be plotted on a finite piece of paper, but obviously you can get all the essential features of the plot. Something like y = sin(1/x) is difficult to plot: the function is continuous everywhere except at x = 0, where the function is undefined, and the closure of the graph consists of the graph itself and the interval [-1,1] on the y-axis. There are also infinitely many local maxima and minima in any open interval about the origin. So in some sense you cannot get all the essential features of the graph on a finite piece of paper with a curve of finite thickness, no matter how much you \"zoom in\". Of course, a function doesn't even have to be as nice as those. What about the indicator function of the rational numbers? Since both the irrational and rational numbers are dense, should the graph look like *two* horizontal lines, at y = 0 and y = 1? But then the plot does not really show that the indicator function is, indeed, a function. \n\nThe most general real-valued function on the reals is just some arbitrary assignment of each real number to another real number. There are 2^(c) such functions, where *c* is the cardinality of the real numbers. Note that the cardinality of all *continuous* functions is much smaller, at just *c*, since any such function is determined by its values on the rationals. The point I am making here is that there are more functions that you can even possibly imagine and most of them have no nice properties at all, which would likely make almost all of them \"unplottable\" by any reasonable set of criteria. That is assuming that you ever pin down some criteria in the first place, which include what you normally think of \"plottable\" but exclude what you think of as \"unplottable\". It's not as easy as you think.\n\n**edit:** It came up in another response below, but I think the best definition for \"plottable\" is the following: the function y = f(x) is plottable iff *f* is differentiable everywhere in its domain, except for at most countably many isolated points.",
"One function that, when graphed, will appear ill-defined, is given by:\n\nf(x) = 0 if x is rational\n\nf(x) = 1 otherwise.\n\nThis will look like two solid lines if graphed.\n\nYou can do much worse than that too.",
"What about the Weierstrass function and some other pathological functions ? _URL_0_",
"The [dirac delta y = 𝛿(x)](_URL_1_) comes to mind. It isn't a function in the strictest sense but certainly lacks a clean graphical representation regardless of window.\n\nAs others have mentioned here, this question has varying answers depending on how one interprets your question.\n\nBut the short answer is \"yes.\"",
"It depends on what you mean by \"graphable\".\n\n - if you mean \"**such that the graph does not exist**\", then the answer is a very definite **no**: namely, the mathematical definition of a function is through its graph (which is a set G ⊂ X × Y such that, for any x ∈ X, there is exactly one f(x) such that (x, f(x)) ∈ G).\n\n - if you mean \"**such that we cannot physically draw the whole graph**\", then the answer is definitively **YES**: as Midtek noted, the graph of a function defined over the full real numbers is an infinite beast.\n\n - if you mean \"**such that we cannot physically draw a part of the graph**\", then the answer is again **YES** (and this is the most interesting variant of the question): for example there exists a function *f: ℝ → ℝ* whose graph is dense in any product of an interval by ℝ. Plotting such a function would blacken the whole sheet of paper! Actually, \"most\" real functions are ungraphable in this sense (I'm not saying they are all dense in the whole plane, but that they are not piecewise continuous or any such nice property)."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weierstrass_function",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function"
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} | Are there any "ungraphable" functions?
Are there any functions that cannot, for whatever reason, be represented on a plot of y against x? | [
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|
80ls04 | Who keeps the time? | The standard time down to seconds and microseconds, where and who is responsible for keeping it? My assumptions are:
* This happens in England, since they are on the 00:00 timezone?
* All other clocks in the world clock are being referenced and synced to that tracking?
Who is the entity/organization that deals with this?
What are (other) interesting facts about keeping time that might be interesting to find out? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"duwrb6i",
"dux04a1",
"duy9fcq"
],
"text": [
"International Atomic Time (TAI) is a major component in UTC (Coordinated Universal Time). TAI as a time scale is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging it is an order of magnitude more stable than its best clock alone would be. The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI.",
"The entity responsible is a French organization, the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM in French). They define the UTC based on syncing blips from atomic clocks all over the world. [Link to their Time webpage](_URL_1_)\n\nInteresting facts about UTC is that it is in part negociated with the International Telecommunication Union, to place the leap seconds when needed to keep UTC in sync with Earth rotation. Time being defined as it is (a number of oscillation of a cesium atom when excited with a laser) and the rotation of the Earth being subjected to small variations (the last big quake in Chile added a few milliseconds to the rotation time, for example...) \n\nAnother interesting fact, about the BIPM this time, is that they also are the reference when it comes to mass. Considering Mass is the last unit not to be defined by universal constants, the KG is defined by the weight of an Iridium/platinium ingot kept preciously under very specific conditions [More details here](_URL_0_). \n\nThe history of the BIPM is quite interesting, too, if you're in that sort of thing.",
"> This happens in England, since they are on the 00:00 timezone?\n\nThe time zone definition is much older than atomic clocks. As discussed by /u/wrecktvf already, tracking the time is done worldwide. Adjusting for time zones is easy.\n\nThere is another less obvious adjustment that became necessary based on increasing accuracy: Adjusting for height. Clocks at sea level are slower than clocks at larger height. Which time do you choose? The International Atomic Time uses seconds at sea level, every clock not at sea level has to include some correction factor."
],
"score": [
18,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/mises-en-pratique/kilogram.html",
"https://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/tai/coordination-work/"
]
} | Who keeps the time?
The standard time down to seconds and microseconds, where and who is responsible for keeping it? My assumptions are: * This happens in England, since they are on the 00:00 timezone? * All other clocks in the world clock are being referenced and synced to that tracking? Who is the entity/organization that deals with this? What are (other) interesting facts about keeping time that might be interesting to find out? | [
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17v9mc | In theory, could all electricity in the US be generated at one point (e.g. massive solar farms in the NV deserts) and transmitted to the lower 48? Or is that wildly inefficient? | Cost prohibitive issues aside, as well as infrastructure redundancy / security issues... is it possible to transmit the electricity from NV all the way up to Maine and down to Florida? | askscience | {
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"Theoretically possible, but wildly inefficient due the I^2 R losses you will incur transmitting it over such long distances.\n\nedit: formatting",
"Infrastructure is one of the largest issues in the \"energy\" question right now. our nation wide grid is old and needs a massive overhaul.\n\nWhat you ask, is technically possible, but its not the best way to do it.\n1. central points of failure.\n2. that whole pesky \"what if it gets cloudy in Nevada\" thing.\n3. (what really matters) the infrastructure question.\n\nSolar is amazing, but you want to distribute it. And you need a base load provider to adapt to weather/conditions/load requirements.\n\nAlso, read this : _URL_0_",
"Transmission would be a problem but not terrible. Transmission loses about 3% of energy per 1000 km. We have long distance high voltage transmission lines to move electricity across the country. \n\nOne major route is from the hydropower plants in British Columbia down to California. \n\nIf you're interested in these large scale solar projects, look into Desertec _URL_1_\n\nThere is enough solar energy that hits the Sahara in 6 hours to power the entire world for 1 year. There is an organization that is looking to build a large scale solar projects in the Sahara with high voltage transmission lines to Europe. In addition, use the excess energy to create liquid hydrogen which can be shipped to the rest of the world.",
"Resistive losses were mentioned, although operating at extremely high voltage ameliorates that somewhat.\n\nA bigger problem would be that it leaves the grid extremely vulnerable to damage. Transmission lines would serve huge areas, and damage to one of the major trunks might leave big sections in the dark.",
"Possible, but also prone to outages. Could you imagine if there was a catastrophic failure at the generation site? The entire country would be out of power. That is why currently there is such big ties between districts, utilities and countries, to increase redundancy. \n\nThe other issue would be transmitting the power, it would require tons of transmissions lines at extremely high voltages. While that is possible to complete, transmission lines are also extremely expensive to build and maintain. So much so, that it would probably be cheaper to build another generation facility closer to the load.\n\nPossible? Yes. Feasible with current technology? No.",
"Most people only look at watts. One also must consider grid stability, reactive voltage and the need to control it, and how these things get more difficult to control the further away you are from a generating unit. This can drastically increase the necessary infrastructure complexity required to utilize a central distribution point grid.",
"It seems that most of the answers here are trying to redundantly answer your \"... issues aside\".\n\n**The absolute true answer to your question is yes, all US electric power can be generated at one single point.**\n\nAs for feasibility, there seems to be already a lot of posts that lambaste this idea. While single-point power generation is [not a good idea](_URL_5_), it can be possible without the significant losses quoted by others on this thread. Aside from superconductors, this can most notably be accomplished by using [wireless power transmission](_URL_5_), or my favorite, [microwave laser (maser) power transmission](_URL_4_) through the use of [power distribution satellites](_URL_4_).",
"Super-conducting wires could make this a lot more feasible, but those have to be seriously cooled to operate as of now."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://mediamatters.org/research/2013/01/24/myths-and-facts-about-solar-energy/192364",
"http://www.desertec.org",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power#Microwave_method",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation",
"http://www.sspi.gatech.edu/wptshinohara.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power"
]
} | In theory, could all electricity in the US be generated at one point (e.g. massive solar farms in the NV deserts) and transmitted to the lower 48? Or is that wildly inefficient?
Cost prohibitive issues aside, as well as infrastructure redundancy / security issues... is it possible to transmit the electricity from NV all the way up to Maine and down to Florida? | [
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p1x9o | When physicists refer to "nothing", what does that really mean? | Arguments have been made that Hawking's statements that the universe can create itself from nothing are self-contradictory, because it breaks causailty. My hunch is that those making such arguments are just not familiar with the more complex aspects of physics, but then again, neither am I. I've heard of particles "popping in and out of existence", but I'm not sure what that really means. Can anyone explain to the layman what physicists mean when they say something comes from nothing? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You're probably talking about Lawrence Krauss' lecture \"A Universe from Nothing.\"\n\nWhat he means is that if you count the total energy density of the universe as positive, and the gravitational potential energy as negative, it cancels out to zero.",
"I think it's fair to say that there's no such thing as 'nothing' in the universe as it exists. All of space is filled with fields -- the Higgs field, the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and so on. All particles can be thought of as perturbations in those fields, and they all have infinite extent. There's really no place in the universe where those fields are entirely 'flat', no matter where you look, and at what scale, there are going to be particles.\n\nThere's another kind of 'nothing', though. Roll back time, and all of the universe condenses to a single point of space-time. What's outside of that, or before it? There's no space, no time. Just nothing. I have a hard time putting it into words, or visualizing what that could mean.",
"The word nothing gets thrown around lightly in popular scientific media. In a general sense, nothing means no space-time, matter or energy. But when people say nothing they also refer to other ideas:\n\n1. The total energy of the universe is nothing, the [zero-energy universe hypothesis](_URL_1_), because the positive energy from matter and energy is cancelled out by the negative energy from gravity.\n\n2. The universe came from nothing which is just a hypothesis that there was a vacuum potential which fluctuated and formed our universe because the vacuum wasn't in its low energy state.\n\n3. Virtual particles aren't \"real\" in any physical sense, more like an artifact of perturbation theory, a good discussion is found [here](_URL_0_).",
"At a quantum level, particles can pop in and out of existence, so something from nothing is possible.\n\n[They're called virtual particles](_URL_2_)",
"It means they're trying to grab the public's attention. \"Nothing\" isn't a scientific term with a precise definition, so when physicists say \"something comes from nothing,\" they could be referring to any number of things.\n\nFor example, \"particles popping in and out of existence\" refers to virtual particle pair production. This is a process predicted by quantum field theory, in which a particle and its antiparticle come into being (for a short time) where there were no particles before, and where there was no particular reason to expect a particle and antiparticle to show up. (Contrast this with what happens in a particle accelerator: there you expect to produce a whole bunch of particles and antiparticles because you already had a lot of energy and pre-existing particles) In the case of virtual particle pair production, the \"nothing\" that particles came from is called the \"vacuum state\" or \"quantum vacuum.\" It's not really \"nothing\" in the popular sense of the word, but it is the least amount of \"something\" that can possibly exist, if that makes any sense.\n\nWhat Stephen Hawking was talking about seems a little more speculative. I haven't read his recent book, but if [this blog post](_URL_3_) is to be believed, he's advancing the idea that a universe can be created in a way similar to a virtual particle-antiparticle pair. This would require some sort of pre-existing structure, a more primitive kind of quantum vacuum. So again, \"nothing\" isn't really \"nothing\" in the popular sense. It's an initial state that simply happens not to have a universe in it.\n\nI don't think the concept of \"nothing\" as the average person means it plays any role in physics. After all, physics is a descriptive theory: it describes the behavior of a system (an object, space, etc.) in terms of a set of laws. True nothingness would imply that there is no system and no laws, and so there's no way to apply physics.",
"In case this it isn't clear, I just want to point out that \"a universe creating itself from nothing\" is one of many contending descriptions of the universe's history. There's no consensus on the matter.\n\nOur theories are incomplete, and physicists are not yet equipped to say with any certainty what (if anything) happened before the big bang. Period.\n\nThat said, I have no idea what \"nothing\" is supposed to mean.",
"It is important to remember that there is no confirmed scientific theory that makes any statement as to what happened at or before the big bang! Anyone who claims otherwise is moving into the field of philosophy, hypothesis and pseudoscience. Our description of the universe goes back to billionth's of a billionth's of a second after the big bang and then all theories either break down or -and this is important- they simply extrapolate the rest. When a scientist says the universe came from nothing they are talking about the way that they interpret the theory philosophically. In fact the universe may well have a negative time mirror image on the other side of the big bang. This is just as valid a theory as saying that it all came from nothing because neither of these statements is testable in any way!\n\nAt the same time I have to add that I understand why people make these statements. Not everyone can be a scientist, and when we convey scientific thought to a wider audience, we also try to convey our world view which is the state of mind that scientific knowledge induces in us scientist. \n\nTo answer your question: The \"nothing\" that a physicist is mentioning here is something only he can explain to you and is not founded in science, even though he may use scientific terms to explain it to you."
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"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gypa6/where_do_virtual_particles_come_from/c1raxju",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-energy_Universe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_particle",
"http://www.firstthings.com/onthesquare/2010/09/much-ado-about-ldquonothingrdquo-stephen-hawking-and-the-self-creating-universe"
]
} | When physicists refer to "nothing", what does that really mean?
Arguments have been made that Hawking's statements that the universe can create itself from nothing are self-contradictory, because it breaks causailty. My hunch is that those making such arguments are just not familiar with the more complex aspects of physics, but then again, neither am I. I've heard of particles "popping in and out of existence", but I'm not sure what that really means. Can anyone explain to the layman what physicists mean when they say something comes from nothing? | [
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|
3vipz9 | What is the swartszchild radius of a neutron? | If you scrunched the mass of Earth to about 1 inch you'd have a black hole.
