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klnjj | AskScience AMA series- Requests & Volunteers III | It's been a while since we had any AMAs (Ask Me Anything posts) around these parts and we want to reinvigorate the series.
The way these work is that you can volunteer here in this post or request an AskScientist do an AMA. We will then schedule approximately one AMA per week at the convenience of the AskScientists. They will then be archived in r/AskScienceAMA for future generations.
The point here is to get a better understanding of the research and academic life of our professional scientist community members. A lot of what folks spend their days on does not receive attention in the form of questions, so this is an opportunity to dig deeper and hear from a diversity of scientists.
All the previous AMAs are archived here- _URL_0_
Since our community has grown tremendously since many of these were initially done, don't feel bashful requesting someone repeat an AMA or volunteering to do it again!
Thanks ya'll!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"I'm a PhD student in climate science and atmosperic chemistry who uses one of the big climate models, and has an advisor that is an author of the upcoming IPCC report. I'm happy to share a slice of this life, if anyone cares. I also recently got published for the first time, and can talk about that experience.",
"I'm not a scientist (any longer), but a high-level administrator of funding proposals and grants. I can talk about the proposal process, a little of the inside dirt on funding agencies, compliance regulations, and the like.",
"If others are interested, I'll do what I can with an AMA depending on my work load for the week. I study what is essentially music cognition, coming from an angle of speech and hearing science. I also have am academic background in music theory and psychology.\n\nI also made and moderate a small community over at [r/musiccognition](_URL_0_) if you would like to see what some people post/talk about.",
"We should grab 2 or 3 of the geologists in here and do a combined one. My specialty are petroleum systems and tectonic geology (basin analysis basically), but I know that the other geologists here are better at depositional settings, geophysics, and other specifics. If there is interest for a geologist AMA, that is.",
"I may have enough time to do one over a weekend if there is enough interest. I work heavily with radiation and medical imaging, and I can talk about cancer, radiation oncology, and my undergrad degree (nuclear engineering / nuclear power).",
"I could do one. I'm doing a postdoc in an academic setting currently focusing on molecular mechanisms of learning and memory (or what goes on inside cells to make memories form). It's certainly not the most exciting topic for a non-scientist, but if someone is actually interested, I will make the time.",
"I could do one in regards to adult neurogenesis, plasticity, & resilience in the hippocampus, but I don't think anyone has any questions nor cares.",
"I'm a late-stage PhD candidate, fully funded. My specialization is Natural Language Processing, but I'm widely read in the philosophy of mind and AI / machine learning, as well as some theoretical linguistics.",
"I'd be interested in contributing. I could answer questions about ecology, evolution and, in particular, how we can use theories developed from these disciplines to inform infectious disease studies.",
"I am a PhD student in geochemistry and I mostly study the origins of Earth, evolution of Earth since then (particularly during the hadean), as well as the origins of life. I would be more than happy to do an AMA if people are interested. I also do some research in cosmochemistry (formation/make up of solar system, etc).",
"I know that the current top comment is already an atmospheric scientist, but I'm always happy to talk about and clear up common misconceptions people have about tornado science. I expect I could talk about field work/storm chasing, interactions with the media and general public, data analysis/the boring part, and conferences/publications.",
"A little bit different, but I work in Peer-Reviewed / Academic-Journal hosting. I work for a non-profit group that hosts about 1400 journals and stores about 10 million articles. We host such journals as Science, the Proceeding of the Royal Society, the British Medical Journal etc etc. If anyone is interested in what goes on behind the scenes after your paper passes peer-review, i'm happy to talk about it."
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} | AskScience AMA series- Requests & Volunteers III
It's been a while since we had any AMAs (Ask Me Anything posts) around these parts and we want to reinvigorate the series. The way these work is that you can volunteer here in this post or request an AskScientist do an AMA. We will then schedule approximately one AMA per week at the convenience of the AskScientists. They will then be archived in r/AskScienceAMA for future generations. The point here is to get a better understanding of the research and academic life of our professional scientist community members. A lot of what folks spend their days on does not receive attention in the form of questions, so this is an opportunity to dig deeper and hear from a diversity of scientists. All the previous AMAs are archived here- _URL_0_ Since our community has grown tremendously since many of these were initially done, don't feel bashful requesting someone repeat an AMA or volunteering to do it again! Thanks ya'll! | [
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wwksa | (Scientific method) Acceptable hypotheses: dark energy and phlogiston | I'm not sure how to phrase my question simply, so please forgive me for trying to explain by example. I also don't have any background in physics beyond the AP level, so maybe there are just some technical details I'm not getting.
Consider if you were an early chemist, researching the properties of then-generally-accepted phlogiston. As you burn wood, sulphur, coal -- most anything -- their masses decrease as they release phlogiston. So far, so good: the theory is supported. Now you burn magnesium, and, surprise! The mass increases.
At this point, I believe, it would be bad form, as far as the theory goes, to explain that, while wood contains phlogiston, magnesium contains "dark phlogiston" with negative mass. It's an ugly, unparsimonious attempt to save a failing theory.
As I understand it, dark energy works something like repulsive gravity. We observe that, for most anything, gravity seems to hold, but the universe seems to repel itself.
So my question essentially is, why is it then OK to postulate dark energy? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5h42k2",
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"text": [
"I would disagree with your assessment that the \"dark phlogiston\" hypothesis would be an illegitimate hypothesis. In fact, it seems it would have been a very reasonable hypothesis to propose. To call such a proposal \"unparsimonious\" or \"ugly\" (always a tricky notion) reflects the perspective of someone who is familiar with the more successful models that were developed subsequently.\n\nOf course, you do experiments, you see how the \"dark phlogiston\" model works, and you see if you can come up with other explanations that are superior, or that might explain burning and other phenomena. We all know from our vantage point that this would lead to the rejection of the \"dark phlogiston\" model. But I think it would be reasonable to have viewed the \"dark phlogiston\" model, if it were proposed at the time, as a conservative proposal.\n\nAs RelativisticMechanic says, it is not intrinsically problematic within general relativity to incorporate dark energy. In fact, it is a very conservative approach. We get to keep all the successful predictions of general relativity and explain the acceleration observed in the expansion of the universe. That's a good reason to propose dark energy. And the real question of how the \"dark phlogiston\" and dark energy proposals would differ is one to be settled by observation and measurement.",
"First, \"dark energy\" is just the place-holder name we give to whatever is responsible for the observed expansion of space. A lot of research remains to be done to figure out just what it is, but expansion is definitely happening and in the meantime we need some way to refer to the effect.\n\nSecond, according to the general theory of relativity—our current best model of gravitation, wherein gravity is the curvature of spacetime—there's no reason the effect of gravity must be attractive. One of the *features* of the theory is that it can accommodate both the observed acceleration of massive bodies toward one another *and* the expansion of space on large scales.",
"Dark energy isn't a thing, it's an observation. *Something* exists to push things apart, this isn't in significant dispute. \n\nYou must name this effect, even if you don't know what it is. Dark could just as easily be substituted for almost any word, in this instance synonymous with mysterious."
],
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8,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | (Scientific method) Acceptable hypotheses: dark energy and phlogiston
I'm not sure how to phrase my question simply, so please forgive me for trying to explain by example. I also don't have any background in physics beyond the AP level, so maybe there are just some technical details I'm not getting. Consider if you were an early chemist, researching the properties of then-generally-accepted phlogiston. As you burn wood, sulphur, coal -- most anything -- their masses decrease as they release phlogiston. So far, so good: the theory is supported. Now you burn magnesium, and, surprise! The mass increases. At this point, I believe, it would be bad form, as far as the theory goes, to explain that, while wood contains phlogiston, magnesium contains "dark phlogiston" with negative mass. It's an ugly, unparsimonious attempt to save a failing theory. As I understand it, dark energy works something like repulsive gravity. We observe that, for most anything, gravity seems to hold, but the universe seems to repel itself. So my question essentially is, why is it then OK to postulate dark energy? | [
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|
920443 | If we say sharks as a species are roughly 400M yrs old, does this mean that sharks from back then could theoretically interbreed with today’s sharks? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e32lcdr",
"e32lg4p",
"e32rqgo"
],
"text": [
"They couldnt interbreed, but thats not the defining feature. Differnt species of shark cant interbreed today, thats how we define species, if two of the same animal can breed to make fertile offspring. When they deviate enough that two cant breed anymore its called speciation.\n\nWhen they say sharks are 400M years old that means that 400M years ago speciation occured to create the clade Selachimorpha which we commonly refer to as sharks.\n\nA bit oversimplifying but you get the idea.",
"That's what that WOULD mean, more or less, but when we talk about sharks existing for 400 million years, we don't mean as a single species. \n\nSharks are a much bigger group of fish than a single species - even among living sharks, bull sharks, great whites, nurse sharks, etc., are all different species. Going back up the evolutionary tree, we talk about sharks as being a superorder - containing many orders, families, genuses and species.\n\nFor the sake of comparison, humans are in the same order as all other primates, and part of a superorder with rodents and rabbits.",
"\"Sharks\" aren't a species, sharks are a whole group of species, kind of like \"mammals\". You, a dog, a mammoth, all mammals, not all the same species or capable of interbreeding. So no, sharks from back then wouldn't be able to interbreed with modern sharks. \n\nHowever, some individual species of animals do seem to have stuck around for millions of years. Could they interbreed with each other if you pulled old ones and new ones? Maybe, maybe not...we classify fossils by how they _look_. If it's got very similar bones, it goes in the same species...that's the only info we have to go off of. But similarity of bones doesn't necessarily tell you if things could crossbreed or not. Sometimes animals with very different bone structure are cross-fertile (just look at dogs! Or consider the [wholphin](_URL_0_).). Other times animals can appear very similar, especially in bone structure, but be totally infertile because they have different chromosome counts or something. So there's no way to know."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholphin"
]
} | If we say sharks as a species are roughly 400M yrs old, does this mean that sharks from back then could theoretically interbreed with today’s sharks?
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1sqaq8 | What is believed to be original form of self-propagating biological information? | I know a fair amount about biochemistry, and the leading hypotheses seem to lean toward an RNA-based beginning based on the observation that RNA can act both as a catalyst and information carrier. But it seems like a non-trivial critical volume of biological information is needed for self-propagation.
I'd be interested in knowing about any theories that address this.
Edit: And maybe this is a different post altogether, but how in the WORLD do scientists think the involvement of protein happened? Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are themselves complex proteins; seems like a chicken-and-egg kind of situation. | askscience | {
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"Hi,\nI'm a physics PhD student and the research I am working on is attempting to answer this exact question. The short answer is: We have no clue. It is absolutely a chicken-and-egg situation. \n\nI have no background in biochemistry or chemistry at all (although there are people in my group who are experts on biochemistry). Right now I am trying to identify the minimal possible replicating polymer system that is capable of open-ended growth in complexity. A lot of people have found RNA sequences that are not too complex and completely able to replicate themselves, however they are fundamentally limited in their ability to undergo true Darwinian evolution (ie, if you found them on some planet, you wouldn't expect to find a hugely diverse biosphere if came back few million years later, you would probably just find more slightly different polymers). \n\nThis is made more difficult when you consider that all biological information today is essentially semantic information (sure there is a ton of Shannon information in a genotype but if nothing in the environment knows how its encoded its completely meaningless, this is the chicken-egg problem as of now). So we find ourselves in this weird situation where we need to ask how language and code can emerge dynamically in a complex chemical network. There are some hints, some ribozymes are showing signs that they can \"interpret\" their environment (ie are capable of active information processing). This is a purely chemical process but it has deep implications. I am about to start working on some theoretical research around that idea, and hopefully I will be able to show that this interpreting ability is a selectable trait. \n\nI hope this helps. You've asked a very deep question, which is being addressed but is still not answered. There is a lot of literature out there on this but the best for your question is probably Bernard-Olaf Kipper's book, \"Information and the Origin of Life.\"\n\nHere is a link to my research groups website: _URL_0_\n\nEDIT: Clarification",
"RNA. Many forms of RNA perform functional roles, the most common of which are in the ribosomes, where at least two of the major catalytic sites are included in functional RNA molecules. It is possible that proteins came after the establishment of an [RNA world](_URL_2_), but it is likely that the two had some level of overlap. Keep in mind that enzymes such as Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase are catalysts and merely lower the activation energy of already favorable reactions (although the synthetases do use ATP). These processes could be happening on their own, but they would probably be happening very, very slowly. Additionally, the precursors to both proteins and nucleic acid were shown to be formed in experiments mimicking the [conditions of early earth](_URL_2_) (Proteins: amino acids, Nucleic acids: formaldeyhyde + H2O - > ribose). So it is likely that both types of molecules were ubiquitously present with each other, and as such, (since molecules don't have the prejudices that we have) were likely forming all sorts of hybrid compounds at one point. \nEDIT- Source: I'm a microbiolgist.",
"> But it seems like a non-trivial critical volume of biological information is needed for self-propagation.\n\nI don't know much about biochemistry, but I have come upon a few references in my reading here and there which seemed to indicate that it isn't all that non-trivial.\n\nThe first is this video entitled [The Origin of Life - Abiogenesis - Dr. Jack Szostak](_URL_3_).\n\n > This (chemistry??) has been CONFIRMED in Dr. Jack Szostak's LAB. 2009 Nobel Laurette in medicine for his work on telomerase.\n\n > It's been 55 years since the Miller-Urey Experiment, and science has made enormous progress on solving the origin of life. This video summarizes one of the best leading models. Yes there are others. Science may never know exactly how life DID start, but we will know many ways how life COULD start.\n\nThe second reference is the following article about [some modern bacteria having a wall-free mode of existence called the L-form state](_URL_4_), self-replicating without complex protein machinery.\n\n > Four billion years ago, soon after the planet cooled enough for life to begin, primordial cells may have replicated and divided without protein machinery or cell walls, relying instead on just a flimsy lipid membrane. New research on bacteria examines exactly how these primitive cells could have evolved without such crucial structures.\n\n > While the vast majority of bacteria have cell walls, many bacteria can switch to a wall-free existence called the L-form state, which could mirror the structure of primordial cells. A study published Feb. 28 by Cell Press in the journal Cell reveals how bacteria in this L-form state divide and proliferate, shedding light on how the earliest forms of cellular life may have replicated.\n\n > \"The main surprise for me was how simple the mechanism was. **It doesn't require any sophisticated protein-based machinery**,\" says senior study author Jeff Errington of Newcastle University. \"This makes it plausible as an explanation for how very primitive cells could have proliferated in the very early days of evolution.\"\n\n...\n\n > Perhaps the most striking change associated with the L-form state is the way that the bacteria replicate. Instead of relying on precise, complicated cell division machinery, L-form bacteria become irregularly shaped and form cell surface bulges that pinch off to become daughter cells. Although genetic mutations associated with the L-form state have been identified, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying L-form replication.\n\nNow the fact that even contemporary bacteria have this wall-free mode, and that therefore this wall-free mode is encoded in the bacteria's DNA, indicates to my mind a strong possibility that this wall-free mode was indeed once a part of the evolutionary history of life on earth.\n\nAlthough I don't know much at all about biochemistry, to me the processes within these hypotheses don't seem all that vastly complex, it seems to me that there isn't any chicken-and-egg situation, and that life on earth could indeed have started from simple non-life chemistry."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://emergence.asu.edu/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6QYDdgP9eg",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/02/130228124138.htm"
]
} | What is believed to be original form of self-propagating biological information?
I know a fair amount about biochemistry, and the leading hypotheses seem to lean toward an RNA-based beginning based on the observation that RNA can act both as a catalyst and information carrier. But it seems like a non-trivial critical volume of biological information is needed for self-propagation. I'd be interested in knowing about any theories that address this. Edit: And maybe this is a different post altogether, but how in the WORLD do scientists think the involvement of protein happened? Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are themselves complex proteins; seems like a chicken-and-egg kind of situation. | [
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1icgyf | Are there any places on Earth that were undiscovered before the advent of satellite imaging? | I mean things like islands, rivers, etc. I assume that most, if not all landmasses were discovered before satellites, but I'm curious if there are any notable places that we didn't know about before we could see the whole world from above! | askscience | {
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"Here's an interesting story about the reverse: an island in the Pacific that was on maps hundreds of years, but after reviewing satellite imagery and other studies, it turned out never to have existed at all:\n\n_URL_0_",
"[Landsat Island]( _URL_1_) was discovered off the coast of Canada in 1976.",
"In the ~~Congo~~ Cape episode of BBC Earth - Africa, they show an area ~~of the Congo~~ the locals call \"The Google Forest\" because it was literally discovered by google maps.",
"Although not exactly what you're looking for if you're focused on natural features, Google Earth alone has been responsible for the discovery of almost 2500 new archaeological sites in just Saudi Arabia and Afghanistan.\n\n_URL_2_",
"I do know that there were some Egyptian pyramids/sites found a few years ago, so I dug up an old article:\n\n_URL_3_\n\nMost were below-ground sites found using infrared techniques.",
"We're still discovering major waterfalls in Yellowstone National Park (in the northern USA). The people who find them now use satellite imaging to track them down, then verify in person, then get to name the waterfall (provided it is tall enough to be considered significant enough). _URL_4_",
"Impact craters are often found via satellite since we simply couldn't see the thing from the ground. Heck, one was recently found via Google Earth.\n\n_URL_5_",
"[Recently researchers discovered a huge Angkor-era temple-city in the Cambodian jungle, using LIDAR.](_URL_6_)\n\n(mini-documentary in linked article)",
"Not *exactly* what you're asking, but there's been some great use of LIDAR for archaeology in the news lately, especially in regards to [this city found under a Cambodian jungle](_URL_7_). \n\n\nLIDAR is an airborne [laser mapping/scanning system](_URL_8_).",
"I own a stack of Air Force aeronautical charts from the 1960s-1980s and some locations on earth from this era were still not well charted, particularly in places like Borneo, Papua New Guinea, Brazil, and a few spots in Africa. [Here is a 1974 example](_URL_9_txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_l-11c.jpg) (large JPG): there's a large gray \"relief data incomplete\" on the lower left side of the map. [Another example, 1992](_URL_9_txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_m-25c.jpg). Terrain information on these charts is supposed to be reliable for air safety purposes, but it just wasn't available back then in those remote areas, or at least it wasn't possible to crosscheck the data for accuracy. With the advent of spaceborne imaging and radar relief mapping, these areas were gradually eliminated by 2000.\n\nWe've come a long way.. not only are all of the worldwide aeronautical charts complete in terms of relief data, but we can see those areas in great detail on consumer apps like Google Earth, too.\n\nHere are links to the home directories in case you want to check out more remote places on Earth and get an idea of the reliability of the info on 1970-1990s charts:\n\n_URL_10_ (1:1M)\n\n_URL_9_ (1:500K)",
"Not satellite imagery but the Highlands of Papua New Guinea were thought to be uninhabited until around 1930's when some explorers went up there looking for precious metals. What they found was a thriving culture and a ton of people.\n\n_URL_13_\n\nEdit: I accidentally a number",
"Interestingly, [Sandy Island](_URL_14_) was \"undiscovered\" *because* of satellite imagery.",
"We're still finding new things with satellite imaging. Using infrared, many new ruins and temples have been discovered in South and Central America (very similar to how those lost Egyptian pyramids and cities were discovered).\n\nWhen I was on a NASA sponsored trip in Idaho, geologists are still discovering canyons and waterfalls near the Snake River using satellites and other remote sensing technology. There are all sorts of features in the mountains out there that have been rediscovered by sat tech as well.\n\nI'm interested to see other responses on this question.",
"I believe there are parts of Papua New Guinea, the Amazon basin, and the Congo that haven't been visited by modern society...",
"I am late to the game, but I am currently working on creating an updated map of Antarctica using high quality satellite imagery (50 cm resolution). You wouldn't believe how far off a lot of the Islands and coastlines are from reality on many maps. Also, keep your eye on google maps, we are providing them with suggestions on how to improve their maps of Antarctica.",
"deep sea is still vastly unmapped, or only mapped in low resolution in how deep it is. if you zoom in on google earth on oceans northwest of australia you see many thin lines of slighly higher resolution.\nNortheast off australia is most interestring because it has deep sea and small islands.",
"Meteor craters and similar landforms have been discovered in abundance in the last couple of decades. [Here's one in Africa](_URL_15_) that was featured in my favorite NASA press release ever (titled \"Dimpled Chad Seen From Space\").",
"An Amazonian tribe was partly discovered by satellite, then confirmed by plane, check it out \n\n_URL_16_",
"Large portions of the [Rub al Khali](_URL_17_) were uncharted prior to satellite mapping.",
"Not exactly what you are looking for, but here is an article about using satellite imagery to rediscover the lost city of Ubar. There is a really interesting National Geographic documentary on it as well.\n\n_URL_18_",
"What about that North Korea camp? The one used to enact the three-generation punishment? \n\nThat was documented as being much bigger than initially thought, it also confirmed a denied existence.",
"The densely populated Papau New Guinean highlands were discovered in the 1930's when airplanes flew over the surrounding mountains for the first time. Coincidentally, western civilisation was discovered at precisely the same time by the dense Papuan New Guinean highlands population.",
"I've always wondered if there was a specific spot on earth that no one has ever stood before. I really think that would be cool to be some place that no other person has seen.",
"There are uncontacted tribes that we know little about besides what we see* from planes and satellite photos. Here is some information about a tribe in Brazil whose home can only be seen from above. _URL_19_",
"Yes, in 2005 the USS San Francisco ran into an underwater mountain in the ocean that had been recently discovered by satellites. It was not on the charts they were using at the time; the collision resulted in quite a few injuries, one death, and over $80 milllion in damage. [NY Times reported on it.](_URL_20_)",
"The largest Beaver Dam in the world was discovered a few years ago due to google maps, I believe it is in northern Saskatchewan.",
"[The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet. The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of **the existence of the lake by J.P. Ridley using ERS-1 laser altimetry**.](_URL_21_)",
"Not sure if its really what you are looking for, but the largest cave in the word was not discovered until 2009. locals say they knew about it, but wasnt public until 2009. _URL_22_",
"[Mount Mabu](_URL_24_) in Mozambique was previously unknown to science until researchers stumbled upon it on Google Earth in 2005. Apparently, the [locals kept their knowledge of the rainforest secret](_URL_23_) because they used it as a refuge during the civil war.",
"[Mount Mabu](_URL_25_), and the [Kamil crater](_URL_26_) among others. I used to subscribe to a blog about satellite imagery, and I swear there was something about some Mayan ruins discovered via Google Earth, but I can't confirm that anymore.",
"Angel Falls was not discovered until 1948. A very compelling story about the discoverer, a pilot, Jimmy Angel.\n_URL_27_",
"Researchers at Duke [discovered at ton](_URL_28_) of barrier islands a while back by using satellites.",
"[Carolina bays](_URL_29_) were discovered in the 1930s after the invention of the airplane.",
"Many impact craters on Earth weren't discovered until the advent of Satellite imaging."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2013/03/13/174203234/pacific-island-bigger-than-manhattan-vanishes",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landsat_Island",
"http://www.sify.com/news/google-earth-reveals-almost-2000-ancient-archaeo-sites-in-saudi-arabia-news-scitech-lcenamghbca.html",
"http://news.discovery.com/history/ancient-egypt/pyramids-egypt-nasa-satellite-110526.htm",
"http://democraticvistas.com/2010/07/10/waterfalls-in-yellowstone/",
"http://news.discovery.com/space/meteorite-impact-crater-google.htm",
"http://www.theatlanticcities.com/design/2013/06/mind-blowing-discovery-day-angkor-was-much-larger-we-ever-imagined/5936/",
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/06/14/191727408/archaeologists-discover-lost-city-in-cambodian-jungle",
"https://www.e-education.psu.edu/lidar/l1.html",
"http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/tpc/",
"http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/onc/",
"http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/tpc/txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_l-11c.jpg",
"http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/tpc/txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_m-25c.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea_Highlands",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Island,_New_Caledonia",
"http://www.livescience.com/5617-hole-earth.html",
"http://news.discovery.com/human/newly-identified-tribe-in-the-amazon.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rub'_al_Khali",
"http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1992-02-05/news/1992036047_1_city-of-ubar-legend-queen-of-sheba",
"http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/uncontacted-brazil",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/08/national/08sub.html?_r=0",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Vostok",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/07/090724-biggest-cave-vietnam/",
"http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/featured/google-earth-uncovers-lost-forest-mount-mabu/7747",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Mabu",
"http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/featured/google-earth-uncovers-lost-forest-mount-mabu/7747",
"http://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1895408/impact_crater_found_in_the_sahara_desert/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_Falls",
"http://www.dukechronicle.com/articles/2011/04/27/researchers-identify-new-barrier-islands",
"http://dcm2.enr.state.nc.us/wetlands/coastal_explorers/cpfmodule/bays/bays_intro.htm"
]
} | Are there any places on Earth that were undiscovered before the advent of satellite imaging?
I mean things like islands, rivers, etc. I assume that most, if not all landmasses were discovered before satellites, but I'm curious if there are any notable places that we didn't know about before we could see the whole world from above! | [
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ro9ja | To what degree to research ethical standards "slow down" scientific discovery? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"For one, human cognitive neuroscience. Although we do have a huge number of willing volunteers, progress is limited by the fact that we can't cut people's heads open and use probes and electrodes to administer drugs, cause lesions, in/activate specific areas, etc. We rely on fMRI, EEG, MEG, and other non-invasive techniques to measure brain activity in response to some stimulus. \n\nThere are limited cases where invasive research is allowed in humans like electrode arrays in the brains of epileptics (because the electrodes are already there for therapeutic purposes), paralyzed individuals like [Matt Nagle](_URL_1_) who volunteer for brain computer interface studies, or behavioral studies on people who have had portions of their brain removed ([HM](_URL_0_) had bilateral resection of his medial temporal lobes, which includes structures like the hippocampus which are responsible for helping to form new memories). \n\nSimilarly, we depend on studying people with brain damage (from stroke, epilepsy, direct injury, or otherwise) to get a picture of what deficits are linked to damage in which areas, but this is a very ramdom approach as we cannot control where people have heir brain damage. \n\nWhile I cannot speculate on a timeline of how things would be different were the atrocious experiments of the Nazi era allowed to continue, the ethical restrictions which are in place do slow the process of discovery by limiting the kinds of experiments we can do, the kinds of organisms we can do it on, and the significance of the data we do collect. But that is NOT to say that I think the ethical restrictions are bad or overly restrictive.",
"It mostly depends on what kind of research you're doing. Most of what we know about joint reconstruction comes from the Holocaust. A doctor would ask a soldier to break a prisoners leg in a controlled way, and they'd try to put it back together. I think there was a lot of toxicity work done in the same way, round up a bunch of guys and give them varying doses of something nasty to find LD50. \n\nSo this research kind of got speeded up, but it did so by *creating the problem,* if those legs had never been broken the research would have been slowed down by waiting for legs to break, but it would have gotten done after about the same number of legs. By breaking legs the process got speeded up, but it didn't actually cause any good: at the end of the day the same number of legs get broken either way, the problem is just as large. They didn't accelerate leg-fixing research, they accelerated the need to fix legs. The science took place faster measured in years, but at exactly the same rate measured in legs (which is the appropriate measure, who cares if you solve the problem of broken legs if leg breaking only happens within your study). \n\nBut there's another problem, this is only a good idea in war if you're trying to get an advantage on another nation, you accelerate your research by taking short cuts, but you slow down their research by witholding your findings. Science doesn't advance faster, it advances slower, everybody has to replicate results because no one is sharing.\n\nBesides other kinds of basic research aren't accelerated in this way, in fact, if a question is really hard it's often better to work slowly and figure everything out about it. It's not more effective research to kill 50,000 mice, than 5 if you don't have the resources or ability to gather useful data from 49,995 of those mice. There might be a little time wasted filling out he proper ethics forms but that's a few hours a year. \n\nThere's also practical concerns. Humans eat a lot compared to rodents. They yell loudly when you try to strap them down. I don't need the hassle. If I run a mean experiment on people without their informed consent, they won't come back, I can't do future studies. \n\nMost ethics are just good practices for doing useful, sustainable research, if we didn't have these standards, we would be way behind where we are now.",
"I'm not quite sure that ethical standards impinge on scientific discoveries. The internal mechanisms for research studies in non-primates generally do not interfere with the proposed research in any major way. A general exception is that a certain proposed method might cause distress to the subjects, which could be altered or explained as necessary. \n\nI think we could make the case that going to the internal research board and having your proposal critiqued could even bolster your research plan. In addition, if a study is conducted in an unethical manner, the results may then be considered suspicious. \n\nAs far as external ethical concerns, that depends on the level of interference. For example, the NIH has not been able to fund the creation of new human embryonic stem cell lines due to the Dickey-Wicker Amendment. Most new lines have been produced internationally, in the private sector or through state level grants. This has impeded the science somewhat, whereas Germany has outlawed the creation of new embryonic stem cell lines (importation of existing lines are still legal).\n\nReferring again to stem cells, patents could be viewed as a measurement of ethics. Recently, the EU court struck down a patent held by a researcher that pertained to deriving neural stem cells from embryonic stem cells. The court stated that a patent depending even indirectly on human ES-cell lines is outlawed on moral grounds. By doing so, the ruling could prompt funding agencies in the EU to stop funding stem cell research if it seen as immoral. This would be a critical blow to scientific discovery in the EU.",
"Lets put it this way. No one has ever directly proved that smoking causes lung cancer."
],
"score": [
15,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_\\(patient\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Nagle"
]
} | To what degree to research ethical standards "slow down" scientific discovery?
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||
ms3hg | Can a mass spectrometer wipe a credit card or computer hard drive? | Our organic chemistry teacher just gave a lecture strongly discouraging us from bringing even cell phones or watches into the lab when we're using a mass spectrometer. Is she as crazy and paranoid as I've always assumed, or is there a real risk of the magnetic field the machine generates causing problems? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c33e7zk",
"c33e8qs",
"c33efqc"
],
"text": [
"Mass specs rely on a powerful magnetic field. Depending on the type of mass spec this could be up around the 12 Tesla level (definitely enough to wipe hard drives). It should be shielded, but better safe than sorry. So no, don't take sensitive stuff in there.",
"A mass spec requires a small, intense magnetic field to operate.\n\nBut, the machines are required to be constructed so that no significant EM field is produced outside of the machine in operation, and similarly so that the machine is not disrupted by outside EM fields. If you observe your watch being disrupted by the machine you need to turn it off and have it repaired immediately...",
"I've never had a problem around the mass spec, I've always just walked up to it cellphone and mag-card in pocket. High-field NMRs are another matter."
],
"score": [
7,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can a mass spectrometer wipe a credit card or computer hard drive?
Our organic chemistry teacher just gave a lecture strongly discouraging us from bringing even cell phones or watches into the lab when we're using a mass spectrometer. Is she as crazy and paranoid as I've always assumed, or is there a real risk of the magnetic field the machine generates causing problems? | [
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|
se8j8 | Does speed reading actually work? | By that I mean with little reading comprehension loss. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4dbkzk",
"c4dd8q9",
"c4exk1t",
"c4di132"
],
"text": [
"Skeptoid says no and quotes studies which showed that 'speed reading' comprehension was no better than control groups using guessing where people who'd only been told the subject of a text. \n\nThe only reliable way to read faster without loss of comprehension (and I would argue that comprehension is an essential part of reading) is to improve vocabulary to increase the speed of word recognition. You can improve reading speed this way, but not to the level claimed by speed-reading advocates \n\n_URL_0_",
"I just find myself asking this: \n\nIf speed-reading worked without an inappropriate loss of comprehension why wouldn't it be part of our education curriculum? It's not even available on a college-level, as far as I know. \n\n[The FTC specifically went after Howard Berg for false advertising for speed-reading claims made in infomercials.](_URL_3_) From every source I can gather it seems that speed-reading is simply a method of skimming text, and can't compete on the level of comprehension that comes along with *actually reading* it. \n\nDon't take my word for it. [NASA did a study on one method](_URL_3_) [PDF] and [there have been others done on reading faster by attempting to eliminate subvocalization](_URL_3_).",
"I can say from my own experience that speed reading does work, but not in the way you all seem to think it does.\n\nThe habit of not reading words aloud in your head was more of a side-note. The real thing was training your brain to take in more words at once, so that instead of reading 1 word at a time in a sentence you could see 4-5 words, increasing your reading speeds dramatically. It wasn't about training your brain to work faster.\n\nI went from 400 wpm to 1400 wpm in light material, and from 200 wpm to 800 wpm in heavy material. That's roughly quadripling my reading speed, and I only had 10% comprehension loss.",
"Side question: What is speed reading anyway? I read very quickly, but I don't know if I am actually speed reading or just fast."
],
"score": [
58,
16,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4229",
"http://www.ftc.gov/os/1998/01/berg.pkg.htm",
"http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20000011599_2000009345.pdf",
"http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Speed_Reading/Subvocalization"
]
} | Does speed reading actually work?
By that I mean with little reading comprehension loss. | [
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|
15k4go | How does leaving an avocado pit in guacamole prevent the dip from browning? | My sister-in-law taught me this. When you make guacamole, if you throw in an avocado pit, the guac won't turn brown. Even just 1 pit in a big bowl works. Any ideas as to the reason this happens? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7n7o1y",
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],
"text": [
"I did a science fair project on this. There is really no difference from the pit, nor any reason to really back the claim. Lime juice is one of the best ways I know to keep avocado fresh.",
"> How does leaving an avocado pit in guacamole prevent the dip from browning?\n\nOnly via imagination. It's a common myth.",
"The only way the avocado pit prevents browning is physically blocking the air from oxidizing the avocado. Besides that, it's mostly a wive's tale.\n\nYou can keep the guacamole covered (to prevent oxygen from getting to it) or add lime juice (to slow down an enzyme called *polyphenol oxidase* that doesn't like acidic conditions) to prevent browning.",
"Please reproduce the recipe here. Most likely it has an acid in it such as lemon or lime juice, which will help preserve the guacamole. Leaving the pit in does nothing.",
"unless the pit provides a significant difference in Ph it shouldn't provide a difference."
],
"score": [
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does leaving an avocado pit in guacamole prevent the dip from browning?
My sister-in-law taught me this. When you make guacamole, if you throw in an avocado pit, the guac won't turn brown. Even just 1 pit in a big bowl works. Any ideas as to the reason this happens? | [
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2xcmls | Why schools are teaching wrong information about how the sun works? | Everybody I know thinks that sun works because in the core there's so much pressure and heat that it will force the atoms to collide.
I've been studying things a lot on my own and all advanced science sources state that the sun works because of quantum tunneling.
What's the point of teaching the wrong stuff? Because quantum tunneling is too complicated? Or because we are not sure yet? I'm confused. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"coyx64u",
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"cozcsts"
],
"text": [
"I've described teaching as \"lies to children\" (from Terry Pratchet) on AskScience before and caused some small controversy because people saw it as negative. I actually believe that lies to children are necessary and beneficial.\n\nWe don't mention quantum tunneling because it is far too advanced for the age where you would normally have fusion explained to you. Even experts would be put on the spot if asked if they understood it let alone to teach it. Teaching quantum tunnelling requires building upon an established understanding of quantum physics that takes undergraduates in physics years.\n\nThe bottom line is that fusion is caused when the two nuclei become close enough that the strong force can snap them together. The electrostatic repulsion between the two positive nuclei is large enough that this does not happen unless the mixture is very hot. \n\nYou can calculate the temperature needed and find the probability of it happening is vanishingly small for the temperature of the Sun's core (10-15 million degrees). \n\nIs this because we don't understand fusion? No, it is because there is a small quantum correction which increases the probability of the reaction proceeding at low temperatures. We call this correction quantum tunnelling.\n\nI would point out that quantum tunneling is remarkedly BAD at fusion. It is so unlikely to happen in the Sun that the star generates less heat per unit volume in the core than I do just sitting here typing this. \n\nMeanwhile, if you go to much higher temperatures, where we don't need quantum tunneling to explain the presence of fusion, such as the 100-200 million degrees in a tokamak. We generate MW per m^3 instead of watts. \n\nSo quantum tunneling is a very obscure correction to an easy to understand theory that needs complex mathematics and obtuse ideas to teach. Then, once you understand it, it only provides small changes to the reaction rates for fusion and is only relevant for low temperatures.",
"Those ideas aren't mutually exclusive. Quantum tunnelling plays an important role in fusion reactions, but the probability of tunnelling occurring depends greatly on the difference between the energy of the particle or system and the energy of the potential barrier. Extremely high temperatures and pressures are necessary for the tunnelling involved in fusion reactions to occur at any appreciable rate.",
"Before getting my PhD in Earth Science I worked as a Chemistry teacher for 11 - 18 year olds. It was a process of teaching ever lesser lies to people.\n\nThe simple fact is that the detail of the science necessary toe xplain certain phenomena are absurdly complicated. however, they are such fundamental things that it is *politically or socially* felt that children should have *some* understanding of them.\n\nTherefore, we end up teaching half-truths. \n\nThe best example of this is probably electron structure in atoms. We start off ignoring electrons completely, we then teach a 2-8-8-2 structure, before going to an s - p - d - f system, which is itself an oversimplification.\n\nUltimately, with some of these concepts you need a simple model to build on when you are starting with an audience with no understanding whatsoever. There are also practical limits on what you can teach ina given timeframe."
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} | Why schools are teaching wrong information about how the sun works?
Everybody I know thinks that sun works because in the core there's so much pressure and heat that it will force the atoms to collide. I've been studying things a lot on my own and all advanced science sources state that the sun works because of quantum tunneling. What's the point of teaching the wrong stuff? Because quantum tunneling is too complicated? Or because we are not sure yet? I'm confused. | [
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|
34qjwo | How are entangled particles found and chosen for experiments? | Two labs on opposite sides of the earth (or down the hall, doesn't matter) measuring spins.
How do they choose the 2 particles to measure? How can they pick out two particles, know that they are entangled, separate them, transport them and start measuring their spins? Can't chuck in any old particle you find floating about, can you?
How do you do the "across the world, therefore across the universe" experiment? Seems crazy putting A particle in a box and shipping it.
Quantum entanglement has been made out to be magic to me and I realized that this part hasn't been addressed, as if it was something obvious. I and surely many other people would have a much better understanding of this if it was explained. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cqx9ezo",
"cqx8pne",
"cqxdnni"
],
"text": [
"The entangled particles aren't found, they're prepared. For photons, this usually involves producing them in a process whereby some measurable property (such as its polarization) is mutually dependent, so measuring the state of one photons determines the state of the second.\n\nParticles can also be entangled via certain interactions, which is how most entangled pairs of other particles are prepared (since, for example, it's not so easy to produce pairs of electrons, or protons, or whole atoms, as it is photons). Photons can also become entangled this way, though, for example through interference effects.",
"You can't find entangled particles \"in the wild\", but there are various physical processes which produce two photons at the same time, which are guaranteed to have the same polarisation ([wikipedia](_URL_0_)). In order to take them to far away places, you send them through a fiber-optic cable.",
"Entangled particles used in experiments are not *found* floating around. To make an entaglement experiment you first need a source of those particles. If you want to entangle electrons for example, you can use an [electron gun](_URL_4_) which basically creates electrons by heat or, let's say you want to use photons, you just need a light source: A laser, a radioactive material, or whatever source you need for the specific wavelength you want to use.\n\nNow that you have a source you need to entangle the particles. Depending on the particle you are working with, there are different methods you can use. For photons you can use a [beta barium borate (BBO) crystal](_URL_4_). You shoot light through it and get entagled photons. Or, you can use the entangled gamma photons produced during [pair annihilation](_URL_4_) by using a radioactive material.\n\nOK so you have a source and entangled particles. Now you have to measure those entangled particles. BTW, the particles are not entangled on their whole structure. Some of their properties like momentum, spin, polarization, etc are the ones being entangled.\n\nSo to measure that you need detectors. Again, there are different methods for detection. Let's say you are using photons and measuring polarization entanglement. There are some devices called [photon detectors](_URL_4_) that, well, detect photons. To check polarization you can use, for example, crystals that filter all photons except a specific polarization direction.\n\nA basic experiment could be having two detectors: One that will detect photons with polarization (+) that went through the appropiate filter and another detector for polarization (-) photons. You turn on your source and get a stream of photons the goes through the entaglement and polarization crystals and you detect a lot of them. While checking your data you'll see that sometimes you measure a (+) photon and a (-) photon simultaneously. This can be luck of course, or a device error. That's what statistics is for. There are some mathematical methods to get rid of that noise and focus just on those photons you are pretty sure were entagled.\n\nObviously this is a very simple (and maybe wrong in some details) sample experiment. There are more sofisticated experiments not only to work with entagled pairs but with more complicated systems, but I hope this gives you a better idea how this works."
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement#Methods_of_creating_entanglement",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_gun",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_nanowire_single-photon_detector",
"http://eksmaoptics.com/nonlinear-and-laser-crystals/nonlinear-crystals/beta-barium-borate-bbo-crystals/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation"
]
} | How are entangled particles found and chosen for experiments?
Two labs on opposite sides of the earth (or down the hall, doesn't matter) measuring spins. How do they choose the 2 particles to measure? How can they pick out two particles, know that they are entangled, separate them, transport them and start measuring their spins? Can't chuck in any old particle you find floating about, can you? How do you do the "across the world, therefore across the universe" experiment? Seems crazy putting A particle in a box and shipping it. Quantum entanglement has been made out to be magic to me and I realized that this part hasn't been addressed, as if it was something obvious. I and surely many other people would have a much better understanding of this if it was explained. | [
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|
11njvs | NASA/JPL Climate Scientist Josh Willis AMA - with focus on how to get started on an Earth science career | EDIT 10/18/12 10:30am PDT:
This AMA is over but I'll continue to check here for new questions and post responses as my schedule allows. Thanks everyone!