Wolfram Alpha [tells me](_URL_1_) that the swartszchild radius of a neutron is about 2.5 * 10^-15 meters. Wikipedia [tells me](_URL_0_) that the radius of an atomic nucleus is about .875 * 10^−15 meters, but doesn't give me a radius for a neutron itself.
Can a single neutron be compressed to become a black hole?
If not, what is the smallest chunk of matter which can be squashed to become a black hole? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cxny3rn",
"cxo17qp",
"cxnzg0m"
],
"text": [
"Most likely, black holes smaller than a Planck mass (which is a few micrograms) are not possible/do not make sense. [Here](_URL_0_) is a detailed answer of mine to a similar question involving the electron.",
"There are a bunch of typos in your Alpha calculation. The actual Schwarzschild radius is about [10^-54 meters](_URL_2_). Note that this is smaller than the Planck radius, which tells you that the prediction can't be trusted; general relativity presumably doesn't work at such small scales.\n\nThe Wikipedia page you linked tells you that a hydrogen nucleus, which is just a proton, is 1.75×10^−15 meters across. A neutron would be about the same size.\n\nThere's no way we know of that a single isolated neutron could be compressed to create a black hole. But if you start building up larger and larger balls of matter at nuclear density, the ratio of (ball radius)/(Schwarzschild radius) grows, and for a large enough ball, it will become 1. At that point, the matter will spontaneously turn into a black hole (or rather, whatever process adds the last bit of mass will cause it to turn into a black hole). The transition point is [almost 16 solar masses](_URL_2_). In practice, collapsing stars can form black holes with as little as 3-ish solar masses because the collapsing matter gets an extra inward \"kick\" from the supernova. It's not just gravity compressing it.",
"I'm sure this was discussed a couple of weeks ago.\n\n[The time for a black hole the mass of a proton to dissipate](_URL_5_ ) using [this formula](_URL_3_) is 10^-97 seconds. However, like other quantum states, the existence of a proton cannot decay to anything lighter.\n\nThis makes me ask: How is [conservation of baryon number](_URL_4_) applied to black holes when they evaporate?\nEDIT- Just remembered that for every particle emitted one is absorbed so baryon number stays the same."
],
"score": [
30,
25,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%282*%281.48%C3%9710%E2%88%9227+*++1.6749+x+10%5E-27%29%29+%2F+%28299+792+458%29%5E2"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://rantonels.github.io/capq/q/QG2.html",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=2*G*1GeV/c^4",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=sqrt%281%2F%282.3e17+kg%2Fm3%29*c^6*3%2F32%2FG^3%29+in+solar+masses",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation#Black_hole_evaporation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon_number#Conservation",
"https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#safe=active&q=(mass+of+proton\\)%5E3*G%5E2*5120*pi%2F(c%5E4*hbar\\)"
]
} | What is the swartszchild radius of a neutron?
If you scrunched the mass of Earth to about 1 inch you'd have a black hole. Wolfram Alpha [tells me](_URL_1_) that the swartszchild radius of a neutron is about 2.5 * 10^-15 meters. Wikipedia [tells me](_URL_0_) that the radius of an atomic nucleus is about .875 * 10^−15 meters, but doesn't give me a radius for a neutron itself. Can a single neutron be compressed to become a black hole? If not, what is the smallest chunk of matter which can be squashed to become a black hole? | [
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12nuyw | What is the highest deviation from the ordinary 24 hour day humans can healthily sustain? What effects would a significantly shorter/longer day have on a person? | I thread in /r/answers got me thinking. If the Mars 24 hour 40 minute day is something some scientists adapt to to better monitor the rover, what would be the limit to human's ability to adjust to a different day length, since we are adapted so strongly to function on 24 hour time?
Edit: Thank you everyone for your replies. This has been very enlightening. | askscience | {
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"In the US navy on submarines, they operate on 18 hour days. Typically 1 normal 6 hour shift, one 6 hour on call shift, and 6 hours of (presumably to sleep). \n\n(just presenting some evidence, there's likely some study out there that talks about whether or not this has a positive or adverse effect on overall crew efficiency)",
"While I can't answer your question in full, I will say that the free-running circadian rhythms of some (perfectly healthy) mammalian animals deviate from the 24 hour period by a matter of 30 minutes - 2 hours. This means that if one were to place a rat in conditions of complete darkness and a continual stream of food and water so as to avoid entraining their circadian rhythms to external cues, one would observe sleep-wake cycles that follow a time course significantly different from 24 hours (like the proposed situation). Researchers are not quite sure of the evolutionary utility of this finding, though it is postulated that free-running times (endogenous) deviate from 24 hours as a mechanistic compromise that allows for finer entrainment to cues if they are present (exogenous). One can see how this compromise is not selected against as a free-running situation is extremely rare in real life (even the activity and dietary rhythms of a fruit fly can be entrained just by the sound of a janitor's keys).\n\nThis phenomenon is different from \"early\" and \"late\" risers, but significant variability can be found in the free-running rhythm of humans has been observed and, if the free-running rhythm of a particular individual is significantly different from 24 hours (by 2 hours or more) they may experience daytime sleepiness, nightime alertness, or persistent feelings of jet lag (gastrointestinal problems, compromised immune function etc.) This only occurs in the most extreme cases of endogenous-exogenous discrepancy because, as I previously mentioned, small innate discrepancies may help keep us in tune to light, temperature, and natural resource cues more effectively. Just as someone with a free-running clock of 24.5 hours can perfectly adjust to external cues in rhythms of 24 hours, I assume the converse would be well within human capabilities. Obviously, their diet, light, temperature, and activity conditions should all be made consistent with the extended day as much as possible to ensure complete entrainment and its health benefits.",
"Without an external zeitgeber (ie day length), humans have a free running rhythm of about 24.5 hrs. That means, after about 2 weeks you will be noticably out of sync with a 'normal' circadian rhythm.\n\nGene expression of inflammation factors, sleep homeostasis, hormonal fluctuations would all be altered. \n\nComplete loss of an external zeitgeber would almost never happen to people, but current studies are investigating the influence of dim light at night on circadian disruption (like keeping the tv on while you sleep...). Preliminary results from mice and hamsters suggest that dim light at night exposure has serious health consequences, for instance in a model of cardiac arrest, animals recovering in a typical mock \"icu\" with constant dim light (similar to actual ICU conditions) survived much less than animals kept in normal light/dark schedule. \n\n_URL_0_",
"There are a lot of people that have switched to [Polyphasic sleep](_URL_2_). It is a drastically different sleep schedule that uses multiple naps during the day instead of one long sleep.\nBuckminster Fuller was on a 6 hour day for 2 years. (30m nap every 6 hours).\n\nStudies indicate that Polyphasic sleep has an overall negative impact on people. _URL_2_\n\n\nEdit: Reading more about Polyphasic sleep, it seems to be a pseudo-science, and many of the claims lack substance.",
"In 1962, Michael Siffre Plummeted into a cave and lived there for 90 days. He had no clock, and there was no sunlight. He did have a phone, and he used it just to call the other researchers above ground whenever he would eat and whenever he would go to sleep and wake up. His days ranged from 18-52 hours while living in the cave.",
"This is what circadian biologists like to call \"T-cycles\": any light-dark cycle that is non-24 hours.\n\nHamsters and mice are able to \"entrain\" (synchronize) to cycles between about 23-26 hours. If you try to push the light cycle any longer or shorter, they will start to ignore the light signal and \"free-run\" on their internal clock. (Caveat: for simplicity's sake, most of these studies are done with 1-hr light pulses instead of half-light half-dark, as you might expect.)\n\nIt's been shown that mutant hamsters which have a short free-running period (22 hr.) have more heart and kidney problems than wild-type (normal) mice -- however, these defects disappear if you put these animals on a 22-hr light cycle. Also, a mouse's lifespan is correlated with how far it's free-running period deviates from 24-hr. However, I don't believe anyone has done the experiment of putting normal animals on T-cycles and looking for health problems. On the other hand, there are many, many experiments showing health problems caused by other circadian disruptions (\"jet-lag\" models, light-dark reversals, desynchronized feeding).\n\nHumans are a little different, since we can choose when to sleep and wake, overriding signals from the circadian clock. When people are put onto, say, 21 or 27 hour cycles, most are able to sleep according to the artificial schedule; however, other bodily circadian rhythms like kidney function and melatonin levels continue to cycle on a near-24 hour period, causing a bunch of body functions to go wonky. In fact, this type of experiment is called \"forced desynchrony\", because it desynchronizes your sleep-wake cycle from your circadian clock. I would guess that humans could successfully entrain to 23-25 hr cycles without desynchronizing -- however, I don't believe this has been confirmed experimentally.\n\nSo, I doubt humans could live well on a foreign planet's natural day-night cycle. I also see that Hiddencamper has made a comment about 18-hr schedules on submarines -- I am skeptical of the utility of this.",
"Here's an interesting interview with Michel Siffre who conducted multiple isolation experiments. [_URL_3_](_URL_3_)",
"Follow-up question: if you manage to get used to a 2-hr sleep, 2-hr work rythm, wouldn't that be preferable because you wouldn't ever be tired?",
"Healthily? No one has studied the long term effects of such alterations. However, we do know that rhythmic patterns of melatonin and cortisol expression and core temperature can entrain to day lengths of [24.65h (Martian day length) and 23.5h](_URL_5_) under very specifically controlled lighting conditions. [This study](_URL_4_) pushed those 25h days, after a lengthy entrainment procedure.\n\nThis suggests there is some plasticity to the system; however, it's likely not that robust to such alterations, as it takes very careful control of lighting to get such an altered rhythm.",
"I'd like to add something about the Pirahã tribe of Brazil. It is claimed they take naps from about 15 minutes to 2 hours throughout the day and the night. In other words, they allegedly don't work with anything near a 24 hour day. (If you'd like to read more about the Pirahã people, Daniel Everett is the main researcher to look up.)",
"I recently encountered a study where students writing their doctoral thesis agreed to stay in a room with no outside light or means of keeping time for a month. Food was provided when requested and every person's sleep-wake cycle began to skew. Some subjects' rhythms shortened to just 18 hours while some others increased their rhythms length greatly with one subject even settling on a 50 hour sleep-wake cycle!",
"I scrolled down and saw no reference to this. I was surprised. There were experiments done for exactly this purpose. People ent deep down in caves with no sight of the sun and were monitored. Wound up being 18 awake I believe. I have no source right now but I'll find it and edit this comment.\n\n[Edit](_URL_6_)",
"I would love a 26 or 28 hour day."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/handle/1811/51774",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphasic_sleep",
"http://www.supermemo.com/articles/polyphasic.htm#References",
"http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/30/foer.php",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/104/21/9081.full",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1330995/"
]
} | What is the highest deviation from the ordinary 24 hour day humans can healthily sustain? What effects would a significantly shorter/longer day have on a person?
I thread in /r/answers got me thinking. If the Mars 24 hour 40 minute day is something some scientists adapt to to better monitor the rover, what would be the limit to human's ability to adjust to a different day length, since we are adapted so strongly to function on 24 hour time? Edit: Thank you everyone for your replies. This has been very enlightening. | [
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2umy84 | can you simplify a²+b²? | I know that you can use the binomial formula to simplify
a²-b² to (a-b)(a+b), but is there a formula to simplify a²+b²?
edit: thanks for all the responses | askscience | {
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"\"Simplify\" may not be the best word here; \"factorise\" is probably better.",
"Math grad here (although haven't really used proper math in a while). In my mind I'd still use the binomial formula to simplify likewise:\n\na²+b²\n\n= a² - (-b²)\n\n= (√(a²) + √(-b²)) (√(a²) - √(-b²))\n\n= (a + bi) (a - bi)",
"You can factor it with i, as others have here, but a^2 + b^2 is already simple enough for most purposes.\n\nThe word \"simplify\" doesn't really mean anything objective. What is \"simple\"? We are taught to \"simplify\" things in school, but this usually just means we're asked to rewrite an expression in a pre-decided form (which is usually \"simpler\" by conventional standards).\n\nHow one writes an expression really depends on what you're using it for. In science there's usually a nice way to arrange your expression to make the important thing about it obvious.\n\nFor example, suppose you have the expression A(x+y)/x, and you knew that y is a lot smaller in magnitude than x. Although this expression is already pretty simple, it might be better to write it as A(1 + y/x) , because then you can see that the quantity is essentially just A plus a small deviation. (The expression now reads A times a number very close to 1.) At least to me, this fact isn't glaringly obvious as written in the original form, at least not as much as the second.",
"c^2 ...... sorry it was too easy to pass up.\n\nTo put it in a form like the difference of squares, you can't do it without ~~irrational~~ complex numbers. Now, if ~~irrational~~ complex numbers make your problem easier to figure out, i'm sure there's already a program that get your answer(s) faster.\n\nHowever, without a context this doesn't make much sense (coming from an engineer). If you're looking for a more \"simplified form\" or \"more usable form\" you need to know why this form isn't sufficient. If you don't know where you want to get to, I can't tell you how to get there. The truth is, depending on the needs of the situation, there is potential for multiple ways to make this more usable, factorization not being one of the best. Pythagorean's theorem being probably the easiest (a^2 + b^2 = c^2 ).",
"The correct response to this is \"the answer depends on what field you're working over\".\n\nIf the ground field is ℝ then a^2 + b^2 is irreducible, so no.\n\nIf it is algebraically complete (like ℂ) then it reduces into linear factors as mentioned above.\n\nIf it is of characteristic 2 then we don't even need algebraic completeness, since we have\n\na^2 + b^2 = a^2 - b^2 = (a + b)(a - b).",
"Technically, that *is* its simplest form. Expressing it as (a+ib)(a-ib) is factorisation, not simplification.",
"Depends on what else you're doing. For some applications, writing it as (a+bi)(a-bi) (as others have said) will be useful. Occasionally, writing it as (a+b)^2 - 2ab can be useful (i.e., if it allows further reorganization and simplification). Typically, though, a^2 + b^2 is as simple as you're going to get.",
"In game programming I've come across a \"simplification\" of a usage of the equation a²+b²=c².\n\n\nThis pythagoras equation is used to calculate a distance between two objects to check if they collide. Instead of having the computer solve the squareroot (which it is notoriously slow at doing) to find c, you simply check the squared result instead. \n\n\nExample. If you want to know if two circular objects are within 10 pixels of each other, you check if the squared difference between the x,y coordinates of both objects is less than 10² pixels."
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} | can you simplify a²+b²?
I know that you can use the binomial formula to simplify a²-b² to (a-b)(a+b), but is there a formula to simplify a²+b²? edit: thanks for all the responses | [
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|
l3o69 | Why is the chemical formula for Acetic Acid written with repeated elements, rather than subscripts denoting multiple elements? | Why is it written as [**CH**3**COOH**] rather than [**C**2**H**4**O**2] or something like that? Are there other compounds with chemical formulas like that? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2pi38z",
"c2pkfro",
"c2pkvr8"
],
"text": [
"Yeah, it's written that way to make it clear what the structure is. This form of writing formulas is common in organic chemistry just because it's more clear what exactly you're talking about. \n\nIn this case, acetic acid consists of a methyl group (CH3-) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH), so writing it as CH3COOH makes it clear what isomer of C2H4O2 we're talking about.\n\nMost, if not all, compounds in organic chemistry are written like this.",
"CH3 is a methyl group. COOH is a carboxylic acid group. CH3COOH is ethanoic (acetic) acid. C2H4O2 can also be Glycolaldehyde which is made of the same atoms just arranged differently. If you write the formula by group you can easily see the difference between them since Glycolaldehyde is HCOCH2OH There are 3 more isomers: methyl formate, 1,2 dioxetane and 1,3 dioxetane. Completely different molecules bonded together very differently with the same atoms.",
"There are conventions for most functional groups to clarify exactly what you're talking about. For example writing -CHO to indicate an aldehyde rather than ending -OH, which is an alcohol. -COOH indicates carboxylic acid."
],
"score": [
45,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is the chemical formula for Acetic Acid written with repeated elements, rather than subscripts denoting multiple elements?
Why is it written as [**CH**3**COOH**] rather than [**C**2**H**4**O**2] or something like that? Are there other compounds with chemical formulas like that? | [
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4d4k98 | What did people do about hemroides before medicine? | Did they have a berries and herb cure or did the live out the rest of there days with an itchy bumhole? | askscience | {
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"If you were back in the good ol' Greek days... it wasn't pretty.\n\n > I recommend\nseven or eight small pieces of iron to be prepared, a fathom in size,\nin thickness like a thick specillum, and bent at the extremity, and\na broad piece should be on the extremity, like a small obolus. Having\non the preceding day first purged the man with medicine, on the day\nof the operation apply the cautery. Having laid him on his back, and\nplaced a pillow below the breech, force out the anus as much as possible\nwith the fingers, and make the irons red-hot, and burn the pile until\nit be dried up, and so as that no part may be left behind. And burn\nso as to leave none of the hemorrhoids unburnt, for you should burn\nthem all up. You will recognize the hemorrhoids without difficulty,\nfor they project on the inside of the gut like dark-colored grapes,\nand when the anus is forced out they spurt blood. When the cautery\nis applied the patient's head and hands should be held so that he\nmay not stir, but he himself should cry out, for this will make the\nrectum project the more. When you have performed the burning, boil\nlentils and tares, finely triturated in water, and apply as a cataplasm\nfor five or six days.\n\n[From the MIT classics collection](_URL_0_)\n\nIf you aren't used to reading this sort of translation, it's \"tie the patient down and burn them off.\" The other advised treatments are equally brutal and disturbing.\n\nedit: I cannot comment on the efficacy of the methods Hippocrates proposed, fwiw. For all I know, his treatments made the problem worse.",
"They suffered. As long as people have had anus' they have suffered haemorrhoids and both great and humble men and women were afflicted. First some trivia.\n\n > Major events of history have frequently turned on seemingly trivial matters. One such situation involves Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo. Napoleon was not feeling well on the day of the battle of Waterloo, despite fighting well at Ligny, a few days before the last, dramatic June 18 battle. There is considerable indication that Napoleon was bothered by very painful thrombosed hemorrhoids. Did this affect his generalship that day? What is the evidence that Napoleon was afflicted with thrombosed hemorrhoids? What contribution could this factor have made to the French defeat at Waterloo? (this is the best journal article title *ever*, ***Piles of defeat. Napoleon at Waterloo***. Dis Colon Rectum. 1988 Apr;31(4):303-5.).\n\nSo let's see what could be done. *Hippocates* (c400BC) provides us with his method of treatment (hot iron cautery), \n\n > Having on the preceding day first purged the man with medicine, on the day of the operation apply the cautery. Having laid him on his back, and placed a pillow below the breech, force out the anus as much as possible with the fingers, and make the irons red-hot, and burn the pile until it be dried up, and so as that no part may be left behind. And burn so as to leave none of the hemorrhoids unburnt, for you should burn them all up. You will recognize the hemorrhoids without difficulty, for they project on the inside of the gut like dark-colored grapes, and when the anus is forced out they spurt blood. When the cautery is applied the patient's head and hands should be held so that he may not stir, but he himself should cry out, for this will make the rectum project the more. When you have performed the burning, boil lentils and tares, finely triturated in water, and apply as a cataplasm for five or six days. But on the seventh, cut a soft sponge into a very slender slice, its width should be about six inches square. Then a thin smooth piece of cloth, of the same size as the sponge, is to be smeared with honey and applied; and with the index finger of the left hand the middle of the sponge is to be pushed as far up as possible; and afterward wool is to be placed upon the sponge so that it may remain in the anus. (Ref On Hemorrhoids, By Hippocrates, Written 400 B.C.E , Translated by Francis Adams).\n\nYep. Brutal.\n\nAddit: I see that in the 1C there was a Latin text, *de Medicina*, by Celsus, in which he describes both surgical and non-surgical treatments (ligation with thread and then excision). \n\n > Then if a head is very small and has a thin base it must be tied by a flax thread, a little above where it joins the anus. A sponge squeezed out of hot water is next to be applied until it becomes livid, then with a finger-nail or scalpel it is to be scratched off above the knot. BUnless this is done great pain follows, and sometimes even difficulty in urinating. If the head is larger and the base broader, it is seized by one or two hooks, and an incision made a little above the base; in doing this nothing of the head should be left nor anything taken away from the anus. This is accomplished by not drawing upon the hooks either too much or too little. When the incision has been made, a pin should be passed through, and under the pin the head is tied round with a linen thread. CIf there are two or three, the lowest must be dealt with first; if more, they are not all treated at once, to avoid having tender scars in several places at once. (Spencer, 1938)\n\nNow jumping forward all the way to 950 AD we have *Bald's* Leechbook in which he describes a salve that maybe was used for haemorrhoids\n\n > Mugwort, waybread which has opened from the east, lamb’s cress, attorlothe, maythe, nettle, wood sourapple, chervil and fennel, old soap; work the herbs to a powder, mix them with the soap, and with the apple’s juice; make a past from water and from ashes; take fennel, boil it in the paste and warm it with the mixture when he puts on the salve, both before and after; sing the charm on each of the herbs thrice before they will be used, and on the apple likewise; and sing the same charm into the man’s mouth and into both ears and onto the wound before he puts on the salve.\n\nOr alternatively he also describes a hot bath. I'd take the bath.\n\nThere were surgical methods (excision) also performed but I have no source on hand. Presumably complications such as bleeding (haemorrhoids are blood vessels) and anal stenosis (from scarring) and infection / tetanus were common. \n\nLater in the times of late Renaissance, Jean Louis Petit (1774) \n\n > noted that the skin of the anus was sensitive and therefore recommended excision ligation\n\n though this technique, less brutal that simple excision, could still result in pain, bleeding, peritonitis, anal stricture, or tetanus. There was a move to *bougienage* for a while (def: a procedure involving the use of a *bougie*. A bougie is a thin cylinder of rubber, plastic, metal or another material that a physician inserts into or though a body passageway to widen the passageway) before we finally get to a modern excision/ligation technique described by *Salmon* (c1800s) of \n\n > incision of the perianal skin, dissecting between the haemorrhoidal plexus and the anal musculature as high as the rectal mucosa, then ligating the pedicle. (Surgical History of Haemorrhoids, Ellesmore & Windsor, 2008).\n\nAddit: apologies for shitty editing and sourcing, not my usual thing.",
"Witch-hazel (a type of shrub) extract is still used in some non-medicated haemorrhoid ointments today - they probably used that back in the day. Most of the time, haemorrhoids get better by themselves so they probably just waited it out.",
"If you don't get an answer here, you can try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofscience. I'm not aware of a history of medicine sub."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/hemmor.mb.txt"
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} | What did people do about hemroides before medicine?
Did they have a berries and herb cure or did the live out the rest of there days with an itchy bumhole? | [
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|
156ijs | Does the way a person sleeps(on back, side or chest) effect bone growth and/or bone shape? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7jqpd2",
"c7jyhvy",
"c7jwfp8"
],
"text": [
"[Yes, actually.](_URL_0_)\n\nThere is a cultural practice in Asia that favours supine-sleeping (versus prone-sleeping in North America) with measurable differences. Something called the Cranial Index (basically how wide your head is) is used to track infant cranial measurements and Asian children that sleep supine generally have \"wider\" heads than their American counterparts, which is termed \"brachycephaly\" (\"short head\") when their CI is greater than 0.81. Contact area with the bed seems to be the cause of this (back of head for supine sleepers vs. side of the head for prone sleepers).\n\nNote that brachycephaly alone does not necessarily indicate pathology, but certain pathological conditions can result in notable brachycephaly.",
"Similarly....does sleeping front-side-down affect a woman's breast development through puberty?",
"Inasmuch as sleeping position plays into postural alignment, it can be said to have an effect, e.g. prolongued excessive lordosis/kyphosis (frequently exacerbated by lying on the stomach, in foetal position, pillows too high, etc.) can eventually lead to the vertebrae becoming anteriorally wedge-shaped, particularly around the thoraco-cervical junction (resulting in what's often referred to as a 'dowager's hump', so called due to it being commonly seen in post-menopausal women). \n\nThere are a few other more subtle skeletal changes that can occur after years of misaligned posture, and while sleep position is a factor in that, the greater portion of the day spent upright, whether standing or sitting, is the more important."
],
"score": [
364,
20,
12
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.jpeds.com/article/S0022-3476%2804%2900955-2/fulltext"
]
} | Does the way a person sleeps(on back, side or chest) effect bone growth and/or bone shape?
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1ngpvh | Do people burn the same amount of calories going up steps two at a time vs. going up one at a time? | I figure that it takes about the same amount of energy to go the same distance, but I'm curious which one would burn more calories, if, for example, you climbed a million steps both ways. | askscience | {
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"Researchers at the University of Bath conducted a study investigating the energy expenditure of a 15m stair climbing task. Subjects were placed in a 1-step, or 2-step group. Investigators found that 2-step climbing has a higher energy expenditure; but, it is performed for a shorter time (because you reach the top stair quicker). Single step stair climbing is an easier task (less expenditure), but it goes on for longer and therefore burns more calories.\n\nThe investigators state, \"climbing just a 15 m high stairway five times a day represents an energy expenditure of on average 302 kcal per week using the one step strategy and 266 kcal using the two step strategy\".\n\nReference: _URL_0_",
"From a purely mechanical standpoint, yes. Calories are a measurement of work, and ascending from one floor to the next is the same task no matter how quickly you do it. Now, the reason you'll be out of breath if you go two steps at a time is because you were exerting more power than if you had gone one step at a time, i.e. you did the task more quickly (W/t = P). A rule of thumb in fitness is that work burns calories, but power builds muscles.\n\nThe human body is like any other machine, and our output efficiency varies at different levels of power. I'm hoping a biologist or someone more familiar in physiology can provide reasons, but increased power is generally less efficient, meaning you probably do burn more calories. Here's a good example: Walking a mile (~3 mph) will generally burn somewhere in the neighborhood of 120 calories, but *jogging* a mile (~6 mph) burns around 140 calories.\n\n**TL;DR - Depending how fit you are, taking two steps at a time up the stairs probably burns a few more calories.**",
"The mechanical standpoint is relevant, but incorrect in this case. Biomechanics operate a little differently. The quick and dirty is that by taking the steps two at a time, you are increasing the stretch, angle, and thus workload on the leg. It is LESS efficient for you to take steps two at a time than it is one. You can make a rough comparison between driving a mile at 80mph and 40mph. At the end, you will have gone the same distance, but you will have expended more gas driving faster. Take this analogy and compare it to the human, you will burn more calories by taking steps two at a time. (Or if you want the same comparison, you will burn more calories running a mile in 5 minutes than 7 minutes)\n\nBasically, you are making the movement less efficient by making the body recruit more muscle fibers, this means consumption of resources goes up. I do not know the relation off hand, but it is not a linear one, hence you see an increase caloric burn from by taking the larger steps.\n\nSidebar: At some point, jogging/running can become more efficient than hiking (not walking... maybe walking). This has to do with what u/metalsupremacist touched on. The angle of the joints plays a factor. So when you get to a certain pace; and if your form is correct, you will be leaning forward, letting gravity do a little of the work, letting your previous movement carry into the next.",
"I didn't actually read through all of the comments, but I wanted to point out that biologically speaking the main change in calories burnt from exercise occurs due to increased metabolism.\n\nRunning a mile will burn somewhere around 150 calories, but by running you will raise your metabolism for roughly a day. The main difference in calories burned from exercise is actually by increased metabolism. \n\nThis has led to repeated studies showing short sprint exercises to be more effective in losing weight than a single longer run.",
"If you would run up so fast that your body couldn't provide enough oxygen to your muscles on time, they would switch to anaerobic metabolism, which is much less efficient than the normal aerobic metabolism. In other words, more calories would be used because the process of using them would be more inefficient. That could be a factor as well in this whole thing."
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} | Do people burn the same amount of calories going up steps two at a time vs. going up one at a time?
I figure that it takes about the same amount of energy to go the same distance, but I'm curious which one would burn more calories, if, for example, you climbed a million steps both ways. | [
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|
j1fmu | Question on how a magnet is 'insulated' on one side | I'm sitting with my dad right now, showing him reddit for the first time, and was showing him askscience. This is one of my favorite subreddits, and as soon as I showed him he came up with a question to ask (it has me baffled).
So we have a pair of magnets from a hard-drive that my dad took apart, and we are perplexed as to why the magnets seem to have a really strong attraction on one side, but there is no attraction when both are flipped over. There are obviously two types of metals used, as the 'magnet' part of the attracting side is visibly protruding from the 'base', which seems to be the 'insulator' that cancels the magnetic attraction on that side.
We both have some understanding of how magnets work, but neither of us understand how the magnetic forces are 'shielded' on one side. We were hoping for either a theoretical answer explaining how the shield works, or a mechanical description of what metal's or processes could be used.