I'm a climate scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who studies global warming and its impact on the ocean. I'm also the Project Scientist for Jason-3, the next mission that will measure global sea level rise from space.
Here's my proof pic:
_URL_4_
My career path:
B.S., Physics & Mathematics, University of Houston, Honors College, Houston, Texas (1996)
M.S., Physics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California (1998)
Ph.D., Oceanography, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California (2004)
Links:
Blog post: _URL_2_
Video (with cool party trick): _URL_3_
Ocean topography page: _URL_0_
Bio/CV: _URL_1_
| askscience | {
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"I'm currently an Earth/Planetary Science PhD student at Brown (I came from the University of Washington for undergrad) and I'm really curious about post-graduation opportunities, especially those in planetary atmospheres (my main objective is to model the climates of Earth-like exoplanets). I don't hear much from people who work for NASA/Carnegie Institute/etc so I *really* appreciate your IAmA and am going to have lots of questions. :)\n\n* What sorts of models do you use to study the climate? Do you use CCSM, NASA GISS, or something else? Does NASA prefer the selection of certain models over others? Also, does NASA prefer to use models that are potentially generalizable to other solar system bodies or even potentially exoplanets?\n* Did you choose between going into NASA and going into academia? How does the environment of working at NASA compare with that of going into academia? And how hard is it to get into NASA, as compared to academia?\n* Why don't most NASA scientists have personal webpages, like what professors do?\n* Is it hard to practice open science or to publish in NASA?\n* How does working at NASA JPL compare with working at NASA Ames?\n* What does NASA look for in potential employees, as compared to what academia looks for?\n* What fraction of NASA is earth science, and what fraction is astronomy/astrophysics? Does NASA *especially* like those who have a background in both earth science and astrophysics?\n* How much do NASA climate change researchers value exoplanet research (especially exoplanetary atmosphere research) in general? Do some of them see it as a potential drain of resources?",
"Okay folks, I gotta bounce. \n\nBut if you continue to post questions, I'll try to get back and answer as time allows.\n\nWhat a fun crowd.\n\nThank you, thank you very much.",
"I am pretty interested in climate science and would love to pursue a career like yours but as a civil engineer I lack much of the field specific learnings and being in my mid-twenties I don't really feel like starting over. Is it possible to self educate enough to obtain the knowledge for an advanced degree (masters/PhD) in an unrelated field from my undergrad? (If possible can you point me towards some better resources than wikipedia?)\n\nI think if I could start over I would definitely have gone into the geosciences but fear of field saturation and lack of job security scared me and I took a \"safer\" path.",
"I'm currently an EnviSci undergrad planning to go on to graduate studies in atmospheric sciences as my interests lie heavily in climate change (specifically I'd like to learn more about how climate change will affect the hydrologic cycle and multidecadal climate cycles like ENSO, AMO, PDO, etc etc).\n\nIn any event, I have several questions!\n\n- What do you think the effects of a warming world will be on the cycles I mentioned above?\n\n- Do you see a large danger of the sea level increase far exceeding the IPCC's general forecast of 1 meter over the next 100 years? If so where do you see the reason for this?\n\n- What thoughts do you have on the ideas that much of the energy imbalance over the last decade or so has resulted in the heat being stored in portions of the deep ocean that we're not able to monitor easily?\n\nThanks for doing this!",
"I've heard Earth prevents a runaway greenhouse effect like Venus via the oceans scrubbing carbon dioxide into carbonaceous rocks. Assuming this, with rising ocean levels, will there be some kind of equilibrium or turning point in global warming/CO2 levels or is the production of CO2 simply too great? I suppose plant life also plays a large role in water transport of CO2 as well. Thanks!",
"Greetings from a fellow Triton alum! My question is, what do you think is the best way to bridge the gap of knowledge between scientists and the general public? I often try to teach what I think is a simplified version (I'm in grad school), but even that frequently goes over peoples' heads.",
"First, I just wanted to say thank you for doing this. \n\nI’m currently in a senior in college majoring in geology, however my passions have always been learning about both the ocean and space. I know for certain that one day I would like to work for NASA, specifically the JPL if possible. \n\nMost of the information I can find on the JPL website is directed towards engineers, so I’d like to ask you some questions for us non-engineers. \n\n\n1) Can you tell us redditors what types of opportunities outside of engineering are available and NASA and JPL? \n\n\n 2) Will we be at a disadvantage at getting a job at the JPL and/or NASA without an engineering degree?\n\n\n3) What would you recommend someone such as myself to study in graduate school in order to increase my chances of working at NASA/JPL? \n\nI’m interested in a wide variety of subjects (as I’m sure many here are) but it is hard to determine what specific focus would be best for my future. \n\nThanks again! \n\nEDIT: Formatting and such",
"I really want to be an astronaut, do you know when the next \"class\" will be? As a geologist, I'm fascinated with Mars. I would have tried out for the most recent class, but I didn't meet the experience (just got my MS). Any advice would be much appreciated!",
"I remember seeing an article about stratospheric processes affecting ocean processes. Can you share some interesting links/couplings you've learned about? It seems to me that capturing all the processes and their dependencies on each other is quite the task. Are you fairly confident existing models aren't \"forgetting something\"?",
"When faced with people who still don't believe global warming is happening or is caused by us, what piece of evidence/sources would you give to change their mind?"
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"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNpzc3SLkxs",
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} | {
"url": []
} | NASA/JPL Climate Scientist Josh Willis AMA - with focus on how to get started on an Earth science career
EDIT 10/18/12 10:30am PDT: This AMA is over but I'll continue to check here for new questions and post responses as my schedule allows. Thanks everyone! I'm a climate scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who studies global warming and its impact on the ocean. I'm also the Project Scientist for Jason-3, the next mission that will measure global sea level rise from space. Here's my proof pic: _URL_4_ My career path: B.S., Physics & Mathematics, University of Houston, Honors College, Houston, Texas (1996) M.S., Physics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California (1998) Ph.D., Oceanography, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California (2004) Links: Blog post: _URL_2_ Video (with cool party trick): _URL_3_ Ocean topography page: _URL_0_ Bio/CV: _URL_1_ | [
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|
ioirm | What's the (theoretical or practical) least-painful form of death? | I saw the thread earlier today about rollercoasters and oxygen deprivation/etc., so I was curious (not suicidal!) about what the least painful form of death would be? Props for links to white papers or studies, btw.
I've always imagined that the current barbiturate soup they give you in the first step of the American "lethal injection" is enough to make it painless enough, but I've also seen items on the news that suggest otherwise, anecdotally at least.
I've also heard that recently some "Dr. Death" passed away, who administered at-home physician-assisted suicide to the terminally-ill, but I could never find details of what sort of concoction he used, or if it was painless/effective/etc.
Thanks in advance! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c25dkvg",
"c25hr9b",
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"c25etzo",
"c25h9rv"
],
"text": [
"As a chemist, I've always been inclined to go via [carbon monoxide](_URL_0_). This is anecdotally supported by high-suicide rates in East Asia by the same method, although they get their CO by charcoal burning in a closed room, and drink to lose conscious. (I would just get be listening to some Beethoven piano sonata and releasing a compressed gas cylinder.)\n\nThe bonus (?) here is that your corpse will have a ruddy complexion, since the CO-bound heme (in hemoglobin) is a beautiful cherry-red. It doesn't stop the muscle control issue though, so when your corpse was found it would still have pissed and pooped all over itself. You're also likely to poison your rescuers, and that's very not cool.",
"Get caught in a very high energy event, such as a nuclear explosion (the explosion itself, not the shockwave). You'll be gone well before anything can register.",
"Layman:\n\nAnything that kills you faster than your nervous system can react (assuming that pain is a purely material phenomina, seems like a safe/needed assumtion).",
"\"Dr. Death\" was Jack Kevorkian. He first used the barbiturate soup. Then when he lost his medical license, he used a [carbon monoxide mask](_URL_1_).",
"I believe the organization DIGNITAS provides about 4000 mg of pentobarbital (with an antiemetic) for suicidal patients. We use pentobarbital in extreme cases to stop excessive epileptic seizures. It causes first drowsiness, then sleep, coma, and death by hypoxia as the respiratory drive fails. One falls asleep and that's the end."
],
"score": [
6,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercitron"
]
} | What's the (theoretical or practical) least-painful form of death?
I saw the thread earlier today about rollercoasters and oxygen deprivation/etc., so I was curious (not suicidal!) about what the least painful form of death would be? Props for links to white papers or studies, btw. I've always imagined that the current barbiturate soup they give you in the first step of the American "lethal injection" is enough to make it painless enough, but I've also seen items on the news that suggest otherwise, anecdotally at least. I've also heard that recently some "Dr. Death" passed away, who administered at-home physician-assisted suicide to the terminally-ill, but I could never find details of what sort of concoction he used, or if it was painless/effective/etc. Thanks in advance! | [
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3hgmm7 | How can more than one species of tree exist under what appears to be virtually the same environment, considering the competitive exclusion principle? | For those not clear, the competitive exclusion principle, also known as Gause's law of competitive exclusion or simply "Gause's law", states that two or more species competing for the exact same resources cannot coexist under the same conditions if all/other ecological factors remain constant. This is because if one species has even a slight edge, then it will muscle out the other species/species in the area. Obviously, there has to be a way around this, because we see environments with many species competing for the same resources all the time. One way around this is through "Niche Partitioning". To give an example of this, cottonwood trees can be grown in a fairly wide variety of areas. I have one growing in my yard. In nature however, you just about only see them along rivers. This is because the habitat it grows best in is along rivers. When it is growing near water, it is able to outcompete other species trying to grow in the same habitat. However, it is not as strong of a competitor away from rivers, so it is out competed by other species.
The problem for me is, I can't see how this explains what is happening when trees are occupying virtually the same environment. For example, in the mountains where I live, I can go hiking and see two species of tree, Box Elder and Cottonwood growing along rivers next to each other. How is one not out competing the other? Another example in the mountains where I live, I can see two trees, Engelmann Spruce and Alpine Fir growing next to each other in the same forest, with the same aspect, with (what appears to be at least) the same level of access to water and soil type/quality. And what about in the Amazon rainforest where in a few hectares you can find a few hundred species of tree? I want to know what environmental factors could the species I have mentioned be taking advantage of to avoid direct competition? I understand that predator mediated competition could explain part of this, but it doesn't seem like an entirely adequate explanation. I am an aspiring ecologist and have been thinking about this for a little while. Any help answering this question would be nice.
Edit: Thanks everyone who has answered so far. If anyone else has any extra input, the mountains I am referring to is the Wasatch range in Utah. | askscience | {
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"Models like the competitive exclusion principle have a great theoretical basis, but when actually looking at nature it is important to remember there are an endless amount of variables. For instance, maybe the Box Elder out-competes the Cottonwood, but because of a local community (like you) grows Cottonwoods, sometimes the seeds disperse to the river. There is also the possibility that the environment fluctuates in a pattern that results in equal competition between the two tree species. Perhaps one is better at extracting water in colder environments while the other is better in warmer climates. \n\n\nAnother possible answer is that you ~see~ both tree populations currently, but in a 100 million years one or the other would out-compete the other. After all, if one had a slight advantage it would out-compete the other on an evolutionary timescale. You just aren't witnessing the end result of this slight advantage yet.\n\n\nI suppose my point is this; the idea of competitive exclusion principle is great if there is some reproductive difference between two organisms competing for the same resource. One should drive the other to extinction. But what happens if they both use the resource and come to an equilibrium (either temporally/spatially - like the above examples) where they both reproduce at the same rates? Well, both will be maintained in the population.",
"Trees especially are an interesting incidence of this, because they tend to be relatively long-lived. There's a fairly well established succession cycle, in which forests are disturbed (by clearcutting or wildfire or beavers or anything else that causes an opening).\n\nAssuming that there's no further disruption, you usually see a period of rapid growth of grasses. Over time, thick brush and brambles grow up, along with rapid-growing trees like aspens, shadowing the grasses, which die back, replaced by species that are more shade tolerant. Firs and other shade-tolerant trees tend to grow more slowly than aspens, but aspens tend to be relatively short-lived, so the aspens die back, or are eventually outgrown and die from lack of light. \n\nEven *more* slow growing dense trees follow the firs, so you usually end up with a dense forest of big maples and old firs, with the occasional breakthrough where an old tree falls down and enough light breaks through that an aspen leaps up. (The species vary a lot, based on fertility, water, etc., but in areas that tend to forest out, this is a normal pattern.) So you are seeing *some* competitive exclusion, but the time scale is big enough and the conditions variable enough that you get to watch it up close. So any snapshot has multiple species, though if you looked at a timeline, you'd see waves of \"groups\" replacing each other.\n\n(Also, keep in mind that insects and fungal/viral diseases *love* big swaths of monoculture, so there's tipping points even in the scenario you outline where two species are technically equal - that equality only holds until it doesn't. Microenvironments along with changes in water/fertility/feeding patterns/infections/fire/air pollution/microbiomes in soil/etc. mean that two locations that look identical to the naked eye rarely are.",
"This certainly doesn't account for the _whole_ thing, but you can get situations where tree A grows better in a certain environment when no other trees are present, and tree B grows better underneath tree A. So you have a fire or storm or flood come through and kill a bunch of trees, you'll get Tree A growing, followed by tree B growing up in the cluster of tree A. That results in a mixture of A and B if disturbances come along every so often.\n\nYou also get something known as \"lottery dispersion\" which I've heard about mostly in regards to reef fish, but might apply to things like tropical forests. With reef fish, you have a bunch of planktonic fish larvae floating about in the water, and every so often an \"empty\" patch of reef will appear. A larvae will settle out and take up residence. It's first-come-first serve so you get a random distribution based on what species just happens to arrive first. Could work with seedlings in a forest gap.\n\nYou can also get negative density dependence. If trees don't grow well when others of their own species are nearby, there will tend toward higher diversity. This can happen if, for example, too many similar trees in one place results in an outbreak of insects that eat those trees."
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} | How can more than one species of tree exist under what appears to be virtually the same environment, considering the competitive exclusion principle?
For those not clear, the competitive exclusion principle, also known as Gause's law of competitive exclusion or simply "Gause's law", states that two or more species competing for the exact same resources cannot coexist under the same conditions if all/other ecological factors remain constant. This is because if one species has even a slight edge, then it will muscle out the other species/species in the area. Obviously, there has to be a way around this, because we see environments with many species competing for the same resources all the time. One way around this is through "Niche Partitioning". To give an example of this, cottonwood trees can be grown in a fairly wide variety of areas. I have one growing in my yard. In nature however, you just about only see them along rivers. This is because the habitat it grows best in is along rivers. When it is growing near water, it is able to outcompete other species trying to grow in the same habitat. However, it is not as strong of a competitor away from rivers, so it is out competed by other species. The problem for me is, I can't see how this explains what is happening when trees are occupying virtually the same environment. For example, in the mountains where I live, I can go hiking and see two species of tree, Box Elder and Cottonwood growing along rivers next to each other. How is one not out competing the other? Another example in the mountains where I live, I can see two trees, Engelmann Spruce and Alpine Fir growing next to each other in the same forest, with the same aspect, with (what appears to be at least) the same level of access to water and soil type/quality. And what about in the Amazon rainforest where in a few hectares you can find a few hundred species of tree? I want to know what environmental factors could the species I have mentioned be taking advantage of to avoid direct competition? I understand that predator mediated competition could explain part of this, but it doesn't seem like an entirely adequate explanation. I am an aspiring ecologist and have been thinking about this for a little while. Any help answering this question would be nice. Edit: Thanks everyone who has answered so far. If anyone else has any extra input, the mountains I am referring to is the Wasatch range in Utah. | [
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|
wvok4 | Why is it that the speed of airflow from the back of a hairdryer is much lower than that of what it's blowing at the front. | A fellow redditor's question about hairdryer reminded me of this. Why is it that when you turn on the hair dryer, in the back, there's only a gentle breeze but out the front is a full on motherfucking turbo jet?
Shouldn't the positive pressure out the front be equal to the negative pressure at the back, and thus pull the air into the back just as fast as it's blowing out? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5gulxf",
"c5gvplm",
"c5gwsyj"
],
"text": [
"It's just a nozzle that takes air from a large area and blows it out a smaller area.",
"We are dealing with a steady state problem which is governed by a simple rule, mass flow in must equal mass flow out. Massflow is defined as density * area * velocity. In order to balance the two sides you have to tweak the values involved.\n\nSo, when you talk about a turbo jet coming out you are discussing velocity. So the other two terms are what we have to play with. You can decrease the density, but its difficult and not particularly practical. On the other hand, decreasing area is pretty easy.\n\nAs far as pressures go, you actually don't have to do anything with the pressures. The pressure on two sides don't affect each other with the sole exception of a pressure driven flow. Even in that case the above mass flow considerations apply and are usually simpler ways to manipulate flows.\n\nSource: conservation of mass in a fluid flow.",
"Mass conservation: stuff that comes in must equal stuff that comes out if nothing is being accumulated inside the system. In fluid mechanics, this is represented by density*area*velocity=constant for the intake and exit.\n\nThere are two things going on here, in order of importance: \n1. Look at the area difference between the intake and the exit. The intake is larger than the exit. \n2. Temperature difference between the two sides. The exit air is going to be hotter than the intake air. Hotter air means lower density, as the pressure at both ends is atmospheric and the composition hasn't changed (the gas constant is the same at both ends). P=rho*R*T\n\nSo at the intake density*area is larger than at the exit. To keep mass conserved (or from being accumulated inside the hairdryer), velocity at the exit must be higher than the intake."
],
"score": [
16,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is it that the speed of airflow from the back of a hairdryer is much lower than that of what it's blowing at the front.
A fellow redditor's question about hairdryer reminded me of this. Why is it that when you turn on the hair dryer, in the back, there's only a gentle breeze but out the front is a full on motherfucking turbo jet? Shouldn't the positive pressure out the front be equal to the negative pressure at the back, and thus pull the air into the back just as fast as it's blowing out? | [
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3y7dpi | When I'm on an airplane and I look straight ahead during takeoff or landing, I feel like I can see that the plane is pointed up or down. Can I really, or does my brain just extrapolate based on other information to create this illusion? | My relative position in the plane stays the same in takeoff or landing, so why am I able to see that we are pointed up or down when I'm just looking straight ahead? | askscience | {
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"You can do this, but not with great accuracy.\n\nYour visual perception is certainly affected by gravity, which like other accelerations, acts upon the vestibular organs in your inner ears.\n\nWe have a very fast neuron arc from these sensors to the neural circuitry that controls eye movements. Here's a simplified outline that may describe your scenario: Nose of the plane rises (which you also notice with sensory modalities other than vision), you tilt your head forward to compensate (probably incompletely). To keep your gaze on the thing you were looking straight ahead at, your eyes automatically elevate by the same amount. You now feel like you are looking upwards, and this can affect your perception of location in rotational threespace.\n\nAs to my opening comment about accuracy, this is not an ability you would ever want to have to bet your life on. This is why pilots have an artificial horizon instrument; there are endless cases (NTSB accident reports) about pilots who chose to believe their ears and eyes rather than an objective measurement.",
"Commercial pilot here.\n\nThere have been numerous accidents recently due to spatial disorientation (Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501, Air France Flight 447 among them).\n\nWhen you have no outside visual cues, you really can't \"feel\" how the plane is oriented. During your commercial training, you do \"unusual attitude recovery\" where you are basically blindfolded, the instructor will pitch/roll the plane into to a very weird situation and then you are told only \"recover\". You are still wearing \"foggles\", which basically block your view out the window.\n\nYou can only rely on instruments at that point, especially the attitude indicator (AI) and airspeed indicator.\n\nUnder no circumstances can you rely on how you \"feel\", because it's probably the exact opposite of what's happening.\n\nIt gets complex with situation like AF447 where you have icing, which gives you incorrect readings (you can get incorrect stall and overspeed warnings rapidly, among other things).",
"F-18 Hornet pilots do not have their hands on the controls during carrier catapult launches for these reasons. Instead they hold onto two handles dubbed the \"towel rack\" for the first several seconds of flight while the plane's computer is doing the flying because the acceleration is so great that humans perceive it as pitching too far up when the aircraft is actually level. This leads to the pilot pushing the nose of the plane down to correct the perceived nose-up attitude and flying into the ocean.",
"Pilot here. You think you can but your brain is actually extremely inaccurate at this sort of thing. During pilot training we practice flying on instrumentation alone, using a hood to block out all windows/outside references. You would be surprised to find that even when your body feels like you are pitching down, in reality the aircraft could just be decelerating. This (among others) are commonly studied effects. I would recommend checking out this wikipedia article that shows just how many illusions there are:\n\n_URL_0_",
"Airline Pilot here.\n\nYou absolutely can see it on take off. Generally we pitch up between 10-20 degrees on take off, which doesn't sound like much but the further back you sit from the center of gravity, you'll feel the effect more. \n\nOn descent, not so much, as we only pitch down 3-5 degrees. \n\nThere's been times we've done repo flights (flying an empty plane), and we'll leave the cockpit door open. I looked back into the cabin and was shocked on how much the slope was heading towards the back of the plane.",
"When I did a summer research internship with the Air Force years ago, I was in a group that included Kent Gillingham, who kind of \"wrote the book\" as it were on spatial (dis)orientation among pilots. There's a lot of his material to be found on the net, which clearly influences the author of this pamphlet which summarizes some of the things that pilots are susceptible to as a result of the interactions between the visual and vestibular system, including the \"heads-up illusion\" which is what you describe.\n\n_URL_1_",
"Pilot here this is known as an oculagravic illusion. Others have pointed to the vestibular system which is partly correct but this system mostly deals with when we lack any horizon at all such as while flying in the clouds and affects pilots rather than passengers. Basically what's happening on take off is your body is subject to G forces and the pressure from those G's is causing your eyes to track upwards hence you perceive a nose up attitude. If you watch jets being launched off carriers you'll notice the pilots have their hands on what we call the dummy handle instead of the controls, this is because pilots were subject to such high G's that their eyes tracked up and the falsely perceived a nose high attitude, they would then make a improper correction and place the aircraft in a nose low attitude and slam it into the ocean. they grab the dummy handle during the takeoff to avoid making this mistake. If you want more info look at Aeromedical Training for Army Aviators, I believe it's chapter 8 that goes over all the illusions as well as things like coriolis and the leans which are vestibular illusions that, like others have said are encountered when we lack a horizon.",
"An airplane is not pointed down during landing. It may be pitched down during descent, but it is pitched up during landing.",
"I'm a bit late to the party, so I'm sure I'll be buried -- but, OP, here's another take on the whole situation.\n\nIn a word, you're not really able to see if the plane is pointed up or down by looking straight ahead. During takeoff, for example, for most of the roll the plane is perfectly level - but you almost certainly \"feel\" that the plane is pointed up even before the nose lifts up. That's because you have an innate sense of the direction of local gravity (others have pointed out that you use that for balance), but *physics itself conspires to fool you*. When the plane is accelerating or decelerating, the inertial effects mimic gravity exactly, so your gut instinct is to think you're ascending/descending even if you're only accelerating/decelerating (or vice versa).",
"Your brain gives a lot of attention to your vestibular organs (inner ear) which provides your sense of balance. When that sensory information conflicts with what your eyes are seeing, your brain tries to adjust the picture. That's why when you get dizzy the room looks like it's spinning. It's also the usual cause of motion sickness; your other senses tell you you're moving, but your view of your surroundings say you're stationary. Your brain thinks, \"Oh, I must be getting a bad infection,\" and you get sick.",
"So if a kidnapped person in a car was blindfolded and had noise cancellation headphones on (the person couldn't hear the engine), would the person be able to distinguish uphill and downhill roads? I feel like yes, but this discussion makes me wonder. Obviously a blindfolded person an feel left and right turns as well as acceleration and deceleration.",
"OP: looks like someone provided a great answer already, but if you wanted to read more about factors/illusions during flight\n\n[here is chapter 16 (aeromedical factors)](_URL_2_) of the pilots handbook of aeronautical knowledge. It's a fairly easy read.",
"In addition to the other answers here, another cause, which is more likely to happen to someone in the cabin rather than the cockpit, is your mind misinterpreting acceleration. A gravitational field is, relatively, the same as an accelerating reference frame. So, if you're in the cabin and can't see the horizon outside, and you feel the plane accelerate, your brain might interpret it as the nose pitching up. It's like the opposite of what happens in those immersive video games they have in the arcade. The machine tilts back, and the video display shows you accelerating, so your brain interprets that as feeling the acceleration.",
"Your body remains in the same position in the seat but your head tries to stay balanced so your head tilts forward as the plane's nose tilts up. It feels like the plane is pointed up more than it is because the forward acceleration causes you to tighten the muscles in the front of your neck just like if you were sitting in a chair that is tilted back.",
"What you are experiencing is probably partly the somatogravic (head up) illusion, a well known pilot killer. A forward acceleration is misinterpreted by the brain as a pitch upward. It is impossible to accurately assess orientation by measuring forces in an aircraft (whether human vestibular organs, accelerometers or pendulums). In aircraft sustained accelerations are possible and therefore the resultant force measured may not correspond to the earth vertical. \n\nThere's a good description here, and the other aviation sensory illusions are also relevant. \n_URL_3_",
"Ive often wondered this too. Living and working on a submarine for weeks at a time with no visual of the outside world, i can still feel or somewhat see the up and down angle even when they are minimal. Thanks for asking the question OP, and thanks for the informative comments you guys.",
"The forces in the cockpit in any thing other than straight and level flight not good references Trusting the \"gravity\" you feel in your butt on the seat can navigate you directly to the crash site. This is where the phrase \" flying by the seat of your pants\" comes from.",
"Even if you look straight ahead your eyes and brain recognize visual cues from the edge of your field of view (plane has windows). Try it with your eyes closed for a longer period and report back if you still guessed right on the planes orientation."
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"http://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/spatiald.pdf",
"https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/PHAK%20-%20Chapter%2016.pdf",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_illusions_in_aviation#Head-up_illusion"
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} | When I'm on an airplane and I look straight ahead during takeoff or landing, I feel like I can see that the plane is pointed up or down. Can I really, or does my brain just extrapolate based on other information to create this illusion?
My relative position in the plane stays the same in takeoff or landing, so why am I able to see that we are pointed up or down when I'm just looking straight ahead? | [
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|
2s4szm | Dark Matter question: Are WIMPs a) particles in the standard model or b) totally new yet unknown particles and the standard model needs an expantion? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cnm9aj9",
"cnmb37l",
"cnmnsy1"
],
"text": [
"WIMPs would be an extension of the Standard Model.",
"(a) No. Dark matter particles would have to be part of some extension of the Standard Model\n\n(b) They would be new, but they wouldn't be totally unknown, since we know some of the properties they must have. For one they must be electrically neutral (i.e. \"dark\").",
"c) both\n\nSome of the non-luminous non-baryonic (atomic) dark matter is stuff we already know about, such as neutrinos. But neutrinos are generally \"hot\" dark matter, because they more or less always travel at very near c. Various lines of evidence indicates that most of the mass of the Universe is in the form of \"cold\" dark matter which almost certainly is composed of WIMPs of an as yet unknown particle type.\n\nHowever, it would be more accurate to say that it's of an *unconfirmed* particle type rather than \"unknown\". We have several particular theories about candidate particles but no firm observational evidence, yet."
],
"score": [
7,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Dark Matter question: Are WIMPs a) particles in the standard model or b) totally new yet unknown particles and the standard model needs an expantion?
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4x84e4 | Discussion: Veritasium's newest YouTube video on the reproducibility crisis! | Hi everyone! Our first askscience video discussion was a huge hit, so we're doing it again! Today's topic is [Veritasium's video on reproducibility, p-hacking, and false positives.](_URL_0_) Our panelists will be around throughout the day to answer your questions! In addition, the video's creator, Derek (/u/veritasium) will be around if you have any specific questions for him. | askscience | {
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"Do you think our fixation on the term \"significant\" is a problem? I've consciously shifted to using the term \"meaningful\" as much as possible, because you can have \"significant\" (at p < 0.05) results that aren't meaningful in any descriptive or prescriptive way.",
"While you were talking about how replication studies are not attractive scientists, wouldn't it be a good idea to require a \"minimum\" number of replicate experiments to be performed. And provide some sort incentive to replicate experiments.\n\nPerhaps undergrad students? This might help them understand a paper in a better way while also providing the replication required for the paper to be presented?",
"Hi Derek, \n\nOne big problem I face is that I have family and friends who are pretty anti-science; things like this get hailed by them as evidence of their viewpoints (climate change denial, creationism, anti-gmo, anti-vax). \n\nThe flipside is that I also have a lot of family and friends who subscribe to a lot of pop-science sites and pages (I fucking love science, as an example) and buy into clickbait \"science\" headlines with **zero** skepticism. \n\nWhat can random people like myself do to encourage skepticism towards headlines that mention \"researchers\", \"scientists\", or \"recent study\", without undermining the credibility of scientists, science journalists, and the scientific community as a whole?",
"Would taking a bayesian approach to data analysis reduce the ability to p-hack results?\n\nOr does bayesian probability also suffer from this problem of p-hacking and false positives.",
"Which false positive discovery has had the biggest impact in human history?",
"The very weird incentives of scientific institutions are one of the reasons why I'm leaving science. I have a Ph.D. in atomic and particle physics, and I'm particularly an expert in computational methods. While I love science and would love to continue my current job as a postdoc researcher and maybe get a permanent scientist job at some point, I see that all scientific institutions care about is the number of publications. Although I have 10 publications in 4 years, I can't guarantee to remain on this pace, because my field of expertise is computations, and I'm slowly moving to doing that all the time. For example, I'm now the lead developer in the GNOME project\n\n_URL_0_\n\nwhere we try to detect dark matter domain-walls from earth's trajectory in the galaxy. Such a project doesn't get results for years! It's a very important project, science-wise, but publications are gonna be minimal. So, I work a few years, and then I'm out of business because I don't have sufficient publications. Would anyone do this to themselves?\n\nI think science has a big problem by making the number of publications all that matters. This is why I'm considering quitting and getting just some developer job... I don't like it... but that's safer, isn't it?",
"Can someone EILI5 the economics of scientific publishing and journals? \n\nQuestions I have:\nDo scientists get directly paid for publishing, or does it just increase the likelihood of getting paid for other things?\nHow do scientific journals make money?\nWhy don't journals want to publish replication studies?",
"Peer review has always been hard because finding other people's mistakes is not something humans are good at. Do you think that perhaps a series of neural nets could become better at peer review than most people within 5 years?",
"Hello Derek,\n\nWhat do you suggest to solve this problem? \n\nIs an independent organization that can operate worldwide a reasonable solution to this problem?\n\nDo we need to re-do ALL the false positives, or just the ones that really matter to us?\n\nThank you for your time and efforts.",
"Hi Derek. Thanks for the video.\nDoes university politics (ie, pressure scientist to publish papers) give them incentives to do p-hacking?",
"My favorite idea for the future of scientific publishing, that directly impacts the \"reproducibility crisis\", is to publish all raw data and analysis methods (including the actual code etc) with every publication. \n\n\nAlthough data is technically available upon request after publication in most journals (usually subject to some time constraints), I've never had any of my data requested, I've never even heard of someone doing this or having their data requested. Suffice it to say, it is not common practice. Moreover, the people most likely to really get in there and crunch the numbers, graduate students and postdocs, are even less likely to make such a request or have their request fulfilled. Furthermore, unfortunately many papers do a terrible job at explaining their analysis methods, if they even bother to do so at all. Finally, using publicly available, or previously published analysis code, such that if someone did have the data (or similar data) they could analyze it in exactly the same way is truly rare.\n\n\nIf all of the data was published along with the paper it could become commonplace for people to regularly check other peoples conclusions from their data. Replication of the experiment would now be a secondary validity check. It would also change how science is conducted. There could be researchers who spend their entire careers scouring the data of other researchers looking for new results that the original researchers missed! Although some people may feel uncomfortable with this idea of losing data ownership, this would tremendously increase the efficiency of the scientific enterprise. On that note, having the analysis methods published also would save other researchers incredible amounts of time developing their own analysis methods. As people shared and published their new methods, the methods would evolve at much more rapid pace, putting more powerful tools in the hands of all researchers. This would also help with the \"reproducibility crisis\" as researchers would be using more vetted methods that would be less likely to return incorrect results.",
"I think you need to be more clear in your premise. As a chemist, I know that most of the research papers I read are based on physical measurements, not collected data from people. While it is true that some papers are later shown to be flawed and a few experiments have been overturned, this is not the same as psychological and sociological papers, nor \"experiments\" designed only to get 5 minutes of time on the nightly news.",
"Hey Derek! I'm a huge fan of your videos, and got to saw you in Downtown Toronto when you came for that Youtube thing (sadly didn't get a picture with you :(). Anyway, my question is... \n\nWhat is one video that you'd love to film and post onto Youtube to show your viewers, but haven't as of yet. What is the reason it hasn't been produced?",
"I would like these papers lamenting low reproducible to include a prominent list of which fields they are talking about. In, say, materials science or chemistry, they don't have this problem (I mean, there was that whole cold-fusion thing, but that was an isolated event). They shouldn't tarnish the reputation of scientists in fields that don't suffer from this issue.",
"/u/veritasium I'm a long time fan and I love that you covered this. I was just wondering if you've ever seen this demonstration of P-Hacking online: _URL_1_.\n\nIt's a great demo that lets you mess around with data to determine if republicans or democrats are better for the economy. I always thought it was a great way to show the problem to people",
"I have a few comments I'd like to make regarding this video. In general it was concise and well-produced. The points were argued for effectively and a few counterpoints (e.g., \"not just social sciences\" segment) were also addressed, which was refreshing. I do however have some gripes:\n\n1) I know the intended audience wasn't hot-shot researchers from world-class labs and universities, *however*.. I feel you've given people just enough information about basic statistics to be dangerous, but not enough to think critically about about your argument. Here's an example. \n\nYou tell people to [imagine a field in which 10% of hypotheses reflect true relationships](_URL_2_). Combined with some additional assumptions (which were reasonable) made about Type I and II error rates and publishing of null results, you say that about 1/3 of published research reports incorrectly rejected null hypotheses. My complaint here is that you didn't mention how much this hypothetical proportion changes when the percentage of hypotheses reflecting true relationships is higher than a paltry 10%. If my napkin math was about the same as yours, it seems that increasing the estimate of the percentage of true hypotheses to 20% reduces the proportion of false published results to about 17% (40/235), and increasing it to 40% reduced the proportion of false published results to about 7% (30/412). Maybe you've got some data from Ioannidis (2005) to back up your choice of 10% as your example, and those figures don't address the probable scenario in which the achieved power in studies is less than 80%, but regardless, one can see how modest increases in rate of true alternative hypotheses in a field reduces the proportion of false published results quite a bit. \n\n2) You mention a variety of ways in which researchers \"hack\" *p* values, but didn't address any of the numerous ways in which responsible researches also adjust α (e.g., using the Bonferroni correction to control family-wise error rate) or the criterion value of the test statistic (e.g., using Scheffe's method with an ANOVA). In addition:\n\n3) You only mentioned in passing that many of the \"hacks\" you describe are standard practices, are often justified, and tend to create a better -- not worse -- picture of the relationships being investigated. Controlling for covariates and dropping bad data aren't inappropriate practices at all, especially (as alluded to in another comment you posted) if the former is justified by theory/prior research, and/or in the case of the latter, the procedures for doing so have been operationalized *a priori*.\n\nI know the things covered in my points above are open to debate. They merely represent the other side of the coin that you didn't seem to cover much in the video. Again, you demonstrated your viewpoint clearly and concisely. However, if one wants to be objective, it's important to mention that the majority of the problems you described are limited to a) poorly or fraudulently conducted research and b) instances of random chance that are inherent to statistics.",
"p-hacking will always be a problem. Especially when you just start to gather enough data.\n\nAn interesting site where you can find your own \"highly likely\" correlations without \"research\" is _URL_4_ (or _URL_3_ for finding your own corrolations based on the data)..\n\nI think this is an important topic as i - as a researcher myself - am often shocked when i look into studies regarding \"health\" (especially weight-loss) and they only had a dozen participants but claim that X should be the new wonder-thing.\n\n--\n\nDo you think that general scientiests should be as cautious as physicists, requirering 5σ or more? Or that papers with great claims should not be published in journals until they get reproduced independently?\nHow could you achieve something like that? As journals are mailnly interested in generating revenue, where great claims cause great revenue..\n\nIn our institution we get money (partly) based on \"papers published\" and \"impact factor\" (i.e. citations) as these are some numbers you can actually measure about research. What would be your idea to fix these motivational issues of \"publish or perish\"?",
"Usually a small government person, but I think this is an area where the US Federal Government could be useful.\n\nWhy not have a Department of Reproducibility? It can intern up an coming scientists to reproduce famous land mark studies. It would be a hands on experience for students to evaluate our methodologies and possibly pre-conceptions about scientific knowledge. At the same time, interesting or notable experiments can be chosen by the interning scientists to be reproduced. All reports and findings would be published for the general public via the internet.\n\nIt would serve a dual purpose of giving new scientists good, hands on experience and allow some of these more \"statistically flubbed\" studies to be challenged.\n\nWhy the Federal Government? Unfortunately the reality is that department would probably be manipulated for Political Purposes, encouraging studies that fit the powers that be's narrative. On the other hand, I can't really see a private enterprise funding this kind of endeavor.",
"I don't think the issue of false-positives is as large as it is portrayed in this video. Rather than thinking about hypotheses being either totally correct or totally incorrect, it is more helpful to think in terms of the phenomena being investigated. That is to say, it isn't always possible to reduce a complex phenomena to a totally binary hypothesis. Assuming the researchers generating the hypotheses are somewhat competent, then they will contain at least some measure of truth. As research continues on the phenomena being investigated, successive studies should get closer and closer to the truth (or at least an accurate model).",
"Could we have a journal dedicated to only publishing attempts to repeat results? \n\nWe could use the journal fees to fund some of the studies. We could also incentivize institutions to do reproducibility studies by having a queue of studies to repeat and moving studies up or down based on participation of a group or institution. \n\nCould something like that work?",
"It seems like a journal, or a series of journals specifically dedicated to replication studies might help. Do you think there would be interest in something like this? Would it be sustainable? And this gets at another question, how are journals funded, and how do those funding structures impact the reproducibility of the studies?",
"If we spend more time reproducing experiments, would we see a failure to learn new things? When doing reproducibility, results are either overturned, which shrinks what we know as probable, or stays the same. Are there possible ethical implications to not doing more groundbreaking research?",
"I wanted to know more about this pentaquark problem with how they manipulated data, but I only found that in 2015 the LHC found evidence for its existence. So was the Japanese study correct or is it still an example of extreme P hacking?",
"Great episode Derek.\n\nI just have to recommend and episode of NPR's Planet Money that deals exactly with these issues. Check it out (just a 20min podcast, episode 677): _URL_5_",
"I came right away so forgive if the question was answered in the video, but what can be done to solve this problem?"
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"http://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/p-hacking/",
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"http://tylervigen.com/discover",
"http://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations",
"http://www.npr.org/sections/money/2016/01/15/463237871/episode-677-the-experiment-experiment"
]
} | Discussion: Veritasium's newest YouTube video on the reproducibility crisis!
Hi everyone! Our first askscience video discussion was a huge hit, so we're doing it again! Today's topic is [Veritasium's video on reproducibility, p-hacking, and false positives.](_URL_0_) Our panelists will be around throughout the day to answer your questions! In addition, the video's creator, Derek (/u/veritasium) will be around if you have any specific questions for him. | [
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|
5a0cmq | We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our annual meeting in Salt Lake City. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything! | **Edit, 12:15pm Mountain Time: We're signing off for now! Thank you all for the wonderful questions!**
Hello AskScience! We are members of the [Society of Vertebrate Paleontology](_URL_0_). We study fossil fish, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles — anything with a backbone! Our research includes how these organisms lived, how they were affected by environmental change like a changing climate, how they're related, and much more.
You can learn more about SVP in [this video](_URL_1_) or **follow us on Twitter [@SVP_vertpaleo](_URL_4_)**.
We're at our 76th Annual Meeting in Salt Lake City, Utah. Ask us your vertebrate paleontology questions! We'll be here to answer your questions at 10am Mountain Time/12pm Eastern!
**Joining us today are:**
- [PastTime Podcast](_URL_2_) hosts **Matt Borths, Ph.D.** and **Adam Pritchard, Ph.D.**: Dr. Pritchard studies the early history of the reptiles that gave rise to lizards, dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds. Dr. Borths works on the evolution of carnivorous mammals and African ecosystems. He is a postdoctoral researcher at Ohio University. Find them on Twitter @PastTimePaleo.
- **Caitlin Brown**: Caitlin is a current graduate student at UCLA. She studies the evidence left on bones by mammal behaviors and environments, such as hunting injuries of Ice Age predators. She has also done some sticky experiments with a modern tar pit.
- [**Stephanie Drumheller, Ph.D.**](_URL_3_): Dr. Drumheller is a paleontologist at the University of Tennessee whose research focuses on the processes of fossilization, evolution, and biology, of crocodiles and their relatives, including identifying bite marks on fossils.
- **Eugenia Gold, Ph.D.**: Dr. Gold studies brain evolution in relation to the acquisition of flight in dinosaurs. She is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University. Her blog is _URL_5_. Find her on Twitter @DrNeurosaurus.
- **Randy Irmis, Ph.D.**: Dr. Irmis is the Curator of Paleontology at the Natural History Museum of Utah and Associate Professor in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Utah. He studies how ecosystems during the Age of Dinosaurs changed over time.
- **Jess Miller-Camp**: Jess studies alligatorine systematics, morphology, biogeography, and ecology as well as dicynodont morphology and extinction survival at the University of Iowa. She is a museum scientist at the University of California, Riverside.
- **Karen Poole, Ph.D.**: Dr. Poole is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University. She studies ornithopod dinosaurs, whose relationships are changing rapidly!
- **Deb Rook, Ph.D.**: Dr. Rook is an independent paleontologist and eduction consultant in Virginia. Her expertise is in fossil mammals, particularly taeniodonts, which are bizarre mammals that lived right after the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct! Find her on Twitter @DebRookPaleo. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"What's the deal with Nyctosaurus? Have there been any good developmental and functional osteopathology studies on its crest which might tell us more about its purpose?\n\nMy pet theory is that in addition to serving a visual role in intraspecific communication it also serves to damp vibration and increase the skull's moment of inertia while dip-feeding at relatively high speeds. I like to make comparisons to the [bow stabilizers](_URL_0_) often used in target archery.\n\n[Nyctosaurus photo for other askers](_URL_1_)",
"I just watched the history of vertebrates on Netflix by David Attenborough. Do you have a similar family tree of all vertebrates leading from the first recorded bony creatures to modern species, especially us? I'm also curious about any other examples of other modern day creatures' correlation to our own skeletal structure. For example, we can look at the fetal development of humans and some kind of sting rays and see the the same parts of the fetus become very different jaws. But jaws nonetheless.",
"If you could travel back in time to resolve one fossil mystery, what would it be?",
"Thanks for holding the annual AMA! One of the big things announced at SVP this year was the discovery of apparent dinosaur brain tissue. This is definitely exciting news, but also quite an ambitious claim to make. I've seen on Twitter that many paleontologists are skeptical about whether or not this is truly a fossilized brain - or at least skeptical about the extent of organic tissue preserved. Obviously the paper isn't out so we won't know for sure until then, but what are your thoughts on the (grey) matter? Based on the evidence presented so far, do you think there is enough there to support the full extent of Norman et al's current claims? Or not until we get more data? Or perhaps something in between?",
"What are the first thoughts that run through your heads as you unearth a fossil?",
"Even in this age of research and information, there are still people that deny the existence of dinosaurs either from a religious or conspiracy standpoint. What are some of your \"mic drop\" points for dinosaur deniers?",
"I'm wondering, with the recent discussion on gender/sexuality that is currently taking place in the \"human-sphere\", how do you \"sex\" fossils? \n\nI read that anthropologists use a continuum from \"100% male\" to 100%\" female and everything in between. Is that also a method that you guys may employ?\n\n\nThank you for all your hard work.",
"I have read almost all dinosaurs had feathers. Can we tell what color and how many? And why did we think they were \"elephant skinned\" (kinda) for so long?",
"What's the largest fossil you've studied? If a large fossil was broken how do you determine how the pieces go together?",
"Mars is on the agenda for at least exploration this century. Should fossil remains be found, how old could they be and still learn something useful about them? By this I mean, if all life on Mars died 1 billion years ago, would the fossilized remains of small animals or plants have features that could reveal their shape? What about small organisms? Given that Mars is no longer geologically active and hasn't been for a long time, what are the most likely processes that could have lead to best preservation? If this is too off topic I understand, just thought it would be fun to think about.",
"I'm a cardiac physiologist - does the fossil record ever give you hints about the soft tissue structures of these ancient animals? It'd be fascinating to figure out how they could power their bodies and circulatory system. \n\nFun question, what's your favorite bone/structure/condyle?",
"I've always been curious about the frequency of dinosaur fossil/trace fossil discoveries. Is it expected that we are coming to a close on the possible future discoveries of tracks and fossils? Are new ones being discovered daily? Are most insignificant enough to warrant a team of scientists study them?\n\nLiving in the Southwest USA, I've always been intrigued with sedimentary rocks and the stories they can tell. Thank you for the AMA!",
"Why did Andy Farke give up on the beer vest at the auction?",
"What are the smallest and largest amphibian fossils you've dug up? Asking because I loved Koolasuchus in *Walking With Dinosaurs*.",
"How do you estimate population sizes from fossils?",
"* What exciting developments are going on in your field right now?\n* I'm guessing that a lot of people just think DINOSAURS when paleontology comes up. How do you respond to that and educate them about the importance of other vertebrates?",
"Hi. Late to the party. If you're still there, however:\n\nI'm fascinated with dinosaur behavior--our best guesses about what it was like and (even more) the methods used to come to those conclusions.\n\nCan you give a \"current best\" or \"currently really cool\" summary of some of what is known about dinosaur (or other far-prehistoric vertebrate) behavior, along with a brief bit about how you know?",
"In your opinion, what is the most exciting thing learned in Paleontology this year and why?\n\nSub question: What are the best websites for the layman to find interesting Paleontology news?",
"What is the weirdest, most unexplainable fossil you have found to date? What are you theories on what it could be a fossil of?",
"So I'm a amateur paleontologist now for a month or so (my passion finally became a hobby/daytime activity and I love what I'm doing/learning) and I'm working now in a museum of mineralogy and paleontology with the same kind of organisation as you guys probably are on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, Europe based:\n\n* Is the term \"Antropocene\" really finally a thing now? I've herd of that term like almost a decade ago before and I already didn't liked it. I know we're in a mass extinction at this moment for like almost a small decade now, but I'd like some more confirmation if it's really the accurate term to use for now.\n* Do you guys have contact with similair smaller organisations around the globe?\n* What kind of freedom real paleontologists (as in they have a degree) have compared with \"amateurs\"?\n* Do you guys also get annoyed if people use the wrong term \"sabertoothed tigers\", \"living fossils\" and one of my favorite \"flying or swimming dinosaurs\"? :-P\n\n\nThanks!\n\nP.S.: English isn't my native language, so I could make some grammar mistakes here and there.",
"In 2010, a study was published by John Scannella and Jack Horner that suggested Triceratops, one of the most famous dinosaur species in the world, was actually an immature Torosaurus, not a separate species. Of course, this is still being debated.\n\nAs a layman, I often wonder what kinds of steps are being taken in modern paleontology to prevent these sort of misidentifications from happening. What is the current protocol for identifiying new species? What are the steps to exam decades and centuries old paleonological findings and appeal their identification? Does it occur more often than just the triceratops/torosaurus example? Are there potentially more species that could actually be the one in the same but are currently listed as 2 different species?\n\nThanks for doing this AMA! I look forward to reading the answers!",
"My SO is planning on studying paleontology in grad school any suggestions for things to keep an eye on as you move forward with your education in this field?",
"What are fossils?\n\nNot looking for the basic answer, but a bit more in depth. My grade school understanding is that fossilization is similar petrification, as in petrified wood (which are basically \"tree fossils\"). Is there a point where scientist say this is no longer a bone, it's a fossil? Are there different classifications of fossils that formed in different ways? Do tracks left in mud count as a fossil?",
"From my 10-year old daughter: tell them I love science! How do you become a paleontologist? What do you go to college for and what kind of jobs should you have?",
"Have you ever found anything unusual...like an ancient organism in Utah that you didn't expect to be there or was not expected to be there?",
"How many animals are you absolutely certain you know about? Like, information to the level of what we know of the dodo.",
"Hi, thanks for doing this. If any of you have read the Amber Spyglass by Phillip Pullman, there's a race of creatures called the [Mulefa](_URL_2_) who have an interesting vertebrae structure where they possess a \"diamond framed skeleton, lacking a spine\". What would be the likelihood that another type of anatomical structure could have developed and thrived beyond the typical vertebrae structure we see today in other quadrupeds/bipeds?",
"Thank you for joining us!\n\nI've read about finding fossilized dinosaur red blood cells and brain cells - do you expect to find more soft tissue, in the future?\n\nWhat are the best places to donate to, to support paleontology?\n\nIs there a big difference between paleontology programs in biology departments and paleontology programs in geology departments?\n\nWhat are the current main areas of research in paleontology?",
"There is a modestly large area on the extreme north end of Las Vegas that reportedly is under consideration as a National Monument because of its recently found fossils. Why is this area any more important then other areas such that it would be declared a National Monument? Why is there no research being done in this area?",
"1. What are the most reliable methods for gauging warm-blooded/cold-blooded/hybrid circulation systems in the fossil record?\n\n2. Any thoughts on recent gains in soft tissue discovery?",
"While the study of fossils is interesting and fills out our knowledge of the past, how does it help present day society?\n\nWhat good is it?",
"5 year old here:\n\n* How deep do you have to dig to find stuff?\n\n* How do you play Frisbee underground?",
"What are some of your favorite obscure prehistoric creatures? I'm quite fond of *Shuvuuia*, *Tanystropheus*, and *Kaprosuchus*.",
"Which, in your professional opinions, is the best dinosaur? I like parasaurolophus because I think it's cute.",
"What is your favorite animal and why is it the otter?",
"Hello, \nI am interested in pursuing evolutionary biology and is looking at paleontology as an early focus. My undergrad school has a very small bio dept though, so I will not be able to major in paleontology/zoology... What steps do you suggest I take to get into grad school?",
"I know there are certain areas on the planet like Mongolia and Rocky Mountains where there are notably high concentrations of dinosaur fossils.What do you consider to be the weirdest/oddest/most interesting location that fossils have been discovered?",
"My four year old nephew wants to be a paleontologist. What are some activities and programs that I can get him involved in to encourage his learning and love for everything fossils?"
],
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} | {
"url": [
"http://vertpaleo.org/the-Society.aspx",
"http://vertpaleo.org/the-Society/We-are-SVP.aspx",
"http://www.pasttime.org",
"http://eps.utk.edu/faculty/drumheller.php",
"https://twitter.com/svp_vertpaleo",
"www.DrNeurosaurus.com"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/DAM/131/E6168_0748P_0376_ebook_Main.jpg",
"http://trieboldpaleontology.com/images/NyctosaurusFlying.png",
"http://hdm.wikia.com/wiki/Mulefa"
]
} | We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our annual meeting in Salt Lake City. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything!
**Edit, 12:15pm Mountain Time: We're signing off for now! Thank you all for the wonderful questions!** Hello AskScience! We are members of the [Society of Vertebrate Paleontology](_URL_0_). We study fossil fish, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles — anything with a backbone! Our research includes how these organisms lived, how they were affected by environmental change like a changing climate, how they're related, and much more. You can learn more about SVP in [this video](_URL_1_) or **follow us on Twitter [@SVP_vertpaleo](_URL_4_)**. We're at our 76th Annual Meeting in Salt Lake City, Utah. Ask us your vertebrate paleontology questions! We'll be here to answer your questions at 10am Mountain Time/12pm Eastern! **Joining us today are:** - [PastTime Podcast](_URL_2_) hosts **Matt Borths, Ph.D.** and **Adam Pritchard, Ph.D.**: Dr. Pritchard studies the early history of the reptiles that gave rise to lizards, dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds. Dr. Borths works on the evolution of carnivorous mammals and African ecosystems. He is a postdoctoral researcher at Ohio University. Find them on Twitter @PastTimePaleo. - **Caitlin Brown**: Caitlin is a current graduate student at UCLA. She studies the evidence left on bones by mammal behaviors and environments, such as hunting injuries of Ice Age predators. She has also done some sticky experiments with a modern tar pit. - [**Stephanie Drumheller, Ph.D.**](_URL_3_): Dr. Drumheller is a paleontologist at the University of Tennessee whose research focuses on the processes of fossilization, evolution, and biology, of crocodiles and their relatives, including identifying bite marks on fossils. - **Eugenia Gold, Ph.D.**: Dr. Gold studies brain evolution in relation to the acquisition of flight in dinosaurs. She is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University. Her blog is _URL_5_. Find her on Twitter @DrNeurosaurus. - **Randy Irmis, Ph.D.**: Dr. Irmis is the Curator of Paleontology at the Natural History Museum of Utah and Associate Professor in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Utah. He studies how ecosystems during the Age of Dinosaurs changed over time. - **Jess Miller-Camp**: Jess studies alligatorine systematics, morphology, biogeography, and ecology as well as dicynodont morphology and extinction survival at the University of Iowa. She is a museum scientist at the University of California, Riverside. - **Karen Poole, Ph.D.**: Dr. Poole is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University. She studies ornithopod dinosaurs, whose relationships are changing rapidly! - **Deb Rook, Ph.D.**: Dr. Rook is an independent paleontologist and eduction consultant in Virginia. Her expertise is in fossil mammals, particularly taeniodonts, which are bizarre mammals that lived right after the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct! Find her on Twitter @DebRookPaleo. | [
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aqacrt | Is a study with a small sample size less meaningful than one with a big sample size? | To my understanding, the p value of a study determines how likely a result this extreme or more extreme would happen if there were no effect (e.g. due to coincidence, measuring inaccuracies etc.).
Thus, if you have two studys, one with a small sample size (let's say 10 persons) and one with a big sample size (let's say 1000 persons), which both have an identical p value, they should be equally reliable.
However, people commonly criticise studies for having small sample sizes. Does the small sample size actually affect how meaningful a study is?
I know that their power would be different, but if they both identified an effect with a p-value of less than 0.05, shouldn't they be equally reliable? | askscience | {
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"Your definition of a P value is better than most scientists could give!\n\nHowever, your next statement is not exactly correct, at least in my opinion (though very understandable). In fact, you could probably ask 10 statisticians this question and get 10 different answers.\n\nThe clearest, and least controversial case where the same P value should lead to different conclusions is when you are *not* rejecting the null hypothesis, that is, you are saying that there is no effect. Small sample sizes make it very likely to get large P values. Indeed, generally speaking, as the sample size approaches zero, the distribution of P values becomes flat (i.e. getting the probability of getting p < 0.05 is about the same as getting p > 0.95), even if there is an effect. However, as the sample size increases, when there is an effect, the distribution of P values you could get becomes very left skewed, and when there is no effect, the distribution is flat. What this means is that with small sample sizes, even if there is an effect, your P value is very likely to be greater than 0.05. While with large sample sizes, if there is an effect, P values are very unlikely to be greater than 0.05. So, a small study, that says P > 0.05 doesn't really have much use.\n\nTo the skewing of the distribution of P values means that that as the sample size (n) approaches infinity, if the null hypothesis is incorrect (i.e. there is an effect) then P should approach zero. This leads to an almost paradoxical case that if your study is well powered, then a P value that would classically be considered an indicator of a significant result (e.g. 0.04) is actually an indication that the null hypothesis is true (i.e. there is no effect). This is because if there is an effect, P should be basically equal to zero, and so the fact that it is so comparatively large tells you something is up. Hence, this shows us that a P value of 0.04 can suggest different things depending on whether your sample size is 10 and your sample size is 10 thousand.\n\nThere are other caveats when looking at P values. One is about the prior likelihood. For instance, if a result is unlikely, then a P value only marginally less than 0.05 shouldn't be seen as very good evidence to reject the null hypothesis. But the important thing to think about is \"what effect size are we looking for?\" P values, effect sizes and sample sizes form a triangle that need to be considered together. If the effect we expect is large, and our P value is small, then a small sample size is reasonable to use. If our effect size is small, but our P value is very very small, if we generated that with a a small sample size, then that is probably acceptable. However, a small effect size, a big p value and a small sample size is meaningless.",
"All other things being equal, larger sample sizes lend greater credibility to a result. In mathematical terms, larger sample sizes tend to produce smaller p-values if all other things are equal. This is basically the [Central Limit Theorem](_URL_0_) at work.\n\nPractically speaking, all other things are not equal. Effect size will also affect the computed p-value for a statistical test. The design of the study is also important. Sampling bias, experimental bias, etc. can render an otherwise-larger study with more significant p-values less meaningful.",
"> . Does the small sample size actually affect how meaningful a study is?\n\nYes, depending on what you mean by meaningful. \n\nHaving the same probability of a type I error doesn't imply that they have the same probability of a type II error.\n\n > which both have an identical p value, they should be equally reliable.\n\nThis is a mistaken understanding. P-values are random quantities; if the null is true (and the statistic is continuous) then the p-value has a uniform distribution, it could be anywhere. If the null is false, the p-value could still be anywhere but skews much more toward 0 (and more strongly with increasing sample size).\n\nYou can get low p-values by chance either way (or, indeed, high ones, if more rarely with a false null).\n\n*Ceteris paribus*, if you get a low p-value and a true null is a real possibility, then when you have a low-powered study you may need to retain a strong suspicion that a low p-value may just be due to random variation rather than a true effect (more so than if the sample size were larger). \n\nThe quantity of interest would be P(Ho false | rejection) (how 'reliable' the rejection was)\n\nThis is higher when the power is higher (at a given specific alternative)",
"Not sure if this meets what you think of as reliable, but: the same p-value *does* mean the same thing at different sample sizes IF there is no effect. This is because, by design, p-values will be uniformly distributed under the null. So it controls the false positive rate regardless of sample size—if you use a threshold of .05 and the null hypothesis is true, you will reject it 5% of the time *at any sample size.*\n\nHowever this isn't always what people want to know. As others have pointed out, sample size affects the statistical power, or true positive rate. Combined with the fact above, that the false positive rate is constant, we see that a larger sample size will yield (across tests of different hypotheses) more true positives and the same number of false positives. Therefore, a greater proportion of your positives will be true positives. Conversely, with smaller sample sizes, more of your positives will be false positives (than with larger sample sizes). This is the [false discovery rate](_URL_2_).\n\nA good paper on this: Button, K. S., Ioannidis, J. P., Mokrysz, C., Nosek, B. A., Flint, J., Robinson, E. S., & Munafò, M. R. (2013). Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(5), 365. [(pdf)](_URL_2_)"
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"url": [
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_discovery_rate",
"https://swiss3rnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/powerfailurenrn3475.pdf"
]
} | Is a study with a small sample size less meaningful than one with a big sample size?
To my understanding, the p value of a study determines how likely a result this extreme or more extreme would happen if there were no effect (e.g. due to coincidence, measuring inaccuracies etc.). Thus, if you have two studys, one with a small sample size (let's say 10 persons) and one with a big sample size (let's say 1000 persons), which both have an identical p value, they should be equally reliable. However, people commonly criticise studies for having small sample sizes. Does the small sample size actually affect how meaningful a study is? I know that their power would be different, but if they both identified an effect with a p-value of less than 0.05, shouldn't they be equally reliable? | [
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5kthg7 | Does this* number have a name? | I would be more specific in the title, but it would be too incomprehensible and cut-short probably. It will take some explanation before I get to my question again but it's there:
I was working on a math puzzle a while back where I had to guess the next number in a series. The given series was "1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, __" and I had to guess the last number. I guessed correctly, but instead of intuitively realizing that the pattern was " x^2 ", I found the answer via another method.
I found the differences between the adjacent numbers in the series, i.e. 4 - 1 = 3, 9 - 4 = 5, so on, and used those to create a new series: "3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13". I then performed the same operation on that line, finding the differences between adjacent numbers and then using those to create a new line: "2, 2, 2, 2, 2".
I thought this was interesting, because by performing this differences method twice on my given series, I was able to bottom-out/hit a ceiling at the number 2*. The number 2 was useful, because I could then work my way back down/up (depends on how you write it down, I guess) to find the next number in the series: 64.
I decided to try this again on a new, related series. I made the series "1, 8, 27, 64, 125" ( x^3 ) and resolved to use the same differences method on this line. The first time yields: 7, 19, 37, 61"; the second time yields: "12, 18, 24"; the third time bottoms out at: "6, 6".
So ( x^2 ) bottoms out at 2*, and ( x^3 ) bottoms out at 6*.
I continued this with ( x^4 ): "1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401". The differences method yields: "15, 65, 175, 369, 671, 1105"; again, and it yields: "50, 110, 194, 302, 434"; again, and it yields: "60, 84, 108, 132"; again, and it yields: "24, 24, 24".
So ( x^4 ) bottoms out at 24*.
Finally, my question: Is there a name for these bedrock numbers that I've marked with the asterisks?
Additionally, I would like to know: is there reading material on the matter? Is there a more elegant way of finding the bedrock number that underlies a given exponent?
tl;dr:
2 underlies ( x^2 ),
6 underlies ( x^3 ),
24 underlies ( x^4 ),
and so on, for reasons explained above.
Why? | askscience | {
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"> Is there a more elegant way of finding the bedrock number that underlies a given exponent?\n\nYes, for x^n the number you're looking for will be n!, which is shorthand for n \\* (n-1) \\* (n-2) \\*....\\*3\\*2\\*1.\n\nFor example, x^7 would end up with the number 7! = 7\\*6\\*5\\*4\\*3\\*2\\*1 = 5040\n\nTo see why:\n-------\nFocus on x^2 to start. \n\nTo generalize the difference between consecutive items in the sequence, we have:\n\n(x+1)^2 - x^2\n\nDo some algebra and get: \n**2**x^**1** + 1\n\nRepeat the process:\n\n[2(x+1) + 1] - [2x+1] \n= 2\n\nSo there's your 2.\n\n--------\nNow we do this with x^3:\n\n(x+1)^3 - x^3 \n= **3**x^**2** + 3x + 1\n\nRepeat the process: \n[3(x+1)^2 +3(x+1) + 1] - [3x^2 + 3x + 1] \n= **6**x^**1** + 6 \n\nRepeat the process: \n6(x+1) + 6 - [6x+6] \n= 6 [aka **6**x^**0**]\n\nMaking sense of it:\n-------\n\nNotice that I've bolded a few coefficients and exponents in the above section. As you go through the repetitive process, you see that your highest power term always gets canceled out in the algebra. In the x^3 example, you start with 1x^3 being your highest power term. Then you do the difference process and you end up with 3x^2 being your highest power. Then you do the difference process again and you end up with 6x^1 being your highest power. Then you do it once more and 6x^0 is your highest power. \n\n**In the x^3 example, do you see how the highest power term goes like this as we go through all the steps:**\n\nx^3 \n3x^2 \n6x^1 \n6x^0\n\n**So the general pattern is:** \nx^n \nnx^(n-1) \nn(n-1)x^(n-2) \nn(n-1)(n-2)x^(n-3) \n. \n. \n. \nn(n-1)(n-2)...3\\*2\\*1\n\nwhich is the formula we talked about up top.",
"It's just the result of taking the derivative repeatedly. Your final sequence (2, 6, etc.) will be x! (factorial of x) \n\nTaking the derivative of a polynomial reduces the exponents by one, then multiplies the terms by the original exponent. \n\nIf f(x) = x^2 \nf'(x) = 2 * x \nf''(x) = 2\n\nIf g(x) = x^3 \ng'(x) = 3 * x^2 \ng''(x) = 6 * x \ng'''(x) = 6\n\nSo each consecutive exponent would result in factorially increasing numbers. 1 * 2 = 2, 2 * 3 = 6, 6 * 4 = 24, 24 * 5 = 120, 120 * 6 = 720",
"That's called a second difference. For y=x, the first differences will be constant. For y=x^2 , second differences will be constant and so on. That's how you can tell from a table of value if a graph is linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic, quintic etc.",
"Thank you ALL for your responses. The answers to my questions are way more complicated (superficially at least) than I initially expected. I will spend a good deal of tonight and tomorrow reading these responses and responding in turn. I appreciate it :)",
"You'll notice that the first one is 2x1, the second one is 3x2x1, the third is 4x3x2x1, so you can see that the final number is the factorial of the power. *Why* this is the case becomes clear if you've studied calculus.",
"Others have already answered your question, but I thought I'd add that the Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS, [link](_URL_0_)) is a good place to learn more about things like this. You type in a part of the sequence you're interested in (in this case, \"2, 6, 24\") and hit \"Search\". It gives you a list of all the sequences that contain the subsequence you entered, including their name, a short description of what they may represent, and some mathematical references.",
"Yep: the factorial. It's denoted by !. So 0! = 1, 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, 5! = 120, etc. Usually the factorial is defined as n! = n · (n – 1) · (n – 2) · ... · 1, so 6! = 6·5·4·3·2·1 = 720. For reasons that may not be immediately obvious, 0! is defined as 1. You can just take that as a given, or you can realize that if you multiply *no* factors together, you still have the multiplicative identity, which is 1. It makes perfect sense, and the factorial comes up pretty often in math (for example, in binomial coefficients) and 0! = 1 is correct in all cases, so this definition is good.\n\nYou can prove fairly simply that this is the case, actually. Let's say that if you take successive differences until you get a constant, that constant is called the *final difference* (I just made this name up; don't assume that other people will know what it means). We'll start with F(n) = n^(0) = 1. The terms of this sequence are 1, 1, 1, 1, ..., which is already a constant: 1. No differences needed. So let's do F(n) = n^1 = n. The terms of the sequence are 1, 2, 3, 4, .... Let's take the successive differences. We'll give this a symbol: '. So F'(n) = F(n + 1) – F(n). The differences are 1, 1, 1, ..., which is a constant: 1. But we can do this algebraically: F'(n) = F(n + 1) – F(n) = (n + 1) – n = 1.\n\nNow, let's get a little more abstract. Let F_k_(n) = n^(k). So F_0_(n) = n^0 = 1 and F_1_(n) = n^1 = n. So what's F'_k_(n)? Well, F_k_(n) = n^(k), so F'_k_(n) = (n + 1)^k – n^(k). With me so far? I don't know if you're familiar with the binomial theorem, so we're going to take a little detour and get the result that we need: the answer to (n + 1)^k – n^(k). To get that, we should figure out what (n + 1)^k is. So:\n\n(n + 1)^0 = 0. OK. Easy. (n + 1)^1 = (n + 1)·(n + 1)^0 = n + 1. Easy peasy. (n + 1)^2 = (n + 1)·(n + 1)^1 = (n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1. Easy peasy fo' sheezy... OK, maybe a little less so. (n + 1)^3 = (n + 1)·(n + 1)^2 = (n + 1)·(n^2 + 2n + 1) = n^3 + 3n^2 + 3n + 1. And so on. You see how this works? (n + 1)^k = (n + 1)·(n + 1)^(k – 1), with (n + 1)^0 = 1. We're now going to do something crazy using what's called induction. CRAZY, I tell you. I am going to posit that (n + 1)^k = n^k + k·n^(k – 1) + something·n^(k – 2) + ... + something. I could tell you what those \"something\" terms are, but I really don't care about them right now and you'll see why. So I want to prove that (n + 1)^k = n^k + k·n^(k – 1) + other stuff with smaller powers of n. Here's how this works: we know that this works for k = 1, 2, and 3 (for k = 1, (n + 1)^1 = n^1 + 1·n^(0)). We're now going to show that if it works for k – 1, then it also works for k. So the fact that it works for k = 1 means that it also works for k = 2, and the fact that it works for k = 2 means that it also works for k = 3, and so on., so it works for all positive integers k. Make sense? Let's do it.\n\n(n + 1)^k = (n + 1)·(n + 1)^(k – 1). That much we know. Now, the inductive step: we're going to assume that it works for k – 1. So we're assuming that (n + 1)^(k – 1) = n^(k – 1) + (k – 1)·n^(k – 2) + other terms with smaller powers of n. Let's plug it in! (n + 1)^k = (n + 1)·(n + 1)^(k – 1) = (n + 1)(n^(k – 1) + (k – 1)·n^(k – 2) + ot) (ot stands for \"other terms\"). Let's FOIL it out! We get n·n^(k – 1) + n·(k – 1)·n^(k – 2) + n·ot + 1·n^(k – 1) + 1·(k – 1)·n^(k – 2) + 1·ot = n^k + (k – 1)·n^(k – 1) + n^(k – 1) + (k – 1)·n^(k – 2) + n·ot + 1·ot = n^k + k·n^(k – 1) + other terms with power of n that are k – 2 or less (so I stopped caring about the (k – 1)·n^(k – 2) term since its power of n is k – 2). And HEY, that's what we wanted! We assumed that it worked for k – 1 and found out that this means that it works for k as well, so since it works for k = 1, it must work for k = 2, and then for k = 3, and then for k = 4, and so on for *all* k (well, integers at least)!\n\nSo let's get back to our actual problem, right? F'_k_(n) = (n + 1)^k – n^(k). What does that come out to be? Well, (n + 1)^k = n^k + k·n^(k – 1) + ot, so (n + 1)^k – n^k = k·n^(k – 1) + ot. So we've figured out the first successive difference for F_k_(n): F'_k_(n) = k·n^(k – 1) + ot, where the other terms have powers of n less than k – 1.\n\nSo what is the *second* successive difference for F_k_(n)? Here, we need to use a principle called linearity: (aF(n) + bG(n))' = aF'(n) + bG'(n). I'm not going to prove it (because it's really obvious when you look at it and the proof would just waste time). What this means is that when you take a successive difference of a sum of functions, you can basically take the differences of the functions individually then add them. Let me give you an example. F_3_(n) = n^(3). F'_3_(n) = (n + 1)^3 – n^3 = n^3 + 3n^2 + 3n + 1 – n^3 = 3n^2 + 3n + 1. Since F_2_(n) = n^(2), F_1_(n) = n, and F_0_(n) = 1, we get that F'_3_(n) = 3F_2_(n) + 3F_1_(n) + F_0_(n). So to take the successive difference of F'_3_(n), I just take the successive differences of the other terms, and I get: F''_3_(n) = 3F'_2_(n) + 3F'_1_(n) + F'_0_(n). We already know that F'_0_(n) = 0, so we can cancel it out. F'_1_(n) = 1 = F_0_(n). F'_2_(n) = (n + 1)^2 – n^2 = 2n + 1 = 2F_1_(n) + F_0_(n). So F''_3_(n) = 3F'_2_(n) + 3F'_1_(n) + ~~F'_0_(n)~~ = 3(2F_1_(n) + F_0_(n)) + 3(F_0_(n)) = 6F_1_(n) + 6F_0_(n). Let's do a third successive difference: F'''_3_(n) = 6F'_1_(n) + 6F'_0_(n). We already know that F'_0_(n) = 0 and F'_1_(n) = F_0_(n), so we get F'''_3_(n) = 6F_0_(n) = 6. That's our *final difference*.\n\nSo, F'_k_(n) = k·F_(k – 1)_(n) + ot, and, as you can see, as we take successive differences, the ot's all cancel out eventually, and the last number you're left with is from this first term. Let's call the final difference of F(n) Ff. So Ff_k_ = k·Ff_(k – 1)_, since the other terms go to 0 before this term does since they have smaller powers. Therefore, if Ff_(k – 1)_ = (k – 1)! = (k – 1)·(k – 2)·(k – 3)·...·1, then Ff_k_ = k·Ff_(k – 1)_ = k·(k – 1)·(k – 2)·(k – 3)·...·1 = k!. And we already know that Ff_0_ = 0! = 1, Ff_1_ = 1! = 1, Ff_2_ = 2! = 2, Ff_3_ = 3! = 6, and Ff_4_ = 4! = 24. By induction -- same thing we used earlier -- we've shown that Ff_k_ = k! for *all* nonnegative integers!\n\nWhat we just did is actually the basis of calculus (well, part of it is, anyway). But hopefully you now understand why the final difference of n^k is k!, and you've also learned about factorials!",
"Given a sequence a*_n_*, we usually call a*_n_*^([1]) = a*_n_*-a*_n-1_* the first derived sequence (in analogy with derivatives) or just first successive difference. The second derived sequence (or second successive difference) is then a*_n_*^([1])-a*_n-1_*^([1]), and so on. If a*_n_* = p(n) where *p* is some polynomial, then some successive difference is eventually identically 0.\n\nPrecisely, if *p* is degree *k*, then the (k+1)-th successive difference is the first difference that is identically 0. The *k*th successive difference is the constant sequence b*_n_* = k!*c*, where *c* is the leading coefficient of *p*. You can try proving this yourself rather easily via induction.\n\nStart with the binomial theorem. In an expression like n^(k)-(n-1)^(k) the leading terms of n^(k) in each expansion will cancel out:\n\n > n^(k) - (n-1)^(k) = n^(k) - (n^(k) + k n^(k-1) + ...) = k n^(k-1) + ...\n\nSo if a*_n_* = p*_k_*(n) and p*_k_* is of degree *k*, then a*_n_*^([1]) = p*_k-1_*(n) where p*_k-1_* is a polynomial of degree k-1. Since the degree of the polynomial decreases by 1 each time, with enough successive differences, we should get a constant sequence. Since the operation of taking successive differences is linear, we see that it's enough to look at only the leading term of each derived sequence. We've already seen that n^(k) -- > kn^(k-1) (where we are now only looking at the leading term). Now it's a matter of applying this rule *k*-1 more times to get down to k(k-1)(k-2)...(2)(1) = k!.\n\nCompare this proof with that of proving the derivative of f(x) = x^(n) is f'(x) = nx^(n-1). The method is completely analogous. There are also very analogous applications of successive differences. For instance, solving first-order linear difference equations is analogous to solving first-order linear differential equations. The method of summation-by-parts (analogous to integration-by-parts) is also based on using successive differences in the same way you would use derivatives.",
"What you are doing is basically the same as taking the derivative. If you have an n-order function, taking the derivative n times will give you a constant. Since the derivative of x^n is n\\*x^n-1, the end result will be n\\*(n-1)*(n-2)... or n!, which is the numbers you have found.",
"OP - you've stumbled onto the field of Numerical Methods/Discrete Math. And what you've discovered is the basis for doing differentiation (finding the derivative) of a function using finite, discrete samples of the function. You should be proud of your curiosity and nurture it. A really good book for beginners and the curious is \"The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry\", by Margenau and Murphy. I found this book in high school and couldn't put it down. Once desktop PCs were invented, my learning really took off. I recommend you find a copy and start with the chapter on numerical methods for differentiation. You'll recognize your work there.",
"Others have answered the direct technical side of this question, but my first, loud and clear, thought on reading OP was: Look at the maths in that! You didn't understand, you explored, you found a pattern, you kept going. (I also like the terminology, *bedrock number*.)\n\nThere's a real sense of imagination, exploration, and inventiveness. Hold on to that for dear life.\n\nI imagine you're aware of them but just in case, there are plenty of youtube channels which might feed your interest eg *numberphile*, *standupmaths*, *3Blue1Brown*, and *welchlabs* series on Complex Numbers.\n\nWhat I'd really like to say though is nurture and protect that sense of discovery.",
"Many people have thoroughly explained the answer, I'm going to write out an answer to make me less rusty. :) \n\n\nYou're taking differences between the values, which is similar to taking a derivative. A derivative is defined (in part) as taking differences between numbers that are right next to each other! \n\nSo on a high level, you are taking a difference (derivative) over and over until you arrive at a constant value. \n\nExamples: \n\nDerivative of x^2 is 2x, then another derivative is 2. \nDerivative of x^3 is 3x^2, then another is 6x, and finally 6. \nDerivative of x^4 is 4x^3, then 12x^2, then 24x, then 24. \n\nYour example of differencing is a common theme in time series analysis. Sometimes we don't know the exact function f(x) that describes a trendline, so we take a difference as analogue of the derivative! \n\n*If you are interested in more stuff like this* sign up for a calculus course! Calc, in my mind, is one of the coolest and most applicable areas of math. Plus it is so well studied that there is plenty of help online, for practically anything you need. \n\nI'm super glad you are playing around with numbers and are interested in math, keep it up!",
"You may find it interesting that Charles Babbage designed a mechanical computer to continue series automatically in 1822 that was built on this exact principle. He called it the Difference Engine, because it used the method of differences you've explained.",
"\"Bedrock\" number for x^2 is 2.\n\nBedrock number for x^3 is 6. (2 x 3)\n\nBedrock number for x^4 is 24. (2 x 3 x 4)\n\nBedrock number for x^n is (2 x 3 x 4 x ... x n)\n\nEven x^1 will fit into this pattern. Technically, you could throw a 1 in front of each product and still be correct, but that seemed trivial.",
"I don't see it noted anywhere here, so I'd like to point out an application for all of this math we're doing here. If your original series was a model of an object's displacement over time, that \"bedrock number\" you found would be the acceleration of the object. \n\nThe differences between the numbers in the original set (the numbers that became your second set), would be the average velocity of the object between the intervals.",
"You like series'? I got a series for ya!\n\n41, 43, 47, 53,....1681\n\nIt is a series that increases each term by 2, then 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.....\nThe AWESOME things about this series, is that\nEVERY term in it is PRIME, until you get to the 41st term, which is just 41^2 (1681). How cool huh?!\n\n(41 is my favorite number because of this series)",
"In short, you have discovered the definition of the derivative.\n\nThis process of taking the difference of each number in the sequence is like the derivative, but on a discrete function over integers. The sequence can be stated as a function of x: f(x) = x^2, where `x` is an integer. Your method is to find the difference between neighboring elements in the sequence, which could be written as an equation:\n\n df/dx = f(x+1) - f(x)\n\nwhere `df/dx` is the how we denote the derivative of the function `f` with respect to `x`.\n\nWe can generalize your approach to continuous functions over real numbers, (so `x` is a real number, not just an integer). We do this by making use of [the mathematics of \"limits\"](_URL_1_).\n\n df/dx = limit(a - > 0) of ( f(x+a) - f(x) ) / a\n\nThe above is the textbook definition of the derivative. It is read \"the limit, as a approaches zero, of the equation `(f(x+a) - f(x)) / a`\" is the derivative of the function `f` with respect to `x`.\" Notice that when you started, you were computing this equation for the case that `a` equals 1.\n\nIf you take the derivative of the derivative, this is called the second derivative, which is what you did for the sequence defined by x^3. You can apply the derivative `n` times, you could call this the n'th derivative.\n\nWe know that the derivative of x^2 is x/2. We know the derivative of x^3 is x^2 / 3, and the second derivative of x^3 is the derivative of x^2 / 3 which is x / (2*3).\n\nThe n'th derivative of x^k is x^k-n / n!",
"Your * numbers are called factorials and you're discovering properties of the derivative. The symbol for factorial is the exclaimation point. 2! = 2 (read: 2 factorial equals 2), 3! = 6, 4! = 24, and so on. They turn out to be 1, 1\\*2=2, 1\\*2\\*3=6, 1\\*2\\*3\\*4=24, etc... You can generate them by the mechanism of repeatedly taking the derivative of a polynomial term until it \"bottoms out\" at a constant.\n\n(x^4)' = 4x^3\n\n(4x^3)' = 3\\*4x^2\n\n(3\\*4x^2)' = 2\\*3\\*4x^1\n\n(2\\*3\\*4x^1)' = 1\\*2\\*3\\*4 = 4! = 24 (constant)\n\nYou will learn all about this in an advanced (4-5xxx) course in calculus. It seems you have a good intuition for mathematics. So -- for the sake of humanity, please consider enrolling in some upper division classes!",
"You're sort of doing calculus, but I'm not sure you're aware. (I'm rusty so someone come along and correct me if I screw this up, it's been over a decade.)\n\nThink of derivative as the slope, or difference, at any given point. So for x^2 plotted on a graph, the change at any given point is the derivative, which turns out to be 2x. And the derivative of that is 2.\n\nx^3 derivative is 3x^2, then 6x (then 6)\nx^4 is 4x^3, then 12x^2, then 24x, then 24.\n\nSo that's how you're getting those numbers. You're calculating the discrete differences in a sequence and finding those equations.",
"When I was 15 I noticed that and also noticed if you knew that 19x19=361 and 20x20= 400 then using the difference of 400-369=39 you could +2 to 39 to = 41 then plus that onto 400 to learn what 21x21=\n\nIf someone could write this into equation format i'd really appreciate that.\n\nEdit: Another eg; 3x3=9 and 4x4=16 so 16-9=7, then plus 2= 9, therefore 16+9 = the same as 5x5. or -1 for the previous number.\n\n\nor 20x20=400, 21x21=441 so to find 27x27 I could 441+43+45+47+49+51+53. Weird but yeah",
"> is there reading\n\nCheck out fluid concepts and creative analogies by Hofstadter - he addresses these example sequences directly, and gives examples of other types of patterns. His goal was a bit different - he and his students build a few learning algorithms whose task was to find the next number in the sequence.",
"The bedrock number is equivalent to the (n+1)th derivative. So x^n has a first derivative of f'(x)=n*X^(n-1) then second of f''(x)=n(n-1)x^(n-2) and so on until the exponent is equal to (n-n), which will be the (n+1)th Derivative.",
"A lot of answers have came in, but I'd like to tackle a different, similar topic.\n\nYou discovered that in squares, the differences between squares is 3, 5, 7, 9, and so on. These numbers, as you know, are odd numbers. What if we make an arithmetic sequence with these? That'd be 2n+1, where n is the place of the number you want. Plugging in n=1, the first place, gives 3, and n=2, the second place, gives 5, and so on and so forth.\n\nSo what does that tell us? Well, a few things. You discovered that each increase of squares is the odd number that corresponds to the square. What if someone were to ask you how big the gap is between, say, 272 squared and 273 squared? You could square them both and subtract, or with this new method, simply plug in 2n+1 to discover that 273 squared is 545 bigger than 272 squared.\n\nWith this knowledge, you have proven that (x+1)^2 = x^2 +2x +1. This simple Algebra I and Algebra II equation means a lot, now that we know what it means. It means if you're given x and want to find out how big the square that comes after it is (x plus one squared), you square it and add 2n+1, the odd number that corresponds to x. Neat, isn't it?\n\n****\n\nAs for going further down this chain, you'll learn that not every exponent has the same \"bedrock\"*, as you call it. In Calculus, you'll learn that these \"bases\" are the final non-zero derivatives of a given function. It may take a while to understand, as we have all gone through the process of struggling with derivatives. \n\nIt seems you have an interest in this sort of thing, so I invite you to check out Khan Academy's introduction to derivative videos, as I'm sure you'll learn a great deal. I also invite you to PM me if you want to talk more about this neat subject!\n\n*It goes something like this: x^4 bottoms out at 24, but what if I take 2x^4? That gives me 2, 32, 164... and so on. Using your method, the \"bedrock\" for 2x^4 is 48. You can probably guess what 3x^4 would get. 72! So what this means is, if you have a number in front of your x and you want to know its \"bedrock\", simply multiply the number in front of x with its first \"bedrock\", in this case, 24! Cool, isn't it? This is what's known in Calculus as the Chain Rule (well... kinda).",
"I'm not sure of the underlying mathematics, but what you're looking at is called \"factorial numbers\". For any number x^n, or x to the power of n, (sorry, I'm on mobile) your number is going to be n factorial (written \"n!\"). If you look at it, your number is whatever power you're looking at multiplied by all of the lower positive integers (4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24). I'm almost certain you'll find this is true as you continue on to higher exponents, but again, I'm not sure of the underlying math.",
"You're essentially calculating Newton divided differences on an integer grid. They are sort of a discrete approximation of the derivative of a continuous function. The nth divided differences of a sequence generated by an nth degree polynomial, i.e. s_n = p(n) for p(x) = a_n*x^n + ... + a_1*x + a_0, are constant just as the nth derivative of an nth degree polynomial, i.e. p(x), is constant. What you're also noticing is that both the nth divided difference and nth derivative of f(x) = x^n is n!.",
"You discovered calculus! Basically you took a look at how the pattern was changing as a function of n. Calculus is the study of change. You discovered a factor of two being crucially important in this new pattern, and it turns out that's perfectly consistent with the derivative (aka rate of change) of the series you were originally given (x^2 changes as a function of 2x)",
"You're just taking derivatives of the function. Two derivatives of the x^2 series gives you a constant (which is 2, the number you ended up with). For x^3 you do it three times a get a constant (which ends of being 6). That's all you're doing by taking those differences.",
"\"Why John, thee has discovered the calculus of finite differences!\"\n\nEdit: [here's a link](_URL_2_) to the relevant Martin Gardner chapter covering this topic, which includes the story of somebody who made the same discovery that you did, OP — it's heart-warming to feel this link across the years."