Thanks!
PS If this description is too hard to decypher, let me know, and I'll make a video showing the forces that we're wondering about. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c28cmyb",
"c28dgad",
"c28dcem"
],
"text": [
"Mu-metal! A nickel/iron/copper/molybdenum alloy that has a very high magnetic permeability. It doesn't absorb or block magnetic fields, but shunts them away.\n\nfrom Wikipedia: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"It's a (halbach array)[_URL_1_] basically arranging the magnets to make sure the flux doesn't work on one side.\n\nedit: I have become aware that you are wanting harddrive magnets. I'll leave this here as it applies to trains/fridgemagnets/MagneticAcceleratorCoils",
"Does anyone have a trick for separating the magnet from the mu-metal without breaking the magnet?\nAlso it is amazing how such a strong magnet can be one inch away from your data without wrecking it."
],
"score": [
42,
8,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-metal",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbach_array"
]
} | Question on how a magnet is 'insulated' on one side
I'm sitting with my dad right now, showing him reddit for the first time, and was showing him askscience. This is one of my favorite subreddits, and as soon as I showed him he came up with a question to ask (it has me baffled). So we have a pair of magnets from a hard-drive that my dad took apart, and we are perplexed as to why the magnets seem to have a really strong attraction on one side, but there is no attraction when both are flipped over. There are obviously two types of metals used, as the 'magnet' part of the attracting side is visibly protruding from the 'base', which seems to be the 'insulator' that cancels the magnetic attraction on that side. We both have some understanding of how magnets work, but neither of us understand how the magnetic forces are 'shielded' on one side. We were hoping for either a theoretical answer explaining how the shield works, or a mechanical description of what metal's or processes could be used. Thanks! PS If this description is too hard to decypher, let me know, and I'll make a video showing the forces that we're wondering about. | [
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|
vp6vh | How accurate are this kind of pictures regarding smoker's lungs? Pic inside | Saw this in my Facebook feed and was wondering. I'm a nurse student and I don't really think this can be true.
Here is the picture:
_URL_0_
Left to right: Non smoker, regular smoker, heavy smoker (my liberal translation).
EDIT: Typo and translation | askscience | {
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"Ive dissected lungs like the medium damaged one, and worse again. Never as bad as the heavily damaged ones, but id believe it.",
"I've seen the same thing, but I have no reason to believe that they're false. The tar caught in a cigarette filter isn't all of the tar in the cigarette, and we know that it accumulates in the lungs. (We can also see the changes first hand in the mutations it causes in the DNA, as the some of the hydrocarbons accumulate in the cells and intercalate (get stuck between the \"rungs of the DNA ladder\"). So, I'd be surprised if it wasn't true.\n\nOf course, I haven't dissected a smoker's lungs first hand, so feel free to down vote this.",
"Back when I was in undergrad I did look at a few different lungs. That \"regular smoker\" seems more like a \"light smoker\" to me, but I that's just a quibble over fuzzy definitions.\n\nI've never seen one quite as crappy as the last one, but they did have one that was almost completely black and pretty darn nasty. The longer and more often the person smokes (some people have smoked for 60+ years, averaging 2 packs a day), the blacker and nastier they're lungs are going to look.",
"Adding to the question since so many here have seem to encountered the middle picture: Assuming that after 20 years of smoking, mine were to look like that -- would it begin to look more like the first one again after a period of non smoking?\n\nI quit about 1 year ago. Would they begin to go back to the \"healthy\" looking ones over time?",
"I previously worked at a human anatomy laboratory. I encountered lungs like the ones pictured in the middle of that image routinely, never as bad as the one on the right though.",
"First of all none of those lungs are realistic in any sense. This is a more [appropriate] (_URL_0_) example of normal lung tissue. You'll notice that even this example of normal tissues has some dark pigment. It's called antracotic pigment, and it's a normal finding in most individuals particularly those who live in large cities. With that said the lung on the far right is not realistic for a smoker, even one with with 40+ pack-years of smoking--which is quite a bit. It's closer to a [coal workers pneumoconiosis](_URL_2_), which is the result of long-term high level exposure to coal dust in miners and the like. It is a fibrotic interstitial lung disease which results in stiffening of the lung tissue and impairs inflation of the lung. Even in the worst cases they're never entirely blacked out as in that example. \n\nI think if you're looking for a striking example of what can happen to the lungs with long term exposure to cigarette smoke you're best off looking up pictures of [bronchiectatic lungs](_URL_1_). These are lungs with chronically dilated airways, which can be found in patients with really severe COPD from long term smoking."
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} | {
"url": [
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.asbestostrip.co.uk/images/NORMAL_LUNG.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchiectasis",
"http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/297887-overview#showall"
]
} | How accurate are this kind of pictures regarding smoker's lungs? Pic inside
Saw this in my Facebook feed and was wondering. I'm a nurse student and I don't really think this can be true. Here is the picture: _URL_0_ Left to right: Non smoker, regular smoker, heavy smoker (my liberal translation). EDIT: Typo and translation | [
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15in05 | Why can't I list every book I know, but I can tell you if I own it? | Example: I have huge bookshelves full of books. If you blind folded me, and went through asking me did I own book X, I could tell you with 95-100% accuracy. You could even fake books, or ask me about books I don't own, I'd be able to tell you yes or no. However, if you asked me to list all my books and write it on a piece of paper, I'd be lucky to get 25% of them before running out of steam.
Furthermore, when prompted with the book name, I could tell you the general plot of the book, list characters, describe the physical book, and maybe even when and where I got it.
Why is this information only accessible one way, and not another? For lack of a better description, why can't my brain search by "Books owned" tag and return a list? The information is clearly there!
I stumbled on this strangeness when someone asked me to list all 50 states. I could get about 75% of them before I started repeating, and only when I sketched a map was I able to fill in the rest. But when I had a map I could easily label every state.
Edit: I don't know which category tag to use for this, Neuroscience, or Psychology? | askscience | {
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"It's a phenomenon called priming. Without a stimulus related to a book (like the name), you'll probably only going to remember the most accessed books or most recently used books on your shelf. However, if someone says the name for you, the likelihood that you will remember owning/not-owning the book correctly will go up because you had to think about the book seconds before answering the question. For more information, look at the book Human Associative Memory (Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. (1973). Human associative memory. Washington, DC: Winston and Sons)\n\nEDIT: several people have pointed out that \"priming\" is a loaded term in cognitive psychology research. When I talk about it in this post, I use it loosely, and not in the narrow sense of unconscious priming. Interesting discussion of the differences can be found in several child posts, such as [this one](_URL_0_).",
"* **\"Why can't my brain search by \"Books owned\" tag and return a list? The information is clearly there!\"**\n\nThis scenario involves a situation where memory has been successfully encoded and stored, but cannot be retrieved. \n\n\n > Forgetting can be caused by the **blocking** of a memory representation, that is, by obstruction that can occur when multiple associations are associated with a cue and one of those associations is stronger than the others, preventing retrieval of the target information. Many theorists believe that the probability of retrieving a target memory depends on the strength of the association between the retrieval cue and the target representation relative to the strength of the association between that same cue and other representations. In the ensuing competition during retrieval, the representation with the strongest association “wins” and is remembered; ones with weaker associations “lose” and are “forgotten”. There is an important contrast here to decay theories, which hold that the degraded memory representation is lost; blocking theory emphasizes that the forgotten information still resides in memory, but access to it is temporarily blocked by a dominant competing representation. This weaker representation can be unblocked if a better retrieval cue, one that is more strongly associated with it, is presented.\n\n > Blocking likely accounts for many instances of forgetting; the mental representation of the old password, unused for some time, could be considered a weaker representation than the new password, which is used daily (Figure 5–16). The phenomenon is possibly adaptive: it permits the updating of memories so that we remember the information most likely to be relevant (Bjork, 1989). **Blocking also partly explains a striking and counterintuitive characteristic of memory: that the mere act of remembering one stimulus or event can result in the forgetting of another.** Suppose you idly start thinking about cataloguing your CDs, and you begin by making a mental list of them. The list grows quickly at first, but very soon your rate of retrieval slows. Your familiarity with all your CDs is about the same, so why should this be? What is happening is a phenomenon called output interference, in which the strengthening of memories provided by the act of initial retrieval blocks the retrieval of other memories. Retrieving the names of some of the CDs in your collection serves to strengthen the association between those representations and the retrieval cue; and in turn these newly strengthened representations serve to block access to other CD titles, temporarily decreasing your ability to remember them. ([link to source -- pg 227](_URL_1_))\n\n\n\nIn your case, \"Books owned\" is the cue, and each of the books on your shelf is an association of that cue. By initially starting your list (for example: \"Lord of The Rings\", \"The Hobbit\", \"The Chronicles of Narnia\") you strengthen the mental link between \"Books owned\" and those associations. As this happens though, you weaken the mental link between \"Books owned\" and other titles like \"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\".\n\nUsing variations of the original cue (e.g. \"Books I own that I read for high school\", \"Books I own that are non-fiction\", \"Books I own that are paperbacks\") might help you make a more substantial list because there are less competing associations as each cue becomes more specific.\n\n\n* **\"Why is this information only accessible one way, and not another?\"**\n\nThe two different types of ways you are describing are \"free recall\" (remembering all of the books on your shelf), and \"recognition\" (remembering a specific title when asked about it). In general it is easier to perform recognition (*\"Do you own the Lord of the Rings books?\"*) because that cue has a single, strong association, whereas in the free recall (*\"What books do you own?\"*) there are multiple associations and hence blocking becomes a factor.",
"Some theorists believe two processes work in memory: (1) familiarity and (2) recollection (e.g., Jacoby, 1991). (This is similar to Kahneman's \"thinking fast vs. slow\" work.) Familiarity is fast process that's evoked from perceptual (or conceptual) features of the stimulus. When familiarity is used, something \"seems\" familiar, or you can tell that you \"know\" it (or in this case, have it).\n\nRecollection, in contrast, is associated with specific episodic and contextual cues associated with the encoding event. To engage in recollection, you mentally travel back in time to the episode in which learning occurred to retrieve the memory.\n\nThus, when I ask you to name the books you have in your library (i.e., free recall), I'm requiring you to engage in recollection -- to travel back in time to when you obtained those books, the last time you saw them on your shelf, etc. to make the retrieval.\n\nWhen I ask you if you recognize certain books, though, not only can you make use of recollective detail, but familiarity is also brought to bear. Things can seem familiar and you can answer based on that information, too. The downside, though, is that familiarity is much more likely to be faulty. Although you feel you'd be more accurate on this test of recognition vs. recall, I bet that you'd be more likely to make more true and false positives on the recognition test.\n\nThis is how cognitive psychology or cognitive science would answer this question. Let me know if I can be more specific or offer more references.",
"Hopefully to add something: our brains are ridiculously good at \"recognition\" tasks. So good that not only can you quickly recall if you own a book but you can recall if you DON'T own a book just as fast, and that's the awesome part. There is a lot of evidence to show that when searching a list (books you own) for an item (yes or no) it is an almost perfectly parallel processing of all the items (rather than say going through a list). We also can \"recognize\" items without even knowing it. The \"mere exposure effect\" (technically used by social psych more than cog psych) is a great example of this. If quickly shown a series of characters (that you could never recall and produce) and then later asked to pick among a group of characters for which are better,(some in the original group and some not) people will select items from the original list independent of their knowledge of which they have seen before.\n\nOn the other hand we are horrible at recall tasks. First, in the short run, our working memories are generally really poor. The while 7 +/- 2 items is still pretty consistent science as far as I know. In the long run or recall looks a lot less parallel than our recognition. Part of it might be because we don't have the same ability to associate without an anchor. And our also might be why pneumonic devices are so powerful, they give us an association not only between the words on a list but a starting point (usually just a first letter) so we don't need to run through in a serial fashion.\n\nAs for the states or books, or any relatively long list, our working memories are working against us. Not only do you have to pull items of a list, you also have to keep track of the ones you have already named. Any methods that helps eliminate this second half will improve recall: having a map to full in, saying them alphabetically (although you'll probably have a hard time knowing of you miss one), our just going through a map roughly in your head (northeast first, then mid Atlantic etc.). As for a list of books there are sooo many books that you know that you don't own it's probably more difficult. But if you methodically found a way to order them (say by genre) your recall % should improve.\n\nEdit: \nSource: I used to make humanities majors do these kind of things.",
"As pointed out a few places in this thread, and in part what I point out [here](_URL_3_), your question boils down to recall vs. recognition. \n\n\nNow, before I say anymore, human memory is probably the most researched topic in cog/neuro/psych fields. And I would happily argue it is still one of the least understood. Human memory research has revealed unbelievably complex phenomena. Research approaches to these phenomena caused a split, primarily, into two camps: [Single vs. Dual Process](_URL_4_). \n\nThe reference to those warring camps is actually really important. Basically, to answer the second part of your question (i.e., recognition; \"but I can tell you if I own it\") could produce two different answers as to _how_ this happens in your brain or _why_ this phenomenon exists. If single process, you basically ramp up a \"familiarity signal\" until it is strong enough for you to commit to an answer. In a dual process theory, though, familiarity with an item vs. recollection of an item are two distinct processes. At this point, I'm not going to go into many more details about these. This is because I'm not strictly a memory person, and these approaches, as well as the terminology, are best described by the experts (there are some roaming around these parts, somewhere...). \n\n\nThe first part of your question, though, is [recall—or recollection—memory](_URL_4_). Your example of drawing a map would, arguably, fit under the idea of cued recall -- you used, or had at your disposal, a cue (the map) to come up with the rest of the states. This is distinct from recognition because if it were a recognition paradigm, you'd be given a list of states' names and other names to see which ones you could identify as states. \n\n\nSo, to get at the \"Why\" parts -- this dives into neuroscience, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. While there is all sorts of evidence to suggest which parts of the brain are involved in these tasks -- it's still quite a big mystery as to why some of these things work in various populations and sometimes don't work (e.g., normal vs. amnesia). How is an even bigger mystery. \n\n\nHowever, a really short answer to the why and how, with respect to the brainy bits, is that the structures in the medial temporal lobe are critical in all of this. However, they aren't the only things involved, as typically the MTL has some patterns of activation during various memory tasks, while other cortical areas do, too. \n\nYour question spans about 120 years of research in psychology, neuroscience, and everything in between, so, it's really not an easy question to answer with specifics. If you have more specific questions, then more specific details can (probably) be provided.",