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_\\(mathematics\\)",
"https://mathsmartinthomas.files.wordpress.com/2014/10/finite_differences.pdf"
]
} | Does this* number have a name?
I would be more specific in the title, but it would be too incomprehensible and cut-short probably. It will take some explanation before I get to my question again but it's there: I was working on a math puzzle a while back where I had to guess the next number in a series. The given series was "1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, __" and I had to guess the last number. I guessed correctly, but instead of intuitively realizing that the pattern was " x^2 ", I found the answer via another method. I found the differences between the adjacent numbers in the series, i.e. 4 - 1 = 3, 9 - 4 = 5, so on, and used those to create a new series: "3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13". I then performed the same operation on that line, finding the differences between adjacent numbers and then using those to create a new line: "2, 2, 2, 2, 2". I thought this was interesting, because by performing this differences method twice on my given series, I was able to bottom-out/hit a ceiling at the number 2*. The number 2 was useful, because I could then work my way back down/up (depends on how you write it down, I guess) to find the next number in the series: 64. I decided to try this again on a new, related series. I made the series "1, 8, 27, 64, 125" ( x^3 ) and resolved to use the same differences method on this line. The first time yields: 7, 19, 37, 61"; the second time yields: "12, 18, 24"; the third time bottoms out at: "6, 6". So ( x^2 ) bottoms out at 2*, and ( x^3 ) bottoms out at 6*. I continued this with ( x^4 ): "1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401". The differences method yields: "15, 65, 175, 369, 671, 1105"; again, and it yields: "50, 110, 194, 302, 434"; again, and it yields: "60, 84, 108, 132"; again, and it yields: "24, 24, 24". So ( x^4 ) bottoms out at 24*. Finally, my question: Is there a name for these bedrock numbers that I've marked with the asterisks? Additionally, I would like to know: is there reading material on the matter? Is there a more elegant way of finding the bedrock number that underlies a given exponent? tl;dr: 2 underlies ( x^2 ), 6 underlies ( x^3 ), 24 underlies ( x^4 ), and so on, for reasons explained above. Why? | [
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4979zz | Absent of some form of abuse, is asexuality scientifically supported as a fixed or innate condition? | [removed] | askscience | {
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"Understanding asexuality is an active area of research in psychology and sex research. My reading of your question is that it implies that the only way for a sexual orientation to have \"basis in science\" is for it to be an \"innate state\". The appeal to essentialism (and genetic essentialism at that) to validate a sexual orientation is a little misguided, since studying the environmental factors that give rise to sexual identity is equally scientific and does not undercut the validity of any particular sexual identity that may be more or less influenced by environmental factors. The discourse on minority sexual orientations has created this situation where being \"born this way\" is the only way for a minority sexual identity to be taken seriously, which reinscribes the whole topic in terms of essentialism and innateness, which can be destructive. You do touch on plasticity and fluidity in your second question, which is something I know less about in terms of scientific study. But, as other commenters have pointed out, asexuality itself is something that exists on a spectrum - some of them have romantic partners who they don't have sex with, some of them masturbate but don't have sex, etc.",
"_URL_0_\n\nTumblr didn't \"invent\" asexuality and asexuality has been around as a vague sexual orientation for a lot longer than Tumblr. In 1948, Alfred Kinsey documented asexuals in the famous Kinsey Scale research but he didn't know what to call them. He ended up calling them group X.",
"It appears there is not much science one way or the other concerning asexuality.\n\nI searched pubmed for 'asexuality' in human subjects and there are only 37 abstracts even mentioning the word asexuality. \n\nThere are currently serious methodological limitations with the study of asexuality. There doesn't appear to be any standard definition:\n\n > [To define asexuality, three different approaches have been proposed: a definition that is based on sexual behavior, one on sexual desire/sexual attraction, one on self-identification, and one on a combination of these.](_URL_6_)\n\nApparently the first validated questionnaire to identify asexuality was [just developed in 2015.](_URL_6_)\n\nVirtually all the studies I've seen rely on self-reporting. It would be illuminating to see fMRI studies of asexuals exposed to porn, for instance, to objectively demonstrate how their reaction is different.\n\nMost of the articles I found remain behind paywalls even with my institutional access. Of the abstracts I found:\n\n* Studies are few and far between [[1]](_URL_6_) [[2]](_URL_6_) of self reports by self-identified asexuals that do suggest they experience less sexual arousal and desire for sex.\n\n* [One abstract argues that](_URL_6_) asexuality is not merely an extreme variant of hypoactive sexual drive disorder, but something distinct.\n\n* [One study showed some associations with handedness and birth order](_URL_6_), suggesting developmental reasons not unlike those that have been tenuously linked to homosexuality as well.\n\nUnfortunately I don't see or have access to any studies that could answer your questions directly.",
"Once at a research seminar it was said that a lot of people who were born intersex and have the corrective genital surgery at birth identify as asexual because the corrective surgery is to make the genitals aesthetic pleasing and is not for function. I can't find a source right now.\n\nAlso asexuality has a lot of variations. Some who are asexual masturbate and others do not. Some who are asexual are straight and others are bi or gay. \n\n_URL_7_\n\n_URL_8_",
"I don't know of any research that has directly examined the genetics of asexuality, but the research that does exist points to evidence that it is an enduring trait. For instance, from **[Bogaert 2004](_URL_10_)**:\n\n > As shown in Table 1, relative to sexual people, asexual people\nhad fewer sexual partners, had a later onset of sexual\nactivity (if it occurred), and had less frequent sexual activity\nwith a partner currently. Overall, then, asexual people had\nless sexual experience with sexual partners, and this fact\nprovides some validation of the concept of asexuality.\n\n**[Bogaert 2006](_URL_11_)** also has an interesting discussion of the topic in general. A more recent study, **[Brotto et al., 2010](_URL_9_)**, also found that identifying as asexual was consistent with certain patterns in sexual behavior (e.g., less frequent sexual behavior in general) which is what would be expected given stable, consistent asexuality.\n\nBrotto et al. also discussed interesting findings in the personality structure of those with asexuality. Most of these were null findings, as there were similar rates of psychopathology (referring to psychological disorders in general, *not* to being a psychopath) and many other personality traits compared to the general population, though there was evidence that asexuality was associated with a greater tendency to withdraw socially. Overall, though, the research suggests that asexual people's experiences with asexuality is extremely varied and shouldn't be painted with a broad brush.\n***\n\n**Sources**:\n\n[Bogaert, A.F. (2004). Asexuality: prevalence and associated factors in a national probability sample. *The Journal of Sex Research*](_URL_10_)\n\n[Bogaert, A.F. (2006). Toward a conceptual understanding of asexuality. *Review of General Psychology*](_URL_11_)\n\n[Brotto L.A., Knudson, G., Inskip, J., Rhodes, K., & Erskine, Y. (2010). Asexuality: A mixed-methods approach. *Archives of Sexual Behavior*](_URL_9_)",
"[Susie Scott](_URL_12_), [Matt Dawson](_URL_18_) and [Elizabeth McDonnell](_URL_17_) have been working on research project titled \"A qualitative exploration of asexual identities and practices of intimacy\" which seeks to define \"How does someone come to define themselves as 'asexual'?\" and \"What are the distinguishing characteristics of asexual intimate partnerships, compared to friendships or other relationships?\".\n\nWith the exception of [this article](_URL_14_), a lot of this is behind a paywall, but the following articles may be interesting for those who have access to them:\n\n* [\"Negotiating the boundaries of intimacy: the personal lives of asexual people\"](_URL_13_)\n* [\"Rethinking asexuality: a symbolic interactionist account\"](_URL_15_)\n* [\"Stories of non-becoming: non-issues, non-events and non-identities in asexual lives\"](_URL_16_)"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/asexuals-the-group-that-kinsey-forgot/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24512279",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17345167",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24134401",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24045903",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25545124",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25383584",
"https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/voices/why-are-doctors-still-performing-genital-surgery-on-infants",
"http://www.isna.org/articles/ambivalent_medicine",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-008-9434-x",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anthony_Bogaert/publication/8220138_Asexuality_Prevalence_and_associated_factors_in_a_national_probability_sample/links/5460c7fc0cf27487b4525dac.pdf",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232473247_Toward_a_conceptual_understanding_of_asexuality",
"http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/171734/publications",
"http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/116528/",
"http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/49202/1/index.html",
"http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/49201/",
"http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/57378/",
"http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/177249/publications",
"http://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/socialpolitical/staff/mattdawson/#/publications,articles"
]
} | Absent of some form of abuse, is asexuality scientifically supported as a fixed or innate condition?
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li5ez | In what fields of science can the hobbyist contribute something? | I have taken an interest in aquaponics because there is a lot of experimentation going on - best ways to grow things, control temperature/chemistry, alternative fish feed production, etc.
I am aware of protein folding research and would like to know more about how to get started in that.
What else is there that I can usefully explore at home, up to say $100K of capital outlay for equipment etc?
I have no formal background in science. Mostly software and electronics, but I'm willing to learn something new. | askscience | {
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"Astronomy, The 2009 and 2010 impact events on Jupiter were discovered by an amateur astronomer using a 14 inch telescope.",
"No one's mentioned it yet, so I guess I should:\n\nOne possible way to contribute, without any costs, is taking part in [Galaxy Zoo](_URL_0_). Galaxy Zoo is a project that gets interested non-astronomers to look at images of astronomical objects and try to classify them using a set of simple guidelines and questions. It's pretty quick and easy to learn how to do it, and there's the possibility of discovering a brand new type of object (example: [Hanny's Voorwerp](_URL_1_), discovered through Galaxy Zoo).",
"... odd enough to say it, but consider checking out [r/aquaponics](/r/aquaponics).",
"If money is the only limiting factor, I really doubt that there is any field that you *can't* help by writing software. Protein folding is the obvious example that you can attempt from home, but pretty much every project I've seen would benefit from someone coming in and automating data gathering and analysis, if not design:\n\n-Automated ('inverse') design of nanophotonic structures. Currently you basically play guess-and-check to make a good structure, with the 'check' step being a very computationally-intensive simulation. Having a better way of going from 'i want the structure to do x' to 'here is a structure that does x' would be a huge time-saver and is an active research direction.\n\n-Extension of current simulation code to GPGPU systems, especially with multiple GPUs. There are plenty of software suites that will perform simulations, but relatively few are both robust enough to handle exotic stuff (like, say, optics in metals) and scalable over multiple cpus/gpus/computers. Those that are are generally so expensive that they're not used in academia anyways.\n\n-Data analysis! Generating tons of data is easy, but time and time again I find people counting and measuring cells or nanostructures by hand. And repeating this, frame by frame, over hundreds of frames, each with hundreds of measurements. If you can automate this sort of thing, the people you help will love you forever. If you can make it easy and make it work for lots of different structure types, *everyone* will love you and cite you and children will chant your name in the streets while money rains from the sky.",
"i'm jumping ahead and putting you in the \"citizen scientist\" category. google it and see or just follow [this](_URL_2_) to see all sorts of projects (these are mostly celestial) looking for people with time, skills, and ideas. also, here's the [SciAm page]( _URL_3_). i personally think that citizen science in collaboration with paid-for-the-day scientists is a great way for us to not lose the imagination and insight of all humanoids willing to put in the effort!",
"Do you have any outdoors hobbies? If you're a recreational fisherman, there's [Sailor's for the Sea](_URL_4_). Its only just starting up, but could be cool! If you get in touch with your local university, there may also be opportunities to help out with collecting field samples. Lots of water quality monitoring agencies also use citizen scientists.",
"You are only limited by your imagination and ingenuity. I have no formal scientific background and have never even passed a trig course. This doesn't stop my from doing theoretical and practical work on [synthetic nervous systems](_URL_5_) or conducting extensive, university level plant research.",
"A software and electronics background makes you supremely useful in systems biology, as well as large-scale analysis of patient data. I work in a cancer research lab that does a large amount of DNA sequencing for large numbers of tumor samples, which allows us to predict patient mortality based on identified biomarkers (essentially, important stretches of DNA). These markers correlate with things like long-term survival, and are of direct help to patients because a biopsy of their tumor can then give information about how we expect their cancer to progress. If a biopsy shows that they have 11 of 14 biomarkers correlated with high mortality, we rush them to surgery and give them all the chemo we can. If they have 0 of 14, we know that surgery/chemo/radiation is probably worse for them than the tumor, and we tell them to go home and come back every few months for checkups.\n\nIf you can come up with an easy piece of software where we can plug in sequence data plus clinical outcome data, and it will give us biomarker candidates, you could help us make a big difference, fast.\n\nIn addition, we work with computer modelling groups that help us figure out the structure of proteins and what small molecules might help block the active site. We found some proteins that show up in tumors (who hasn't?), and we ask these groups to help model what chemicals will inhibit the activity of those proteins. Helps us cut down the drug screening process from wading through millions to sifting through several dozen. Don't know an easy way to contribute to this as I have little knowledge about the modelling software or process, but I mentioned it because, well, you might.\n\nIf you are serious about putting in some time into cancer research, shoot me a PM. We could use any help you can give.",
"Really, you shouldn't be trying to find a field to suit a pile of money but rather let your interests dictate the field. What is good to get into? That really is up to you.\n\nAquaponics is fine for gardening, but I really don't see it having a large impact beyond the immediate field of gardening aquaponics. \n\nProtein folding is an interesting field, right now most of the biological effort is focused on more traditional crystallography because frankly most pure computational structure prediction sucks pretty bad. If you are interested in computational structure prediction, I would suggeest you read about [CASP](_URL_6_). It is the big competition where all the top researchers bring their methods to showoff and get vetted against known but unpublished structures. Follow the links on that wiki and the CASP site to go deeper.\n\nMay I suggest [/r/Bioinformatics](_URL_7_) if you have further questions.",
"> I am aware of protein folding research and would like to know more about how to get started in that\n\nIt's well beyond the means of a hobbyist to do NMR or X-ray crystallography, but have a go at [foldit](_URL_8_) which is puzzle solving of protein structures - some known (for you to practice on and/or optimize), and some unknown.",
"About protein folding, you can play [foldit](_URL_9_). It's a game where you (that's right, you, not your computer) help find the structure of proteins, because apparently humans are still better at this task than computers.\n\n(I have very limited knowledge of the field, I just thought this information was useful. Feel free to correct me!)",
"Electrostatics!\n\nA century ago the physics community jumped ship from electrostatics to electrodynamics, high energy, and QM, yet electrostatics was far from mined out. If the pros are avoiding a topic, it might mean that the topic is barren ...or it could mean that a self-fulfilling prophecy is steering everyone away. In the latter case it's the perfect situation for hobbyists to make inroads, since amateurs can afford to check out fields which the pros would assume are too career-damaging.\n\nHobbyists possess rare commodities not available to others: no requirement to impress experts, plus immunity from professional embarrassment! And that suggests a particular tack for amateurs: note well the areas which are competitive and heavily studied, then steer away from them. Go and find the undiscovered gold that awaits those who refuse to follow the crowd. When playing the \"find your problem\" game, the professionals must stick to narrow limited choices, while amateurs can search far and wide.\n\nWhat would be the biochem equivalent to studying voltage? Something so primitive and simple that researchers avoid it. Perhaps studying water? Now that's an interesting situation, since really novel things are coming out of water research. Hobbyists might jump in before the wider biochem community gets the message. See [Dr. G. Pollack lecture on intracellular water and gel phenomena](_URL_11_)\n\nTotally separate tack: for inspiration go through the collection of [SciAm The Amateur Scientist](_URL_10_) projects from 1995-2001 which yet remain online. Even better, find a large local library which still maintains Scientific American in the stacks. The old issues are filled with subjects which were partially explored before the main community moved on to new topics.",
"Biology. The cost of biohacking has come down dramatically in the past few years, and the technological potential is amazing.\n\nCheck out the book \"Biopunk\" by Marcus Wohlsen. The potential to do really amazing things is there, the technology is within reach, and DIY wetlabs are just starting up. If you spend wisely, you could do serious work for 100k.",
"Botany has always been open to hobbyists. It would probably require moving to the Amazon, but if you've got 100K to spare then it shouldn't be that big of a problem.\n\nJust recently an amateur [discovered a remarkable new species](_URL_12_)",
"One of my friends did a PhD on fish aquaculture optimization in Vietnam at Aarhus University in Denmark. Pretty solid research with fundamentals that were broadly understandable and with little requirements for fancy equipment. (_URL_13_)",
"The majority of astronomy discoveries have been made by amateur astronomers.\n\nIt's also a field you can spend thousands of dollars on really sweet equipment.",
"The [Global Viral Forecasting Initiative](_URL_14_) collects blood samples from game hunters in Africa in order to track and detect viruses.",
"$100k? you can really partake in anything in biology for that much.\n\nPersonally, I like what the [DIY bio](_URL_15_) movement is doing. Basically someone realized that the cost of doing biology can be reduced to under 10K. (this would be the cost for a homemade gel box and some basic supplies, you can buy made DNA for 30 cents a letter. You can have DNA sequenced for less.) There are also an infinite number of projects in biology. You can make just about anything glow or grow differently or produce a molecule of your choice. Biosensors are an easy useful start. The only limit is your ability. Generally practitioners have a BS in biology or biochem, but this is hardly a requirement. The only thing you really need is the ability to search the literature (at a University library for instance) and pay some small amount to setup your lab. Unfortunately, it's still a pretty disorganized movement, so unless you can find a DIYBio hackerspace in your area, you are going to have a pretty hard time getting started. Also, unlike aquaponics, there are no good DIYbio trade journals and the science establishment basically ignores the movement for now.",
"Plant Science. More poignantly, Applied Plant Science, maybe some Botany. But APS deals more with non-genetic things. You would still need things like a microscope or 2, but you wouldn't be doing any gene manipulation or anything like that.",
"Alternative energies, also ways to use it more efficiently. I play with solar, steam and water power systems. Fun and can fit most budgets.",
"Here's a good place to start - should keep you busy _URL_16_"
],
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.galaxyzoo.org/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanny%27s_Voorwerp",
"http://www.citizensciencealliance.org/",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/citizen-science/",
"http://sailorsforthesea.org/about-sailors-for-the-sea/board-of-directors.aspx",
"http://www.google.com/patents?id=Y0WjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CASP",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/bioinformatics",
"http://fold.it/portal/",
"http://fold.it/portal/",
"http://amasci.com/amateur/sciam1.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVBEwn6iWOo",
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/artful-amoeba/2011/10/17/the-story-of-spigelia-genuflexa-or-why-biology-needs-you/",
"http://pure.au.dk/portal/da/persons/hans-brix(4068bdb4-1c13-432c-b420-3991683780b5)/publications/kinetics-of-pollutant-removal-from-domestic-wastewater-in-a-tropical-horizontal-subsurface-flow-constructed-wetland-system-effects-of-hydraulic-loading-rate(53151290-73e1-11df-8c1a-000ea68e967b).html",
"http://www.npr.org/2011/10/18/141276405/the-man-who-tracks-viruses-before-they-spread",
"http://openwetware.org/wiki/DIYbio/FAQ",
"https://sciencepicks.wordpress.com/citizen-science/"
]
} | In what fields of science can the hobbyist contribute something?
I have taken an interest in aquaponics because there is a lot of experimentation going on - best ways to grow things, control temperature/chemistry, alternative fish feed production, etc. I am aware of protein folding research and would like to know more about how to get started in that. What else is there that I can usefully explore at home, up to say $100K of capital outlay for equipment etc? I have no formal background in science. Mostly software and electronics, but I'm willing to learn something new. | [
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1xporx | Why do the same voltages appear frequently? | 3.3v, 5v, 9v, 12v and so on. Is there something inherently advantageous about these numbers or are they just somewhat evenly spaced out arbitrary numbers to try to keep things standardized? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"As far as batteries go you are limited to using multiples of the cell voltage of the system used in the battery. For example alkaline batteries are around 1.5V/cell, so AAA, A, C and D batteries use a single cell. 6V and 9V batteries use 4 and 6 1.5V cell in series. Other cells produce different voltages that you might also see commonly: NiMH and NiCd ~1.2V, Li-ion ~3.7V, Lead-acid ~2V (6 in series for a car battery to give 12V).\n\nThat doesn't exactly address your question, but batteries are the power sources for a lot of portable electronics and provide the base or starting voltage from which the device operates. There will usually will be some circuitry that changes the voltage to the proper level for that device. For digital logic, there are specific voltage levels which represent a low or high voltage (see /u/cyrusm's post).",
"In regards to digital electronic circuits, which it kind of sounds like what you are referring to, the voltages are determined to suit the [logic family](_URL_0_) or the communication protocol being used in the design. These standardized logic families were created so that chips and circuits could more easily interface with each other in designs without additional, and fairly complicated/unreliable voltage conversion circuitry being included. As technology progresses, these voltages are becoming lower and lower (12V to 9V to 5V to 3.3V and so on) because transistors are becoming more capable of operating at these voltages, which uses less power. The wikipedia article linked has a ton more info on the topic.",
"There are some good answers here. To embellish, I'd imagine part of the reason there is such a drive to lower operating voltages on ICs has to do with ramp up and fall off delays for high speed digital circuits. \n\nNo node voltage can instantaneously change from 0 volts to X volts or from X volts to 0 volts. Given some degree of parasitic capacitance -which all circuits have - the amount of time it takes to charge up a line to a valid voltage or decay to a valid voltage is small, but definitely real. Therefore, as operating frequencies increase, this \"analog\" behavior becomes more of a problem as the decay/charge times become significant with respect to the mark(high)/space(low) times on a digital bus. When the valid voltage range is tightened, less time is needed for rapidly changing voltage swings to settle, be sampled, then change again, only to be sampled again.\n\nAlso, different technologies require different voltages. The closer the input voltage is to the output voltages of local linear regulators on a given device - the less power is wasted to heat. Heat is a big concern for many applications.",
"Partly standardization, partly driven by technology. It is becoming less and less prevalent deep inside of things like a PC. Voltage regulator circuits that can output different arbitrary voltages are pretty cheap and common now. That's particularly useful for some things, like doing dynamic voltage scaling on a microprocessor. Such parts don't even have **a** voltage, they have several, even on a specific supply rail. \n \nThere's an obvious advantage to having industry standards, since it enables designers to work with off-the-shelf products that they can have high confidence in, and it helps provide interoperability between parts. \n \nOver the years, standard voltages used for things like digital logic chips has gone down. Reducing power consumption is one reason. Another reason is speed...it doesn't take as long to drive a signal change if the voltage swing isn't as great. (But it is more difficult to do well, since the signal to noise ratio also declines.) \n \nBut probably the biggest driver has been [Dennard scaling](_URL_1_). As we have shrunk down transistors to put more on a wafer/die (therefore making things cheaper), we've historically gotten other benefits. The circuits get faster, for one. (At least, they used to.) But to get that scaling benefit, you have to maintain a constant electric field, which means you have to reduce the voltage. So we've seen CMOS circuits go from \"standards\" of +/- 12V down to +5V down to 3.3V, 1.2V, 1.0V, etc. (I put standards in quotes because the standardization has gotten more fractured over the years.) \n \nIn some cases, the standard change took a long time, such as the shift from 5V to 3.3/3.6V. There was simply such a large infrastructure around 5V that it was painful to make the transition, particularly since it wasn't a case of every part that ran at 5V now being made in a 3.3V version. Different parts changed on different schedules, which made it very difficult to manage. So manufacturers did a lot of weird things, such as making parts with one internal supply voltage and a different supply voltage for the Input/Output circuits that \"talk\" to other chips. That practice persists to this day, since many standard busses use voltages that can't be tolerated by the \"guts\" of an IC (without making huge compromises). \n \nElectronics are a lot like reverse entropy. With time, everything gets more complex. :)"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_family",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennard_scaling"
]
} | Why do the same voltages appear frequently?
3.3v, 5v, 9v, 12v and so on. Is there something inherently advantageous about these numbers or are they just somewhat evenly spaced out arbitrary numbers to try to keep things standardized? | [
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|
3ipsu0 | AskScience AMA Series: We do research on making games more findable (and expressive) using computer science approaches such as natural language processing. We're James Ryan, Eric Kaltman, and Noah Wardrip-Fruin, two PhD students and a faculty member from UC Santa Cruz. AMA | The common categorizations of video games, based on genres, don't do enough to help game players, game creators, or game scholars find games that might matter to them. Game genres lump together games with vastly different designs, subjects, and player experiences, while separating games with quite close relationships. In response, we have begun developing computational models of game relatedness and tools for exploring those models.
Our current models are based on latent semantic analysis of texts about games, as described in our [recent FDG paper, "What We Talk About When We Talk About Games."](_URL_0_) (pdf)
Our first set of texts about games is nearly 12,000 game descriptions from Wikipedia -- and we are working on incorporating a second set. We have three tools for finding related games that are currently available for the public to use.
* First, [GameNet](_URL_4_) provides a network of games, each connected to those most related and unrelated in our model, with summary information and external links.
* Second, [GameSage](_URL_2_) allows you to start your search with an idea -- perhaps a game you're thinking of creating, or a game you've forgotten the name of -- and your description is "folded in" to GameNet's network.
* Third, [GameGlobs](_URL_1_) lets you divide the world of games up into an arbitrary number of groupings in two-dimensional space, then explore the content of each one.
All three are part of the [GAMECIP project](_URL_3_) between UC Santa Cruz and Stanford University, which is supported by the IMLS to improve how games are cataloged, cited, and discovered.
The three of us got into doing work like this because we believe games are an important part of culture, and we want to do things to help them reach their full potential. This project is part of our work on making sure that the rich history (and present) of games can be preserved, discussed, and found in the future. We're also doing work on broadening what can be expressed through games, who can create them, and the conceptual tools we have for understanding them.
EDIT: We had a great time and thank everyone for their questions! We'll check back later today and see if there are new questions and/or new replies. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Wow!\n\nI don't really have a question, I'm just super happy this exists. I'll be reading the paper for sure.\n\nI'm in ml/nlp and agree with everything you've said here: I believe games are important but simultaneously believe that game classifications are currently poor and don't help people find games they'd like. Games in the same class are often extremely different while those with overlapping gameplay are often treated differently for some reason.\n\nIn my own time I've spent a little while trying to create genre definitions based on mechanical tags (like those you'd find on boardgamegeek family sites) just because I'm so interested in that. I'm surprised I haven't heard of any of the tools you've listed here, so thanks for that!\n\nI'm just super happy research is being done in something I'm so interested in.",
"I see that you guys have used an LSA based approach. Has there been any work into using supervised learning for modelling game similarity?",
"Immediately type in my two favorite games from all time hoping to learn about something cool and new to match, and I'm disappointed that there are no good matches (other than sequels).\n\n[Shining Force](_URL_0_)\n\n[Star Control 2](_URL_1_)\n\n:(",
"What differences have you noticed between the different popular game distribution platforms in terms of finding the game you want, or finding the game you didn't know you wanted? eg Apple AppStore, Google Play, PSN, XBOX Live, Steam etc.",
"Thanks for doing an AMA! I'm glad this problem is being tackled.\n\nWhat other sources besides wikipedia have you considered? What are you looking to scan in the future? It seems like Wikipedia may have some general information, but may not be as in depth as other textual sources. For example, FAQs about game (such as available from _URL_3_ which has been around for years) may be a much better rich data set, especially for unpopular niche games. \n\nFor example, compare _URL_4_\n\nto\n\n_URL_4_\n\nThanks again!",
"Super curious how you guys went about adding games that release a new version every year (Madden, MLB the Show, to name a couple). It truly seems like a daunting task and I just can't wrap my mind around how you would keep these in the database as separate entities, if that makes sense. I couldn't find Madden 2004, which makes me sad, as that is the best in the series imo.",
"1. Is there a system for other kinds of media (movies, music, etc.) that in your opinion is a good model for what you are trying to achieve?\n2. Do you think [_URL_6_](_URL_5_) is doing a good job providing some of the organization you are talking about, or is emulating a system created for a very different medium ([_URL_7_](http://www._URL_7_/)) is the wrong approach?",
"Really amazing stuff, I've always been interested in natural language processing and machine learning, especially as ways to automate something that a human might typically do; and it's great to see new research in that field lead to amazing things like this.\n\nDo you have any recommendations for other readings on similar subjects that may have inspired you or made you consider this project? What was the most important thing, you think, to getting involved with research like this? Go slugs, I'm gonna be a CS transfer this fall!",
"So if I'm understanding this correctly you are sorting games by the text on wikipedia and grouping them by designs, subjects, and player experiences. Would it be possible to apply your technique to other forms of media like film and books? \nIf it would be possible do you think it would then be able to measure how related a theme was across the different forms of media?",
"I'm starting CS at UCSC in the fall. How closely are the CS people and the Game Development people related. I know we have similar beginning classes, but do you guys work with the hard Computer Science majors a lot?",
"This is sort of a comment on categorization in general, and a request for your thoughts on this.\n\nI often think that categorizing media is detrimental because it's easy to pigeonhole one's tastes. For instance, I identify as liking sci-fi and as not liking fantasy. I'm sure there's probably a TON of fantasy I'd enjoy, but that kind of classification makes it easy to stick myself in a niche. Similarly with games. I've never gone near any survival horror games, and I generally am not interested in hardcore RPGs...But there are likely a ton of either that I could really get to appreciate.\n\nI guess the general sentiment is that I think moving outside of one's comfort level is usually a good thing, especially when it comes to art, but it's also hard to do, and I kinda feel like classification makes it harder still.\n\nWould you say that I'm describing the exact problem you're trying to solve with your research?",
"Classifications are cool and all but for me personally a vast majority of modern games only need one label: the same crap. The definition of innovative features is broadly defined and sometimes not at all(they might have been invented by definition) so its hard to pinpoint them in that sense. Doing a positive search on \"innovative\", \"future of gaming\",etc seems to me worthless since these are catchphrases in the gaming industry scattered across every games back panel.\n\nBut you guys have created a negative space to find these games in ie all the games that are the least related to any other games or have the lowest average weight paths. Have you thought about looking at things in this reverse regard and maybe publishing a list of the best outliers? \n\nLike with most other artistic mediums, I'm not too concerned about genre. I'm just sick of stale beats.",
"It was great to read your paper. I think this would surely help in discovering some genre spanning games that would be difficult to slot into one of the existing categories. flow being a favourite example of mine.\n\n1. Do you think it is effective to do Sentiment analysis using just statistical analysis? I think without a more broader context associated with the keywords it would be difficult to conclude about a sentiment. ex. \"The developers did a great job\" vs \"The developers need to fix this ASAP\"\n\n2. I used to love a site called jinni that recommended movies based on which movies you had seen and rated. I hope you can extend your system to work on movies (IMDB+Facebook)",
"Is there any intention of making certain narrative tropes (ex. female protagonist, post-apocalypse, universe-hopping) or themes (ex. growing-up stories, suicide, metaphysical philosophy, homosexuality) searchable?\n\nWill your searchable data include metacultural aspects of a game, such as troubled development histories (ex. Metal Gear Solid 5, Duke Nukem: Forever), appearances in other pop-culture media (ex. TV shows), games with post-release controversies (ex. the ending of Mass Effect 3), high budgets (ex. Destiny's $500 mil figure), or games with notable audiences outside their target demographic (ex. My Little Pony)?",
"Your system seems to deal with \"walking simulators\" especially poorly. [Dear Esther](_URL_13_) and [Gone Home](_URL_12_) both give pretty bad results. [I entered a design I'm working on](_URL_11_) and [got a bunch of flight sims](_URL_10_).\n\nI guess since it's a \"bag of words\", \"walking\" and \"simulator\" get separated. A second issue is that the term is far from universal. Do you plan to address this?\n\nSecondly, what determines whether a game is in the database? Depression Quest has [a Wikipedia page](_URL_9_), but isn't there.",
"Are you planning on extending your sources to messier things like the steam boards?\n\nWhile wikipedia is great and reduces noise a lot I wouldn't be surprised if how people talk about a game would also be a useful indicator. \n\nWikipedia entries are generally written for a general audience so I assume you lose a lot of the specific \"slang\" that could help to farther differentiate and group games.\n\nAlthough that might end up categorizing communities instead of games.",
"I realise that this isn't exactly your specialty but I imagine you'll probably be in a position to answer it.\n\nIn big triple A games, how much input would a single designer/engineer/programmer have? Would it be as broad as creating a whole level, a character maybe? Or is it much more specialised than that, eg one would create the character skin, another would create the shape of the character another would create the movement of the character?",
"i also think this is really cool and plan to use it to find lots of games i have never heard of before, but are similar to games i have already played! my question is, do 'noises' people make impact your language detection system? Like if someone in a game says 'hmmm', 'huh', or sighs, does that kind of stuff get picked up? how much influence does it have?",
"Here's a few other (shorter) papers we've published about this project:\n\n* [People Tend to Like Related Games](_URL_17_)\n* [Large-Scale Visualizations of Nearly 12,000 Digital Games](_URL_16_)\n* [Tools for Videogame Discovery Built Using Latent Semantic Analysis](_URL_18_)\n\nFor a description of our technical approach that's intended for lay audiences, see the [GameNet FAQ](_URL_14_) and [GameSage FAQ](_URL_15_).",
"You see games as part of culture. \n\nHow do you see games represented?\nArt,education platform, time wasted...etc\n\nHave you found any information on what people want games to ultimately be? Like if folks would like to see games distilled into pure pvp/competition or a moving story or a film one takes part in.",
"Hi! This is really interesting.\n\nCould you elaborate on the similarities or differences between your work and thinks like Amazon and other's 'you might also like' features that recommend games? Are you using the same sorts of machine learning and statistical techniques? E.g. Neural networks, cluster analyses, etc.",
"I like what you guys are doing! \n\nWhat about an algorithm that find games similar to what you have played. Steam does this, but poorly. A quick comparison with Netflix which most of times is very accurate and actually helps me find new stuff that is relevant.",
"My honors thesis was on natural language processing in malaria. If you are looking for someone who has experience in the subject and who has been gaming since 1994, please send me a P.M. I'd love to speak with you directly. I'd love to get involved.",
"I'd like to know a few things:\n1) How do you believe this research will impact existing developers?\n2) Can you summarize some of the key points of your paper?\n3) Do you believe that there will be large-scale business applications for this technology?",
"hey! i'm currently attending ucsc, but not for cmps. \n\nanyway, how much are these algorithms based off of user reviews, user tags, or user-based information? i imagine it's pretty difficult to group games together by concept, ideas, etc. rather than umbrella genres.",
"I have a friend who's a linguistic/comp-sci major at UCLA and is interested in NLP. He's too shy to ask you guys, but is there some place he can send a resume?",
"I know the AMA is over, but Noah Your intro class was really fun (cmps 3).",
"What do you think about Occulus tech ?"
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://games.soe.ucsc.edu/sites/default/files/ryanEtAl_BottomUpGamesStudiesUsingNLP.pdf",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gameglobs",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamesage",
"https://gamecip.soe.ucsc.edu",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamenet"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamenet/games/2415",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamenet/games/2437",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_Wars:_Arenas_of_Destruction",
"gamefaqs.org",
"http://www.gamefaqs.com/ps2/563059-robot-wars-arenas-of-destruction/faqs/45950",
"https://www.igdb.com/",
"igdb.com",
"imdb.com",
"http://www.imdb.com/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_Quest",
"http://i.imgur.com/a4J7eiM.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/GBQixvS.png",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamenet/findByTitle=gone%20home",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamenet/findByTitle=dear%20esther",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamenet/faq",
"http://gamecip-projects.soe.ucsc.edu/gamesage/faq",
"https://users.soe.ucsc.edu/~jor/publications/ryanLargeScaleVisualizationsOf12000Games.pdf",
"https://users.soe.ucsc.edu/~jor/publications/ryanPeopleTendToLikeRelatedGames.pdf",
"https://users.soe.ucsc.edu/~jor/publications/ryanToolsForVideogameDiscovery.pdf"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: We do research on making games more findable (and expressive) using computer science approaches such as natural language processing. We're James Ryan, Eric Kaltman, and Noah Wardrip-Fruin, two PhD students and a faculty member from UC Santa Cruz. AMA
The common categorizations of video games, based on genres, don't do enough to help game players, game creators, or game scholars find games that might matter to them. Game genres lump together games with vastly different designs, subjects, and player experiences, while separating games with quite close relationships. In response, we have begun developing computational models of game relatedness and tools for exploring those models. Our current models are based on latent semantic analysis of texts about games, as described in our [recent FDG paper, "What We Talk About When We Talk About Games."](_URL_0_) (pdf) Our first set of texts about games is nearly 12,000 game descriptions from Wikipedia -- and we are working on incorporating a second set. We have three tools for finding related games that are currently available for the public to use. * First, [GameNet](_URL_4_) provides a network of games, each connected to those most related and unrelated in our model, with summary information and external links. * Second, [GameSage](_URL_2_) allows you to start your search with an idea -- perhaps a game you're thinking of creating, or a game you've forgotten the name of -- and your description is "folded in" to GameNet's network. * Third, [GameGlobs](_URL_1_) lets you divide the world of games up into an arbitrary number of groupings in two-dimensional space, then explore the content of each one. All three are part of the [GAMECIP project](_URL_3_) between UC Santa Cruz and Stanford University, which is supported by the IMLS to improve how games are cataloged, cited, and discovered. The three of us got into doing work like this because we believe games are an important part of culture, and we want to do things to help them reach their full potential. This project is part of our work on making sure that the rich history (and present) of games can be preserved, discussed, and found in the future. We're also doing work on broadening what can be expressed through games, who can create them, and the conceptual tools we have for understanding them. EDIT: We had a great time and thank everyone for their questions! We'll check back later today and see if there are new questions and/or new replies. | [
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|
13hmtq | What's going on in our brains when we're on a roll/in the zone and why can't we manufacture a way to get there on command | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c741wkq",
"c742q33",
"c742mfg",
"c743cz4"
],
"text": [
"I believe _URL_0_ is what you are talking about.",
"Flow, bro. When you are practiced in a task your brain has constructed neural pathways relating to the specific motor skills and thought patterns required, so when you do something you're good at you don't conciously preside over because your brain will automatically use these nerual pathways as a kind of 'auto-pilot', which you will hear people talk about often, saying they can do something without thinking about it, or it feels like an instrument is 'playing itself'. There are some ways to help instigate flow, but you will very rarely pick it up immediately, and if you do it probably won't be intentional.",
"Here is a pretty [good article](_URL_1_) I bookmarked a while back on the \"flow state\".\n\n > Flow typically accompanies these actions. It involves a Zen-like feeling of intense concentration, with time seeming to stop as you focus completely on the activity in hand. The experience crops up repeatedly when experts describe what it feels like to be at the top of their game, and with years of practice it becomes second nature to enter that state. Yet you don't have to be a pro to experience it - some people report the same ability to focus at a far earlier stage in their training, suggesting they are more naturally predisposed to the flow state than others.",
"The Army put me on Modafinil some time ago. Seemed like a manufactured version to me. That stuff was fantastic, but way too expensive."
],
"score": [
28,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29",
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328501.600-zap-your-brain-into-the-zone-fast-track-to-pure-focus.html?full=true"
]
} | What's going on in our brains when we're on a roll/in the zone and why can't we manufacture a way to get there on command
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ahxkca | What is the molecular level description/justification of the Bernoulli Principle? | **Edit: I have amended the below with bold and strikes to fix and clarify statements that have been pointed out as incorrect.**
======
The below shouldn't be necessary to answering the title question, but will help with understanding where I'm coming from and what I mean. Feel free to skip over it.
At university, I studied Chemical Engineering i.e. a lot of fluid flow. My desire to understand things at fundamental levels didn't always go hand-in-hand with the teaching nor the typical engineering mindsets, so I was never fully satisfied with some of the descriptions of reality that were offered. The unsatisfying description in question here is the Bernoulli Principle: ~~I don't have a fluid dynamics textbook to hand, so I'm gonna go with Wikipedia here for the principle's definition with regards to just fluid velocity and fluid pressure:~~
"...an increase in the speed of a fluid **relative to the solid-fluid interface** occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure..."