"There is a distinction between [recognition memory](_URL_6_) and [recall memory](_URL_7_. Recognition is your ability, given an item (e.g., a book, a word), to determine whether you saw it before in a specific context (e.g., your bookshelf, a list of words you previously studied in a memory experiment). Recall is your ability, given some kind of cue, to actually retrieve the item from memory.\n\nAs you might imagine, in most (all?) cases, recognition performance is superior to recall performance. Given an item, it is relatively easy to make an old/new distinction. This is why it is easier for you to recognize a particular book as being on your shelf than to recall the titles given the cue \"books on your shelf\".\n\nThere are theories that (partially) explain the superiority of recognition memory over recall memory. For example, dual-process theories claim that recognition judgments of items (e.g., 'Neuromancer') are drive by both (1) general familiarity (e.g., \"Gosh, 'Neuromancer' sounds like something I have heard before.\") and (2) recollection of specific episodes (e.g., \"I remember buying 'Neuromancer' in that dusty old bookstore in Nashville\"). Under this explanation, recall contributes to recognition, but not vice versa.\n\nThere are a host of other memory effects that explain gradations in your performance. For example, while you might be able to recall only 25% of the titles on your bookshelf, if I cue you with author's names, I bet you would do a lot better -- maybe 50%. And this might be even higher if you interact with your bookshelf as follows: given an author name (e.g., \"I want to read something by William Gibson over the holidays.), you search through the relevant titles and *generate* a choice. The [generation effect](_URL_5_) is the finding that memory is better for items that were partially generated than for items that were simply read/studied. More generally, success at retrieval is determined in part by the actions taken at encoding, and you also have to take this into accout.",
"I have a related (kind of) question. My roommate owns literally hundreds of movies. She often buys duplicates because she can't remember if she owns it. Does the sheer number of items negate her ability to recall them? \n\nI, on the other hand, can list nearly everything I own from shirts to books to keys. I remember everything I've ever checked into my store (with a few exceptions) and tend you keep stock in my head, to the point that even my boss asks how many we have. \n\nIs that related to my aspergers, or are my neurons just conditioned to quickly retrieve that information?\n\n\nEdit: I also remember customers and their purchases for years, but I sill forget what time I'm working on which days.",
"Your memory works off of revisiting patterns (in a nutshell, obviously it's very complicated). It's not really that you *store* anything like lists of books you own, or memories, rather you *store* patterns that can be revisited by seeing parts of that pattern again (like you remember playing ball with your brother, you see your brothers face or the ball, and it helps you remember the whole thing, where eventually the memory pattern is hard for you to forget, just like if you went through your list of books you could probably remember 95-100% of the books you own if you repeatedly looked over them all and tried to remember them). However, you DO have somewhat of a memory (reading, buying, seeing them etc...) which can be hard to recreate simply by thinking, but as soon as the cover or name pops out that pattern jumps back into your brain, so to speak.\n\nOur memories work in very complicated ways. Think of it sort of like a bunch of pathways to a point and you can take those pathways to get different memories, but just looking at all the possibilities it's hard to say take this path here to here to here to get here, vs, taking the path and saying \"oh yeah, I've been here before'\".\n\nAnother thing I find interesting about our memory is a couple things actually. One being when you revisit similar places, or places you saw a long time ago, or didn't see at all, but you insist you've been there. Well something triggered a pattern in your brain that's just not clear to you but it can drive you nuts. The other thing is trying to remember something but you just can't put your finger on it, simply because you can't find something to trigger that pattern. For instance trying to remember an old friends name but you have no recollection, that can drive me nuts too. \n\nFinally, another thing that is interesting is when we mix up patterns like crazy. That's one way to really screw with your memory. Wonder why you always lose your keys? Well if you don't always put them in one place, you're going to associate these patterns with your keys in 900 different places (and whether you lost them because they are in a new place or not) it's still easy to confuse yourself even.\n\nI'm no expert but I'm an engineer that's done a lot of reading. Hopefully this was at least interesting. I try to keep science out of it sometimes to explain concepts and can get a little off track.",
"Putting a cognitive science-esque twist on this, I like to think of this sort of recall as a hash table (as opposed to some sort of array). It is hard to iterate through the table since each object sits in a \"random\" location in memory, but when supplied with a key or pointer (such as the title of the book) something in your mind kicks in and finds where the information (I own and remember this book) is stored in your brain. \n\n[more info on hash tables from everyone's favorite encyclopedia]( _URL_8_)\n\n(note: I guess this technically isn't much more than speculation, but how many people have to speculate the same way before it is deemed worthy of real consideration?)",
"While the answer to your question has been said many many times, I'd like to add in that this is the same reason why almost all of the exams you're going to take in your life are multiple choice rather than short answer/fill in. We're simply not good at recalling from memory, but extremely good at recognizing.",
"Same reason you cant list all the animals you know but you can recognize them when you see them: free recall is much harder than recognition.",
"Memory can (very bluntly) be called a reconstructive process of encoding, storage, and retrieval. The reconstructive process is biology: neurons connecting to each other (this happens at all three stages). For our purposes, we will ignore the traditional three-stage memory process of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. You own these books, you read these books, you organized them on your shelves. I do not doubt that they were encoded into your long term memory. Likewise, there are no encoding nor storage errors that occur with your question. It is a question of retrieval, which has been very ineloquently labeled as priming. This is correct, but you must focus on the question: is it a recall or a recognition question? and then focus on the biology. The first question is a recall question: list all the books you own, or list all 50 states. They are open ended questions, and you will be able to recall only the titles that have the strongest neural connections to each other. And here's the thing: when you are retrieving these memories (in this case book titles you own), the neural connections change. This is why I call memory a reconstructive process. The technical term is Long Term Potentiation. You might find that you are able to recall more, less, and even very confidently wrong titles because of LTP. There are many factors that effect LTP for example the situation you are in, the people you are with, the state of mind, etc. Sometimes LTP causes memories to fundamentally change. Now, the second question is a recognition question. It is almost like a multiple choice question. These questions are less subjective to retrieval error, and if you had a more difficult time recognizing whether or not you owned that book title, that would more likely be a question of encoding or storage error. For more information look up the work by Elizabeth Loftus who is a memory expert in the field of Psychology. _URL_9_",
"There are different kinds of memory, with different anatomies and mechanisms, categorized in different ways by neuroscientists. Listing every book you own would be an example of recall memory. Saying yes or no if asked whether you own it is recognition (and maybe a type of episodic memory). In general, recognition tends to be easier than recall (probably because it requires less consolidation and activates fewer neural pathways) than recall.",
"Follow up: Is there a way to help improve free recall?\n\nI have a problem where I cannot recall stories/conversations/events of my past very well (say when joking around with friends/family), but as soon as they mention it It comes right back. Sometimes, a lot of these stories would be useful to recall in these situations. This sometimes happens with events as recent as the same week or day."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15in05/why_cant_i_list_every_book_i_know_but_i_can_tell/c7mx6jj",
"http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~ashas/Cognition%20Textbook/chapter5.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_memory#Dual-process_versus_single-process_theories",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15in05/why_cant_i_list_every_book_i_know_but_i_can_tell/c7mx6jj",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_memory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_table",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus"
]
} | Why can't I list every book I know, but I can tell you if I own it?
Example: I have huge bookshelves full of books. If you blind folded me, and went through asking me did I own book X, I could tell you with 95-100% accuracy. You could even fake books, or ask me about books I don't own, I'd be able to tell you yes or no. However, if you asked me to list all my books and write it on a piece of paper, I'd be lucky to get 25% of them before running out of steam. Furthermore, when prompted with the book name, I could tell you the general plot of the book, list characters, describe the physical book, and maybe even when and where I got it. Why is this information only accessible one way, and not another? For lack of a better description, why can't my brain search by "Books owned" tag and return a list? The information is clearly there! I stumbled on this strangeness when someone asked me to list all 50 states. I could get about 75% of them before I started repeating, and only when I sketched a map was I able to fill in the rest. But when I had a map I could easily label every state. Edit: I don't know which category tag to use for this, Neuroscience, or Psychology? | [
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11ahxe | Why is our perception of color cyclical, and is it also cyclical for bichromats and tetrachromats? | I'm a visual artist, and thus spend a lot of time pondering color perception.
What I'm wondering is... is there a physiological/neurological explanation for why we have a color wheel? Seeing as color is based on the wavelength of light, it seems like our perception of color should be linear, like our perception of sound pitch, yet for some reason we perceive violet as blending smoothly back to red on the other end of the spectrum.
I'm guessing it has something to do with the way the brain has to kind of do some guesswork to determine color in the first place, gauging by the intensity of the activation of cones.
And moreover, do partially colorblind people, with only two sets of cones instead of three, see their limited color spectrum in the same way? Do tetrachromatic animals, that see mostly the same spectrum we do, plus the infrared or ultraviolet, also perceive color cyclically? Might they perhaps be able to arrange colors in an even more complicated looping format? (Say one pigment activates the ultraviolet cones and the blue cones, making the equivalent of fuscia for humans. What if a pigment activates the red cones and the blue cones, skipping the green?)
I realize there's not exactly a way to test how truly tetrachromatic animals see, but I'm curious how far the theory might be able to predict.
**EDIT:** Okay, so that wikipedia article on Magenta has helped me articulate my last question a little better.
So apparently magenta is an "extra-spectral" color because it can only be generated by a combination of two wavelengths.
So, say we have a tetrachromat that has cones corresponding roughly to the human's red, green, and blue cones, with a fourth set of cones off in the ultraviolet range. This, presumably, would mean that their vision has four primary colors, rather than the three primary colors our vision has, right? What I'm really curious about is, can we tell if they could see two/three extra-spectral colors since there are more possible wavelength gaps? If something activates their blue and red cones, do they see magenta (or would they just see green)? If something activates their green and ultraviolet cones, do they see some other extra not-blue, not-violet color that we can't (Octarine!)? Presumably they see at least one extra-spectral color when something activates their ultraviolet and red cones. Is this more dependent on their brain structure than on their eye structure?
**EDIT 2:** I just had the wild idea to look up the wiki article for Violet.
> Spectral-violet looks like purple-violet for the human eye because L-cones have a secondary response in high-frequency blue
L-cones being the red sensing cones. I haven't found any more info than that, but this article suggests that violet and magenta "blend together" because both colors are caused by activation of the blue cones and red cones. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6kt3nd",
"c6kqw29",
"c6ksm4u"
],
"text": [
"People are hitting on the right answer. It has to do with the way we perceive color, specifically, 3 cones and opponent-process theory. The entire theory fills a chapter of a textbook, but I would imagine there are resources you could fine online that describe it in detail.\n\nIt's one of the examples I use in my class to distinguish sensation from perception.\n\nAs to your question about tetrachromatic animals, [people can be tetrachromatic](_URL_0_). It's rare, but it happens (much more common in women). Tetrachromats have similar color perception, but they are more sensitive to colors and can complete color discrimination tasks better.\n\nYour other questions are a lot harder to answer because we don't have a good way to test perception of color in other people. We can measure neural activity, but that captures sensation and not perception. I could make educated guesses but it would still be guesses.\n\nThe same applies to what perceiving ultraviolet or infrared wavelengths would be like. We don't really know, because any attempt to \"see\" those wavelengths involves converting them into something we can see. However, light waves are light waves so I wouldn't expect they would act very differently outside of our visible range, especially considering how extremely limited our visible light spectrum is.",
"It's cyclical because some sections of the wheel don't correspond to a single frequency. What we call \"magenta\" is a blend of frequencies at the lower and upper ends of the visible range, and the existence of this \"non-existent color\" bridges the gap, forming a wheel.",
"This may have something to do directly how our sensors work. I really liked your analogy of the non-circular perception of pitch; there is an upper and lower frequency boundary that is audible to us, but the boundaries don't merge in our perception.\n\nSound is registered by the cochlea, different frequencies stimulate different areas of hair cells inside it and this area shifts \"left\"\\* or \"right\"\\* along the cochlea, depending on increase or decrease in the sounds frequency. There is an \"upper\"\\* and \"lower\"\\* end to the sensors. Also, the perception is continuous; there is basically a hair cell area for each frequency increment we can possibly distinguish.\n\n\\* directions are arbitrary and meant to designate relative directions.\n\nColors (in humans) are perceived by usually three types of cones. There is no continuous analysis of the frequency of the light. So there isn't an \"up\" or \"down\" in color perception as there is in sound. That is probably why our mind wraps the colors into a circle."
],
"score": [
11,
11,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/news/health/some-women-may-see-100-million-colors-thanks-to-their-genes-450179/"
]
} | Why is our perception of color cyclical, and is it also cyclical for bichromats and tetrachromats?
I'm a visual artist, and thus spend a lot of time pondering color perception. What I'm wondering is... is there a physiological/neurological explanation for why we have a color wheel? Seeing as color is based on the wavelength of light, it seems like our perception of color should be linear, like our perception of sound pitch, yet for some reason we perceive violet as blending smoothly back to red on the other end of the spectrum. I'm guessing it has something to do with the way the brain has to kind of do some guesswork to determine color in the first place, gauging by the intensity of the activation of cones. And moreover, do partially colorblind people, with only two sets of cones instead of three, see their limited color spectrum in the same way? Do tetrachromatic animals, that see mostly the same spectrum we do, plus the infrared or ultraviolet, also perceive color cyclically? Might they perhaps be able to arrange colors in an even more complicated looping format? (Say one pigment activates the ultraviolet cones and the blue cones, making the equivalent of fuscia for humans. What if a pigment activates the red cones and the blue cones, skipping the green?) I realize there's not exactly a way to test how truly tetrachromatic animals see, but I'm curious how far the theory might be able to predict. **EDIT:** Okay, so that wikipedia article on Magenta has helped me articulate my last question a little better. So apparently magenta is an "extra-spectral" color because it can only be generated by a combination of two wavelengths. So, say we have a tetrachromat that has cones corresponding roughly to the human's red, green, and blue cones, with a fourth set of cones off in the ultraviolet range. This, presumably, would mean that their vision has four primary colors, rather than the three primary colors our vision has, right? What I'm really curious about is, can we tell if they could see two/three extra-spectral colors since there are more possible wavelength gaps? If something activates their blue and red cones, do they see magenta (or would they just see green)? If something activates their green and ultraviolet cones, do they see some other extra not-blue, not-violet color that we can't (Octarine!)? Presumably they see at least one extra-spectral color when something activates their ultraviolet and red cones. Is this more dependent on their brain structure than on their eye structure? **EDIT 2:** I just had the wild idea to look up the wiki article for Violet. > Spectral-violet looks like purple-violet for the human eye because L-cones have a secondary response in high-frequency blue L-cones being the red sensing cones. I haven't found any more info than that, but this article suggests that violet and magenta "blend together" because both colors are caused by activation of the blue cones and red cones. | [
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|
a6tw9v | [Medicine] Why can’t mesothelioma be cured? | I realize my title might not make any sense. With the revelation that baby powder may have contained asbestos, why isn’t there a cure for mesothelioma? What makes mesothelioma so bad that it’s a death sentence? Is there any way to utilize stem cells or some other advance in medicine to combat the effects?
Also, why isn’t there a test for early detection?
Is askscience the right place for this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ebyranj",
"ebyi4am",
"ebz9b1m",
"ebze7p6",
"ebypri6"
],
"text": [
"Not a mesothelioma expert but I'll tell you what I know.\nAsbestos is a bugger of a material and it is highly friable (easily broken into microscopic fibres and dispersed through the air like dust). The asbestos fibres are inhaled into your lungs and embed themselves into the lining of your lungs like thousands of microscopic splinters. The body is not capable of breaking the fibres/splinters down and over time with enough exposure the fibres do extensive damage to the lining of your lungs. This can lead to inflation, scarring, respiratory distress, and fluid build up (Asbestosis) and in many cases this damaged tissue can become cancerous.\n\nIt is not a centralized tumour like \"typical\" cancer and the lungs are usually already severely damaged/scarred by the fibres by the time the cancer develops (it takes a very long time to develop 15+ years minimum). This is a somewhat oversimplified explanation and I'm sure I've missed some stuff but hopefully that helps.",
"There are a lot of things that can’t be cured. Many forms of cancer, some infections diseases, and many injuries. Human bodies are relatively fragile, and science is still evolving. HIV, for example, used to be a death sentence. With modern treatments, they’ve managed to make it so someone who is HIV positive has so little of the virus left in them they test negative. They can safely have partners and kids who won’t contract it. We’ve made huge leaps. \n\nIt will take time and research. Lots of money and research is already being done on mesothelioma. If you want to read more about it, or make a donation, check out _URL_0_",
"Stem cells are useless for treating cancer. What they do is multiply and transform into other types of cells, hence regeneration, rejuvenation and similar effects. To treat cancer, you need to do the reverse: kill the unnecessary type of \"rebellious\" cells that multiply too much.",
"Biochemist here. We do the cancer research.\n\nThis is best answered through a broader discussion on why it is difficult to cure cancer, not necessarily just mesothelioma which is a type of lung cancer, and also a definition of a \"cure.\"\n\nFirst of all, cancers are all different and have a million and one different causes. Check out [_URL_3_](_URL_3_). Each of these hallmarks can arise from thousand different sources. You have tens of thousands of genes in your body that code for hundreds of thousands of proteins that are responsible for maintaining a normal cell. The mutations in these genes cause problems with the proteins that maintain the cell and can arise in cells that don't die, which is cancer. Tumors are just big clumps of these cells that wont die. Because there can be so many different causes of cancer, they are usually named by their location in their body and not necessarily what is actually wrong with the cell on a molecular level.\n\nLocation on the body often has alot to do with prognosis. Tumors in vital organs with low regenerative ability are much worse than melanoma on the surface of the skin. Mesothelioma is in the lungs, and cutting out a section of lung is often not an option.\n\nOther options for treatment are drugging the protein/s responsible for tumor growth. These proteins (called oncoproteins --onco means cancer) have to be discerned first. In the case of mesothelioma the p14, p16 ([_URL_3_](_URL_3_)) tumor suppressors are often mutated and less active than normal versions of the protein. Part of the difficulty here is that when a protein is mutated to be less active, it is harder, biochemically speaking, to stimulate more activity from the protein than to reduce activity. There also lies the problem of targeting only the cancer cells and not all the other cells in your body that have the same exact protein which is likely needed for you to live. We cant really specifically target a tumor yet with drugs, that is why people going through chemo look like death, because we are pretty much just poisoning them in hopes that the cancer is poisoned more than the rest of them.\n\nFinally, the cure. Best thing right now is physically removing tumors through surgery. While stem cells are a hot topic in popular science, they aren't particularly helpful in this instance. Recent advancements in the area of DNA sequencing and proteomics allow for us to better address the specific cause of a cancer on the genetic and molecular level. Once we can do this to each patient, we can start to better address issues. CRISPR/Cas9 is a good candidate for targeted cancer therapy and possibly even a cure. Being able to edit tumor cells to address mutations would be my bet for a better cure/treatment. Depending on your side of the ethics spectrum, genetically engineering humans preemptively to have the Cas9 gene would allow us to fix many diseases. (the chinese claimed to have birthed the first genetically modified human a few weeks ago actually).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nLast, the early detection thing. Its pretty hard to do because cancer cells are so much like normal cells. You have to look for a biomarker that would indicate cancer. Problem is that, the level of metabolites and proteins in your body that could be indicative of cancer changes with what you ate last night, time of day, if you are taking other medicine, if you are stressed, and your genetic makeup. There is so much change in the body that small differences caused by cancers are almost impossible to detect in a cheap, reliable, and conclusive way.",
"There's a thin layer of tissue that covers your internal organs called the mesothelium. This is where the cancer arises. It's particularly hard to detect because the consequences of asbestos might not manifest for many years. It's hard to know if you've even been exposed to asbestos. It can't be cured as of right now, and I don't think stem cells are the right approach.\n\nBecause the mesothelial tissues span so much of our organs, tumors can arise in different parts of the body. Most frequently, we see it in the lungs or abdomen. It's particularly hard to treat, resistant to conventional radiation or chemotherapy. Really promising work is being done in immunotherapy right now though."
],
"score": [
12,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.curemeso.org/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P16",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hallmarks_of_Cancer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Hallmarks\\_of\\_Cancer"
]
} | [Medicine] Why can’t mesothelioma be cured?
I realize my title might not make any sense. With the revelation that baby powder may have contained asbestos, why isn’t there a cure for mesothelioma? What makes mesothelioma so bad that it’s a death sentence? Is there any way to utilize stem cells or some other advance in medicine to combat the effects? Also, why isn’t there a test for early detection? Is askscience the right place for this? | [
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1r9elk | (-1)^(1/2) is imaginary, but (-1)^(1/3) is real. What is (-1)^(1/2.5), and why? | askscience | {
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"Note that when dealing with roots and complex numbers, you actually get multiple results. For example, -1^(1/2) actually has two values:\n\n1. i\n2. -i\n\nSimilarly, -1^(1/3) has three values:\n\n1. -1\n2. cos(π/3) + i\\*sin(π/3)\n3. cos(π/3) - i\\*sin(π/3)\n\nFinally, note that 1/2.5 = 2/5. Thus, (-1)^(1/2.5) = (-1)^(2/5) = 1^(1/5). We therefore need to find the fifth roots of 1. There are five of them, and they are\n\n1. 1\n2. cos(2π/5) + i\\*sin(2π/5)\n3. cos(2π/5) - i\\*sin(2π/5)\n4. cos(4π/5) + i\\*sin(4π/5)\n5. cos(4π/5) - i\\*sin(4π/5)\n\nAny of these numbers satisfies x^(5/2) = -1 (and x^(5/2) = 1), since they all satisfy x^5 = 1, and -1 satisfies -1^2 = 1.",
"To elaborate on what RelativisticMechanic wrote, the roots come from Euler's formula: e^(ix) = cosx + isinx. If you're familiar with Taylor series, this formula can be derived from taking Taylor expansions around x = 0 for e^(ix), cosx, and sinx: \n\ne^(ix) = 1 + ix - x^2 /2! - ix^3 /3! + x^4 /4! + ix^5 /5! - ... \ncosx = 1 - x^2 /2! + x^4 /4! - x^6 /6! + ... \nisinx = ix - ix^3 /3! + ix^5 /5! - ix^7 /7! + ... \n\nSo, using this formula, we know that e^i\\*2kpi = 1 where k is an integer. So 1^(1/5) becomes\n\ne^i\\*2kpi/5 = cos(2kpi/5) + isin(2kpi/5)\n\nUsing k = 0, 1, -1, 2, -2 (in that order) gives RelativisticMechanic's answers. Notice that since cos and sin are 2-pi periodic, if you try to use other values of k, you'll end up getting one of the 5 answers already listed.",
"This should help you out: [Graph of (-1)^x in Wolfram Alpha.](_URL_0_) This graph show the real vs. imaginary parts of the powers of (-1). Notice that (-1)^(1/2.5) is in the part of the graph with nonzero real *and* nonzero imaginary parts!\n\nIn general, I think your question has to do with the properties of the function f(x) = a^x, but I'm not exactly sure what explanation you want for \"why\" beyond the graph linked above.",
"For this question, you have to compare an inverse function, as defined by convention, with the solutions to an equation involving a function that is not one-to-one (invertible).\n\nIn order to define a function, you need exactly one output for each input. For possible multivalued functions, we select one solution completely by convention (sqrt function, inverse trig functions, and many others).\n\nSolving x^2 = -1 has two answers, +i and -i, both imaginary.\nSolving x^3 = -1 has three answers, e^(i*pi/3), -1 = e^(i*pi/3 +2*pi/3), and e^(i*pi/3 +4*pi/3).\n\nTo define the inverse functions of these equations, we can only pick one of these answers, so we pick one answer entirely based on mathematical convention and general agreement. Typically we pick the real number solutions first if we can (ex. cube root), positive part solutions after this if we can (ex. sqrt), and if it is still multivalued pick the solution set that intersects 0 if we can (ex. inverse trig functions). This defines the inverse functions x^(1/2) and x^(1/3). If we cannot do any of those, it's less clear what we pick, and mathematicians will usually explicitly state the solution branch they are using for their math, so no one is confused.\n\nWhat about x^(2.5)? Once you have defined all the integer rational roots and powers, the standard convention is to interpret x^(5/2) as either of the two equal expressions,\nsqrt(x^5) = sqrt(x)^5.\nThere is no ambiguity in these expressions. We could also solve\nx^(2/5) = -1, which would have multiple solutions. Our solutions would be\ne^(i*pi/2.5 + 2*pi*k/2.5) for each integer k.\nSee [Roots of Unity](_URL_2_) and [Euler's Identity](_URL_2_) for more information. In this case, we would only have 5 total solutions, due to the 5th root.\n\nFor irrational numbers, everything gets a little more complicated, as irrational powers of negative numbers aren't very well defined. But that's another issue entirely.\n\n*Edit: Corrected a really silly mistake of mine.*"
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} | {
"url": [
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} | (-1)^(1/2) is imaginary, but (-1)^(1/3) is real. What is (-1)^(1/2.5), and why?
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7hg1sn | Which is stronger: the windows on planes, or the lowest windows on a cruise ship? | Sometimes windows on cruise ships are low enough that they can have waves crashing into them (or even be underwater? maybe?). I would think it's a matter of pressure but I don't know that much about physics. I would also think the cruise ship ones have to be stronger because a tiny leak of water sounds worse than a tiny leak of air. Either way just something I was wondering. | askscience | {
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"The windows on a ship will be significantly thicker (1 to 2 inches) and made from toughened glass than windows on a plane which are normally poly-carbonate and made of 2 or 3 layers with air between in order to save weight.",
"From a barometric pressure standpoint, a window or other skin of a pressurized compartment in a commercial plane will typically be subjected to pressure of about 0.5 atm.\n\nThis assumes cabin pressurized to equivalent of 8000 feet ASL, at flight level 38000:\n\n 8000 ft: 574 mmHg\n\n38000 ft: 172 mmHg\n\nNet pressure: 402 mmHg / 760 ≈ 0.53 atm\n\nAn equivalent pressure would be exerted on a window submerged in 5.5 m (18 ft.) of water.\n\nIn the plane case, the pressure differential would rise and fall slowly and smoothly and within well defined limits.\n\nIn the ship case, the pressure is more chaotic with brief but large spikes.\n\nIt really depends on how close to the calm waterline these windows are. That will determine how battered they are by breaking storm waves and how deeply submerged they can be in swells. In general, I think the ship glass has the tougher job.",
"It would depend on the ship and window in question, but it's most likely that the airplane window will be stronger, but the ship window will be thicker. Airplanes use polycarbonate (Lexan) for the window material, which is not only lighter than glass, but much stronger (up to 200x stronger than untempered glass, ~50x stronger than tempered glass). The outer pane thickness is about 0.5\" and the inner pane is about 0.15\", with a quarter inch gap between them. \n\nI would think that the airplane window would be under much higher stress than a ship window in the course of normal operation, though I haven't done the math to back this up. In flight, the cabin pressure is around 12 psi and the ambient pressure is 3 psi, so you have a net outward pressure of 9 psi. On a ship window, above the water line, the ambient pressure and cabin pressure are the same. You'd have to go 20 feet or so below the waterline to get the same pressure differential on the ship as you have on the airplane (though the pressure would be pressing inwards on the ship). It's true that the ship has waves and wake crashing on it, but the airplane window has aerodynamic stresses, which I think would be much larger than with a wave.",
"Ships, for sure. \n\nPlanes can withstand many small holes without losing pressurization. The leaks would likely be able to compensated for with a little extra strain on the pressurization system. Too many holes, or a blown out window, would be a different story, but could still structurally survive with some emergency equipment for crew and passengers. \n\nLeaks in ships are similarly not the end of the world, but you definitely wouldn't want them springing up with any regularity or in difficult-to-patch locations (such as in the middle of a pane of glass). Typically there's not a lot of below-water-line windows, but those that exist are definitely more durable than the clear poly-carbonate of plane windows.",
"To answer this question you would have to define \"stronger.\" And before you could quantify the relative danger of a failure between the two you would have to define \"tiny.\" The loss of cabin pressurization has been cited in a number of aviation accidents resulting in fatalities. Pro golfer Payne Stewart--and everyone else on the aircraft--died when the crew failed to notice the cabin of the Lear jet he was flying in failed to pressurize during initial ascent. It wasn't due to a leaking window, it was because of a malfunction in the pressurization system.\n\nThat said, I don't know how you could get a \"small leak\" in the window of a pressurized aircraft. The polycarbonate material isn't given to cracking. Failure modes are typically related to age and environmental degradation. The inspection and replacement protocols make any airliner window failure extrememly unlikely.",
"One additional aspect not mentioned yet: The ships windows must not only be able to withstand the waves, but must also be safe in the case of floating debris in the water. I don't know the details, but I've seen that information in a TV documentation about ship building."
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} | Which is stronger: the windows on planes, or the lowest windows on a cruise ship?