~~I'm not denying that this happens under certain conditions, but it seems this statement doesn't apply to *all* conditions. For example, a water truck's water (presumably) has the same pressure when travelling at constant velocity of 40mph vs 60mph (it feels very counter intuitive to imagine there being some truck speed where the water pressure would drop to the water's vapour pressure and cause it to boil).~~
~~We know that the principle *does* apply in the case of pipe fluid flow, for example in a venturimeter. So, what's the fundamental difference here vs the water truck example? Why does that difference lead to the difference in pressure behaviour, despite both being instances of changes in fluid velocity?~~
**What I'd like to know is why the pressure drops in this scenario.** I'm not denying the veracity of the first law of thermodynamics when I say this, and I realise that the Bernoulli equation is essentially an energy balance, but I don't think "it's because of the energy conservation on/within the fluid" is actually an answer to what is fundamentally happening ~~and doesn't address the difference~~. Rather, that statement serves as more of a heuristic that allows us to easily figure out the state of the system. But, the universe doesn't just adjust the pressure when the velocity increases *so* that the total energy change is zero, instead there are other processes at play, the net/emergent/observable result of which is that the total energy change is zero. This result is more convenient to work with in most instances, but doesn't necessarily allow you to work backwards to what actually took place "behind the scenes", which is what I'm wanting to do here.
To understand why we observe the pressure dropping when the velocity increases ~~in some cases and not in others~~, I think a Kinetic Theory style molecule level description of fluid pressure needs to be applied. If we could perfectly describe a fluid as a system of individual molecules that interact with one another according to their individual molecular properties and states, and simulate it according to Newton's laws of motion, I imagine you would see the Venturi effect/Bernoulli principle emerge in certain cases without even needing to explicitly program that behaviour into the simulation.
So... What is the molecular explanation of the Bernoulli Principle? | askscience | {
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"Pressure is related to the part speed of the molecule that goes towards the wall (like the bounce of a ball, the faster it goes, the more force it does). Temperature is proportional to the average speed of the particles, so if a fluid is going very fast (lets say to the right) and because its temperature doesnt change (so its average speed is the same) it must have less speed towards the walls, so it does less pressure.\n\nI hope it helps and sorry for any grammatical errors",
"I believe the difference in the water truck situation is frame of reference. The entire container filled with water is, in it's frame, moving together, the volume that the water is in and it's location in reference to the frame doesn't change. IIRC Bernoulli's principle occurs due to fewer surface impacts at higher speeds. In a sitting container water/fluids are going to hit all the walls roughly the same amount. When you start accelerating it in one direction particles are \"hitting the wall\"(moving) in the direction of their velocity far more than they were previously and hitting the sides less.",
"You have a major error in your thought process concerning boundary conditions. Grab your fluids book and read the assumptions guiding the equations. You should find that the fluid velocity of concern is relative to the solid-fluid boundary and not the absolute velocity of the fluid. The fluid outside of the water truck does have relative velocity with respect to the tank surface and would be subject to Bernoulli, and other engineering fluids principles. \n\nI'll leave the particle explanations to others who are experts on the topic. \n\nEdit- My point is that the principles and equations correctly predict the pressure drop in all cases if you follow the assumptions and boundary conditions as outlined. No additional model is required to explain this.",
"It is simple way of stating the conservation of energy. For any control volume (i.e. packet) of fluid, the sum of the kinetic energy, potential energy, and internal energy is constant, assuming no energy exchange with the environment.\n\nAssuming no heat is added to the system or work is performed on the system (like putting the fluid through a compressor), then you cannot change kinetic energy (1/2mv^2 ) without changing potential energy (m*g*z) and/or internal energy (P*V)\n\nThe simplified bernoulli equation assumes incompressible flow with adiabatic conditions, no phase change or radioactive decay, etc. It gets complex very quickly once you start removing assumptions\n\nAlso - in your example with the truck, the truck’s engine is doing work, adding kinetic energy to the system without changing internal energy or potential energy. That’s an additional term you would have to add to the bernoulli equation.",
"> The Bernoulli principle applies to fluid flows that are both adiabatic and reversible. That is, no heat is added to the flow, and no energy transformations occur due to friction or dissipative effects.\n\nIf you have a Venturi pipe with a steady flow then an equal amount of substance must flow through all cross section of the pipe, which are perpendicular to the flow. For an incompressible fluid that means if you halve the cross sectional area at some point, call it I for Interface, the speed of the fluid must double. From a macroscopic point of view such a change in speed implies a force, which implies a pressure differential. \n\nMicroscopically there will be a greater probability of collision with particles going in the wrong way on the slow side of the interface."
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} | What is the molecular level description/justification of the Bernoulli Principle?
**Edit: I have amended the below with bold and strikes to fix and clarify statements that have been pointed out as incorrect.** ====== The below shouldn't be necessary to answering the title question, but will help with understanding where I'm coming from and what I mean. Feel free to skip over it. At university, I studied Chemical Engineering i.e. a lot of fluid flow. My desire to understand things at fundamental levels didn't always go hand-in-hand with the teaching nor the typical engineering mindsets, so I was never fully satisfied with some of the descriptions of reality that were offered. The unsatisfying description in question here is the Bernoulli Principle: ~~I don't have a fluid dynamics textbook to hand, so I'm gonna go with Wikipedia here for the principle's definition with regards to just fluid velocity and fluid pressure:~~ "...an increase in the speed of a fluid **relative to the solid-fluid interface** occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure..." ~~I'm not denying that this happens under certain conditions, but it seems this statement doesn't apply to *all* conditions. For example, a water truck's water (presumably) has the same pressure when travelling at constant velocity of 40mph vs 60mph (it feels very counter intuitive to imagine there being some truck speed where the water pressure would drop to the water's vapour pressure and cause it to boil).~~ ~~We know that the principle *does* apply in the case of pipe fluid flow, for example in a venturimeter. So, what's the fundamental difference here vs the water truck example? Why does that difference lead to the difference in pressure behaviour, despite both being instances of changes in fluid velocity?~~ **What I'd like to know is why the pressure drops in this scenario.** I'm not denying the veracity of the first law of thermodynamics when I say this, and I realise that the Bernoulli equation is essentially an energy balance, but I don't think "it's because of the energy conservation on/within the fluid" is actually an answer to what is fundamentally happening ~~and doesn't address the difference~~. Rather, that statement serves as more of a heuristic that allows us to easily figure out the state of the system. But, the universe doesn't just adjust the pressure when the velocity increases *so* that the total energy change is zero, instead there are other processes at play, the net/emergent/observable result of which is that the total energy change is zero. This result is more convenient to work with in most instances, but doesn't necessarily allow you to work backwards to what actually took place "behind the scenes", which is what I'm wanting to do here. To understand why we observe the pressure dropping when the velocity increases ~~in some cases and not in others~~, I think a Kinetic Theory style molecule level description of fluid pressure needs to be applied. If we could perfectly describe a fluid as a system of individual molecules that interact with one another according to their individual molecular properties and states, and simulate it according to Newton's laws of motion, I imagine you would see the Venturi effect/Bernoulli principle emerge in certain cases without even needing to explicitly program that behaviour into the simulation. So... What is the molecular explanation of the Bernoulli Principle? | [
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|
7c7v1j | Will a liquid that boils at room temperature burn me? | And if so, why?
Edit: Thanks one and all | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dpnw7oc",
"dpnwpoo",
"dposwr1"
],
"text": [
"A liquid which boils at room temperature will not boil you. A liquid which boils at room temperature removes heat from your body. For burns to happen, heat needs to be transferred to your body in such large amounts to cause damage to your tissues.",
"The act of boiling removes heat from the liquid as energy is used to separate liquid molecules into gas. In the case of boiling water, this is why you need to keep applying heat to keep it boiling. \nFor a liquid that boils at room temperature the same is true, but the heat is not coming from the stove but instead from the surrounding room, or from your hand, so it will actually feel cool to the touch as it boils.",
"Shellite is a product similar to methylated spirits that's sold in some places. It doesn't boil at room temperature but it's not all that much higher (IIRC it boils at around 55 degrees celcius).\n\nUnlike the similarly volatile acetone, it's not unpleasant to touch.\n\nTouching it feels cool, as your body provides heat that allows some individual molecules of shellite to boil off.\n\nI have no direct experience with substances that boil around 20-30 celcius because they are inherenetly not very useful, but I expect the same properties just more pronounced."
],
"score": [
21,
11,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Will a liquid that boils at room temperature burn me?
And if so, why? Edit: Thanks one and all | [
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|
j4ur4 | If scientists discover something new, can they name it anything they like? Or are there certain rules? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c295s76",
"c295zan",
"c295me0",
"c296h75"
],
"text": [
"Depends on what you discovered. For many things, there are already systematic naming systems in place. For molecules, for example, there's the [IUPAC nomenclature](_URL_1_) (which apparently hasn't updated its website since about 1998). There are actually a couple other systems some people prefer, but that's the \"standard\" taught in any organic chemistry course.\n\nFor other things, that's not the case. This can become problematic, actually. Look at gene or protein nomenclature, for example. There do [exist](_URL_2_) systematic naming conventions of a sort, but genes don't really lend themselves easily to systematic naming, and these are often ignored. These leads to genes called things like [Sonic Hedgehog](_URL_0_). But it can also turn discussions of genetics or biochemistry into a big clusterfuck.\n\nFor example, the proteins involved in the biochemical pathway for [blood clotting](_URL_3_) are named, oh-so-helpfully, Factors I-XIII. This wouldn't be so bad, except that the proteins are numbered, not in the order they appear in the pathway, but in the order they were discovered. So you can go from Factor 7, to 10, to 5. This is hardly a unique situation.",
"The final arbiter of what something ends up getting named is really the consensus of the scientific community that cares about it. As RRC said, you can name it whatever you want, but people will only agree with it if you pick a good, descriptive, functional name.\n\nSometimes this also means adhering to general conventions, like when people name particles or quasiparticles. Generally, the end of the name will be \"-on\" so that it mirrors \"photon,\" \"proton,\" \"electron,\" etc. Hence, fermion, boson, lepton, hadron, baryon, meson, gluon, graviton, phonon, axion, reggeon, pomeron, soliton, instanton, etc.\n\nMany things that are named for people in physics aren't done so at the initial suggestion for the person. The person who proposed it probably didn't give it a real name, and the community found it best/easiest to refer to the thing by the name of the guy who proposed it. Of course, this has led to many controversies when people have proposed things at the same time, independently. (ex. Higgs boson/mechanism, FRW metric, etc.)",
"You can *attempt* to name it anything you like. Doesn't mean anyone is obligated to go along with you. Wheeler infamously tried to rename the general theory of relativity \"geometrodynamics\" — a change I think would've been a good idea, frankly — but it didn't stick.",
"This topic reminds me of the dwarf planet Xena ultimately becoming officially named Eris.\n\n[The wikipedia article gives some insight into the minutia associated with naming planetary bodies.](_URL_7_)\n\nHerschel tried to dub Uranus *Georgium Sidus* after King George III. As I understand it for Uranus to have neatly fit the theme of planets being names after Roman gods, it should have been called [*Caelus*](_URL_6_). Though Earth doesn't fit the Roman god theme at all; perhaps the more appropriate name for our planet should be [Terra](_URL_5_)\n\n[Wikipedia on Uranus](_URL_4_)"
],
"score": [
5,
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4,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_hedgehog",
"http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/",
"http://www.yeastgenome.org/help/yeastGeneNomenclature.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation#The_coagulation_cascade",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus#Naming",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_\\(mythology\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caelus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eris_\\(dwarf_planet\\)#Xena"
]
} | If scientists discover something new, can they name it anything they like? Or are there certain rules?
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rvl6n | The centrifuge in my lab goes to 24,400 g's. What celestial object is this equivalent to standing on? | The Sun has a surface gravity of a mere 28 g's, so I know it's got to be substantially larger and more dense than the Sun. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's within an order of magnitude of the surface gravity of a white dwarf star, which is about 100,000 g. A white dwarf is actually much smaller than the Sun (about the size of Earth) and often less massive, but it is extremely dense. Making a star of a given mass smaller actually increases its surface gravity, because something on the surface is much closer to that mass.",
"Would it be possible to create a centrifugal black hole?",
"Edit: **LAYMAN SPECULATION - PLEASE PROVE ME WRONG, WHERE POSSIBLE**\n\nDo you mean 24,400 Gs, or 24,400 rpm? Surely, that much G-force would rip the machine to shreds upon activation, simply due to the weakness of terrestrial materials?\n\nEdit: Nope, no he didn't.",
"If I put a watch in your centrifuge for a day then what kind of time-dilation could I expect? \n\nAnybody?",
"At 24,400 g's, you're looking at something that has roughly 8% the mass of the Sun (or 75 times more mass than Jupiter) but still the same radius as the Earth. This puts the density at about 1.34*10^8 kg/m^3, about 10% the density of a white dwarf or 1000 times more dense than the center of the Sun.\n\nIt's not quite the answer to your question, but hey, numbers! I think it gives some sense of how crazy that object, whatever it is, would be.",
"don't mind me asking but what the hell are you separating there?",
"If you took the sun and shrank it to about the size of Neptune, you'd be experiencing the surface gravity you're talking about.\n\nMath: 24,400/28 = 870\n\nTake the square root to get the factor difference in the radius = 29.5\n\nSun's radius = 695,550 km\n\n695,550/29.5 = 23,600 km\n\nEffective surface gravity = 238,000 m/s^2\n\n(Neptune's average radius = 24,550 km)",
"May I add an addendum question? What about an ultracentrifuge at 2,000,000 gs?"
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} | The centrifuge in my lab goes to 24,400 g's. What celestial object is this equivalent to standing on?
The Sun has a surface gravity of a mere 28 g's, so I know it's got to be substantially larger and more dense than the Sun. | [
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6kpsa9 | Are there any other animals known to "work out", or do an activity for the sole purpose of muscle growth? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"djo54en",
"djol6xv",
"djopi54"
],
"text": [
"Apart from the one answer about engaging in \"play which builds muscle and muscle memory\" the answer is most likely \"no\". Exercise for the sake of exercise burns up a lot of calories which in other animals is best preserved for acquiring food and reproducing etc. That humans engage in muscle building is a result of our societal evolution from that of hunter gatherers where we were just like other animals to today where division of labor has made food acquisition the least of our worries. So, we now have plenty of time and resources to waste working out to impress people (or most likely ourselves). When you look at the very few truly tribal societies still in existence today, you won't find too many people working out for the sake of it.",
"1. Any animal engages in behaviors to increase the size and responsiveness of their muscles.\n\n2. If you're looking for the human definition, that's tied to social displays, you could certainly look at male kangaroos and try to determine how much of their mass comes from behaviors they share with females, and those they engage in excess.\n\n3. Birds. Birds practice their mating dances. They develop and practice a range of moves that requires a range of muscles. They practice those moves to build their muscles for a display quite similar in intent to many humans who work out.\n\n4. If you're trying to determine the \"classes\" of animals that do a particular behavior, you're going to have a lot of trouble observing nature.\n\nEven amoebas gotta stretch their sacks, holmes.",
"I think the question conflates two levels of 'purpose'.\n\nOne is a **subjective** meaning of purpose - what motivates you to play or build muscle (having fun, feeling attractive...)?\n\nAnother is an **ulterior** meaning of purpose - which mechanisms programmed people or animals to have fun or feel attractive when they play or build muscle (fight/flight training, social/sexual status)?\n\nOP uses human muscle building as an example of an activity that exists 'for the sole purpose of muscle growth'.\n\nIf you interpret 'purpose' in the **subjective** sense, the example ignores any indirect, personal motivation someone might have for wanting to build muscle. That doesn't seem right.\n\nIf you interpret 'purpose' in the **ulterior** sense, the example ignores any indirect, ulterior reasons why people would want to 'instinctively' feel motivated to build muscle. That doesn't seem right either.\n\nI think OP is looking for animal behavior that seems to solely build muscle (and not e.g. social relations) *while the animal is doing it*.\n\nI'm sure there are examples of this on a small scale, but I can't think of another animal that systematically builds muscle while not also playing/hunting/looking for mates/travelling etc.\n\nThe main reason for this is pretty intuitive: Whatever your ulterior reason for building muscle, you're usually better off doing **that** instead of 'building your muscles' separately. Or, at the very least, you should combine your muscle building with activities that bring about other benefits while you're doing them.\n\nMuscles are expensive to build and maintain, and it's much more efficient to have the work required to build them achieve other goals while you're building them."
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} | Are there any other animals known to "work out", or do an activity for the sole purpose of muscle growth?
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olq5t | What is the biggest EMP we have? And if someone set it off, how big of an area would it affect? | askscience | {
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"If we were strictly going for largest EMP, it would be to detonate one of our largest thermonuclear warheads approximately 300 miles above the surface of the earth. If detonated above southern Canada, for example, the EMP would affect most of the continental united states.\n\nIts a common misconception that a nuclear detonation creates an EMP. While it does to some small extent, the real EMP is created by the effects of the detonation on the earth's natural magnetic field. A huge release of energy inside the earths magnetic field creates a brief local distortion in the field itself, effectively reshaping it for a small amount of time. Its this sudden reshaping of an enormous magnetic field that completely F's up any electronics that aren't shielded. Moving a magnetic field around a wire forces current to run through it. Heaving the Earth's magnetic field around willy nilly induces a significant current in any length of metal that isn't shielded appropriately.\n\nBy comparison, a powerful nuclear weapon detonating at lower altitude has an EMP that is relatively inconsequential. Anything close enough to the blast to be effected by EMP has bigger problems.",
"Our Nuclear weapons give off an electromagnetic pulse as a by-product of the explosion. Non-nuclear EMPs are much more limited in range. I think there is something called a high altitude nuclear explosion, where the nuke is detonated high in the atmosphere, which causes the electric field to affected a large area. I not sure if the name is right but look up Starfish prime, the EMP hit like 900 miles away or something.",
"Well I was watching oceans 11 or one of them and they stole a EMP so they could shut down the casino in vegas... I was just curious",
"Well, Wikipedia is down for SOPA/PIPA, so the usual crowd of wiki-warriors aren't here to be informative..\n\nThe term you are looking for is \"Flux Compression Generator\".. basically a coil of wire (an inductor) arund a ductile iron tube, filled with high explosive. the inductor is charged, creating a magnetic field. The explosive is detonated, expanding the iron tube (violently) which compresses the magnetic field, this creates an enormous amount of electrical energy, which is then used to pump a sacrifical magnetron or klystron tube. In fact, the powers created are so immense, the design often uses a 'virtual cathode oscillator' to avoid problems with metal cathodes evaporating before the power generated by the FCG can be fully exploited. \n\nTheoretically, a small nuke could act as the explosive for one (or a matrix of many) of these, though I think more enthusiasm has been felt for nuclear pumped x-ray lasers."
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} | What is the biggest EMP we have? And if someone set it off, how big of an area would it affect?
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b6hoe3 | How close does an electron and a positron need to approach to be able to annihilate? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ejkyap1",
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"text": [
"In practical terms, at low energies an electron and positron approaching each other will most likely begin to orbit one another. This object looks a lot like a hydrogen atom, except with a positron instead of a proton. It's called [positronium](_URL_0_).\n\nThe electron and positron will quickly annihilate from here though. The mean lifetime is .125 nanoseconds if the spins are anti-aligned (annihilate into 2 photons), and 146 ns if the spins are aligned (annihilate into 3 photons). The only way to accurately compute these annihilation rates is with QED, as /u/polidrupa described.",
"In quantum electrodynamics the particles we call electrons and positrons are the states described by the quantum field in the limit of negligible interactions (i.e. when the particle is too far from any other particles for any significant interaction to occur). In this limit the particles are described by the [free field](_URL_3_) states (a.k.a. [Fock states](_URL_3_)). This is a fancy way to say that, according to this \"picture\", speaking about electrons and positrons only makes sense if there is nothing else in the universe (i.e., electrons and positrons -and anything else, really- are not balls).\n\nHowever, when interactions become significant the states of the quantum field are perturbed away from the free field states. We can calculate this with perturbation theory, to calculate scattering probabilities, but we don't actually know what the states are. So in the annihilation process it isn't really the case that there is one electron and one positron present because the state of the quantum field cannot simply be described as an electron state and a positron state.\n\nIf you insist in calling this \"electrons\" and \"positrons\", however, I don't believe there is a theoretical limit on the distance. But bear in mind that in quantum mechanics particles are not point-like; instead, they are \"distributed in space\" according to the wavefunction, so saying where they are is problematic (because they are in many places at the same time, according to the wavefunction).\n\nA similar question is discussed [here](_URL_3_).",
"Particles that small do not really have a position as such, just areas where they are more likely to be than others. These areas are represented by wavefunctions. The interactions of these wavefunctions defines when/if annihilation will occur.\n\nBasically, if you have two circles to represent the possible locations of the particles, then overlapping the two cirlces will have a non-zero chance of annihilating. They do not interact at distance, so I guess you could say that they touch.\n\nQuantum physics is different to classical physics in that it is mostly based on proabability instead of certainty.",
"Thanks for all your replies, I asked that question because of a Feynmandiagram of the annihilation between an electron and a positron. In this diagram was a distance but no difference in time between the two particles, so I asked myself why, but now I understand that this is just a model, and that you have to look at an electron like a wave with locationpropabilities, described through the wavefunction (sorry for my english, I hope you can understand me.)",
"Maybe if we change the question to something more intuitive and operationalize things via more practical situations so we can arrive at something closer to reality, while still developing a better sensation of how annihilation works with respect to distances?\n\n1. Like for example what if you have two macroscopic spheres of matter and antimatter, say of silicon and anti-silicon, and these objects were to be moved closer or further apart - what would happen? In that kind of situation how would heat-output or radiation and so on depend on the distances of the objects, or could we at least get an estimate as to what is safe and what is catastrophic separation? \n\n2. Or maybe there is some other standard (thought?) experiment when it comes to annihilation in radiative contexts, like is there such a thing as penetration depth of a positron beam shone on a sheet of gold? Can natural beta(+)-radiation make it through a sufficiently thin film or is is always annihilated in the top-atomic layer? A positron can escape an electron-packed atom in a carbon- > boron-decay when it is created after all. \n\n3. Or some other more intuitive situation."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positronium?wprov=sfla1",
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/389213/what-is-the-shortest-distance-between-electron-and-positron-before-they-are-anni",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fock_state",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_field"
]
} | How close does an electron and a positron need to approach to be able to annihilate?
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||
15phcz | AskScience best of 2012 results! | What were the most interesting AskScience posts in 2012? After 5 days of voting it's time to reveal the top results of our contest.
The redditors listed below will be getting reddit gold credits from us, courtesy of the admins. We also purchased some extra credits for more prizes. Without further delay, here are the winners!
---
*[Best question/answer with multimedia supplement](_URL_12_)*
* \/u/noodlenugget: [coffee cup question with video](_URL_1_). (26 points)
---
*[Best miscellaneous or open-ended discussion](_URL_9_)*
* \/u/Science-bookworm and the [huge AMA with all the AskScience panelists](_URL_14_). (46 points)
---
*[Best non-panelist answer](_URL_11_)*
* \/u/MonsVeneris: exploring ways to quickly [empty jugs of water](_URL_10_). (56 points)
---
*[Best panelist answer](_URL_3_)*
* \/u/paleeoguy4: answering [how different would the movie Jurassic Park be with today's information](_URL_5_)? (45 points)
---
*[Best question](_URL_13_)*
This was by far, everybody's favourite category! Here are the winners and their respective questions. Each had accumulated more than 250 points.
1. \/u/just_saiyan_bro (636 points)
2. \/u/MrTripper (571 points)
3. \/u/calicoJill (424 points)
4. \/u/SigmaB (395 points)
5. \/u/Waldamos (322 points)
6. \/u/TheFalseComing (276 points)
----
1. [When I turn off my lights, where does all the light go?](_URL_4_)
2. [What if we put a mirror in space, 1 light year from earth and we pointed Hubble at it would it be possible to see two years into earths past?](_URL_2_)
3. [Is absolutely every organism on Earth related, or has life started on Earth more than once?](_URL_0_)
4. [If you dissolve a compressed spring in an acid where does the energy go?](_URL_6_)
5. [If no elephant was alive today and the only record we had of them was their bones, would we have been able to accurately give them something as unique as a trunk?](_URL_8_)
6. [What stops light from going faster?](_URL_7_)
Congratulations to all our winners! You'll be hearing from me very shortly. Here's to a happy new year 2013 filled with asking science questions and getting science answers!! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7om1jn",
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],
"text": [
"Wow I didn't even know this was a thing! Thank you guys!",
"Congratulations everyone now let's get cracking on next years topics.",
"Not sure if this type of post is allowed here, but I just want to drop in and say a huge \"thanks!\" to everyone who contributes to this subreddit either as a person asking questions or as someone answering - I sincerely hope this or something like it is still around in 7 years or so when my kids are older and could really use it. It's such an amazing resource and has broadened my knowledge of all sorts of things in a simple, easy-to-digest and understand way, which I'm very grateful for. I wish I'd had something like this available to me as a kid. Thanks again and I look forward to some interesting reading in 2013!",
"Awesome, I missed all of these so I'm looking at them now. I foresee an abundance of recent comments on all of these topics.",
"I know this isn't exactly the nature of this subreddit, but the mirror in space question has given me a sad image in my head.\n\nA scientist shoots a mirror up into space and stares at it in his telescope every night to test it and confirm the logic behind it or whatever. The images relayed to him are delayed images of where the mirror is pointing since it is drifting away, the first night matching with his excited face at launch. The next night, his first watch, ecstatic face at it working, and months later, him watching himself reliving those early moments.\n\nEventually he becomes bitter at the happy face that would eventually waste a year of his life, and then two, and five, and a decade.\n\nAfter his funeral, his son, wanting to see what held his father's attention for much of his childhood. He looks up and sees his younger father looking back down at him with a grin the son hasn't seen in years.",
"This was brilliant. I'd especially like to plug the dinosaur cloning post for anybody who missed it the first time around, as I did. What a fascinating read -- it was exactly why this is among my favorite subreddits.",
"Wow, I address the question about whether all life was related. Did that on my cake day if I remember correctly. Very excited to see the level of interest was so high!",
"Suggestion: For the coffee cup question, post a link to the \"final answer\"... I'm actually not sure I found which one it was. There were a lot of answers flying back and forth.",
"Thanks for organizing this, mods! Discovering or re-discovering these fantastic Q & As has been very enjoyable. Happy New Year!",
"Very cool! I love reading /r/askscience, there's always so many interesting things I wouldn't even THINK to ask. Never thought I would win something from asking one question. Thanks!",
"Thanks everyone!!! I never expected anything like this when I made the video/posted the question."
],
"score": [
127,
14,
9,
6,
5,
5,
5,
3,
3,
2,
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/11i9nv/is_absolutely_every_organism_on_earth_related_or/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/x4tdu/askscience_my_coffee_cup_has_me_puzzled_so_i/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xtqq5/what_if_we_put_a_mirror_in_space_1_light_year/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15f96h/askscience_2012_awards_nominations_best_panelist/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/108nvt/this_may_be_a_dumb_question_but_when_i_turn_off/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/za19e/how_different_would_the_movie_jurassic_park_be/c62vfpa",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vrb9r/if_you_dissolve_a_compressed_spring_in_an_acid/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/12yy8e/what_stops_light_from_going_faster/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/p4vlp/if_no_elephant_was_alive_today_and_the_only/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15f97a/askscience_2012_awards_nominations_best/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/sv6kw/which_is_the_fastest_way_to_empty_a_5_gallon_jug/c4h93xa",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15f96s/askscience_2012_awards_nominations_best/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15f97n/askscience_2012_awards_nominations_best/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15f96a/askscience_2012_awards_nominations_best_question/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xg677/meta_askscience_ama_series_all_the_scientists/"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | AskScience best of 2012 results!
What were the most interesting AskScience posts in 2012? After 5 days of voting it's time to reveal the top results of our contest. The redditors listed below will be getting reddit gold credits from us, courtesy of the admins. We also purchased some extra credits for more prizes. Without further delay, here are the winners! --- *[Best question/answer with multimedia supplement](_URL_12_)* * \/u/noodlenugget: [coffee cup question with video](_URL_1_). (26 points) --- *[Best miscellaneous or open-ended discussion](_URL_9_)* * \/u/Science-bookworm and the [huge AMA with all the AskScience panelists](_URL_14_). (46 points) --- *[Best non-panelist answer](_URL_11_)* * \/u/MonsVeneris: exploring ways to quickly [empty jugs of water](_URL_10_). (56 points) --- *[Best panelist answer](_URL_3_)* * \/u/paleeoguy4: answering [how different would the movie Jurassic Park be with today's information](_URL_5_)? (45 points) --- *[Best question](_URL_13_)* This was by far, everybody's favourite category! Here are the winners and their respective questions. Each had accumulated more than 250 points. 1. \/u/just_saiyan_bro (636 points) 2. \/u/MrTripper (571 points) 3. \/u/calicoJill (424 points) 4. \/u/SigmaB (395 points) 5. \/u/Waldamos (322 points) 6. \/u/TheFalseComing (276 points) ---- 1. [When I turn off my lights, where does all the light go?](_URL_4_) 2. [What if we put a mirror in space, 1 light year from earth and we pointed Hubble at it would it be possible to see two years into earths past?](_URL_2_) 3. [Is absolutely every organism on Earth related, or has life started on Earth more than once?](_URL_0_) 4. [If you dissolve a compressed spring in an acid where does the energy go?](_URL_6_) 5. [If no elephant was alive today and the only record we had of them was their bones, would we have been able to accurately give them something as unique as a trunk?](_URL_8_) 6. [What stops light from going faster?](_URL_7_) Congratulations to all our winners! You'll be hearing from me very shortly. Here's to a happy new year 2013 filled with asking science questions and getting science answers!! | [
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19eypg | What is HAARP used for / what is space weather? | I came across an article: [NRL Scientists Produce Densest Artificial Ionospheric Plasma Clouds Using HAARP](_URL_0_).
A friend of mine seems to think this means that the navy is experimenting with weather control based off of the sentence:
> These glow discharges in the upper atmosphere were generated as a part of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) sponsored Basic Research on Ionospheric Characteristics and Effects (BRIOCHE) campaign to explore ionospheric phenomena and its impact on communications and **space weather**.
The emphasis is mine to highlight the source of confusion. What is space weather referring to? I'm guessing something in the atmosphere that can affect radio waves, and not more conventional weather like storms.
I'm almost certain that this research is more focused on enhancing communications, but this isn't my field of expertise and before I try to correct someone I'd like to make sure I'm not wrong. Apologies if this is violating any subreddit rules and thanks for any knowledge shared! | askscience | {
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"#**[H.A.A.R.P](_URL_8_) (High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program)**\n\nH.A.A.R.P is often linked with conspiracy theorists, usually in an attempt to associate disturbances in the ionosphere with large earthquakes, or seen as H.A.A.R.P being used as a weapon that causes earthquakes. The link between the two is actually the other way around. [Earthquake lights](_URL_2_) or EQLs are still being investigated and are not fully understood; however, progress is being made. In general, the build of of strain (prior to a large earthquake) in the earth can cause disturbances in the ionosphere. This disturbance is observed at stations like H.A.A.R.P whos primary goal is to study the ionosphere, and the generation of ULF/ELF/VLF signals as stated in both the original design patent and in their list of ongoing research activities. For those researchers using sensitive ULF/ELF receivers or magnetometers for seismic correlation studies it would be useful to know when HAARP is generating ULF signals and then subtract those signals from the data set. Unfortunately, HAARP does not notify the public of the varied dates, times and frequency, or nature of modulation of its transmissions.\n\nNasa Ames Research Center helped develop the theory of how this works to explain the observations: \n\nIt boils down to the idea that when rocks are compressed - as when tectonic plates shift - they act like batteries, producing electric currents. the charge carrier is a \"positive hole\", known as a phole, which can travel large distances in laboratory experiments. \nWhen they travel to the surface of the Earth, the surface becomes positively charged. And this charge can be strong enough to affect the ionosphere, causing the disturbances documented by satellites. \nWhen these pholes \"recombine\" at the surface of the Earth, they enter an excited state. They subsequently \"de-excite\" and emit mid-infrared light particles, or photons.\n\nFurther research by Cornell University was [published](_URL_0_) and can be read in summary at MITs physics blog [here](_URL_5_). \n\nNow that we have that a side we can address your question(s) directly.\n\n#**H.A.A.R.P transmission and communications**\n\n- Understanding the ionosphere and its layers\n\nWe can talk about ionosphere with relation to [its layers](_URL_3_). At night the F layer is the only layer of significant ionization present, while the ionization in the E and D layers is extremely low. During the day, the D and E layers become much more heavily ionized, as does the F layer, which develops an additional, weaker region of ionisation known as the F1 layer. The F2 layer persists by day and night and is the region mainly responsible for the refraction of radio waves, an effect otherwise known as the [skywave](_URL_4_). The F₂ layer is responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves, facilitating high frequency (HF, or shortwave) radio communications over long distances.\n\n[The patent](_URL_1_) that H.A.A.R.P was built under describes a method using a radio beam aimed at the ionosphere where shortwave pulses from 1 to 3.6 MHZ are applied to “heat” the electrons in the ionosphere. Then the antenna is turned so as to align with the magnetic field lines in the magnetosphere, and ELF waves (in the audio range) are applied which then drive the hot electrons upward into the magnetic bottle of the magnetosphere where they remain trapped. The purpose is to enhance the number and density of hot electrons in the magnetosphere so it will become more radio reflective. Some of the beneficial reasons for making the magnetosphere into a radio reflector are listed in the patent. The reason NRL scientists are interested in _URL_6_ use and is sponsored by DARPA is for communication with submarines. In the 1960’s the US Navy began experiments using ELF transmissions to talk to submarines deep in the ocean and it has since progressed. The advantage of creating your own skywave at ~50km as noted:\n > Using the 3.6-megawatt high-frequency (HF) HAARP transmitter, the plasma clouds, or balls of plasma, are being studied for use as artificial mirrors at altitudes 50 kilometers below the natural ionosphere and are to be used for reflection of HF radar and communications signals.\n\nAt such a low altitude, creating a 'mirror' for ones transmissions implies that one no longer has to rely on the variability within natural reflectors that are subject to space weather (space weather is the description of changes in the ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space largely induced by solar winds) and [its disturbances](_URL_7_) of communications systems that are in place (ie. GPS, other satellites and long-range radio transmissions).",
"From the article: \"Using the 3.6-megawatt high-frequency (HF) HAARP transmitter, the plasma clouds, or balls of plasma, are being studied for use as artificial mirrors at altitudes 50 kilometers below the natural ionosphere and are to be used for reflection of HF radar and communications signals.\"\n\nThe way long-distance communication via shortwave radio (HF, for \"high frequency\", 3-30 MHz) works is by bouncing radio signals off the ionosphere. Discharges from the sun (e.g. sunspots) create charged particles (ions) in this region of the atmosphere. It turns out that radio propagation (e.g. how well a given signal can get from point A to point B) is very dependent on the condition of the ionosphere, which is in turn dependent on space weather. For example, sunspots go in an 11-year cycle; when there are many sunspots, long-distance propagation is generally good, especially on the higher-frequency bands, but when there are fewer sunspots, long-distance propagation is not as good, and the higher frequency bands are often \"closed\" and do not support long-distance communication.\n\nYou can see some of the space weather measurements that people use for predicting propagation at _URL_9_\n\nMy understanding is that these guys are basically putting huge amounts of power into specific regions within the ionosphere to enable us to better understand how the ionosphere works and how we can predict/influence its effect on the propagation of radio signals. AFAIK, this has nothing to do with terrestrial weather.\n\nSource: I'm an amateur radio operator and I bounce signals off the ionosphere all the time.",
"I worked at HAARP over the summer. My research group was studying how density irregularities form and decay by bombarding the ionosphere with extremely short pulses of radio waves and using radars to image the irregularities.\n\nOther people have answered your questions about space weather already but if you have any questions about the facility specifically I'd be happy to provide you with what insight I have.\n\nI was there for a week and while I can't prove it's not being used for anything nefarious, I don't understand how it could do any of the things people attribute to it. My pet theory is that very few laypeople know much at all about space weather or space science and when they see terms like atmospheric heating that ignorance shows and they expect something is wrong.",
"I'm not really an expert in geophysics, but I spent a summer at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory working on computer modeling of space weather phenomena under a NASA program. I can't really speak much about HAARP, but I do know a little bit about Space Weather.\n\nSo the basic idea behind space weather is this: There'a steady flow of solar wind coming at the earth from the Sun, but luckily we have a magnetic field, the [magnetosphere](_URL_10_), around earth that [deflects most of it](_URL_11_). However the solar wind is not constant, it fluctuates in intensity and sometimes we get a great big burst of it from solar events. The magnetic field around Earth fluctuates in response to the solar wind, and these fluctuations are commonly termed \"space weather\". These fluctuations can be a big deal, hence the research interest. They can potentially damage satellites in orbit, and IIRC there was once a major blackout across the US because magnetic field fluctuations induced a current in long-distance power lines.\n\nSo why do we call this phenomena \"space weather\"? It has a couple characteristics that are very similar to atmospheric weather. It's a complicated nonlinear system that is very difficult to predict, and it goes through loading and unloading patterns. \n\nTo get an idea of loading and unloading patterns, imagine watching a hose filling an unstable bucket, and trying to guess when the bucket is going to fill up and tip over. If there's a big gush of water coming down the hose, the bucket is probably going to tip soon. But sometimes the bucket tips when there's only a gentle flow down the hose. In atmospheric weather, the hose is the sun unevenly heating the atmosphere, and the tipping bucket is a storm. In Space Weather, the hose is the solar wind and the tipping bucket is the magnetosphere changing state (fluctuating all over the place). These \"magnetic storms\" last anywhere from 6 hrs to 3 days and happen ~10 times per year, often following solar flares, but not always. \n\nFinally, current efforts focus on learning to predict these storms before they happen. We have satellites like [ACE](_URL_13_) sitting at the [L1 Lagrange Point](_URL_12_), that can potentially give us a 5 hr jump on the solar wind before it gets to Earth. If we had accurate models of the dynamics of the magnetosphere, we could use that information to predict these storms and take precautions against them before they happen.\n\nOn the off chance anyone is interested, [this is the project I worked on](_URL_14_). Go Science!",
"HAARP fires a beam of radio waves at a frequency which resonates with the ionospheric plasma to heat / raise the energy of the plasma, which stimulates artificial airglow / auroral emissions. What HAARP does is inconsequential compared to natural ionospheric energy input from the Sun.\n\nThe military is interested in applications with enhancing or interfering with radio communications.\n\nSpaceweather in general refers to stuff that happens in the ionosphere (100km altitude) and above, e.g. auroras, airglow, solar wind; and has little or nothing to do with what the general public calls weather.\n\nSource: I'm a space physicist working at the university which operates HAARP (though not specifically working with HAARP myself)."
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"url": [
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"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1105.2841",
"http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/haarp/esp_HAARP_17a.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_light",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Ionosphere_Layers_en.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skywave",
"http://www.technologyreview.com/view/424033/atmosphere-above-japan-heated-rapidly-before-m9-earthquake/",
"H.A.A.R.Ps",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_weather#Disruption_of_GPS_and_other_spacecraft_signals",
"http://www.haarp.alaska.edu/",
"http://dx.qsl.net/propagation/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere",
"http://fusedweb.llnl.gov/cpep/chart_pages/Graphics/Sun/Wind.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Composition_Explorer",
"http://geomag_field.jhuapl.edu/model/"
]
} | What is HAARP used for / what is space weather?
I came across an article: [NRL Scientists Produce Densest Artificial Ionospheric Plasma Clouds Using HAARP](_URL_0_). A friend of mine seems to think this means that the navy is experimenting with weather control based off of the sentence: > These glow discharges in the upper atmosphere were generated as a part of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) sponsored Basic Research on Ionospheric Characteristics and Effects (BRIOCHE) campaign to explore ionospheric phenomena and its impact on communications and **space weather**. The emphasis is mine to highlight the source of confusion. What is space weather referring to? I'm guessing something in the atmosphere that can affect radio waves, and not more conventional weather like storms. I'm almost certain that this research is more focused on enhancing communications, but this isn't my field of expertise and before I try to correct someone I'd like to make sure I'm not wrong. Apologies if this is violating any subreddit rules and thanks for any knowledge shared! | [
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|
r509q | Why is it so hard for humans to conceive? | First of all, for conception to be even possible the woman has to be ovulating - which she is for only a few days each month - and even then the sperm is given a pretty hard time getting to the egg. If a few of these poor sperm do make it, there's still no guarantee that the fertilized egg will stick to the wall of the uterus.
Now, given our evolutionary history one would expect us to be the descendants of people who *had an easy time getting pregnant*. What gives?