Sometimes windows on cruise ships are low enough that they can have waves crashing into them (or even be underwater? maybe?). I would think it's a matter of pressure but I don't know that much about physics. I would also think the cruise ship ones have to be stronger because a tiny leak of water sounds worse than a tiny leak of air. Either way just something I was wondering. | [
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b2sgh9 | How exactly does nothing (or almost nothing) react with glassware? | I've been watching CodysLab and HTME on YouTube and seeing them put all those incredible reactive and dangerous into glass started wondering why/how it works? Are there other things that are as resistive to chemicals as glass is? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It really depends on the chemical in question, but plastics can hold lots of things and even some things that glass cannot (think of how many household chemicals are sold in plastic containers). Some metals are also great at holding things, especially various grades of stainless steel.\n\nThe main reason this works is that there are relatively few ways that glass can interact with chemicals inside. The surface of glass is a bunch of Si-O bonds with usually H+ hanging onto the surface O, or some other positive ion like Na+. For anything that isn't basic enough to pull that proton off the surface the glass will be fairly inert. However, this means that glass is really bad at holding strong bases. If you ever mix up a solution of NaOH you best store it in a plastic bottle.\n\nPlastic is good in different ways. Plastics are not usually susceptible to basic attack, and most are fine against acids as well. However, some organic solvents can worm their way into the polymer chains and essentially melt the container or just leak through, and that isn't a problem organic solvents have with glass.",
"Glass is super-useful in general, because it is so chemically-resistant to so many **naturally**\\-occuring chemicals (water, acid, oil/organic compounds, etc). Compositions vary but in general, glass is mainly SiO2. The Si-O bond is incredibly strong, and there are very few naturally-occuring substances which can dissolve it. To illustrate this further, glass is mainly made using high-purity sand. These sand grains started life as minerals (e.g. quartz) within continental rocks (e.g. granite) and are the product of thousands of years of erosive processes (wind, rain, sun, ice etc). In the highest-purity sand deposits, after all these erosive processes, only the silica sand remains! So it's pretty hardy.\n\nThere are a few **non-naturally-**occuring compounds which can dissolve glass. For example, I need to dissolve igneous rocks in my job. These rocks contain silicate minerals (i.e. containing Si-O bonds, like glass). This requires the use of hydrofluoric acid (HF). HF breaks apart the Si-O bonds in the minerals within the rocks (forming SiF6 and other products which are soluble in strong acid). HF would readily attack and start to dissolve glass if we performed the reactions in glass vials!\n\nWe use PTFE (i.e. Teflon) vials to perform all our experiments. At the temperatures we need (i.e. < 200degC), the PTFE vials are strong and are essentially inert to reaction with any of the reagents we use. PTFE is of such low-reactivity under these conditions that it is possible to clean the vials to very high-standards (enabling the measurements of chemical variations to a very high precision). If we tried to clean glassware in the same way, the cleaning process would leach contaminants from the glass structure into solution.",
"It's easier to answer if you look at why most plastic is so unreactive. Essentially there are no bonds that can easily be broken by the sorts of chemicals that you store in them. A carbon hydrogen bond is quite strong and unreactive unless there are other groups around it that modify the behaviour e.g. stabilise a lone pair of electrons or something like that. If you look at highly fluorinated polymers like teflon you'll find they are even more unreactive because the carbon fluorine bond is very strong (hence why they are such a problem as a pollutant). Glass is unreactive for the same reason but it's more complex to explain because of the make up of glass, there are certainly things that attack glass though especially at high temperatures."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How exactly does nothing (or almost nothing) react with glassware?
I've been watching CodysLab and HTME on YouTube and seeing them put all those incredible reactive and dangerous into glass started wondering why/how it works? Are there other things that are as resistive to chemicals as glass is? | [
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|
1i22pa | Could we take something as dense as stone and cut it thin enough to the point of being see through? | Hypothetically speaking could we take an object such as stone and cut it or flatten it to the point of being see through or translucent?
EDIT:Apparently despite earning a 98% on my literacy test I still don't remember the difference between opaque and translucent. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cb077fd",
"cb07wq3",
"cb0dnih"
],
"text": [
"Yes. Actually, Yale University has a museum constructed out of marble that is thin enough to allow light through it, but not too thin as to allow too much light to damage the rare artifacts.",
"Geologists use [thin sections](_URL_0_) all the time, as do researchers like paleontologists and archaeologists who want to do bone histology. \n\nAlso, there are plenty of minerals that are transparent or translucent (diamond is an example), but I'm assuming your question is referring to taking opaque materials and cutting them thinly so light can pass through.",
"As others have said, thin sections are used routinely in geology. We take a sample of rock and grind it down to 30 microns thick (0.03 mm). We then place it on a microscope, and treat it like you might anything else. At this thickness the vast majority of minerals become translucent. That said, even at these thicknesses there are some minerals which remain truly opaque, such as magnetite and pyrite. There's a good primer here: _URL_1_"
],
"score": [
8,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_section",
"https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/Petrology/Tsecplp.htm"
]
} | Could we take something as dense as stone and cut it thin enough to the point of being see through?
Hypothetically speaking could we take an object such as stone and cut it or flatten it to the point of being see through or translucent? EDIT:Apparently despite earning a 98% on my literacy test I still don't remember the difference between opaque and translucent. | [
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32f8wj | Why do artillery guns always shoot short at night? | At the end of a chapter in *Storm of Steel*, Ernst Jünger writes
> On the way back, Schultz and I gave each other a piece of our minds: I over his instructions to the machine-gunners, he over the artillery targeting. And yet I had done my work so scrupulously I couldn't understand what had gone wrong. **It wasn't till later that I learned that guns always shoot short at night**, and that I should therefore have added another hundred yards to the range.
What is the reason for this? Is it due to a scientific phenomena or due to military tactics or something else altogether? | askscience | {
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"Arty officer here. They don't. Artillery rounds land where you put them. First, everyone uses meters these days, not yards, feet or inches. Next, environmental characteristics can impact where a round lands (wind, moisture, rotation of the earth etc). Tube wear also has influence on the velocity (and range) of the round. Lots of information in the artillery [field manuals](_URL_0_). Short answer is that if you accurately account for the five requirements for accurate fire, the round lands where you want it to.",
"Howitzer section chief here-\n\nThe main reason would be that the propellant inside the round would be colder at night due to a decrease in temperature. In WW2 they used fixed ammunition and could not measure the temperature on the inside.\n\nToday on the M119A3, we have semi fixed ammunition. You can stick a prop temp inside the canister and read the temperature of the m67 propellant and send that up to FDC ( Fire Direction Control) which leads to more accurate fires. \n\nTLDR : Propellant burns faster when hot, round goes further.\n\nHope this was helpful \n\nEdit: Thanks for all the responses redditors, and for the gold kind stranger. Really made my day.\n\nCurrently on a drop zone shooting artillery so it's only fitting that I comment. \nAirborne, All The Way, Lets go.",
"If my calculations are correct (some one with expertise please check me here), the density of air at 32 degrees F is ~9.9% higher than at 70 degrees F. \n\nFrom FM6-40:\n\n > (3) Air density. Density of the air through which a projectile passes creates friction, which affects the forward movement of the projectile. This affects the distance a projectile travels. **The density effect is inversely proportional to the projectile ranges; that is, an increase in density causes a decrease in range.**\n\nThis scenario is certainly likely in desert climates, and with the addition of humidity factors, it is plausible that guns will shoot shorter at night without factoring for those variables.\n\n--\nAdditionally, compression of the air by the projectile further complicates things, but I believe that is mostly mitigated by the conical shape of the round. Again, if any one would expertise could elaborate, that would be appreciated.",
"Artillery Targeting Officer and former Fire Direction Center Chief of Section here. As it has been pointed out by others, If you have met the five requirements for accurate predicted fire, you will hit what you're aiming for. Your answer lies in both history and physics. \n\nFirstly, the five requirements for accurate predicted fires are: Accurate target location and size, accurate firing piece location, accurate meteorological information, accurate weapon and ammunition information, and accurate computational procedures. \n\nThe first Artillerists to employ these five requirements to accurately predict fire were the British during the Battle of Cambrai. (November - December 1917)\n\nThat said, Ernst Jünger wrote *Storm of Steel* after his experiences in the German Army in WWI. They were not using the same methodology as the Brits. They were using an older methodology. That's the history part, now some physics.\n\nGenerally, at night, the air is colder and thus denser. A projectile travelling through this denser atmosphere will meet with greater resistance. Imagine throwing a football through the air vs. throwing it underwater. (Admittedly a bit of an extreme example, but it makes the point clear) The distance will be drastically reduced. \n\nSo it is with an artillery round travelling through the air. Air has a profound effect on ballistic artillery. The wind can move the round making it fall short, go long, go right, or go left depending on speed and direction. (For extra fun in the accurate computational procedures department, wind often changes speed and direction at different altitudes, but I digress.) \n\nSo, back in the old-timey days, if they used a predictive methodology at all, they used calculations that were based on a standard meteorological data set (1 atmosphere pressure, 25 degrees Celsius, no wind.) for the first round. Observers reported where the round did hit and the Fire Direction Center compared that to where it should have hit, and made corrections from there. (Note: Atmospheric characteristics aren't the only parameters that affect where the round hits. Barrel wear, propellant temperature, rotation of the earth, local gravitational irregularities, etc. all help determine where the round goes. But for this discussion, we have to agree to live in a magical world where each of these are exactly in accordance with the standard model.)\n\nAt night, that cold, dense, thick air provided more resistance than the standard model, (or even the corrected model from the daytime hours.), the rounds slowed more quickly, and thus fell short. Even so, an observer should eventually be able to walk the rounds onto the target. \n\nAs far as adding a hundred yards to the range to compensate, I cannot give a precise answer because I am not familiar with the artillery systems the Germans used in WWI. However, it is not unheard of to have a modern system be off by a hundred meters or more for the first shot or volley.\n\nEDIT: A couple of correctly spelled, yet incorrect words were corrected.",
"In WWI artillery gunners were not accounting at all for temperature difference in the propellant (the explosive that shoots the round out). If the propellant is colder the round does not go as far. In the inverse, if you leave the rounds out in the sun they will over shoot if not compensated for.",
"US Arty officer here. I confirm Danmas's posts. The variables in this situation would be the temperature of the propellants and air density due to the drop in air temp. The actual fact that it is nighttime has nothing to do with the 5 requirements of accurate predictive fire, if the air temp was to cool dramatically during the day time we would have to account for it the same way as a temp change during night hours.",
"Former 13E (Cannon Fire Direction Specialist) here. I used to do the calculations for 155mm M198 howitzers.\n\nNight time (particularly in the past) would reduce the distance projectiles go due mostly to moisture.\n\nMoisture in the air as well as the propellants. No-a-days we have sealed containers to reduce absorption but we still get temperature and moisture readings on the propellant bags periodically to adjust. And even to exclude propellants that are too saturated.\n\nTemperature and density of the atmosphere also come into play at night.\n\nInteresting artillery fact: In artillery we even adjust (when firing in certain directions) for the rotation of the earth under the projectile in flight.",
"Seems like I am a little late to this thread, but I have been a US Army artillery officer for 5 years. Without more detailed information, this issue is not possible to properly troubleshoot, but I can give you my best assumption. Range errors are caused by mistakes in altitude, target location error, projectile weight, muzzle velocity, meteorological data, and charge or quadrant error. We can probably assume, since the problem was apparently not happening during the day, it is not something like the charge or weight. Air temperature and pressure are the most likely culprits, as colder temperatures at night will lower the powder efficiency of the propellant and make the projectile fall short if this factor is not properly accounted for (propellant temperature must be measured frequently, and even in the modern army this is something chiefs forget to do sometimes), but I doubt that explains the entire error. Targets would have been much harder to acquire at night, so there is probably a fair amount of observer error in determining the target location and altitude. These problems could be solved by acquiring preplanned targets during the day, updating the meteorological data at night to account for the drop in temperature, and measuring the propellant temperature more frequently. \n\nTL;DR: In all, the specific conditions of nighttime firing create potential for error which specially effects range as opposed to lateral error(which is caused by other factors I did not mention here). However, without knowing more, I cannot say for certain which factors were the culprits.",
"Pretty sure it comes down to tactics. Depending on what he was talking about in the book, German strategy changed quite a bit once Ludendorff took over the western front. \n\nThey developed an elastic defense that did not rely on them holding the front line, instead they would fall back beyond the range of the allied artillery barrage, and then repel the attack with a huge counter attack. \n\nMost attacks, and raids happened at night or the early morning. To be caught out in no mans land during the day was a swift death. The artillery would also be firing short to try and destroy the barbed wire that was laid in front of the enemy trenches. \n\nIf you could give us some more context without having to read the whole chapter of the book, it could very easily be figured out.",
"Air is generally cooler at night, which means the density of the air is higher at night. Aerodynamic drag is proportional to the density of the air.\n\nD=1/2*density*v^2 *Area*Cd\n\nWhere Cd is the drag coefficient of the projectile.\n\nSince artillery shells travel extremely far, a slight increase in drag could result in the artillery shell falling slightly shorter than intended, which is probably enough to account for the 100 yards.",
"I was an artillery Forward Observer and I am unfamiliar with this being something in reality. We did our call-for-fire missions the same whatever time of day or night and expected the same results.",
"The only thing I can think of is that cold air is denser so it would slow projectiles. But then that'd mean that they have to recalibrate very often with changes in temperature. And I doubt the slight density change would have much effect. Could calculate the drag and work that out.",
"I'm pretty sure Junger is saying it was the practice of German artillery to aim short at night, not that the guns themselves actually fired a projectile less distance at night. \n\nThis could be a clumsy translation from German but I also think Junger may have been trying to make a point about the fog of war and the range of a soldier or unit's situational awareness being reduced at night."
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At the end of a chapter in *Storm of Steel*, Ernst Jünger writes > On the way back, Schultz and I gave each other a piece of our minds: I over his instructions to the machine-gunners, he over the artillery targeting. And yet I had done my work so scrupulously I couldn't understand what had gone wrong. **It wasn't till later that I learned that guns always shoot short at night**, and that I should therefore have added another hundred yards to the range. What is the reason for this? Is it due to a scientific phenomena or due to military tactics or something else altogether? | [
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8m7ezj | What causes different materials to expand or contract at different rates? | Recently finished the thermodynamics unit in physics, and wanted to know what causes different materials to expand or contract at different rates? Does it have anything to do with the heat capacity, or are they two separate things?