EDIT: To clarify, I'll borrow ipokebrains' comment below:
> Very few possible pregnancies are successful - not on a populatioon level, on a single organism level. The question is then why women don't release more eggs more often, or have a reproductive system that somehow fails less often. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Uh, do you know how many people get knocked up every day? Do you know how fast humans are reproducing? See [here](_URL_0_). \n\nYour question is based on false premises. Humans are having no trouble at all conceiving and reproducing. Now, if you are asking about infertility in individuals, who are certainly a small minority of the population (8% of couples), there are plenty of factors involved. As usual, [wikipedia](_URL_1_) is a good place to start.",
"We are K-strategists. Rabbits and flies are R-strategists, so they'll breed like crazy and in large quantities.",
"The whole \"conception is only possible during two days each month\" thing is not entirely true. Though a woman does only ovulate for 2 days a month, sperm can stay alive inside the Fallopian tubes for 5-7 days, so if ovulation occurs within that 5-7 day time frame then fertilization can occur.",
"We simply have a different strategy for successful fertilization. Many mammals have specific times in which they are sexually active. During these times the chance of successfully conceiving are very high. Our strategy is instead to be sexually active all the time. Though our chances each time may be small, we do it far more often.",
"So some of this is speculation, and liable to change!!! A book called [power sex suicide by Nick Lane](_URL_2_) goes over something like this for a small part of it. Its a great book that I recommend.\n\nHaving two sexes vs. 1 or many is kind of odd in and of itself. You limit your reproductive potential by doing so. Bacteria reproduce with wreckless abandon for example. Yet having male and female sexes is an example of convergent evolution because it has evolved independently more than once. So what is the evolutionary reason justification that makes lowered reproductive potential worth this? \n\nWell, it probably has to do with who provides mitochondria to children. The best universal definition of a female, is the mating type who gives mitochondria. Males on the other hand basically don't pass on any mitochondria to children. This is likely done to prevent competitive and combative evolution between Sex A mitochondria and sex B mitochondria (because they have their own genomes), which would be bad for the overall organism.\n\nThinking about females specifically, mitochondria accumulate damage over the course of a lifetime so it wouldn't do to pass on just any old mitochondria to your children. It MAY be that part of the process of egg development might be to select for the best functioning mitochondria and against the worst. Interestingly, all the cells that become eggs that woman will ever have are already present before she is born. What is going on with all those for all those years? It may be that there is some weeding going on. More research needs to be done though. Perhaps difficulty in conception for women is a part of this process. Eggs that didn't luck out with highly efficient mitochondria might be naturally aborted in hopes that the next one will be better.\n\nFor males there may be something else going on. When the thousands or millions of sperm race for the finish this might be another form of selection. Genes are mixed around between different chromosomes during meiosis (formation of sperm cells) and many, many new combinations are tried in a process called recombination. Some will be good or better, but many will bad. The hard trek up to the uterus maybe a way to eliminate bad combinations and select for the best. If most sperm combos are bad, this might also explain some of the difficulty.\n\nIn any event, many pregnancies probably don't work out because the babies aren't actually viable and either can't survive or there are mechanisms that recognize they aren't going to do well that cause natural abortions. This would be done to prevent wasted resources.",
"No answers about the dropping fertility rate? Men are [half as fertile from 50 years ago](_URL_3_)."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_population_history.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infertility",
"http://www.nick-lane.net/Power,%20Sex,%20Suicide.html",
"http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/doczone/2008/disappearingmale/"
]
} | Why is it so hard for humans to conceive?
First of all, for conception to be even possible the woman has to be ovulating - which she is for only a few days each month - and even then the sperm is given a pretty hard time getting to the egg. If a few of these poor sperm do make it, there's still no guarantee that the fertilized egg will stick to the wall of the uterus. Now, given our evolutionary history one would expect us to be the descendants of people who *had an easy time getting pregnant*. What gives? EDIT: To clarify, I'll borrow ipokebrains' comment below: > Very few possible pregnancies are successful - not on a populatioon level, on a single organism level. The question is then why women don't release more eggs more often, or have a reproductive system that somehow fails less often. | [
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|
5kxc2k | What is the farthest wind has traveled? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dbro6cw",
"dbro6mv",
"dbryx41",
"dbrvkcr"
],
"text": [
"\"Wind\" is more of a concept than a physical object you can measure like that. There's always some wind everywhere (except in very controlled indoor conditions) and it's always moving, so you can't really say it travels *x* miles.",
"not an expert on this in any way (engineering major at University), but isn't wind just waves of air particles traveling from high pressure to low pressure? The question doesn't really seem to make sense as wind isn't really a thing that \"travels\" per say, but someone in the field might have a better scientific answer and might be able to answer the question you were trying to ask which is probably the farthest continuous distance at which wind is created, but i'm not exactly sure.",
"What kind of wind are we talking about here?\n\nThe solar wind from our Sun travels out to the heliopause, about 18 billion km.\n\nStellar winds from Wolf-Rayet type stars can persist several light-years (50 trillion km) from their source.",
"After the eruption of [Krakatoa](_URL_0_), shock waves were detected on barographs all around the world for days afterward. If you accept the premise that a shock wave through the atmosphere counts as \"wind\" (which, I'll grant, might be a bit of a stretch), the answer to your question would be \"around the whole earth, several times\"."
],
"score": [
7,
5,
5,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakatoa"
]
} | What is the farthest wind has traveled?
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yil3k | Is Maslow's Heirarchy of needs a well grounded theory? | Maslow's Heirarchy was mentioned in a project management topic and I looked it up and found this report from 1974:
_URL_0_
Which says:
> A large number of cross-sectional studies showed no clear evidence for Maslow's deprivation/domination proposition except with regard to self-actualization
But then I also found this more recent paper from 2005 (which seems to apply the theory, rather than seek evidence for it):
_URL_1_
So is there any ground beneath the theory and is it widely accepted among pyschologists? Or is it just pseudoscience for managers?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"No, it's not really. However, Douglas Kenrick at Arizona State--who is one of the most well respected evolutionary psychologists--tried to generate an empirically validated hierarchy recently. \n\nIn my opinion (I'm a psych PhD in the same field) it's a relatively successful attempt. One of the key innovations is that it argues needs are only hierarchical en masse, but that any one need can grab attention when it is threatened. \n\nThe levels of need are as follows (top to bottom):\n\nParenting\n\nMate Retention\n\nMate Acquisition\n\nStatus/Esteem\n\nAffiliation\n\nSelf-Protection\n\nImmediate Physiological needs.\n\nHis theory holds that the levels are interchangeable at any one moment, but that over time the structure is, in fact, hierarchical in this order. For instance, you could be very hungry, but if your spouse says they're divorcing you, your physiological sensation of hunger will be attenuated while processing the new threat to overall well being. \n\nAn article explaining in colloquial terms the new, empirically derived, pyramid can be found [here](_URL_1_).\n\nThe link to the original work can be found [here](_URL_0_).\n\nEDIT: Added more info.",
"From my studies so far (Have a bachelors of psychology) Maslow's hierarchy tends to be taught in a mostly historical fashion, similar to Freud's theories. I would guess that, like many of Freud's theories, there are researchers who attempt to modernise it and are currently doing work on it but it certainly isn't mainstream.",
"My understanding is that the reality is probably a lot more complicated than Maslow described (altruism, for instance, often completely inverts his hierarchy) and testing the theory is basically impossible, but it is sometimes a useful shorthand.",
"Most scientific fields operate by forming a hypothesis, testing that hypothesis, examining data, and determining whether the hypothesis accurately predicted the outcome.\n\nPsychology works a little differently, and I think this is why oreng referred to it as \"pseudoscience.\"\n\nWith psychology, it really isn't possible to \"test\" these theories outright. How, for example, would you test whether someone is self-actualized. How many criteria must they meet to qualify for this, and which criteria are required? If the individual points differ from one culture to the next, is the theory still right?\n\nIn the end, psychological theories rise or fall based on how well they describe behavior just like a hypothesis in a more rigorous field. The problem is you may have two completely different theories that describe different reasons for the same behavior, and they may work equally well.",
"> So is there any ground beneath the theory\n\nNo, not really. In order to get *hard* evidence for all these \"theories\" about behavior we need a far, far better understanding of the brain, and the neuroscience simply isn't there yet. Maslow's pyramid is probably on the \"pulling it out of your ass\" side of the spectrum, while, say, rigorous research on mental illness like depression, bipolar disorder is on the other side. But still, it's not hard science, the actual answers lie within our brain and we'll probably have to gain an understanding of how it works on a *molecular* level in order to give definitive answers about all those things.",
"After reading all of these responses, I'm astonished this was in my highschool psychology textbook."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0030507376900386",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053535705001150"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/",
"http://psychcentral.com/news/2010/08/23/updated-maslows-pyramid-of-needs/17144.html"
]
} | Is Maslow's Heirarchy of needs a well grounded theory?
Maslow's Heirarchy was mentioned in a project management topic and I looked it up and found this report from 1974: _URL_0_ Which says: > A large number of cross-sectional studies showed no clear evidence for Maslow's deprivation/domination proposition except with regard to self-actualization But then I also found this more recent paper from 2005 (which seems to apply the theory, rather than seek evidence for it): _URL_1_ So is there any ground beneath the theory and is it widely accepted among pyschologists? Or is it just pseudoscience for managers? | [
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mi3fw | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA neuroscientists studying learning and memory | We are neuroscientists studying different aspects of learning and memory and are all at different stages in our careers. Ask us about neuroscience, academic careers, or graduate school.
MicturitionSyncope
I am a PhD level scientist doing postdoctoral research on the molecular mechanisms of learning and memory. We are specifically looking at how gene expression changes in response to creating a fear memory in mice. I am quantifying these changes using a technique called high throughput sequencing where we sequence millions of pieces of DNA simultaneously. My thesis work was on sensory biology, studying a particular ion channel that responded to increases in oxygen concentration. I could answer questions about learning, sensory biology, or what it’s like to have a five year old who hates to poop.
palsi
I am a PhD candidate in a Neuroscience Department soon to be in my defense. The focus of my research is structural plasticity in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex with specific interests in dendritic spine alterations and remodeling, adult neurogenesis, and neuropeptides. I have been investigating how chronic stress in pregnant dams affects post-natal resilience in the mother. I also am interested in neuroscience, genetic, molecular and cellular methodologies.
navaboo
I'm an MA student in my thesis year, studying basic learning and memory through cognitive experimentation and computational modelling. My thesis research explores a complex learning phenomenon typically explained by analytic reasoning, and considers it instead in terms of extremely simple mechanisms acting within the constraints of memory. I'm also doing some work on the debate between single-process and dual-process (implicit and explicit) memory theories. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Just a reminder that the typical AskScience rules apply even in AMA's, specifically that **asking for medical advice is not appropriate**. Doing so goes against the Reddit user agreement, and really puts these experts in a tough spot (there can be legal repercussions for giving medical advice on the internet). Thanks everyone, all the best!",
"Such fascinating areas of science!\n\n\nI'm a total novice in this area so I don't know how \"answerable\" this is, but I've always wondered: \nHow exactly does a human recall a memory? Is it a certain brain state or a set of neurons that \"stores\" human memories, be them short or long term?\n\nEdit: Ah, perhaps you can ignore this question because I just found [this thread](_URL_0_).",
"Why do I forget what I wanted to do in a room as I enter it? How can I stop this from happening?\n\nI had an epiphany the other day and forgot it completely before I could write it down :(",
"Thanks so much for taking the time out of your busy schedules to do an AMA! Perhaps you all could weigh in on a debate going on in one of my research labs.\n\nI'm a neuropsychiatrist involved in quite a bit of research. One of the projects we're currently working on is investigating BDNF SNPs and hippocampal volumes in TBI recovery. Our lab has gone back and forth about whether it's appropriate to analyze total hippocampal volume, or to do separate comparisons of right and left volumes. In the research I'm seeing that both techniques are used, though it seems to me that doing separate right and left analyses is the way to go. Besides simplicity or as a time saver, is there any argument for doing a total hippocampal volume analysis, despite the fact that they are (in reality) two separate structures?",
"Guy #1 (Fear research): What were some of the most significant changes seen in the geneome after fear learning? Amplifications? Deletions? Do you know the gene products of these changes?",
"What's the explanation for phobias? And can any of you comment on the nature or existence of genetic memory in humans?",
"Navaboo --\n\nI wonder what exactly you are exploring in terms of computational modeling and memory. I am a grad student in a dual-process recognition memory lab, and our [lab](_URL_3_) behaviorally addresses questions about how recollection behaves. \n\nFor my master's, I have been reading about the perirhinal cortex's involvement in memory and perception. Would you happen to be familiar with [Cowell et al.'s (2006)](_URL_3_) and [Norman & O'Reilly's (2003)](_URL_3_) work? If so, how does your work overlap with their's, if at all?",
"How do I spend several days studying for exams and still not remember most of the shit when I sit down with the questions in front of me?\n\nOr more scientifically speaking: Why is it difficult for some to commit things to memory more than others? Why can constant attempts at memorization end up fruitless?",
"What it going on memory-wise when I learn something new on piano and can play it better after taking a short break from it (and not sleeping in between)?"
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"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/m9jsw/physically_speaking_what_is_a_memory/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17122043",
"http://faculty.unlv.edu/cparks/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14599236"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series- IAMA neuroscientists studying learning and memory
We are neuroscientists studying different aspects of learning and memory and are all at different stages in our careers. Ask us about neuroscience, academic careers, or graduate school. MicturitionSyncope I am a PhD level scientist doing postdoctoral research on the molecular mechanisms of learning and memory. We are specifically looking at how gene expression changes in response to creating a fear memory in mice. I am quantifying these changes using a technique called high throughput sequencing where we sequence millions of pieces of DNA simultaneously. My thesis work was on sensory biology, studying a particular ion channel that responded to increases in oxygen concentration. I could answer questions about learning, sensory biology, or what it’s like to have a five year old who hates to poop. palsi I am a PhD candidate in a Neuroscience Department soon to be in my defense. The focus of my research is structural plasticity in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex with specific interests in dendritic spine alterations and remodeling, adult neurogenesis, and neuropeptides. I have been investigating how chronic stress in pregnant dams affects post-natal resilience in the mother. I also am interested in neuroscience, genetic, molecular and cellular methodologies. navaboo I'm an MA student in my thesis year, studying basic learning and memory through cognitive experimentation and computational modelling. My thesis research explores a complex learning phenomenon typically explained by analytic reasoning, and considers it instead in terms of extremely simple mechanisms acting within the constraints of memory. I'm also doing some work on the debate between single-process and dual-process (implicit and explicit) memory theories. | [
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1md7xy | Is it possible to create non-arbitrary units of measurement? | Pounds, Kilos, Seconds, Length, are all defined in context to one another. Is it possible to create a truly universal standard of measurement that would be intelligible to, say, an alien? Perhaps based on atomic structure or something similar? | askscience | {
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"Sure, take a look at the [Pioneer plaque](_URL_0_), for example. Using binary notation the plaque describes the period of several pulsars in the Milky Way, the unit of time it uses is the period of the radio waves of the Hydrogen hyperfine \"spin-flip\" transition, which should be well known to any species that has conducted radio astronomy. The plaque uses relative lengths of lines tagged with the periods of these pulsars to give the 3D coordinates of our Solar System.\n\nThe wavelength of the Hydrogen spin-flip transition waves is also used as a unit of measurement for describing the average height of a human in the plaque.",
"There are probably many ways to do this. The first one that comes to mind are the Planck units. Simply measure the speed of light c, the Planck constant h, and the Newton constant G, and combine them with different powers to form the Planck length, Planck time, Planck mass. So if you talk to an alien, you can say \"Let's measure all lengths in terms of sqrt(hG/c^3)\". \n\nBecause of E=mc^2 you also get a Planck energy, and you can measure temperatures easily in terms of energy.\n\nYou could also use the Bohr radius as a fundamental length unit, but then you also need to know the elementary charge, electron mass and the permeability of vacuum. Or you use the Compton wavelength of an electron.\n\nAs a mass unit you might as well use the electron mass. Or use the frequency of some characteristic spectrum line of some atom to define a time unit (we actually do that using Cesium to define a second). It all depends on what you can measure most easily and/or precisely to have it most convenient for your purpose.\n\nAll of these are still somewhat arbitrary, but it beats the definition of our kilogram, which is just \"the weight of that thing under a glass bowl in Paris\". Our definitions of the other units may not be as elegant as what I described above (especially for Kelvin, kilogram and Ampere), but they provide the best accuracy for us at this time.",
"I don't think so.\n\nToday, nearly all units of measure[*] can be described by phone to an alien. For example, to define the second, you can say it's \"the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom,\" and you're done: the alien can make the measurement in his laboratory, and know what a \"second\" is. Of course, the number \"9,192,631,770\" is arbitrary. The choice of caesium 133 is arbitrary too, though it's been chosen because it's easy to measure.\n\n[*] The only exception is the kilogram. Project Avogadro is trying to solve that, by defining the kilogram as a specific number of atoms of silicium. [See this video.](_URL_1_)",
"Do radians count? They are based just on geometry, not even any natural units.\n\n_URL_2_",
"But don't we define the SI units (except for the kilogram, but that as well should change soon) as the result of a natural process?"
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"url": [
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radian"
]
} | Is it possible to create non-arbitrary units of measurement?
Pounds, Kilos, Seconds, Length, are all defined in context to one another. Is it possible to create a truly universal standard of measurement that would be intelligible to, say, an alien? Perhaps based on atomic structure or something similar? | [
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|
z578k | What would be more survivable; being splashed with liquid nitrogen, or liquid hot magma? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c61j5w1",
"c61jjvw",
"c61jzcl",
"c61j84x",
"c61k31j"
],
"text": [
"Liquid nitrogen. Our body temperature is high enough to boil some it away before it actually touches your skin. That probably wasn't what you were asking though",
"While the other answers are of course correct (I fucking *love* askscience), here's another way of guesstimating the answer:\n\nLiquid nitrogen evaporates when heated to -196^o C, and when it does, it takes 5.56kJ/mol of energy *to* evaporate. At that point, it's a gas and cannot as effectively cool down your body.\n\nMagma, on the other hand, is 700-1200^o C hot, and when cooling, it phase-changes into a solid (which might get stuck to the skin). It has a low specific heat at ~~[0.48kj/kg K](_URL_1_)~~, where [nitrogen is at 2kj/kg K](_URL_0_).\n\nmultiplying those gives us an *idea* about the comparative survivability.\n\nthe difference from body temperature to magma and nitrogen is [1000; 200], the specific heat is [~~0,5~~;2], and the relative numbers are [~~500~~;400]\n\n~~So, lava is 5/4 as fatal as nitrogen~~ - and that's not including the fact that nitrogen, in small doses, boil off before it even makes contact with your skin.\n\nEDIT: I used the wrong properties for lava - the specific heat is 0,84kJ / kg K, so the revised numbers would be 1000 K temperature difference between the human body and lava, multiplied by 0,84 kj / kg K, which gives us 840 kj / kg.\n\nNew results are that Lava is 84/40 - 2,1 times as fatal as nitrogen.\n\n(also, considering lava/magma: Magma is underground, lava is aboveground, to put very simply)",
"Source: I work with LN2.\n\nThe most you get is cold, maybe a burning sensation after half a second or so of continuous contact. (ie a drop in your hand) Extensive exposure for more than a few seconds would be extremely painful, and you run the risk of frostbite.\n\nThat being said, there are people in heat suits 40 feet away from magma who are getting burned.",
"There is far more potential energy stored in terms of temperature differential in liquid stone than in liquid nitrogen.",
"Not to highlight the complete obvious, but magma could potentially light you or your clothes on fire. Liquid nitrogen won't start a self-sustainable chemical reaction."
],
"score": [
12,
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6,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.uigi.com/nitrogen.html",
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-heat-solids-d_154.html"
]
} | What would be more survivable; being splashed with liquid nitrogen, or liquid hot magma?
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rn2t8 | Would an X Wing be able to fly | Watching Star Wars and was wondering if a plan designed as an X Wing would be able to actually fly | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The X-Wing appears to be designed for space, so aerodynamic qualities wouldn't matter much.",
"It would be unstable without some sort of horizontal stabilizer in front and a rudder mounted somewhere in the back. There's also the question of how you would attach landing gear.",
"The closest real plane I can find is Rutan's [Model 68 racer](_URL_1_): an inverse-stagger-wing biplane with negative dihedral on the lower wing. \n\nIn general, biplane wings interfere with airflow over each other, and this generally gets worse as the wings get closer together. Thus we would expect that a true X-Wing plan (i.e. no stagger, wings meet at roots) would be inefficient at the roots. \n\nEdit: For posterity, it turns out there was a real X-Wing design: the [Stroop SP-6/SP-7](_URL_0_), although it appears to have never proceeded beyond the wind-tunnel stage.",
"X-Wing fighters in the Star Wars universe fly while within atmosphere using a \"repulsorlift drive\" which is different than their main drive while in space. This drive pushes against the gravity well of the planet directly, and thus the shape of the craft is largely irrelevant. A brick could be floated just as easily as a streamlined craft, with air resistance being the only concern.",
"On a related note, how important is the shape of a ship if it were in space? Could it be any crazy shape?",
"Probably not in an atmosphere. the wing distribution (in the shape of an x) might be manageable, but not very efficient, but the main problem is that the x-wings wings are not shaped properly to create lift as air passes around them.",
"what if it just acts like a missile because of how strong the future space engines are?",
"Sure with sufficient amounts of magic anything can fly"
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://retromechanix.com/article/fighters/stroop-x-wing-convertible-speed-planes-1935-9/",
"http://stargazer2006.online.fr/aircraft/amsoil.htm"
]
} | Would an X Wing be able to fly
Watching Star Wars and was wondering if a plan designed as an X Wing would be able to actually fly | [
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7zj3uz | How applicable are Newtonian Physics in real life? Is it completely false or are there some concepts which can be used to accurately predict real-life situations? | askscience | {
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"Very applicable all the time. Any time any object in you environment moves, it's behavior adheres almost perfectly to Newton's laws. You may not able to record enough of an environment's factors (e.g. air resistance, friction) to make an accurate prediction, but the system is still acting in a Newtonian way (momentum transfer between individual air molecules and a moving object is Newtonian) and usually you can use a simplified model to be mostly accurate. Much of modern engineering is based on the application of Newtonian Physics.\n\nBut Newton's model is still slightly inaccurate, because it doesn't include Einsteinian relativity. However, the two models only diverge significantly at extremes: high velocity, high gravity, large distances, and so on. For the majority of applications the differences between the two are negligible.",
"> Is it completely false or are there some concepts which can be used to accurately predict real-life situations?\n\n\"Completely false\" and \"can be used to accurately predict real-life situations\" are not mutually exclusive. Newtonian physics is, when you get down to it, a false model of the universe. However it's very *close* to being right at the scales we normally care about, so it's okay. \n\nIt's like using \"3.14159265359\" exactly as the definition of pi. It's completely false, but at the same time it'll usually be good enough.",
"Newtonian physics works great for day to day life. Relativity and quantum mechanics are only needed when you have large amounts of mass or velocity. Meaning black holes or fractions of c. Even at the scale of planets, Newtonian physics holds up fine. \n\nOn the opposite end, when you get to scales smaller than the plank length Newtonian (classical) physics again becomes invalid. \n\nDay to day though, Newton’s laws are absolutely valid. If you’re answer is off by .0000002% does it really matter?",
"If you assume the relative velocities involved are 'small' then the equations that govern Newtonian Physics fall out of the ones that govern general relativity. \n\nRealistically the everyday world is mostly low energy. We can calculate the difference between the two theories but the difference is usually less than we could measure, and almost always small enough that it's unimportant.",
"Just about every object around you, with the exception of electronic devices, was designed using Newtonian physics. Cars, skyscrapers, houses, furniture, airplanes... \n\nQuantum mechanics is needed to understand semiconductors and the chemical and mechanical properties of materials, and relativity is relevant in a few specialized devices, but otherwise, the world is built on Newton's laws."
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} | How applicable are Newtonian Physics in real life? Is it completely false or are there some concepts which can be used to accurately predict real-life situations?
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ax74gq | Starfish Prime was the largest nuclear test conducted in outer space, by the US in 1962. What was its purpose and what did we learn from it? | Edit: Thank you all for taking the time to produce such interesting answers! | askscience | {
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"Starfish Prime was part of a larger series of high-altitude tests called Operation Fishbowl (a subset of Operation Dominic). As the researcher Chuck Hansen puts it pithily in his _Swords of Armageddon_ (v2):\n\n > The purpose of the FISHBOWL program was to satisfy JCS requirements for weapons effects data about nuclear fireball transparency, growth and rise rates; intensity and duration of atmospheric ionization; missile RV structural response to thermal radiation; radiation flux measurements; electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects and range; nuclear, thermal, and x-radiation output and effects; and radio and radar \"blackout\" effects (which would bear directly on antiballistic missile targeting and control). Knowledge of these effects was required to evaluate ICBM \"kill\" mechanisms and vulnerabilities; ABM effectiveness; communications and control; and the value of ICBM penetration aids.\n\nAt the time, both the US and USSR were deploying anti-ballistic missile systems that would try to intercept incoming missiles at high altitudes with nuclear warheads, and used radio waves for communication and coordination of their forces. So understanding what would happen when a weapon went off very high above the atmosphere was important for this, especially since many of the effects of a nuclear weapon are somewhat different in versus outside of the atmosphere. And if you imagine lots of these things going off in the upper atmosphere, you get a picture of how \"messy\" it would be to try and detect incoming missiles and planes, and communicate outside of your home country, in the event of all-out war.\n\nTo highlight two of the most important of the above:\n\n* The \"blackout\" effects pertain to the fact that a high-altitude nuclear weapon will interfere with radar and radio. That means that there is a period after a weapon has detonated at that height that the radars on the ground can no longer see any incoming weapons. Understanding this is crucial if you are really trying to field a nuclear-armed ABM system, because every \"hit\" makes it harder for you to see any further, incoming missiles, and makes it very easy to defeat (just send a lot). \n\n* The electromagnetic pulse (EMP) was somewhat understood prior to these tests but Starfish Prime in particular highlighted its effects. Because it ionized the upper atmosphere, it produced a massive EMP effect over a very large area. This was of interest for a lot of reasons relating to both defense and attack strategies — if you are able to interfere with electronics on a large scale, that can be useful; if you have electronics you don't want interfered with in that way, you have to design them to be able to resist it.\n\nStarfish was an \"effects\" test — the goal was to see \"what happened\" not to learn about whether it would work or not. This is different than, say, Frigate Bird, which was a \"systems\" test (does the whole system work?) or the other tests in the Dominic series that tried out new warhead ideas (\"design\" tests).",
"The main purpose was to test the effect of the electromagnetic pulse (EMP), which can affect much larger areas when the explosion takes place up in higher altitudes. The EMP was far larger than expected and affected Hawaiian islands more than 1000 km away from the launch point, damaging and destroying electrical objects like street lamps, which caused the public to become aware of this side effect of nuclear explosions.\n\nMany more details of course on the corresponding [wiki page](_URL_0_).",
"Various theories for the purpose of the test:\n\n1) Assessment of the aerodynamics of a nuclear-armed missile with a live-fire test. This isn't likely, as the cost of the warhead, the waste of the warhead for a test, etc., make this rather prohibitive that early in the US nuclear missile game.\n\n2) Test the effects of a nuclear-based EMP at high altitude. This seems more likely, though the EMP created was far greater than anticipated, causing damage nearly 900 miles away. While the EMP of a nuclear blast was known at the time, the underlying physics were not well understood, likely resulting in a blast that pegged out the instruments.\n\n3) Study the effect of fallout from a space-based blast. This might be another plausible theory, as fallout, particularly at such altitude, was poorly understood.\n\nThere are likely others, but it's difficult to discern given that the range safety officer destroyed the missile midflight under indications the missile, itself, was breaking up. If it was an aborted mission, the theory that it was a live-fire ballistic missile test seems plausible, despite the cost of using an actual nuke warhead (I'd have to look at the trajectory and potential weapons ranges in the ocean, though I doubt anything of that era would've been \"official\").\n\nAnother theory that comes to mind is the investigation of the magnetic field of the Earth. The van Allen belts were theorized and discovered in the late 1950s, and Starfish Prime occurred in 1962, so it's reasonable to think the two might be linked, particularly as a nuclear deetonation would provide a significant mass of material by which to observe via aurora."
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zaszh | Putting your mad scientist caps on, what are some interesting scientific endeavors that we are capable of, but which are limited by the boundaries of ethics? | askscience | {
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"Nature vs. Nurture experiments. Consiously destroying a child's mind for the sake of science is considered unethical for some reason.",
"We are capable of launching truly gigantic spacecraft that can go at extreme speeds compared to what we have now. There were plans in the 1950's for multi-thousand-ton spacecraft that could take large crews to Mars or even Saturn quite quickly.\n\nThe ethical downside is that its engine is [nuclear pulse propulsion](_URL_1_), which involves rapidly setting of thousands of nuclear explosives behind the spacecraft to push it forward, so it's rather environmentally unfriendly.\n\nLater plans for laser-ignited fusion explosions are more feasible environmentally, but beyond our current technology.\n\nEdit: There is also the [nuclear thermal rocket](_URL_0_) which is much less crazy, but the launch of such a large reactor is rather hazardous.",
"The study of pain, and neuroscience in general could definitely use more controlled studies that include the unethical treatment of humans in experimental groups.",
"We don't know very well the toxicity of many chemical and radioactive species, especially in different forms (skin exposure, inhalation, ingestion, etc). \n\nThese would be useful, but would require exposing a lot of people to these things directly.",
"This may sum up many \n[Nazi human experimentation](_URL_2_)",
"Raising children in isolation or very controlled small groups to see what differences in cognition different languages or no language caused to appear.",
"The potential for achievement in the realm of recreational pharmaceuticals is literally wondrous. Though my personal sense of ethics holds that this work could and should be done with about one order of magnitude fewer resources than we presently devote to purely medical pharmaceuticals, the tedious restraints of archaic, yet still popular, prohibitionist thinking on the subject insures that this work will only occur in secret and illegal operations. Given openness, peer review, and corporate resources; I believe we could easily replace alcohol with a beverage additive that had similar desirable traits along with much reduced health and public safety risks. However, it is also plausible that all manner of other delights could be invented, perhaps even profoundly new states of mind discovered. As long as humanity maintains consensus support for a brutal police state in the realm of recreational pharmaceuticals, we compound the terrible prices of our prohibitions with the lost opportunities serious research in this realm might provide.",
"Just finished reading about stem cells for spinal cord injuries. While a phase 1 trial in Switzerland found no ill effects on 3 patients, a clinic in China seems to be proceeding with much less caution.",
"Cloning Neanderthals. Would they have the same rights as humans? Would they fit into society? Leave them alone on an island for several generations and see what happens?\n\nCross breeding Neanderthals with humans. Most humans have ~4% Neanderthal DNA. What would someone with more Neanderthal DNA be like.",
"Fairly recently, someone in /r/askscience inquired about the barriers to creating Chimpanzee/Human hybrids. A biologist replied that it might lead to extremely important discoveries but was immensely ethically challenging. Can anyone find the link?",
"Amputee 100m sprinters. Are artificial limbs faster than the original?",
"I'm just going to hijack this thread for a similar question.\n\nWhen we learned about genetics and chromosomes we learned:\n\nXX - > woman\n\nXY - > man\n\nWhat would happen if there were two Y in the cell? Would we theoretically be able to do this in a lab? Would the resulting cell be capable of reproducing? Creating a human being capable of living on his own? How would it look?\n\nI assume a human cell without an X chromosome wouldn't work, but I'd like to know what somebody who knows more about human biology has to say about this.",
"Surprised not to see [eugenics](_URL_3_) listed here. The eugenics movement in the United States is something that we've tried very hard to forget about, due to its parallels with Nazi Germany.\n\nWe consider it taboo to discuss the selection of humans that have properties that would improve the species, while doing the same (on a remarkable scale) with animals and plants.",
"Incorporating sequences for making various peptide drugs by inserting them into host DNA with retroviruses, preferably with control regions. So you could induce (or repress a constiuent activity, if better suited) transcription on demand. Want some endorphins ? Just take some obscure control factor."
],
"score": [
81,
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12,
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3,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics"
]
} | Putting your mad scientist caps on, what are some interesting scientific endeavors that we are capable of, but which are limited by the boundaries of ethics?
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kyhaq | If you're trapped in an airtight room with oxygen running out and exhalation byproducts rising, should you find high ground or stay low to the ground or does it not matter? | Says it in the title. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The CO2 molecule is heavier than most components of air (O2, N2, etc.), so it will tend to sink to the bottom of the room. Assuming that one doesn't stir up the air, staying high should be better.",
"More importantly might be calming down and slowing your breathing.",
"I doubt that it would matter. At any temperature above absolute zero, the molecules in the air all jiggle around randomly and crash into each other in a process called Brownian motion. This has the effect of mixing up the air, even if there isn't someone flapping their arms or there isn't a fan going. It's one of the reasons you can smell someone fart when they're on the other side of the room.",
"In a small room it probably doesn't matter, but outdoors [start climbing](_URL_0_).",
"Relevant: \n\n\"On August 21, 1986, possibly triggered by a landslide, Lake Nyos suddenly emitted a large cloud of CO2, which suffocated 1,700 people and 3,500 livestock in nearby towns and villages.[2]\"\n\n...\n\n\"Carbon dioxide, being about 1.5 times as dense as air, caused the cloud to \"hug\" the ground and descend down the valleys where various villages were located. The mass was about 50 metres (164 ft) thick and it travelled downward at a rate of 20–50 kilometres per hour (12–31 mph). For roughly 23 kilometres (14 mi) the cloud remained condensed and dangerous, suffocating many of the people sleeping in Nyos, Kam, Cha, and Subum.[4] About 4,000 inhabitants fled the area, and many of these developed respiratory problems, lesions, and paralysis as a result of the gases.[11]\"\n\n\n_URL_1_\n\nNow I am definitely a layman, but I remember reading elsewhere about this Lake Nyos incident where people were sleeping on the top bunk inside their house lived while people on the ground died.",
"It's true that the CO2 is heavier so it would be more likely to be found near the bottom of the room. However, at room temperature this effect is negligible.\n\nUsing up oxygen by using your muscles and moving around would outweigh the benefit of finding higher ground. The best thing to do would be to go to sleep.\n\nOn a slightly more morbid note, lack of oxygen leads to euphoria, so it wouldn't be that bad of a way to go."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Nyos",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Nyos"
]
} | If you're trapped in an airtight room with oxygen running out and exhalation byproducts rising, should you find high ground or stay low to the ground or does it not matter?
Says it in the title. | [
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4khfzl | What exactly does a blast cap do? | From what I hear large explosions can be pretty difficult to detonate (such as C4). I hear physical force, raising temperature and a flame doesn't set it off (although I may have heard wrong). What does a blasting cap do to make something detonate? | askscience | {
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"Most military (safe to carry) explosives are very hard to actually get to explode. This makes them safe to carry and store. A blasting cap is a small explosive device (won't be devastating if it goes off) kept separate until it's placed with the primary explosive, like C4. \n\nThat way there's almost no risk of a catastrophic failure until the explosive has been placed where it needs to go off. The blasting cap will explode into the secondary (main, big one) explosive, which creates enough energy to set off the secondary explosive.\n\n*changed what primary and secondary was. Thanks /r/sardano",
"> A blasting cap is a small sensitive primary explosive device generally used to detonate a larger, more powerful and less sensitive secondary explosive such as TNT, dynamite, or plastic explosive.\n > \n > Blasting caps come in a variety of types, including non-electric caps, electric caps, and fuse caps\n\n[From the wiki](_URL_0_)\n\nBasically there are lots of different kinds but they all provide a (relatively) large amount of energy to get the reaction started. C4 and other explosive are call secondary explosives. They have a high activation energy. They need a primary explosive to set them off. That's the gist of it. The wiki will have more info if you are interested.",
"First, you should understand the difference between high and low explosives. Low explosives like gunpowder rapidly react, and this reaction is propagated by a flame front. This is called deflagration. High explosives react even faster, and they are characterized by the fact that their decomposition is propagated by a shock wave, i.e. a pressure wave that moves faster than the speed of sound. This is called detonation, which is what we're interested in.\n\nIt's really hard to measure the stuff that allows us to classify explosives as high or low, but you can frequently tell by the type of compound. Low explosives are often mixtures of an oxidizer and reducer (like potassium nitrate and charcoal in gunpowder). High explosives are often pure compounds, like TATP, silver acetylide, mannitol hexanitrate, RDX (the main component of C-4), and these pure compounds decompose incredibly fast. \n\nTo imagine the difference, picture deflagration as a cotton ball catching fire and having the flame front propagate (bonds are broken and formed since it's a reaction of two compounds), and detonation as having the chemical bonds between the cotton cellulose just up and snap all of a sudden. Now, you can visualize why detonation is so much more powerful.\n\nThat out of the way, we can get to the meat of your question! There are primary and secondary high explosives. Primary explosives are used in blasting caps and are pretty sensitive - they can be set off by heat/fire, impact, electric current/static electricity, or even friction if you're dealing with the nasty ones. Secondary high explosives, however, can only be set off by the insanely fast shockwave that comes with the detonation of a blasting cap. Take C-4 (secondary, made of RDX and plasticizers), for example - you could throw a big chunk of it in a campfire and pretty much nothing would happen. Put a tiny bit of silver acetylide (primary, heat/impact/static sensitive) on top of that chunk and smash it with a hammer and, well, you'd be toast pretty much immediately.\n\nedit: clarity",
"Large mailiitary charges are desgined to be insensitive. this is even more true in the last 20 years or so (to protect the ships and aircraft that transport them).\n\nA blasting cap has a small primary (sensitive) explosive loaded against a larger secondary high explosive charge in metal cap.(usually aluminum). The primary charge is easily initated by a \"hotwire\" a \"shock tube\" or a flame off of a safety fuse. It intiates the more powerful secondary charge which provides enoguh shock and high speed fragments to initate the main charge (the C4 or whatever). \n\nI have worked 30 years in military and aerospace ordnance.",
"Blasting caps contain the rest of the \"explosive train.\"\n\nIn order to reliably set off any modern military or civilian high explosive, you need a \"chain\" of different explosives ordered from highest sensitivity to lowest, and in increasing amounts. A cap contains three or more explosives, from the extremely sensitive (primary) in an extremely small amount, up through intermediate in larger amounts. When you insert the cap into the secondary explosive (c4 or dynamite, for example) you complete the train and it only takes a small amount of energy to set them off (like the spark from a fuze)."
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} | What exactly does a blast cap do?
From what I hear large explosions can be pretty difficult to detonate (such as C4). I hear physical force, raising temperature and a flame doesn't set it off (although I may have heard wrong). What does a blasting cap do to make something detonate? | [
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5ch9lp | Are there articles/theories that go against popular physics, but has an undeniable point? | The only one i can think of is James Webb's theory on how the "fine" constant along with lightspeed has differed through time. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The thing is that popular physics (which I'm going to take to mean textbook/orthodox physics like is taught in universities) _is_ the stuff that has a point. Theories that most physicists think have some sort of point are what makes up physics, either as being directly accepted or, if evidence is lacking, as an interesting idea to be tested when practical.\n\nScientific knowledge in the broad sense is just the collection of observations, theories, and arguments that a consensus of scientists find convincing. Anything sufficiently convincing gets added to the whole.",
"This really depends on exactly what you mean. If you mean observation evidence that contradicts current physics, there are two options\n\n1) There are objections to be raised with the methodology\n\n2) The work just hasn't been seen\n\nIn terms of theoretical work - there is tons of research outside of standard physics (everything I do for example).",
"When talking about theoretical physics, then yeah, sure, lots and lots of stuff. Depends on what you mean by \"going against popular physics\" though. \n\nSome examples that definitely goes against the mainstream are massive gravity, bimetric gravity, MOND-type theories, Loop Quantum gravity, asymptotic safety, and various other approaches to quantum gravity. Now, do these things actually have any \"undeniable point\"? Personally, I don't really think so; but they are not obviously wrong (well... for some of these that's arguable, I guess), they have some interesting features and some smart knowledgable people believe and work on all of them.",
"Like Hubble not believing in the expanding universe? or Einstein not believing in the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics?\n\nOr Einstein not believing that General relativity was a description of a geometric gravity?\n\nMany of the things we take as 'taken' are things that are often questioned by the very people who proposed the ideas.\n\nOf course the biggest example is how relativity went against the very popular theory of Newtonian gravity. Mainstream, textbook or popular does not necessarily make the current convention correct. If fact the great thing and very power of science is the find those breakdowns that allow new understanding to emerge."
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} | Are there articles/theories that go against popular physics, but has an undeniable point?
The only one i can think of is James Webb's theory on how the "fine" constant along with lightspeed has differed through time. | [
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|
5zsfgu | Have there been any conjectures proven false, despite being widely believed to be true prior to the disproval? | Many famous conjectures (e.g. Goldbach's Conjecture) may not be formally proven, but are widely believed to be true due to strong heuristic and statistical evidence, and a disproval seems exceedingly unlikely.
Has there been a case where a conjecture, widely believed to be true for a long time, has actually been proven false later? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"df0oqek",
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"df0n76p"
],
"text": [
"One of the [shortest math papers](_URL_1_) disproves a longstanding conjecture of Euler (~200 years). Euler conjectured that if you have a sum of n-powers equaling another n-power, then you needed at least n terms in the sum. Fermat's Last Theorem is kinda an example of this x^(n)+y^(n)=z^(n) is a sum of two powers, and there is only a solution when n=1,2. But in the 60s, two mathematicians used computers to find that \n\n* 27^(5) + 84^(5) + 110^(5) + 133^(5) = 144^(5),\n\na sum of 5th powers with four terms that equals another 5th power. There's a [bit more theory](_URL_0_) about this, and counterexamples to other powers have been found.\n\nThere was another conjecture that for all N, the numbers N^(17)+9 and (N+1)^(17)+9 don't share any common factors. The first counterexample is N=8424432925592889329288197322308900672459420460792433.\n\nThis is why you can't just compute to verify conjectures up to a certain point and be sure that they're true. So far, all the zeros for the Riemann Zeta Function are on the critical line, but the ones not on the critical line could just be outside our computational limits. Goldbach's conjecture seems to be true, so far, but there could be unimaginably large numbers, that we have no hope to work with computationally, that it fails for. We won't know unless we have an actual proof.\n\n[Here](_URL_3_) is a long list of disproved conjectures of this type.\n\nA little fun aside about Goldbach's conjecture: [It has been proved](_URL_2_) that every \"sufficiently large\" even number is either the sum of two primes, or the sum of a prime and a semiprime (product of two primes). This might give us hope that all even numbers are either the sum of primes or a prime and semiprime, just check all the numbers up to where this theorem says the rest definitely are. This would work if the theorem said that every number larger than a million is either the sum of two primes or a prime and semiprime. But the theorem just says that every even number larger than e^(e^36) is either the sum of two primes or a prime and semiprime. e^(e^36) has a quadrillion digits, so we definitely can't check all numbers up to that point.",
"[Keller's Conjecture](_URL_4_) stated that in any complete tilling of a Euclidean space by hypercubes there must be two hypercubes which share a common face. However, in dimensions higher than six this is not necessarily true. \n\nIf we go back in time further and consider widely held mathematical beliefs but not quite conjectures then a few instances spring to mind. For example it was thought that any continuous curve must be differentiable at all but a few isolated points. In fact, in 1806 Ampere thought he gave a proof of this fact. However in 1834 Bernard Bolzano showed this to be false by constructing a continuous function whose derivative fails to exist at every point.",
"There is the Mertens conjecture, proposed in 1885, and not disproved till 1985: \n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_5_"
],
"score": [
47,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_sum_of_powers_conjecture#Counterexamples",
"http://fermatslibrary.com/s/counterexample-to-eulers-conjecture-on-sums-of-like-powers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%27s_theorem",
"http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/514/conjectures-that-have-been-disproved-with-extremely-large-counterexamples",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keller%27s_conjecture",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mertens_conjecture",
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MertensConjecture.html"
]
} | Have there been any conjectures proven false, despite being widely believed to be true prior to the disproval?
Many famous conjectures (e.g. Goldbach's Conjecture) may not be formally proven, but are widely believed to be true due to strong heuristic and statistical evidence, and a disproval seems exceedingly unlikely. Has there been a case where a conjecture, widely believed to be true for a long time, has actually been proven false later? | [
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2woz8v | Why can't I take pictures of paintings at a museum? They always say it's bad for the art, but what is actually happening that makes that true? | askscience | {
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"Not much of a scientific answer. Apparently, flash photography doesn't harm the pigments in paint. I suppose due to a lack of UV in the artificial light: _URL_0_ \n\nIt's usually the case that for works of art on loan, such as temporary exhibitions, there are copyright issues. And yeah, some galleries will want to increase revenue by selling you a postcard of a painting rather than have you take a photo of it.\n\nI go to galleries and museums a lot so would agree with the general consensus that allowing flash photography would be annoying, along with selfies with the work, etc.",
"I work at a museum. The reason we have this rule is because we don't own all the pieces. Some of our stuff in display is on loan and we don't have the rights to authorize photography. We have a blanket policy of no photography to avoid confusing guests. \n\nAlso, flashes will sometimes set off our alarms. Not as big of a deal these days but still something we try to avoid.",
"This question [was asked a few months ago](_URL_2_) so I'm just going to copy my answer:\n\nArt conservator here - though my specialty is textiles not paintings. So the lighting in museums is carefully controlled. There are internationally accepted standards that limit the exposure of art to light because, as some other commentors have said, light energy acts as a catalyst for the chemical reactions that break down materials used in art. Light, all light, even the uv-filtered low-lux lighting used in museums damages the objects on display over time and that damage is permanent. Museums have a dual responsibility to both protect the art in their care and make it available to the public which makes a certain degree of light damage ethically acceptable under controlled display standards. However flash from photography is uncontrolled (both in strength and number of occurrences over time) and is something that we can protect the objects from with a simple rule.\n\nDespite the above being true, I suspect the primary motivator for most museums is copyright and/or disturbing other visitors because the measurable negative effects of camera flashes is actually minimal compared to the other risks to the object that come with public display.\n\nHere's a [link](_URL_2_) to a light damage calculator so you can see the potential effects of various light exposures.",
"I'd like to see some citations that photo flashes are UV filtered.\nBack in my days as a darkroom technician, I knew a bunch of photographers that bought UV filters for shooting weddings. Some wedding dresses were treated with optical brightners that caused the dresses to have a blueish tint when hit with a flash.\n\nFlashes are designed to match daylight as much as possible, including the UV content to prevent metamerism problems.",
"You are not really hurting the artwork by using a flash. You are, however, really annoying to the other people that are there to experience the artwork. Light can, and does definitely damage artwork, but some gets it worse than others. \n \n* The pigment in most oil and acrylic paintings is held firmly in place by the medium or binder and is quite resistant to light damage; with the exception of certain pigments that inherently react with light like the zinc used in most whites, as well as unstable varnishes or lacquers etc... \n when a painting is conserved, most often, the top varnish or lacquer layer is removed and re-applied with whatever is the best-at-the-time lacquer, to get that 'just painted look' back and the piece is as good as new. I once heard a conservator say that \"most conservation work is undoing the work of a previous conservator\". \n\n* work on paper, however can be greatly affected by light exposure. Paper is made of fibers all moving in different directions (unlike canvas or linen which is a bunch of spun fibers made in to strings and then woven together for stability). Over time, the fibers of the paper begin to break apart, this effect is exacerbated by the fact that light speeds up this process. Most paper is somewhat acidic, which is why paper can yellow so quickly. This is a problem for work on paper as it is quite difficult to repair, unlike a painting. \nThere is nothing you can do to stop the ageing process on a piece of paper short of coating it in acid free/ph neutral resin. It is often difficult to replicate a torn or missing piece of paper, as the texture and color are quite difficult to match.\n\n \nThere is some pretty interesting reading about light exposure on [this school's](_URL_3_) website. At the end of that article they discuss how light damage is cumulative so some work should either be lit under very soft lights or exposed to a lot of light for a short amount of time. (TIL: a lack of light can also damage a work of art {most art is still \"alive\" so to speak}) \n\nMost work that you will see in a museum will have taken steps to protect the artwork from light damage, including the damage you would do with your camera's flash. There is UV treated glass and plexi as well as filters for lights and windows. Big museums usually have an employee devoted to lighting the artwork and making sure the piece is safe under it's exposure conditions. I know about this guy because I occasionally fill in for him at work.",
"I can explain. Most pigments get their color as result of a conjugated pi system(double bonds) often in conjunction with a transition metal (but not necessarily). An example of a conjugated pi system could look sorta like [this](_URL_4_). Now whenever light of the proper wavelength(typically UV but depends on the compound) hits a conjugated pi system it can impart part of its energy to an electron which can disrupt the system and result in a double bond being converted to a single bond. Since conjugated pi systems are typically the chromophore(part that absorbs light and give it color) of a compound this disrupts the pi system and can shift the absorption spectrum of the compound resulting in a color change. This process is sometimes called photo-bleaching and can happen to many colored compounds when left in intense light for too long. [Melanin](_URL_5_) our skin(and eye) pigment is an extensively conjugated molecule with a large relative cross section and is instrumental in absorbing harmful UV rays which could damage important molecules(DNA!!) in our cells, which is why people with albinism have an increased risk for certain types of cancer.",
"I work at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. We usually discourage flash more because it's a distraction/annoying for the other visitors. When it comes to a special exhibition, it's usually because it's a private collection or on loan and up to the owners of those pieces to allow photos or not. As far as what actually happens to the art, I don't know. I can only imagine that sudden, harsh lighting must do *something* but I don't think it's anything significant."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.arthistorynews.com/articles/2936_Does_flash_photography_really_damage_paintings",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/25cgo0/why_is_camera_flash_not_allowed_in_museums_and/",
"http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/tools-outils/ldc-cdl/index-eng.aspx",
"https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/2.-the-environment/2.4-protection-from-light-damage",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_system#mediaviewer/File:Beta-carotene-conjugation.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin#mediaviewer/File:Eumelanine.svg"
]
} | Why can't I take pictures of paintings at a museum? They always say it's bad for the art, but what is actually happening that makes that true?
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1uxpbe | What is a muscle "knot" and why does applying pressure make it feel better? | askscience | {
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"Exercise Physiologist here\n\nI will only disagree on one point. Lactic acid as a cause of muscle soreness has long been disproven. Studies haven't found any correlations between lactic acid and soreness. I wrote a paper on this topic in the early 90's. Even during exercise, muscles are pretty good at removing lactic acid, only losing the battle at high intensity activity (and clearing it fairly well after exercise has stopped). Muscle soreness is thought to be due to metabolites caused by muscle damage and the inflammatory process that follows.\n\nAlso, as far as I know, there are no studies showing that the muscle is in an anoxic environment due to focal contraction of the muscles.",
"There's a lot of skepticism around what trigger points are. Plus there's problems with inter-rater reliability of diagnoses and treatment of trigger points. The best we can say is that trigger points are points that are tender to the touch.\n\nIt's good to remember that muscles don't feel pain, nerves do.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_0_",
"Trigger points are hypersensitive, palpable nodules found at the neuromuscular junction of a muscle. They have many causes, and the best theory behind their genesis is a local energy crisis involving an excess of calcium keeping the receptor gates open, allowing acytelcholine to signal the muscle to contract until it is fully contracted. The energy crisis comes from the fact that the muscle takes less energy to sustain the contraction than it does to release, thus perpetuating a dysfunctional state.\n\nWhy ey hurt in the first place is not well understood, nor is their patterns of pain referral. The pain referral patterns are fascinating because they are observable and similar from person to person. Some of the first research into trigger points came from a man injecting an irritant into muscles, which causes these referral pain zones to activate (form? Cme alive? Poor syntax, my bad). You can look up a [chart of trigger point referral patterns here](_URL_6_). Trigger points can cause many pain complaints, but the ones most people are familiar with are the ones that cause tension headaches.\n\nThey can feel better when you rub them because you are manually breaking up the contracted tissue. In some cases this can lead to damage of the tissue, especially if the trigger point has undergone fibrotic changes (tissue literally growing together).\n\nIf you would like to know more, [this book is the definitive text of trigger points and their treatments in a medical setting](_URL_5_). Beware, it is a medical textbook, so it is expensive, stuffy, and verbose.\n\nIf you want something a bit more accessible, [this is a book I recommend to people](_URL_4_) who wish to understand more about trigger points and help themselves through self treatment. It is a pretty good rewording of the first book, without all of the techno jargon and focus on big words. \n\n\nEdit: rolling edits to add hyperlinks and more info.\n\nSource? Licensed massage therapist, but IMHO that doesn't mean that much. I have read all of travell and simons, along various other texts related to trigger point/neuromuscular therapy, and have taken multiple classes from Doug Nelson, who is at the leading edge of scientifically sound trigger point research/treatment in the massage world. Questions? Just ask, and I will do my best to answer.",
"Licensed Massage Therapist here\n\nA \"knot\" is known to be a bundle of muscle tissue that have gotten stuck in their contracted or shortened state. This could be caused by misuse, overuse, anxiety, or semi-perminant shortening known as AMS. (_URL_7_) When a muscle is stuck in this state it may put pressure on a nerve causing pain. When applying pressure on this tightened muscle, you are doing several things. By placing pressure and massaging the area you are moving around stagnant fluids such as lymph, blood, and cellular waste. You are breaking up adhesions of connective tissue that may be present. By applying steady direct pressure, you may also cut of nerve impulses to the muscle tissue allowing the tissue to \"reset\" in a sense and release. This last technique is know as myofascial release. Thanks for reading :)",
"This has long been something I have wondered about - why there appears to be such a great deal of non-scientific information (I want to avoid calling it pseudo-science) about \"knots\" and the use of massage but when one tries to find serious studies there is very little. Given that the massage industry is such a significant sector I find this lack of consensus troubling."
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"url": [
"http://saveyourself.ca/articles/trigger-point-doubts.php",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17592957",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18503816",
"http://www.somasimple.com/forums/archive/index.php/t-3633.html",
"http://www.amazon.com/Trigger-Point-Therapy-Workbook-Self-Treatment/dp/1572243759/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1389463187&sr=1-2&keywords=clair+davies+trigger+point+therapy+workbook",
"http://www.amazon.com/Travell-Simons-Myofascial-Pain-Dysfunction/dp/0683307711",
"http://www.massagesupplies.com/product/10988/",
"http://www.painfreeatlast.org/adaptive.html"
]
} | What is a muscle "knot" and why does applying pressure make it feel better?
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u9x0d | CNN reports tuna with cesium levels 3% above background. Can anyone provide context as to how low this really is? (e.g compared to radioactivity in smoke detectors) | Not rewarding the article with a link. I'm pretty sure the only reason the publish button was hit on that article was because they could stick Fukushima in the title.
But it got me wondering - at an intuitive level what does 3% above background mean?
At what level above background does the risk of exposure start to rise above the everyday risks we take? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"For when it starts working... Here is the link to the original research: [DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1204859109](_URL_0_). Note, will not work yet. I hate Doi links.",
"Just an FYI, 3% above background does not directly correlate into a dose. People saying 18.6 mRem are not truly correct. \n\nTo truly get a dose, you need to know how many servings a person eats, and how cesium behaves in a person's body (perform bioassays). Anyone giving a dose rate without citing a consumption rate is not giving enough information to properly determine how much radiation one would actually receive. \n\nAm I getting 18.6 mRem per serving of tuna? Likely not as that is HUGE. Or would I only get 18.6 mRem if I ate 50 servings per day? Without knowing the assumption, that 3% means nothing.",
"First off, the research found that some tuna from the pacific were 3% more radioactive than \"background\" tuna. The research was not saying that tuna are now 3% of the annual background radiation dose (a much larger quantity).\n\nThe ICRP-61 report sets limits on ingestion of radioisotopes for radiation workers. Occupational limits are intended to quantify and reduce the risk of fatal cancers from radiation exposure. They set a limit on Cs-137 ingestion of 1 million Bqs. So you would need to eat 100,000 kg of tuna to exceed this limit.\n\nThe limit on Cs-137 ingestion is based on data regarding the lifetime [committed dose](_URL_1_) due to ingestion, since taking a radioisotope into the body means that future decays will also be absorbed in the body. For reference, the biological half life of cesium in the human body is about 70 days.",
"I could be wrong about this, but my understanding is Cesium poses a particularly special problem in food you eat because it is readily absorbed by your body in place of potassium. (incorporated into the bones I think)\n\nSo an increase in Cesium levels in the fish poses a problem not in incidental exposure, but rather longer term exposure from your body incorporating the isotopes.\n\nCan someone with more background on this clean up what I'm saying?",
"Background dose exposure is partially dependent on where you live. The American Nuclear Society has a nice tool to help you approximate your yearly background exposure here: _URL_2_",
"Could someone compare this with bananas? Like x amount of tuna is equal to x amount of bananas?",
"This is not so much a testament to how much radioactive material is out there as to how good we are at detecting it.",
"As several people in the comments have stated, the 3% is referring to a 3% increase in the normal amount of radiation emitted from the fish. In the link to the paper provided by [thetripp](_URL_3_), the samples of radiation are seen in Table 1. There is an approximate rise of 9 Bq/kg of Cesium from the fish captured in 2008 compared to the fish captured in 2011. This means that for each kg of tuna, there was an increase of 4 Bq from Cs-134 (going from 0 to a mean of 4 Bq) and an increase of 4.9 Bq from Cs-137 (going from 1.4 to a mean of 6.3 Bq). Considering that a Becquerel (Bq) is equivalent to 1 disintegration per second, this means that for each kilogram of fish, there were an additional 9 decays per second of Cesium. In other words, a negligible increase when you consider how many atoms there are in a kilogram of fish; no risk to the public whatsoever."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204859109",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committed_dose",
"http://www.new.ans.org/pi/resources/dosechart/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/u9x0d/cnn_reports_tuna_with_cesium_levels_3_above/c4ttrys"
]
} | CNN reports tuna with cesium levels 3% above background. Can anyone provide context as to how low this really is? (e.g compared to radioactivity in smoke detectors)
Not rewarding the article with a link. I'm pretty sure the only reason the publish button was hit on that article was because they could stick Fukushima in the title. But it got me wondering - at an intuitive level what does 3% above background mean? At what level above background does the risk of exposure start to rise above the everyday risks we take? | [
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1aozn1 | How much land does it take to support one human being? | How big does my plot have to be before I can support myself with vegetables and fruit? I live in the UK, so temporate and usually more than adequate rain. | askscience | {
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"> The minimum amount of agricultural land necessary for sustainable food security, with a diversified diet similar to those of North America and Western Europe (hence including meat), is 0.5 of a hectare per person. This does not allow for any land degradation such as soil erosion, and it assumes adequate water supplies. Very few populous countries have more than an average of 0.25 of a hectare. It is realistic to suppose that the absolute minimum of arable land to support one person is a mere 0.07 of a hectare–and this assumes a largely vegetarian diet, no land degradation or water shortages, virtually no post-harvest waste, and farmers who know precisely when and how to plant, fertilize, irrigate, etc. [FAO, 1993]\n\nFrom the FAO (the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations\n\nNote: .07 hectare = .17 acres",
"This is a fairly old study from 1994, but it gives a ballpark figure of 1.2 acres per capita to sustain a typical American diet.\n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_1_)\n\nNaturally you can expect a great deal of variance based on the fertility of the land you grow on, the amount you consume, the actual rainfall you get. By cutting meat out of your diet you should reduce the amount of land necessary, but you still need staggered crops, or stockpile-able crops in order to maintain a year-round supply of food.\n\nNot going to do all the work for you, but if we conjecture Potatos as a ideal high calorie food item to supply all your needs: \nYield: ~400 (cwt) potatos/acre/year\n\n[\n_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nIf we combine that with the ballpark figure of 1.2 acres, that's 480 (cwt) potatos per year. So, 24 tons of potatos per year under average agricultural conditions. That sounds pretty sufficient to feed a person for a year. According to [_URL_2_](_URL_2_) there are 258 calories per 300 grams of potato. We can extrapolate that out to: 390 calories/pound, thus requiring about 5 pounds of potatos per day per person.\n\nBy that standard your 24 ton annual yield will be depleted in 9600 days, or about 25 years. So you should be able to get away with a farm smaller than 1.2 acres, or maybe even go with more than one crop.",
"You may be interested to know that in Saxon England there was a unit of land, called a hide, that was meant to represent the amount of land required to support a household. \n\n_URL_3_",
"Would we be able to increase yield by building structures that are shaped as inverted, tip-down cones? Water need aside, this would perhaps allow us to maximize daily sun area vs land usage.",
"You're in the UK, if you can get ahold of 2 allotments (I think each is about 2800 sq ft), you can do a pretty good job. Extend the season with some greenhouses and movable hoop houses and you can produce quite a bit.\n\nYou should look at the [Winter Harvest Handbook](_URL_4_) for details on extending your growing season.",
"According to *Mini Farming, Self sufficiency on a 1/4 acre*, they extrapolate some numbers from the USDA food pyramid guide and come up with these requirements per year for 1 person:\n\n* veggies: 456 lbs\n* fruit: 365 lbs\n* wheat, corn, oats, rice: 250 lbs\n* lean mean and eggs: 159 lbs\n\nnow, not getting in the various yields for the variety of fruits, veggies, nuts, and grains, yet alone the space for cover crops and other soil replenishment needs, nor chickens, goats, compost, greenhouses, equipment storage, housing, water harvesting and storage, living, personal space, etc, etc...\n\nEstimates are for 1950 square feet of harvestable land, plus room for 7-20 trees (~3000 sq ft), so 4950 total, which works out to about 0.11 acres, which I think is too small.\n\nJohn Jeavons and his Grow BioIntensive methods (_URL_5_) and Ecology Action garden center says with very careful management a vegan diet can be grown on 4000 sq ft.\n\nNormally it takes about 40,000 sq ft of grazing land for 1 cow/steer (for milk/meat) or 2 goats (for milk/meat/wool), or 2 sheep (for milk/meat/wool). and I think 1 acre is small for 1 cow given that you need to have 7-8 different rotations to give the land time to regrow plants for them to eat.\n\nOther research I've done shows 4 sq feet in a coop + 25+ sq ft of land per chicken (at a minimum) for eggs. Meat birds, depends on how you raise them, but I tend to look past 'industrial' models of meat production. This also doesn't provide land for feed for the chickens.",
"using aquaponics, we can achieve 90% of the nutrients an adult needs in 50 sq/ft.",
"Surprised that none mentioned the concept of [Ecological Footprint](_URL_6_) yet."
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"url": [
"http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1123",
"http://dieoff.org/page40.htm",
"http://caloriecount.about.com/calories-potatoes-boiled-i11367",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hide_(unit)",
"http://www.fourseasonfarm.com/books/index.html",
"http://www.growbiointensive.org/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint"
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} | How much land does it take to support one human being?
How big does my plot have to be before I can support myself with vegetables and fruit? I live in the UK, so temporate and usually more than adequate rain. | [
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|
1o30bm | Does the consumption of animal protein cause heart disease and cancer? | A common health argument in favor of veganism is that the consumption of any animal protein (meat, seafood, dairy, eggs, etc) causes cancer and heart disease. Is this true, and if so what is the causal mechanism? What makes animal protein different than vegetable protein in this regard? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Cancer and heart disease are a broad term that encompass many different but related diseases all of which can be caused by a lot of different factors beside diet (genetic, exposure to certain chemicals in the environment etc.). Equating animal protein consumption as the cause of cancer or heart disease is is like equating drinking water to death, as in, 100% of people that have died all have drunk water some point in their life. \n\nFurthermore, [the fact that the french have a low incident of coronary disease yet their diet is rich in animal fat and protein](_URL_0_) demonstrates that our overall lifestyle is an overall better indicator of our health than just our diet alone.",
"From a molecular basis, an average animal protein is no different than an average plant protein. There might be some glycosylation differences which some studies indicated may potentially have some effects on inflammation but those studies are far from conclusive and can never be really well done by their nature.\n\nThere are many ethical, economic, and even health reason to promote vegetarianism, but the \"quality\" of protein you get from the food source is not really one of them.",
"Short answer, no. Protein is protein, and protein does not directly cause cancer. So no, protein (enter source here) does not cause cancer. The argument, when it isn't exaggerated to it's most ridiculous and simple ends, is that biproducts from consuming animal protein may increase the likelihood of developing certain types of cancer. It is, like everything else in dietary science, a challenged theory, but in the end it does seem that people who don't consume animal protein develop certain cancers at lower rates. Correlation does not necessarily mean or dismiss causation. For instance people that don't consume animal protein are often more health conscious and that may be the cause of their lowered cancer risk, who knows. But essentially the belief is that biproducts from a diet including animal protein like cholesterol, saturated fats, increased digestive strain, higher possible resultant blood pressure, and so on are believed to increase the likelihood of certain cancers being developed. Protein does not cause cancer.",
"The key thing here is that people are conflating the word 'protein' with 'meat'. \n\nAs far as I know there is no downside to animal protein (vs plant protein) *however* when eating food, what you get is not just protein. You get a complete package that includes (a combination of one or more of the following - protein, fat, cholesterol, antibiotics, carcinogens, etc etc. )\n\nAnd guess what, there is *overwhelming* evidence that the other stuff most commonly found in meat, like LDL cholesterol, is strongly linked to various diseases.\n\nAddendum: this page has some info: _URL_1_",
"I can't speak to the entirety of your question, there are many components to it that I'm not well versed in. I would like to mention, however, that there was a paper published this year in Nature Medicine which showed a link between red meat consumption and atherosclerosis, which can cause myocardial infarctions (aka \"heart attacks\"). The paper stated that when L-carnitine, a nutrient found in red meat, is metabolized by a subset of microbiotic flora in the gut, a byproduct is TMAO, which contributes to atherosclerosis (and thus cardiovascular disease and heart attacks). Pretty interesting stuff. \n \nHere's the [link to the paper](_URL_2_) (it's behind a paywall, but the abstract is free to view).",
"Population studies show increased animal protein consumption correlates with heart disease/cancer. Causal mechanism is not totally known, but recent data shows it may have to do with gut bacteria. Apparently, when gut bacteria break down animal products including meat and eggs, they excrete a metabolite that can contribute to heart disease specifically."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_paradox",
"http://nutritionfacts.org/video/plant-protein-preferable/",
"http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v19/n5/full/nm.3145.html#access"
]
} | Does the consumption of animal protein cause heart disease and cancer?
A common health argument in favor of veganism is that the consumption of any animal protein (meat, seafood, dairy, eggs, etc) causes cancer and heart disease. Is this true, and if so what is the causal mechanism? What makes animal protein different than vegetable protein in this regard? | [
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5dpp38 | How does natural selection work with traits whose absence still allows for survival? | From what I understand, natural selection happens when organisms with some traits reproduce, while those without the traits don't reproduce. How does this work for traits that cause non-essential changes (for example humans losing hair)? In the example I mentioned, does that mean that every human that didn't lose hair just died without reproducing?
Sorry I could only come up with that one example. I had a plethora of them earlier, but now I can't seem to remember any.
Note: I tried posting this earlier, but it was removed. I contacted a moderator, and they suggested I resubmit it. | askscience | {
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"The ones without the favored trait still reproduce. But the offspring obviously don't have the favorable trait. Those with the trait are better suited to the environmental conditions, hence favored trait. They are more \"fit\", meaning they have more offspring. \n\n\nAs generations pass, those with the favored trait reproduce more, so that trait is more prevalent in the population. Those without the trait decrease in number over time because the lack of favorable trait leaves them less suitable for the environmental conditions. \n\nTo use hair, but in wolves. They live in cold environments, so those with thick coats survived winter more frequently. Since they survived they reproduced, passing the gene for a thicker coat.\n\nAs those with thin coats succumbed to the cold and died, there are more wolves with thick coats.",
"In evolutionary biology, we understand selection on traits in terms of their effects on an organism's \"fitness.\" The most common definition of fitness is the number of viable offspring produced by an individual during its life, or Lifetime Reproductive Success. Obviously, survival is an important contributor to an individual's fitness, because dying early prevents you from having as many offspring as you might have otherwise. But there are other factors that influence LRS too.\n\nSelection is not all or nothing. Traits that influence overall health, such as immune function or ability to find food, will in many cases increase an animal's ability to find a mate (usually a concern for males) or the number/quality of young they can produce (usually a concern for females). Healthier or more attractive individuals will produce more, healthier offspring, so the next generation will consist disproportionately of animals inheriting those traits from their parents. Evolution is usually defined in this way: a change in the frequency of certain genes in a population over time.\n\nAs far as I know, we don't know why humans are relatively hairless -- what advantage, if any, our naked ancestors had over their hairier peers.",
"if the trait has nothing to do with survival then it \"should\" just be random chance passing down generations. it's more complicated but it's a reasonable initial assumption.\n\nin your example i assume youre talking about losing hair due to old age. keep in mind that while natural selection favours traits for survival it only matters while the organism can still reproduce. by the time youre old enough to lose hair naturally, youre unlikely to produce more offspring. therefore the old-age hair loss is not affected by natural selection. however you can make a case for premature hairloss as being an unfavourable trait and dying out.\n\nold age hair loss is more associated with the ageing process than natural selection",
"Natural selection only plays on traits which have an advantage in terms of survival over other genes. When there exists traits whose absence allows for survival, random mutations may occur, and the gene pool may randomly change, depending on the allele. \n\nFor example, let's imagine a population of rabbits which can have brown fur and white fur, with brown fur being the dominant allele. By random chance, the offspring may all be brown and this could reduce or eliminate the allele for white fur. \n\nIn the same way, the gene for hair loss will be randomly increased or decreased in the population."
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} | How does natural selection work with traits whose absence still allows for survival?
From what I understand, natural selection happens when organisms with some traits reproduce, while those without the traits don't reproduce. How does this work for traits that cause non-essential changes (for example humans losing hair)? In the example I mentioned, does that mean that every human that didn't lose hair just died without reproducing? Sorry I could only come up with that one example. I had a plethora of them earlier, but now I can't seem to remember any. Note: I tried posting this earlier, but it was removed. I contacted a moderator, and they suggested I resubmit it. | [
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4xncso | When describing an amount of space, we call it an "area" or "volume." When describing an amount of time, we call it a "duration." What would we call an amount of spacetime, and what would that imply? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's just called spacetime volume, or just volume when it's clear from context. In an n-dimensional manifold, the n-dimensional volume is generally just called \"volume\".\n\nIt's a very important object to consider in physics. In special relativity, spacetime volume is preserved by transformations between inertial reference frames. In SR or GR in general it's relevant for example for the definition of a few essential quantities which are defined \"per unit of spacetime volume\".",
"In SR, the focus is on the separation in space and time between two points in space and time. A point in space and time is uniquely described by its spatial and temporal coordinates – this is commonly called an event. \n\nThe spatiotemporal separation between two events is called the spacetime interval. In the everyday, we might say that we'll meet in 3 hours, four blocks away: we separate out the space and the time aspects. In SR, these two different but interrelated quantities are combined in the spacetime interval. If the spatial separation is denoted r, and the temporal separation is denoted t, then the spacetime interval is defined via s^2 = r^2 - c^2 t^2. \n\nIn SR, different observers may measure different values for r or for t – time dilation and length contraction mean that not all observers will agree on the time or distance that separate two events. But the way that these quantities co-vary means that all observers will agree on the value of the spacetime interval. This is why the spacetime interval as defined above is interesting. \n\nNotice that if r > ct, then s > 0, and vice versa. This gives a way to distinguish between events that are 'space-like' separated, and those that are 'time-like' separated. This is something cool to read into further if you want. I'd intended to try explaining this point, but I'm on my phone and typing sucks, so... sorry.",
"We call it a 4-volume, more precisely a R⁴-volume. Generally, we refer to \"extent of space\" as an n-volume. The SI-unit of R⁴-volume of Minkowski space would be m³ s. 1 m³ s equals to one cubic meter over a time interval of one second. If you measure time intervals in units of length, as often done in physics, the unit would instead be m⁴."
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} | When describing an amount of space, we call it an "area" or "volume." When describing an amount of time, we call it a "duration." What would we call an amount of spacetime, and what would that imply?
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||
x0fqf | What is the most asymmetric animal? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5i28u9",
"c5i37yq",
"c5i9zke",
"c5i770e"
],
"text": [
"Sponges lack symmetry as do around 400 species of flatfish according to [wiki](_URL_0_).",
"I always found it interesting animals are generally symmetric on the outside but almost never on the inside in regards to organs. (like appendix, stomach, heart, etc lean more towards one side then the other.)\n\nEdit: Yes organs not organelles",
"You should have asked what is the most asymmetric vertebrate instead",
"I know a prof. who studies asymmetries. \n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
39,
15,
4,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology#Asymmetry",
"http://www.biology.ualberta.ca/palmer/asym/asymmetry.htm"
]
} | What is the most asymmetric animal?
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45wkig | What's the deepest hole we could reasonably dig with our current level of technology? If you fell down it, how long would it take to hit the bottom? | askscience | {
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"The deepest hole dug was the Kola Superdeep Borehole which reached 12 km depth. That was roughly at the limit of drilling technology, and hasn't been surpassed. Under **only** the influence of gravity, it would take about 50 seconds to fall down, even though [Earth's gravity increases slightly](_URL_0_) as you go down.",
"Geologist here! If im not mistaken, there is a project that just restarted with the intent to drill into the mantle (_URL_2_). The problem with drilling deep isnt the technology, it has to do with the Earth itself...So the Earth has a couple of layers: the Crust (5-40km), mantle (~3000km), outer core (2250km) and inner core (~1250km). The crust is rigid and thin, perfect for drilling through. But the mantle on the other hand is like putty, extremely hot and maleable, but not fluid (think of it like an extremely viscous silly putty that will melt your face off). So when you drill through it, the hole just reseals itself. I dunno if we have a drill bit that is strong enough to withstand the temperatures and pressures, but the mantle just doesnt like to have holes punched in it.\n\nHeres a good image of the Earth's layers with thicknesses: _URL_2_\n\nEdit: added drilling article.",
"I remember reading somewhere about a plan to make a sphere of pure tungsten and putting something radioactive inside (like plutonium). Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals, which means it would be the hottest achievable temperature with a metal before melting and losing shape. The decay of the plutonium inside would heat the sphere from inside. The hot sphere of tungsten would then melt its way down all the way through the mantle and possible into the core. Then scientists could track it by measuring waves generated by earthquakes, thus giving them a better idea of the composition of the inner earth. \n\nDoes anyone know if this is feasible?",
"I read in Bill Bryson's book \"A Short History Of Nearly Everything\" that the deepest hole we had dug (at the time of printing of the book) was about 2 kilometers down. To put it to scale, if the Earth was an apple, we would have hardly gone through its skin. \n\n\n\nExact quote:\n\n\n\n\n“The distance from the surface of Earth to the center is 3,959 miles, which isn’t so very far. It has been calculated that if you sunk a well to the center and dropped a brick into it, it would take only forty-five minutes for it to hit the bottom… Our own attempts to penetrate toward the middle have been modest indeed. One or two South African gold mines reach to a depth of two miles, but most mines on Earth go no more than about a quarter of a mile beneath the surface. If the planet were an apple, we wouldn’t yet have broken through the skin”.\n\n\n\n\nJust think about that. Even if we've gone up to 12 kilometers now, that's nothing!",
"The deepest hole we've already dug that you could fall down would be a mining shaft. The deepest I can find is the South Deep Twinshaft, which says it's a 3km single drop shaft. *EDIT:* */u/lovethebacon* *let* *me* *know* *it's* *actually* *Moab* *Khotsong* *at* *3.1* *km* *deep*\n\nHowever, we don't normally try to go as deep as possible with a single shaft because ore reserves aren't defined far enough down to justify continuing a shaft, the amount of cable and weight used for the cages is restrictive, and the cost of extending a shaft that's already in place is usually more than building a new shaft from existing mine workings at the bottom of the first. That all said, the deepest we could make a hole with our current technology would still bottom out around 4km, which is the deepest mine in the world.\n\nWe can only get down that far with current technology for 2 reasons: \n\n1) the heat in the ground becomes excessive and it gets too hot for people to be able to work in without refrigeration. Refrigeration is common in use in South African mines that go this deep, and since this is a single hole and not complex mine workings that require more refrigeration the more likely problem is,\n\n2) the ground pressure increases the deeper you go, until you reach a point where rock bursts (violent fracture of rock to relieve excessive pressure) are common. We have ways to deal with rock bursts to make these areas safe, but the deeper you go the more common and violent the rock bursts are, until we'd eventually reach a depth where deaths were an every day occurrence, and the project would be cancelled.\n\nThere are a few other problems such as dewatering, broken rock removal, transportation to and from the working face, and location selection for best geology that would make a single shaft like this a very complicated problem, but solutions for all of those things do exist that I'm assuming we're using.\n\nOh, and for how long, I found some information on free falling in skydiving (in imperial units... damn USA, just switch over already) that says after about 12 seconds a person is at terminal velocity of about 174 ft/sec and has fallen 1,483 ft already. Converting to 53 m/s and 452m, falling down 4km would take about 79 seconds... if they didn't bounce around off the sides of the shaft... which they almost certainly would.",
"According to a sort of recent geologist's proposal (A Modest Proposal, similar to an older satirical peice of work) Technically, you could use a very powerful thermonuclear bomb or an amount of TNT proportional to that nuclear bomb to create a very large opening in the earth's crust down to the liquid mantle. Before the hole closes, you pour down 200,000 tons of molten iron? into the opening and along with it you can send whatever you want within a small capsule, as long as it is heat resistent. I believe the capsule has a maximum size of a football, but that is for reaching the core. Maybe if you use more metal then you can probably make a capsule that can enclose humans in a one way trip. Also, the proposal said the capsule would make minute vibrations which would communcate data on surrounding environment, which is kind of interesting in of itself. Not that it is practical, but according to the proposal it breaks no laws of physics, other than maybe the possibility of dumping 200,000 tons of metal simultaneously.",
"Interestingly, in Iceland there is a project known as IDDP or Icelandic Deep Drilling Project. IDDP-1 was the first borehole, the planned depth was 4000 meters, but they hit magma at only 2100 meters. \nIt's nowhere near as deep as the Kola superdeep borehole. but they did pour water down there and calculated that the output of the well would have been sufficient to produce 36 MW of electricity. \nWanted to share it cause I think it's really interesting and also my father worked on that as an engineer.",
"> we could reasonably dig with our current level of technology\n\nIs a very open-for-discussion limit.\n\nWith a series of thermonuclear explosions we could \"dig\" a hole much deeper that has ever been done, and this would be \"with our current technology\". The environmental impact statement would have a hard time getting accepted.",
"Thing with drilling deep enough is that stone starts to \"flow\" and begins to fill the drilling holes in hours.\nThis is major problem that they have to deal with when blasting in deep mines.\n\nFantastic machines on Discovery had piece where the miners briefly explained the problem.",
"All of you have seem to forgotten that you cannot fall down a hole past a certain depth, because in doing so you will always hit the edge of the hole because of the difference in angular momentum as you change height.",
"Honestly, I expect more from the Reddit community on this! lol. This challenge question got me thinking though. Here is my theory of possibility(keep in mind what I do as a career is make outcomes happen no matter how painful or ridiculous, just as long as it works and sometimes cost effective) - You could re-engineer a tunnel boring machine to drill straight downwards while reinforcing with concrete blocking, pilings and tension cables. this would work for a significant depth as all horizontal forces would be mitigated by the concrete rings installed as you drill and the vertical forces would be held via bedrock wall. Also every 1km you could install mass horizontal pilings to further reinforce. Servicing this 20+ story engineering marvel(power, men, material and removal) would be a fucker of a job and thus you would need to install power conduits as you go, or nuclear(all current tech). For moving up and down the shaft, a mass gear tramway(i am using the wrong engineering term here) would need to be installed as high tension elevator cabling would not be possible viable under the current known tech. As for HVAC it would need to be piped down to keep positive pressure, however this will only work to a certain depth(I can elaborate on the concept if you like) and eventually you would need to go to a fully contained air control system( climate, air recycling, and re circulation) - this would be required for all places a human would need to work. \n\nNow here is where the fun begins! - Miraculously you break through the crust and the entire operation is cooked......Just kidding. \n*I have a viable idea for this but need to get back to work. If you would like I can draw a picture, further elaborate on all and continue my idea.*\n\nDisclaimer: I didn't break the rules of the question, just though about it differently.",
"I'm curious...the deepest bore we've ever done was roughly 12 kilometers. That was a round hole dug straight down. That doesn't seem that far, and the energy down there seemed staggering (heat past the boiling water).\n\nSo...why not pick a spot...let say in Nevada, in the middle of nowhere...and just start digging? Not a bore hole. Make it in inverse pyramid, 15km square at the surface and taper down. Then plant turbines or something to harness the heat, and bury them. Or don't bury them...whatever is most applicable.\n\nIt seems like the complications of planting a bore could be defeated this way, we'd learn a lot about our planet, and we'd get to tap into a source of energy. I'm sure it would take years to do but it's not impossible. It doesn't even seem to be technologically trying. It seems like a source of energy we can have for free with only some up-front brute force. And it probably wouldn't destroy the earth.",
"If there was a hole going from one side of the earth to the other. What would happen if you fell into it? Would you accelerate until you hit the center, then decelerate as you continued to the other side of the earth, until you eventually fell back towards the center. Each time getting a little closer to the center. I just have no idea.",
"Deepest you could drill depends on heat and pressure and resistance of the rock you're boring into. The best possible drill would be a large diamond drill bit. The problem is diamond turns into graphite when under intense heat and pressure. And the drills going super deep are only maybe 10cm wide at most. It's likely not feasible with current technology to drill to the mantle, but that doesn't mean people won't try.\n\nSo not that deep and nothing larger than a cat is going to be able to get to the bottom.",
"I think it was dug! As soon as potential hit the surface, we should've would've could've, but now we know why not've. It's supposed to be a joke and I have no links to deter it, but seriously, why continue to break this earth apart when nobody knows what a minimalist approach to living even is?",
"I always wondered what would happen if there was a hole straight through the earth, and then a human jumped down it. Would they fall, get to the other side, and then fall back again? Would gravity be distorted, or is this not a possibility in reality?"
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||
13d4cu | When visiting a comatose friend in ICU, we were told we should talk to her because "she can still hear you". Is there any science to back this up, or is it mostly for the healing and comfort of the loved ones? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c72xr2g",
"c72wqrh",
"c72vt4r"
],
"text": [
"ICU specialist here. I'm sorry to hear about your friend. Your comment about this being said mostly for the comfort of the family is fairly close to the truth, but I am a bit surprised at the definitive nature of what you were told - you \"should\" talk to here because she \"can\" hear you. In my practice I tell relatives that its can't hurt to talk to their loved one (some people are worried they might make things worse by speaking to or touching the patient) and that we don't know if they can hear you or not. I remind my juniors to always assume the patient can hear what you are saying when speaking around the bedside as this is an important issue relating to patient dignity.\n\nCan they actually hear and understand what is being said? As other comments have suggested its impossible to be sure at the time. A patient rendered unconscious from a intracerebral haemorrhage that eventually leads to their death is highly unlikely to be able to comprehend speech. Patients who recover from ICU often recall very little of their time there,and are frequently delusional during their admission. In the end, its always best to assume they can, even if we strongly suspect they can't.",
"This question reminded me of an article my friend linked a few days ago. Looks like at least some people in comas/vegetative states may be more awake than we thought. _URL_0_",
"It depends on which regions of the brain are damaged. There's a whole spectrum of awareness, yet it's often difficult to determine how aware someone may be. In the case of [total locked-in syndrome](_URL_1_) a person can be conscious yet be unable to move or communicate in any way. While improving technology allows doctors to detect more of these cases, they still appear to be very rare."
],
"score": [
8,
7,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/1287098--vegetative-ontario-man-scott-routley-talks-to-researchers-through-brain-scans",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locked-in_syndrome"
]
} | When visiting a comatose friend in ICU, we were told we should talk to her because "she can still hear you". Is there any science to back this up, or is it mostly for the healing and comfort of the loved ones?