\(I am aware that it is called the "coefficient of linear expansion" btw\) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Intermolecular bonding energy. Heat is atomic kinetic energy, right? Well, if a material is bonded to itself really strongly (tungsten), it will take a lot of energy (heat) to force them to spread out. If they are weak (plastic), they will spread out a lot further with application of the same amount of energy.",
"It has to do with how asymmetrical the [bond energy curve](_URL_0_) is. \n\nAs you can see, if you raise the energy from equilibrium, the atoms could go either way on the curve: closer together or further apart. The real answer, as you probably know, is that they oscillate. If the curve is symmetrical, the bond distance doesn't change. If the curve is shallower on the right, as in this diagram, the average bond distance shifts right and becomes larger as you increase energy in the system. Incidentally, most materials expand when heated because the slope on the right represents only electromagnetic force, while the slope on the left also includes electron degeneracy pressure (a \"force\" created by electrons not wanting to occupy the same states).\n\nWhy do different bonds have differently-shaped curves? Don't ask me, I'm just an undergrad.",
"I'm really glad someone asked about this because I wrote a dissertation about a year ago on this topic. The responses so far mainly cover it, but I will add a few remarks. \n\nThere are actually a number of different phenomena that can contribute to what we term positive thermal expansion (PTE) or negative thermal expansion (NTE) for some given material ... and there has been considerable scientific effort to studying materials with NTE. Materials that display PTE are commonplace, but what's comparatively rare are those that display NTE. This where instead of expanding on heating, they contract. We often seek to understand the underlying mechanisms responsible for this NTE behavior. The proposed mechanisms vary, but in one case, some cubic rhenium trioxide type materials (such as CaZrF6 and ScF3) are currently thought to maintain NTE as a consequence of the coupled rocking of their polyhedra which shifts the metal cation centers inward upon heating. See the following two publications: [JACS 132 \\(44\\)](_URL_4_) and [CHEM MATER 27 \\(11\\)](_URL_4_) \n\nThis widespread interest is motivated for a number of reasons. If you can appropriately combine a positively thermally expanding material with a negatively thermally expanding material in the right proportion in what's called a composite, you can potentially introduce dimensional stability with zero or near zero thermal expansion. That happens to be a very important concern for precision optics, where thermal stability in the instrumentation is crucial, especially for the aim of reproducibility in measurements. \n\nMy BS thesis: _URL_4_\n\nPhD thesis from a group member who graduated a few years before I did, but the information covered is similar: _URL_4_",
"Great topic. Just wanted to share that this is a little understood problem in plumbing long buried supply lines using PVC. If you put \n500' of 1.5” schedule 40 PVC together at 80 degrees F, once you burried it, it would try to tear itself apart as the linear contraction is a cumulative ~10 inches (iirc). The glue welds will break, or the pipe itself will. Flexible lines (PE) are better for the application because they are laid slack.\n\nAlso, exterior house materials like hardisiding (fibered cement board) have a much lower coefficient than many other materials (wood for example)and because of that hold paint better/longer."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://imgur.com/a/ruoZIaO",
"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b00662",
"https://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/58494",
"https://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/53000",
"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja106711v"
]
} | What causes different materials to expand or contract at different rates?
Recently finished the thermodynamics unit in physics, and wanted to know what causes different materials to expand or contract at different rates? Does it have anything to do with the heat capacity, or are they two separate things? \(I am aware that it is called the "coefficient of linear expansion" btw\) | [
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|
rlfid | Sleeping Only Two Hours A Day?(polyphasic sleep)
Is this bullshit? | Is it possible to sleep only two hours a day and still retain functionality beyond that of a caffienated dippy bird?
I’ve been reading Tim Ferriss’ newest book, The 4-Hour Body, and I was particularly interested in his chapters about sleep. I was interested in the second, “Becoming Uberman”. It describes a technique called polyphasic sleep.
Is this bullshit or is this possible? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c46tc8j",
"c46sw6o",
"c46xnq7",
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],
"text": [
"There is no body of scientific literature that I know of that suggests a polyphasic sleep schedule would be sustainable and healthy in normal individuals. Last time someone asked, this is what I said (and this is not medical advice):\n\n > [My opinion (in the absence of empirical evidence): polyphasic schedules are essentially catastrophic chronic sleep deprivation mixed with self-induced circadian sleep disorder.](_URL_0_)\n\nThat does not mean it is impossible for a given individual to adopt this schedule. But all the anecdotes in the world do not add up to rigorous scientific study.",
"_URL_1_\n\nIt can work for a while, but there are concerns about the sustainability of the practice. Also you can never take nyquil.",
"I'm going to present the only real study about the issue. _URL_2_\n\nYes, it works and is used. Nobody knows if it's sustainable, as it hasn't been studied really.\n\nWarning: Lots of what I'm going to write here is not in that study, but it's pretty much the consensus of the Internet. It's still pretty relevant. I haven't been succesful with these myself. I still feel the need to write it top-level because it's important to note there are multiple actual schedules and it's not all just the 2 hours a day thing.\n\nThere are multiple schedules. Dymaxion, by consensus, doesn't work. Buckminster Fuller may have succeeded, but we don't know that and he could just be special. Nobody knows anyone who has had any *real* success with it. Dymaxion is 4x30min naps, every 6 hours IIRC.\n\nUberman works, but we don't know if it's sustainable. It's 6x20min naps every 4 hours, and one can't haggle with the timings much so one has to have flex everything else in their schedule around the Uberman. There is no real reason to think it wouldn't work for short times, like a year or so.\n\nThen there is Everyman, which has different flavors. It has a core sleep at night, like 2-4 hours and 2 or 3 x20min naps around the day. Pretty flexible and forgiving and is known to work.\n\nEvery one of these has a adaptation period when you are not *allowed* to miss any naps or your adaptation will not happen. You might feel like a zombie for the first few days, but it will get better if you keep the schedule. If it doesn't and you do everything right, stop trying.",
"There is a gene, hDEC2, that causes people to be fully rested on a 4-5 hour per night sleep schedule. \n\nIt is referenced here _URL_3_"
],
"score": [
53,
7,
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mv2od/why_cant_we_sleep_at_will/c344s0f",
"http://polyphasicsleep.info/index.php?title=Dymaxion",
"http://www.mendeley.com/research/polyphasic-sleep-strategies-improve-prolonged-sustained-performance-field-study-99-sailors-4/",
"http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703712504576242701752957910.html"
]
} | Sleeping Only Two Hours A Day?(polyphasic sleep) Is this bullshit?
Is it possible to sleep only two hours a day and still retain functionality beyond that of a caffienated dippy bird? I’ve been reading Tim Ferriss’ newest book, The 4-Hour Body, and I was particularly interested in his chapters about sleep. I was interested in the second, “Becoming Uberman”. It describes a technique called polyphasic sleep. Is this bullshit or is this possible? | [
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|
1hxvy8 | Does being an active and outdoorsy child influence the body's development in terms of body shape, muscles and so on? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"caz3foy",
"caz2p79",
"caz38nb"
],
"text": [
"Sorry to play devil's advocate, but this could be a case of reverse causality, i.e. the children that are genetically more prone to have bulky physiques and broad shoulders and big muscles tend to want to use them more and be more outdoorsy",
"Physical activity and being outdoorsy has been shown to help steer off myopia, or being nearsighted. Not cure it mind you, but help it to not be as high if it is something that was going to happen. I have the paper on it somewhere on my computer, done by a Dutch research team, and I can see about finding it for you after work if you want.\n\n\nTL;DR of the matter there, you grow up with your eyes focusing at a distance and the growth of your eyeball is kept in check with the focusing power of your eye. Growing up playing video games and reading at the end of your nose, your eye growth isn't kept in check with your focusing capabilities.",
"It's not necessarily specific to children, but it can be something that may have to be corrected as an adult. Lumbar lordosis caused by sitting down and hunched over all the time can make your butt stick out funny when you stand up. Your body adapts to the pressure of sitting down and the shape of your spine changes a bit. \n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
107,
39,
10
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9383867"
]
} | Does being an active and outdoorsy child influence the body's development in terms of body shape, muscles and so on?
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1vo5bb | May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? | [Here is the article](_URL_1_) from the Belfast Telegraph.
And [Ars Technica](_URL_3_)
And [_URL_2_](_URL_0_)
I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis. | askscience | {
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"I posted about this in the /r/space thread for [the Belfast article](_URL_0_). The content seems fairly sensationalized and I can't seem to find any sources from NASA for the composition. [/u/sonar1 points out](_URL_1_) that the composition was mentioned by Steve Squyres during a recorded JPL event, but I really think we should all be patient until NASA releases something specific regarding the origin and composition of the rock.",
"I overlaid the \"before\" image on the \"after\" image in photoshop and distorted it to match the perspective as best as possible. As seen in the gif below, there appear to be two indentations that appear in the \"after\" shot as well. At first I thought maybe these were caused by the slight change in the angle the light is coming from in the after image, but it looks like an actual indentation in the ground to me. Don't know what to make of it other than that.\n\n_URL_2_",
"The NASA explanation that a rover wheel \"kicked the rock\" seems the most plausible. Before I heard that explanation, I kept focusing on the Before image which shows a little bowl about the same size and shape as the doughnut rock which seems to rest in the very spot. I found that to be most peculiar.",
"Since the rock has been found close to the rover and was not there previously, then could it be possible that the material crystallised on a part of the rover (possibly during the bad weather event) and broken off closeby? \n\nMaybe the donut shape corresonds to a circular element of the rover.",
"Would the rover be able to identify if the \"rock\" was made of CO2? \n\nI know we discourage speculation here, but thought an appropriate deduction would be that if:\n\n* The rock did not get blown there\n* The rover did not dislodge it from another location\n* An asteroid impact is highly unlikely to be witnessed event\n\nThen it was \"created\" right were it is in the form of a CO2 clathrate that formed from subsurface CO2.\n\nAny thoughts?",
"This is from the NASA rover team-\n\n“So my best guess for this rock... is that it’s something that was nearby,” Squyers told Discovery News. “I must stress that I’m guessing now, but I think it happened when the rover did a turn in place a meter or two from where this rock now lies.”\nSeems probable.",
"Well I was intrigued by this as well and spent a little bit of time trying to find some more info about it. The _URL_5_ article states that prior to the jelly doughnut rock revelation, Steve Squyres discussed suspected gypsum near the rim of the Endeavour Crater and there is a thumbnail of a vein of gypsum not far below. Gypsum (_URL_7_) is CaSO4 (high in sulfur). But what about the Mg and Mn? Well since Mg is directly above Ca in the periodic table it might be worth considering that this could be MgSO4 (_URL_6_). Now you might ask \"Is there a manganese sulfate?\" Yep (_URL_7_)! But its white to light pink not dark red like the article states the jelly portion of the rock resembles. But there are an few earthly minerals that have substantial Mn content and a deep red colour and are not terribly dissimilar in structure to a sulfate (MnCO3 \"Rhodochrosite\" a carbonate is the first that comes to mind)and you can find some cool examples here (_URL_6_). This response may be wildly off the mark but it's as good as I can manage with the vaugue description of the rock. As for how it got there? Space crabs.",
"NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events, \n1. It was “somehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel” \n2. There is “a smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby” and it was caused by a meteor.\n\nIf find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.” - Sqyures\n\nOpportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small. \n\nNow, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc. \n\nIn this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.\n\nBut then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity. \n\nEDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) _URL_8_\n_URL_9_",
"A quote from the Belfast Telegraph article by Steve Squyres states the rover 'had driven a metre or two away from here (the 'doughnut')'\n\nWould the rover travelling at 0.05mph physically be able to 'flick' something a metre or two away, even factoring in gravity differences? On top of this, surely it would cause enough seismic activity on board for the operators to be able to pick up on/ sense whether it had slipped off a small ledge, rolled over a pile of debris etc? \n\nIf this theory is true, it just so happens that of all the rocks on Mars the rover could have disturbed, it disturbed a rock the likes of which has never been seen before. Hmm...",
"If you look at what some call 'indentation' on the before picture I would expect it sooner to be some topped up hole (the white bit being the topping) that frothed something up that looks like a rock on the pictures. It would explain the shape and sudden appearance.. \nReminds me of how sometimes when you make pancake or something like that a soft spot can erupt the uncooked internals. \nDoes the rover have some FLIR type of camera/sensor? Because it would be interesting to know if there is a temperature difference in the area.",
"The varying air pressure on the Red Planet can produce unexpected winds and little dust storms (outside of the annual dust storm which occurs during the summer) as per the climate and the planets exposure to the sun. \n\nIs it possible that it was a gust of wind or little dust storm that kicked this rock into place?",
"I attended a JPL lecture last week celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Opportunity rover and JPL's Steve Squyres showed us the new photo of the \"donought\" rock. He is the principal investigator for the science payload on NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers. He was quite excited by the appearance of the rock, but his best guess was that is was kicked up by the wheel. They had driven the rover quite a bit in nearby vicinity.",
"There is no way wind could move a rock that size without visibly removing all the other material around it, also we wouldn't just see one larger rock that was displaced. Surely the explanation provided by the rover team is logically accurate. I could see how the rock might have been \"flung\" out from a rotating wheel, one solitary larger rock.",
"Some leading hypotheses on how it appeared are deposition from a nearby meteor, be it the object etsf, or debris from the impact, or it is possible that one of the actuators failed on one of the wheels, causing disruption of the surrounding environment as the wheel gets dragged along.",
"Some scientists seem to be implying that the rovers wheel spun the rock 5 Meters, but I believe the Rover only goes .05 miles per hour these days right? Would the wheel even spin fast enough to propel the rock that far? I'm not sure it would.",
"> *May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover?*\n\n***Frozen Smoke***.\n\nI believe that volcanic event(s) in the area have created a frozen smoke ring. This theory would support the toroid shape, the high sulfur content, and the appearance from nowhere, as if dropped from the sky.\n\nOccam's razor: All things being equal, the simplest answer tends to be the correct one."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.space.com/24330-mars-rover-mystery-rock-appears.html",
"http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/nasa-says-doughnut-rock-on-mars-is-like-nothing-weve-ever-seen-before-29931351.html",
"Space.com",
"http://arstechnica.com/science/2014/01/donut-sized-rock-suddenly-appears-in-front-of-mars-rover/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/1vmyi8/martian_jelly_donut_rock_is_very_high_in_sulphur/cetx1qz",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/1vmyi8/martian_jelly_donut_rock_is_very_high_in_sulphur/ceu053r",
"http://i.imgur.com/zahIAcH.gif",
"http://theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/025/index.s7.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MnSO4",
"space.com",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite"
]
} | May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover?
[Here is the article](_URL_1_) from the Belfast Telegraph. And [Ars Technica](_URL_3_) And [_URL_2_](_URL_0_) I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis. | [
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Subsets and Splits