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y77k3 | Is it possible to temporarily shut down the corpus callosum (with an injected local neuroleptic or something) to create a transient split brain state? | I'm very interested in the possibility there might be more than one "consciousness" in a brain. Like all questions regarding "consciousness", this is a hard subject to tackle.
I'm familiar with the state of research with patients who have undergone corpus callosotomy. In these cases, the non-speaking hemisphere collects experience/data while separated from the speaking one, but can't report it because it never regains speech. So I wonder if a non-surgical, temporary deactivation of the corpus callosum could help us get access to the experience/data of this other hemisphere. But I don't know if partial temporary deactivation of specific regions of the brain is possible, or at what cost.
So, is it possible? If possible, how? Has it been done?
edit: The [Wada test](_URL_0_) selectively deactivates a hemisphere by injecting a barbiturate into an artery that only supplies one hemisphere. Is there an artery that only supplies the corpus callosum? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5sz20q",
"c5t2xh0",
"c5t123u",
"c5t7j3t"
],
"text": [
"In theory, rTMS could be used to temporarily disrupt callosal activity, but it would be difficult to focus the pulse only on the CC without a craniotomy. As for using the Wada technique, the CC has vascular input from both the anterior and posterior cerebral arteries... it would be essentially impossible to pull off that selective of a catheter feed, as you'd need multiple catheters fed into several different unpredictable branches. It would be incredibly dangerous, and I doubt you'd find a radiologist ballsy enough to do it.",
"I don't see why not, assuming you could magically waive all necessary IRB objections. A few well placed injections of procaine or lidocaine or bupivacaine into the corpus callosum and fornix should replicate the split brain state - temporarily.\n\nYou'd need a heckuva craniotomy to access it, though.",
"I'd think the Wada test would be more likely to fulfil your idea of accessing experience from individual hemispheres, as then each hemisphere has a chance to act independently with complete control.\n\nThere's also an [interesting TED talk by neuroanatomist Jill Bolte Taylor](_URL_0_) talking about her experience of having a stroke, which partly shut down her left hemisphere.",
"Could someone explain in plain every man language what's being discussed here?"
],
"score": [
44,
10,
6,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wada_test"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/jill_bolte_taylor_s_powerful_stroke_of_insight.html"
]
} | Is it possible to temporarily shut down the corpus callosum (with an injected local neuroleptic or something) to create a transient split brain state?
I'm very interested in the possibility there might be more than one "consciousness" in a brain. Like all questions regarding "consciousness", this is a hard subject to tackle. I'm familiar with the state of research with patients who have undergone corpus callosotomy. In these cases, the non-speaking hemisphere collects experience/data while separated from the speaking one, but can't report it because it never regains speech. So I wonder if a non-surgical, temporary deactivation of the corpus callosum could help us get access to the experience/data of this other hemisphere. But I don't know if partial temporary deactivation of specific regions of the brain is possible, or at what cost. So, is it possible? If possible, how? Has it been done? edit: The [Wada test](_URL_0_) selectively deactivates a hemisphere by injecting a barbiturate into an artery that only supplies one hemisphere. Is there an artery that only supplies the corpus callosum? | [
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3i8u99 | Is there a way to harness gravity for energy? If so, why do we not discuss it when talking about green energy? | askscience | {
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"This is exactly what hydro-electric power does. It takes the gravitational potential energy of water flowing and uses it to power turbines. In fact, using the gravitational potential energy of water is a practice much older than using electricity; water wheels being used to turned mills goes back over 2000 years! \n\nEDIT: I want to add, for those saying it's really solar energy: If you want to be really technical, what is maintaining the Sun's fusion reaction? Gravitational pressure! The equilibrium between fusion pushing out and gravity pulling in is what keeps the Sun shining. If hydroelectric power is really solar, then solar power is really gravitational!",
"you can use gravity to store energy, that is by lifting something up, and getting it back later. Some powerplants pump up water ro a mountain and later let it run through turbines. \nThe sun moves the water from the sea to higher places, wher it then flows downward and can be used to drive water wheels, but the energy comes from the sun and gravitation is just some intermediate step. \n\nBut you cannot generate energy from gravity in a closed loop, meaning you cannot build a machine that outputs energy by just moving something around in a loop inside of a gravitational field.",
"[GravityLight](_URL_0_) is a light designed for the developing world that generates power from its own weight. Every ~~few hours~~ 20 minutes you have to lift the weight (about 22 lbs.) up ~~a few feet~~ 6 feet and then it generates electricity from a gear train and a DC generator as the weight slowly descends.",
"There's another way (besides hydroelectric) that gravitational energy is harnessed, which isn't really viable for terrestrial applications. This is the [gravitational slingshot](_URL_1_), where a spacecraft approaches a planet and essentially falls toward it as the planet moves away from the spacecraft in order to leave the planet's vicinity with more speed than it entered with.\n\nLike hydroelectric, which is ultimately taking the energy provided by the sun to lift water (which will then fall as rain or snow onto higher land) into the air via evaporation, this needs to draw from an existing source of energy in order to work. In this case it's the kinetic energy of the planet, which decreases just as much as the kinetic energy of the spacecraft increases - but that doesn't really matter that much given how enormous, for example, Jupiter is relative to New Horizons.",
"Slightly repeating here, but yes hydroelectric power harnesses gravity. As far as other potential means of harnessing gravity, you can not simply harness the force itself, but rather need some object being propelled by the force of gravity and then harness the energy from that object to create usable electric energy. It is easy and efficient to do with water because their exists natural places in earth where water is continuously supplied to an area that uses gravity to propel the water. In most other cases it is highly inefficient in terms of energy used versus energy gained to harness gravitational force from other objects. This is because you must use the same amount of energy to get an object above ground level, to then turn around and harness the same amount of energy from it falling. And with energy collection never being at 100% due to factors such as friction, energy degradation between switching forms, etc. the process of using gravity becomes something that requires more energy than it gives back.",
"Essentially every energy source ever proposed is derived from gravity. The only energy source I can think of that isn't gravitational would be the cosmic microwave background energy.\n\nNuclear power (fission) - Releasing the energy captured from the work done in the gravitational collapse of a star from the distant past.\n\nSolar power - without gravity the sun would not fuse hydrogen.\n\nGeo-thermal power - the heat in the Earth's core is a mixture of radioactive decay (see fission) and heating caused by the formation of the Earth itself (self gravitation).\n\nHydroelectric power - Solar energy (derived from gravitation) heats water and elevates it. Dams then convert the gravitational potential energy into mechanical energy.\n\nFossil fuels - Solar energy was converted to hydrocarbons by organisms millions of years ago. Gravitational pressure then transformed the organic matter into fossil fuels.\n\nFusion power - This form of energy will be the least disconnected from gravity if it can be made to work. Only the initial energy required to get the reaction started would be derived from gravity. Of course this is why it's been so hard to make fusion work. In stars, the energy to keep the matter close enough to fuse is provided for free by gravity. For man made reactors, the energy to keep the matter together has to be taken from the reaction itself.",
"Gravity is not energy. Gravity is a force. A force applied to an object creates a situation with potential energy.\n\nIn other words, for gravity to supply energy, you need mass to be high up and have space to move down. For example, water above a damn can be run through a generator to create electricity.\n\nGravity alone is not enough, but gravity, and some stuff that can fall, is, and we use it all the time.",
"There is no way to harness gravity DIRECTLY, think of it this way: Lets say you drilled a whole to the center of the earth, and then had a really cool fishing pole with a weight by the bobber and a generator built into the spool. Now you cast your line into the whole, generating electricity all the way to the center of the earth. But then, PLUNK, you hit the center of the earth... Now what? You expend just as, if not more, energy reeling the line back in to cast again. Add the energy you made from the fall with the energy you expended reeling the line back in, and this will be less than or equal to zero, it's a law of thermodynamics that this must be so.\n\nWhat goes up MUST come down... so you need something like hydroelectric power where what comes down evaporates and precipitates back uphill again, the net energy profit is still less than or equal to zero, the deficit is just made up by *natural processes* instead of *your machine* (and possibly increases entropy therefore leading to the early destruction of the universe. Thanks alot!).",
"As others have mentioned, gravity itself is not energy, so when you \"harness gravity for energy,\" you're really transferring gravitational potential energy from an object into a usable form for yourself.\n\nThere is one other process using gravity to harness energy that hasn't been mentioned yet (mostly because it's well beyond our technological ability, but I'm always looking for an excuse to bring it up). The [Penrose process](_URL_2_) is kind of like the slingshot effect, but instead of transferring linear momentum from a moving body, you grab rotational energy out of a rotating black hole.\n\nSo a non-rotating (Schwarzschild) black hole has an event horizon, demarking a special region of spacetime where nothing, neither light nor any kind of energy, can escape. This makes them not all that interesting for energy extraction.\n\nOn the other hand, a rotating (Kerr) black hole has **two** special regions. Like a non-rotating black hole, it has an event horizon, but it also has an *ergosphere*. In the ergosphere, everything must rotate according to an outside observer. The important part is that objects can escape from the ergosphere. So you can send in a object into the ergosphere that you have designed to split in half. One half spirals into the black hole, while the other escapes. But if you do it right, it turns out the half entering the event horizon will have *negative* rotational energy (with respect to an outside observer). This means the object coming out has *more* energy than the original object went in with.\n\nIn this way, you can extract the angular momentum of the black hole all the way down until you stop its rotation, turning it into a Schwarzschild black hole.",
"I don't know if anyone mentioned this, but Bill Nye actually was talking about a method for a new type of power plant that uses half solar energy and half gravitational energy. \n\nFirst, we blow up a huge hole in the ground (which apparently we're really good with explosives) and then we set up a huge weight using all the rocks we blew up out of it. \n\nDuring the day, solar energy can be used and stored, but the issue is at night when the sun is gone or when the clouds are out solar energy cannot be created. So what happens is that some of the energy was used to lift up the huge weight of rocks out of the hole and at night, as the stuff are falling back into the hole, it can be attached to turbines or generators and we can use that energy when the sun isn't available. \n\n[Here's the video with bill nye](_URL_3_) (the hole thing is towards the second half of the video.)\n\ntl;dr - big hole with weight can go down and power generators while the sun isn't available.",
"Plug for [Gravity Light](_URL_5_) which seeks to build a factory in Kenya to produce lights on this design. You lift a weight (human energy goes into the system), and the weight falls slowly, generating light. A small light, sure, and it only lasts 20 minutes, but the goal here is to eliminate kerosene, a fossil fuel that's highly wasteful, expensive, and prone to explode in your living room. I donated enough to their [Indiegogo](_URL_4_) to get one or two in the mail next fall that I can put in my earthquake/zombie kit.",
"People have already answered \"Hydro-electric power\" which is the correct reply. To go into slightly more topical detail about what you may have been thinking of: \nHydro power works because the energy of the sun is absorbed by water, which evaporates, carrying that energy upwards. It takes work energy to lift anything, and water vapor is no exception. So clouds are big clumps of energy. When rain begins to fall, they \"pay back\" that energy with the gravitational energy of falling rain and flowing water. \nThe reason that we don't use gravity for other applications is pretty simple: it would never produce a positive return. The water cycle is easy to harness, the sun's power is so massive and abundant that we barely tap a fraction of it. There's plenty left over to \"waste\" on heating and lifting water. \nLet's say I wanted to make a \"gravity turbine.\" I get a bag full of baseballs and set up a water wheel like contraption. I climb a ladder and pour the balls down a chute. The balls roll down the cute, turn the wheel, and it produces energy. It automatically re-bags the balls and I repeat the process. \nYes, it's using gravity to produce energy, but there's a catch: I'm *expanding* energy to lift the balls into position. That's always going to be the case, and what's more, *I'm always going to have to expand more net energy to lift them.* The wheel will never be 100% efficient, so some of the energy I used up to lift the balls will always be lost. Plus, I had to lift MYSELF against the pull of gravity, so that's a lot of potential energy wasted as well.",
"The easiest way to convert gravity's energy into electrical energy is to collect it from descending objects. That's what hydropower plants do. \n\nNow imagine a endless hydropower plant where the water leaves the turbines and goes back to the system. You would have infinite electricity production, BUT this is impossible, since you need to waste energy to make the water go up, the same amount of energy that you generated. So at best you have a constant 0 output of power.\n\nBut as pumps (and probably generators) are not 100% eficient produce heat your net gain would be negative, since you'd be producing less energy than what is needed to transport the water.\n\nIf you're not on the earth's surface, were gravity is considered constant and uniform that's your best bet. If you can work with more interesting shapes, such as a giant rock with gravitational pull, you can use -- as /u/duckparticle pointed out -- a more exoteric technique, [the gravitational slingshot](_URL_6_).",
"Gravity is like magnetism, you can't really do that. You can harness energy from how it interacts with other things, but not in a continuous loop. There always need to be energy put into the system. \n\nYou could say hydro electric power is using gravity, and it is, because gravity pulls the water, and that turns turbines, but once the water is at the bottom, it's game over. \n\nSo hydro electric, is actually also using the sun, which evaporates the water, and puts the water back at the top of mountains, which then flow down through turbines. \n\nBut you cannot simply harness gravity as it is. Gravity is bending of space-time. \n\nIf you put a canon ball in the middle of a trampoline, you can't get energy from the fact the trampoline is depressed. Only if you roll something else into it. \n\nTurbines also use the tide to harness energy, which comes from the effects of the moon's gravity.",
"Hydroelectric is harnessing the power of the sun to evaporate water and cause wind to blow which moves the moisture to higher altitudes. Rainfall then deposits the water where gravity moves it back to the ocean. Hydroelectric is the combined effect of solar and gravity.\n\nIf you want to look at a more nearly gravity powered source of energy, geothermal is it. Heat in the earth's core comes from two sources, atomic as heavy nuclei break down over time, and gravity from the moon's tidal effects. The heat gets close enough to the surface in some areas to be used to generate electricity.\n\nTidal power is another source based on gravity. It relies on the movement of water caused by the moon's gravity.",
"When you move a mass away from the Earth, it gains gravitational potential energy. That energy will be released in letting it fall back down to ground level. The trick is to move it up very cheaply or for free, and then harness that energy as it comes back down.\n\nEnergy from the Sun will move water from the sea and land up into the sky for free. We can capture it and stop it falling back to the sea by building a dam across a valley. We can then release it through a turbine to capture that potential energy as it returns back down to sea level. That is *very* roughly one example.",
"There is a common misconception that constant force means constant power, and therefore massive objects must be emitting energy in the form of gravity. That isn't true. It only takes energy to push something if it moves with the force. A table can hold up a weight for all eternity without using any energy. And regenerative braking provides power because it's moving against the force.\n\nThere are ways to get energy that involve gravity, but gravity itself cannot be used as a power source.",
"What about harnessing the Unruh effect to drain energy from the blackbody bath in the vacuum of space seen by an orbiting object? Do it right, and the object and generator can eventually be landed again and resent into orbit. \n\nNot gonna be much, but has potential with future tech that could be quite real.",
"_URL_7_ uses gravity to provide electricity to people in poverty, namely remote African areas. Basically you just have a weight (a rock) that you lift up and as it slowly falls it pulls a rope which turns a generator and produces electricity. Great project which I've always thought I'd brilliant.",
"Many people have mentioned hyrdoelectric power as generating energy from gravity. But few seem to mention geothermal, which ultimately derives its energy from gravity. \n\nWhen the earth formed, a lot of stuff fell together to make one big sphere. But as all that mass fell towards its center of gravity (which is now at the center of the earth), it released a lot of potential energy. Almost all of this potential energy got turned into heat, which is a big part of why the center of the earth is still hot today. Thus, when we get energy from the heat of the earth, aka geothermal, we are getting energy from gravity.\n\nEdit: By contrast, hydroelectric power ultimately derives its energy from solar power, which is to say, the sun's fusion- not gravity. Gravity is just the intermediary that is *storing* the energy for a while. The sun heats water and it rises into the sky as clouds, and this stores energy in the gravitational force. Ultimately some of this water lands on hills and mountains, and we can harness some of this energy when we drive turbines with water that is flowing downhill.",
"Here is the issue. conservation of mass and energy requires that any energy we release come from somewhere, and something has to put the energy there in the first place. In the case of fossil fuels the energy is kept in the bonds of the hydrocarbons that are broken when we burn them. Solar power is the \"momentum\" of the photons as they impact a surface. If we have to put the energy into the source we no longer have a net flow of energy, in fact we will always lose some to entropy, so you wont even break even.\n\nThat means that in order to harness gravitational energy, you have to use something that no human energy was used to gain gravitational energy (height/altitude). Your options are the moon (tides actually very very slightly cause the moon's orbit to decay), rain (the water cycle is being driven by solar radiation, gravity potential is merely a transition step) or somehow harnessing near miss asteroids to move a solenoid somehow.",
"Yes, and possible in a way that is not hydroelectric power but similar to clocks described in some of the comments.\n\nImagine a huge tower (or many) with a massive suspended weight. When gravity is at a favorable low (i.e., the moon is somewhere above your axial hemisphere), the weight is lifted. When the moon is opposite, the gravity, and thus the potential energy, is higher, you drop the weight and convert the potential energy.\n\nBig issues here: the gravity difference is microgals (10^-6) as I recall, so there's relatively not much energy to gain, and you'd have to deal with all sorts of friction and other energy losses.\n\nAnd as /u/tom83 pointed out, you'd be sapping energy from the Earth-Moon system, which in theory, would increase the rate of the moon and earth eventually colliding.",
"Gravity alone no; think about it this way, anything you drop, harnassing gravity and extrapolating energy, you have to lift again before dropping back down. But if you don't bother to pick objects back up, you can just go on finding more things you can drop and getting more energy. This doesn't just apply to gravity, it could be said about entropy in general.",
"People may have posted already, but I'll add my two cents:\n\nGravity itself is a force, not energy. To get energy you need the force to act on an object. For example, we are rooted to the ground due to gravity, you jump and gravity exerts a force on you to bring you back to Earth. There is energy being expensed by gravity.",
"You're all forgetting about those sweet conveyer systems in some Japanese and German factories where the weight of the object pushes down on a table or tray, travels a tramway, and then gets dumped or transferred to another line, and a spring moves the conveyer tray back up the tramway to accept another piece.",
"Many [grandfather clocks](_URL_10_) work by gravity. Likewise [coo-coo clocks](_URL_8_), and [old spinning-light lighthouses](_URL_9_). In all of those cases, though, there's a human pulling a rope or turning a crank to build up potential energy (against gravity) that gets slowly expended by the clock as gravity pulls the weights down.",
"Has anyone else heard of and could explain gravity batteries that use solar power to run a motor that raises a weight during the day and uses it lowering at night to turn a turbine and generate power, is this a real thing?",
"Raccoon mountain in Chattanooga tennessee is a good example of just that. They pump water up a hill with electricity during offpeak hours and then let it flow down during peak hours when the electricity is needed.",
"Not a single mention that gravity is a [conservative force](_URL_11_). It's the same thing as trying to harness energy from a fixed magnet. It's not possible, you're talking about a perpetual motion machine."
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"url": [
"http://www.fastcoexist.com/3050137/hows-that-working-out-for-you/this-ingenious-20-lamp-gets-all-its-energy-from-gravity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose_process",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QIQ5iBTkvMw",
"https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/gravitylight-2-made-in-africa",
"http://gravitylight.org",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3i8u99/is_there_a_way_to_harness_gravity_for_energy_if/cuefxzn",
"Gravitylight.org",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=coo-coo+clock",
"https://c2.staticflickr.com/8/7125/7485652154_08c475d796_b.jpg",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=grandfather+clock",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_force"
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109zc2 | Does a sex change operation really change sex? | If a male had a sex change operation to become a female would they really be completely female or only look like a complete female to the casual observer? Would science still be able to identify the living subject as male? What sex would science assign to such a person?
I would also be interested to hear of species that change sex as a natural biological function and the criteria used to determine sex in biology. | askscience | {
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"Genetics would indicate that the person is still male. There is no way around that at the present time nor would the new woman have a complete set of female genetalia. \n\nI am not going to touch the gender / sex debate.",
"There are many aspects of sex: genetic sex, primary or secondary sexual characteristics, and then the whole social aspect of gender, etc. These do not always match up. In addition to transsexuals, there are also [intersex individuals of many types](_URL_0_). If you're looking for a unified scientific opinion of what defines a person's \"one true sex\", I don't think you're going to find it.\n\nAs for meaning of sexes in other species, my impression from studying general biology is that we define males as having the small gametes (sperm) and females as having the large gametes (eggs), although I'm no expert and someone else might want to chime in here.",
"The technical determination of what's male vs female is based on the size of the gamete (sperm/egg). Larger gamete is female. Smaller gamete is male. This leads to interesting things such as sea horses where it's the males that gestate the off-spring.\n\nUsing that definition: assuming the testes and overies are removed during the operation, the person then becomes sexless (neither male nor female). Our culture recognizes this as well. Eunuchs, for example, are not thought of as male. They are in a gender class of their own.",
"In practically all cases, a medical gender transition will involve hormone replacement therapy (HRT) prior to any genital surgery, and HRT makes much bigger changes than genital surgery alone can. \n\nBy taking sex hormones dominant to their identified gender, a trans person can bring their hormone levels into the normal range for an adult of their identified gender. This will trigger the development of secondary sexual characteristics (breasts or beards) and changes to body hair, fat distribution, and skin texture. It's a lot like going through puberty a second time, but hormones can't change to bone structure once its set, nor can they remove breasts or facial hair. Estrogen won't make a trans woman's voice higher, but testosterone will make a trans man's voice lower.\n\nSurgery can modify genitalia to resemble the genitalia of a trans person's identified gender. It's much like any other body modification, moving tissue around, but with closer attention paid to all those important nerves. But hormones dictate how you experience orgasm. With or without genital surgery, a trans person will experience the orgasm of their identified gender.\n\nAs far as reproductive capability and genetics go, HRT leaves you infertile, so I am unsure how to categorize a post-HRT person's biological sex based on reproductive capability. And we can't modify chromosomes (yet), so a trans person will still have the karyotype they were born with.\n\nEdit: Fixed my non-neutral tone. But still, trans peoples' gender identities are valid. :)",
"Depends on what definition you are looking at. Genetically, there would be no change after a sex change operation. So science would easily be able to figure out anyone who has undergone a sex change operation.\n\nBut the real question is \"what do you really mean when you say 'sex'\"?",
"No.\n\nOnly the outer appearance would look like the opposite sex. By looking for the XX and XY chromosomes the original gender can be identified. \nAlso if a male became a female, she would not be able to conceive because of the lack of the genitalia."
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} | Does a sex change operation really change sex?
If a male had a sex change operation to become a female would they really be completely female or only look like a complete female to the casual observer? Would science still be able to identify the living subject as male? What sex would science assign to such a person? I would also be interested to hear of species that change sex as a natural biological function and the criteria used to determine sex in biology. | [
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|
1if8n5 | what are the advantages of using natural logs over base 10 logs (or any other base for that matter)? | when should we use one over the other? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cb3up09",
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"text": [
"The derivative of ln(x) is 1/x, which is the simplest you can get. For example, the derivative of log10(x) is 1/(x ln(10)).\n\nThe inverse of the logarithm is the exponential: if y=ln(x), then x=e^(y). And the derivative of e^y is e^(y). OTOH, the derivative of 10^x is 10^(x)ln(10): yet again that ln(10) to make things more complicated than they need be.\n\n > when should we use one over the other?\n\nUse base N when you have a compelling reason to use it. Otherwise, use the natural log.",
"In addition to what everyone else mentioned, ln has a nicer Taylor expansion than does log in any other base, so logarithms are oftentimes *defined* in terms of the Taylor expansion of ln (this allows for logarithms to be computed on complex/negative inputs, too). \n\nAnother nice property of the Taylor expansion is that it's also often convenient to approximate ln(1+x) by just x when x is sufficiently small, rather than the unappealing log(1+x) ~ x/2.3025 or whatever if you're working in base 10.\n\n---\n\nTaylor expansion for ln(1+x):\n\n ln(1+x) = x - x^2/2 + x^3/3 - x^4/4 + x^5/5 - ...\n\nfor |x| < = 1 (with the exception of x = -1, where certain curious properties arise). \n\nFrom here, you can use properties of logs to extend this to any input.",
"There's no particular reason since each one is just a constant time another. \n\nlog_10(x) = ln(x)/ln(10)\n\nThis is true for any number we pick instead of 10. The main reason we use the natural logarithm is it gives us some nice formulas, for instance its derivative is 1/x and its inverse function is e^x which is its own derivative. This could be done with other basis but then we would have to add some multiplicative constants to make sure all the formula work.",
"For one thing:\n\nd/dx ln(x) = 1/x\n\nThis only works so neatly in base e.\n\nIt is because of this that the natural log appears so many times in physics - any time you end up having to integrate a function resembling 1/x.\n\nAside, you can always convert from one base to another as they will just be out by a factor."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | what are the advantages of using natural logs over base 10 logs (or any other base for that matter)?
when should we use one over the other? | [
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|
1eeuqv | What is the actual science behind cutting flower stems at a 45 degree angle? | Can anyone explain the science behind this? I know that's it increases surface area, but does this increase capillary action? For instance, if I have a bundle of straws, and I cut them at a 45, the SA does increase, but I can't necessarily drink faster just because of that. A detailed response is very much appreciated. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9zrot6",
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],
"text": [
"It is beneficial because if they are cut at an angle, the crushing of the xylem (vessels) will not cut off the flow of H2O and minerals to the rest of the plant. If cut straight across, the xylem can be crushed closed.",
"I believe it is the surface area increase. \n\nWhen you're drinking from straws, cutting them doesn't change the surface area over which you are absorbing the water (that is your intestine). In contrast in the case of the flower the stem you cut is the surface are over which absorption is happening.",
"I was taught in a college course that it is done to prevent the pooling of water at the site of the cut, which can become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria and fungi. Water can't pool when the stem is cut at an angle."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is the actual science behind cutting flower stems at a 45 degree angle?
Can anyone explain the science behind this? I know that's it increases surface area, but does this increase capillary action? For instance, if I have a bundle of straws, and I cut them at a 45, the SA does increase, but I can't necessarily drink faster just because of that. A detailed response is very much appreciated. | [
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|
18239m | What makes a balloon burst like this in a sinewave? | At a recent birthday party, a burst balloon caught my attention. Here's a picture:
_URL_0_
What makes a balloon burst like that, so evenly and mathematically, in a sine-wave fashion.
Edit:
* So it looks like the wave could be better categorized as a sine-square/sawtooth function.
* The balloon was burst using a pen/toothpick, and not by blowing it past it's stretchable limit (as can be deduced from the tied end.)
* Reports of similar patterns arriving -- pricking a plastic wrapper with dental pick. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There have been actually a decent amount of papers on it relative to the topic\n\n1) [One claiming that the amplitude and wavelength are dependent on the cutting tip](_URL_2_)\n\n2) [Another saying an increase in strain marks the transition from straight to wavy](_URL_0_)\n\nI would think that there's a stress line in the rubber, and that when the balloon first breaks it breaks slightly above or below the stress line. The break then tears towards and then past the stress line, oscillating back and forth because the pressure on the side of the break that is closest to the stress line is greater than than the pressure of the side of the break that is away from the stress line. The reason it doesn't just stop on the stress line is because there is an extra bit of stress that is generated from the rubber's elasticity being released that is sometimes greater than the stress that's coming from the difference in pressure, depending on where on the sine wave you are.\n\nedit:\ndrew [picture](_URL_1_) of the players, the dotted line is the initial stress line",
"Maybe something to do with the way they're manufactured? It'd be interesting to see if all of the balloons in the packet pop with the same pattern, and if balloons from other manufacturers follow a different pattern.\n\nThe sample isn't great, but I did a Google Image search for \"burst balloon\" and basically none of them look like they have the pattern yours does:\n[1](_URL_7_)\n[2](_URL_7_)\n[3](_URL_8_)\n[4](_URL_9_)\n[5](_URL_9_)\n[6](_URL_8_)\n[7](_URL_9_).",
"I think its significant that its a damped sine wave. My guess is that as the tear propagates in the material there are two balanced forces at work at 90 degrees apart, one being the force of the air. Then as the air pressure diminishes with time the sine wave dampens and the second force, the springiness of the rubber predominates.",
"I read in deforms that materials like to break at ( give or take a bit) 45 degree angles. This is due to the fact that both the shear and axial forces are at their max. That would be my guess if the baloon was poped by stretching vs piercing.",
"I've actually noticed the same sort of wave pattern when cutting the plastic from a gum wrapper with a dental pick. (don't ask how I came to do this). It only worked with part of the cellophane that was thicker.",
"I'm of the opinion that having quality high speed video of the event would help us understand and, well, quite literally see what is going on.\n\nAll I've found is [this video](_URL_10_) which really isn't slow or detailed enough to properly observe the tearing edge of the rubber. Nearly all the videos that I've been able to find have been popping water balloons which are not the scenario being asked about.\n\nAnyone have a better video?",
"That doesn't look like a sin wave, but instead sin^2 wave. Bit pedantic, but it leads to different explanations."
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} | {
"url": [
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} | {
"url": [
"http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v88/i1/e014304",
"http://i.imgur.com/KliAiBT.png",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631072103001943",
"http://www.featurepics.com/FI/Thumb300/20090928/Burst-Balloon-1335293.jpg",
"http://i.istockimg.com/file_thumbview_approve/2137318/2/stock-photo-2137318-burst-balloon.jpg",
"http://www.project88.in/neha_choksi/2009_dont_hold_it_in_breath_out/lrg/3.jpg",
"http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/4/48/BurstBalloonwithPenny-Intro.jpg/550px-BurstBalloonwithPenny-Intro.jpg",
"http://easyscienceexperiments.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/popped-balloon.jpg",
"http://www.digininja.org/graphics/hakin9/burst_balloon.jpg",
"http://us.123rf.com/400wm/400/400/alexh/alexh0910/alexh091000012/5664556-burst-balloon-end-of-party-good-times-concept.jpg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K1R_Y6G5fxM"
]
} | What makes a balloon burst like this in a sinewave?
At a recent birthday party, a burst balloon caught my attention. Here's a picture: _URL_0_ What makes a balloon burst like that, so evenly and mathematically, in a sine-wave fashion. Edit: * So it looks like the wave could be better categorized as a sine-square/sawtooth function. * The balloon was burst using a pen/toothpick, and not by blowing it past it's stretchable limit (as can be deduced from the tied end.) * Reports of similar patterns arriving -- pricking a plastic wrapper with dental pick. | [
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59o6dp | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dan Riskin: author, bat biologist, host of Animal Planet's Monsters Inside Me and co-host of Daily Planet. I wrote my PhD on bats and since it's Bat Week, I thought I'd take a swing at some of your questions. (See what I did there?) | I've seen > 100 species of bats in the wild (not bad but far short of the 1,300+ species out there). For my PhD, I put vampire bats on treadmills to compare their walking performance to those of other animals. To my surprise, vampire bats had a [running gait](_URL_2_). That was my big break. Soon, I got TV gigs, like the job hosting Monsters Inside Me for Animal Planet, and guest appearances on [Craig Ferguson](_URL_1_), Jay Leno and Dr. Oz. I am the co-host of Discovery Canada's flagship daily science show, [Daily Planet](_URL_5_), and I'm the author of [Mother Nature is Trying to Kill You](_URL_6_) (2014).
My latest project is a weekly 10-15 minute podcast called [Recent Paper Decent Puzzle](_URL_0_) in which I pick an interesting scientific journal article paper to break down and then “cleanse your mental palate” with a fun puzzle. I often talk about bat papers because let's face it, bats are the most charismatic creatures on Earth. Did you know some bats feed on fish? Did you know there are bats with suction cups on their wrists and ankles? Did you know some bats perform oral sex on one another? I could go on. Oh wait, I will!
Let's blab about bats. Also, I'll happily answer questions about other things, too, like what it's like to work on Monsters Inside Me (there's a new episode [tonight](_URL_4_)!), or about my experience doing the podcast. This will be my third AMA, and I hope it is just as fun as the last two. Coming on at noon (ET), bring it, Redditors.
Proof: _URL_3_
****
Thanks so much everyone. This was a lot of fun. If you like learning about this kind of stuff, please check out my new podcast when you get time: Recent Paper Decent Puzzle.
And Happy Bat Week! | askscience | {
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"Did you realize that when you flip a picture of bats hanging upside down it looks like a dance-off from a musical? _URL_0_\n\nAlso, is there anything special about a bat's vascular system in terms of adaption to spending so much time upside down?",
"Hello and welcome to AskScience, Dr. Riskin. \n\nDo bats burp when hanging upside down?\n\nAnd all that guano on the cave floor, do bats crap that stuff into their own faces as it falls down?",
"Hi! I've been hoping to attract bats to my yard to help with bug control (and because bats are cute). What do I need to know about habitat and getting them to notice a new bat house? I live in the American plain states, btw. Thanks!",
"A few weeks ago, I was visiting the Broxbourne zoo in England. In the bat exhibit, I saw all but one bat huddling together. There had to be at least 50 or so. Anyway, I watched the lone bat try to join the others and each advance he made, the group would screech at him. He got close enough at one point for the other bats to physically push him away. This made my young son sad for the lonely bat. We wanted to know if this sort of shunning behavior is common in bats in the wild or just in captivity. Thanks a bunch.",
"Hey Dan, big fan. I'm glad you returned to do another AMA. \n\nMy question was about [that *Natalus*](_URL_1_) you mention on your website. You mention that they seem unwilling or unable to walk on the ground. What do you feel is the likelihood of bats becoming \"walkless\", how common do you think it could be, and which bats would you most like to place on treadmills?\n\nAlso I'd like to plug /r/batfacts and /r/batty for any redditors who would like to learn more about bats.",
"Hi there! I'm a huge fan of Monsters Inside Me, and have been for a long time. What's the strangest thing you've found out about disease while hosting the show?",
"***Re: Bats***\n\nI've heard a rumour that the turbulence created by the blades from wind-farms can cause bat lungs to collapse spontaneously. Is this actually a thing? Or just a *really* ridiculous theory being pushed by the facebook pseudo-science drowd?\n\n^^^because ^^^it ^^^sounds ^^^completely ^^^made-up",
"Hi Dan! My question is quite specific. I'm working on a Master's in Zoology. My thesis project is about survivability of white-nose syndrome on (what used to be) the western leading edge (MO, OK, KS, etc). I performed an acoustic survey this summer, and I'm looking at doing my physical (netting) survey next summer. Here's the question: what are your tips on ID'ing in the hand and learning key differences? I'm looking at ~14 different species and I'm so intimidated by the prospect of telling them apart in the field! Especially the little *Myotis spp*. Thanks!",
"Did bats evolve along side birds or was it due to exposure to newly evolved reptiles gaining flight which ensured the leap?",
"Hey Dan, You mentioned your work involved biomechanics, how transferrable are these findings to bio-inspired engineering? Do the way that bats fly help us build better aircraft or turbines? What more can we learn from these creatures?",
"Hey there Doc, what got you so interested in bats? Childhood trauma of falling down a dark empty well by chance? What spurred your passion!",
"Hi Dan! I love bats and have worked with them in the past! Bats are amazing- the second biggest mammalian order and the only mammals with true flight! They've been my favorite animal for years! \n\n2 questions:\n\n1) What is your favorite bat species? (mine is Ecophyla alba or possibly Euderma maculatum!) \n\n2) In your opinion, what should bat researchers be focusing on in the future? What is still not understood about our cute little furry friends?",
"Hey Dan! Thanks for doing this AMA, huge fan of Monsters Inside Me. I'm a registered nurse that loves to see these rare cases. \n\nI am an avid hiker in the northeast US and ticks are the bane of my (and my dog's) existence.\n\n- Are tick borne illnesses on the rise and/or worsening in severity or do you think we're just getting better at identifying them? If the prevalence is truly increasing, why do you think that is? \n\n\n- What are some of the more common tick borne illnesses I should be aware of? What are the more severe/potentially fatal ones?\n\n\n- Besides checking for the little buggers, what steps can I take to protect myself and my pets that are most effective?\n\n\n- Also, at what point did you decide on your career path? Were you an animal lover as a kid?",
"A perfectly relevant AMA for me! \n\nWhere I live (North Queensland, Australia), flying foxes are a pest, but as far as I know are protected so we can't do a lot about them. They take over in huge swarms and poop everywhere, the whole town stinks and I have some roosting in the palm trees in the garden. \n\nSo I have two questions;\n\n1. Should I be concerned about lissavirus with my kids playing in the yard where the bats are?\n\nAnd \n\n2. Is there anything you could suggest to make my hard less appealing to them? The smell is really sickening and the noise isn't a lot of fun either. \n\nThanks",
"Hey Dan, more academic oriented question here. How did you choose your Advisor for PhD and how were you funded? Any tips for aspiring students looking to get into grad school?",
"Hello! I've heard that bats have a unique immune system among mammals, which explains their ability to withstand infections such as rabies. Is that true, and if so, in what way is a bat's immune system different from ours?",
"What's up with [Phyllostomids lacking the digital passive lock that lets other bats hang without effort?](_URL_2_) Are vampires giving their relatives a bad rap again?",
"I live in New England area and bat populations have been decimated by white nose syndrome. Do you have an update on whether our bats will be returning?",
"Hey ya Dan, fellow vic student here, been a long time... Anyway my question, what's one characteristic of bat society you wish humans would adapt?",
"Dan, I once read that bats cannot gain flight while on the ground/floor, however I witnessed a little brown bat scurry under a door into a room and when I opened that door he was flying around in the room. Other than the \"bats have rabies\" myth, what misconceptions are there about bats?",
"I grew up in Indiana. What kind of bats probably live underneath fake window shutters on suburban houses there? The kind that eat mosquitos? ( I once took down the fake shutters off my parents house to repaint them and there were like 30 bats living under them.",
"Hey Dan! Love watching daily planet! Just a simple question... what's the most intriguing bat for you and why?",
"Hey! I'm definitely not an expert, but my dad works in speleology and cave rescue in central america. They usually go the extra mile with their organization to help raise awareness with both the natives and the tourists about rabies infections amongst the vampire bats that reside in the local caves. The natives are usually the ones more in danger - they're people with extremely poor living conditions and barely any education. I'm a teacher and I've travelled with my dad to help interact with their comunities, and I've seen how a bat's bite can ruin families. I was wondering, is it too far fetched to think of a way to also treat the bat population, not just the people injured and infected, as a way to tackle the root of the problem? In fear of sounding stupid, is there a vaccine for bat's rabies?",
"Dr. Riskin,\n\nWhat are the biggest challenges/threats that bats face and what can we do to help them?\n\n(your answer better include wind turbines!! ;) )",
"What was/is the largest bat? We're there ever giant bats, condor size? Could a mammal/bat upscale to that size?",
"How did the idea that bats suck people's blood become a thing?",
"What is a bat behavior that people would consider \"cute\".",
"Once I awoke one morning to find a bat sleeping in my hall, hanging from the light-shade. I nearly jumped out of my skin when it jumped alive. After some struggle I was able to usher it outside... To my absolute horror, nearly every bird in the immediate area began to swoop upon it and try attacking it (seagulls, crows, even blackbirds). I was impressed by how acrobatic the bat was compared to the birds as it easily outmaneuvered them for a while but eventually it fell. Is this normal behavior for so many birds to attack a bat on sight?",
"Hi Dr. Riskin,\n\nThe finding of a gait in vampire bats is certainly fascinating. I did a bit of reading and saw that they [\"power their run with their forelimbs\"](_URL_3_). What does this imply evolutionarily about vampire bats in relation to other bats? Is this likely to be an environmental adaptation that occurred relatively recently or is there a chance that vampire bats are evolutionarily separated from most other types of bats? Thank you for your time!",
"I don't have any specific questions but as a fellow Bat biologist I just want to say thanks for doing the AMA and helping educate people. Your work is fascinating and I hope to meet you at a conference some day! HAPPY BAT WEEK!",
"Hey Dan,\n\nHow do bats not have all their blood rush to their head when hanging upside down? Do they have some adaptations that allow them to deal with it or just prevent it from happening, or does it just not matter?",
"What is your opinion on the way american documentary and science TV programming has become sensationalized, fast paced and overly dramatic? When compared to British science documentaries for instance, American programming in my opinion leaves much to be desired.",
"How do you become a T.V. scientist? Did you have to pursue it or did you know someone already in broadcasting?",
"Most every year, in August, I get a bat intrusion into my living space. A few years ago, I bought bat nets and started learning how to catch them with lower chance for damage. Poor guys have white nose in my area, and I am loathe to disturb them considering how valuable they are to the ecosystem. (I now help out my neighbors when they get one inside.)\n\nQuestion is... is there any downside to letting them live in my attic? They don't appear to damage anything, I don't have rabies!, and they seem benign except for the occasional bat poops... they don't breed fast and i really, really want them eating my mosquitos. OK to live and let live when it comes to my house?",
"Hi I am a children's media content creator, so I like to ask really abstract questions that help me strengthen the messages I send to kids. \n\n1. In relation to your line of work, what misconceptions do you see in adults that make you think, \"Jeez, I wish this misconception just didn't exist\"?\n2. Similarly, what message would you like kids to know?\n3. Between bats and parasites, etc., you work with a lot of scary things. What scares you the most, and how does that fear influence what you do?",
"Can bats damage my hearing?\nIt used to be exciting to see bats flying about until I read somewhere that their inaudible (to human) screeching can do damage if they swoop past your head. So now I cover my ears and tell everyone else to do the same, and feel kind of like a nincompoop because I sort of doubt that it is true but want to be safe.",
"What's the best way to get a bat out of your house without injuring it? And how do I deter them from roosting in my storage spaces?",
"Do you have any tips for communicating science to a popular audience? How do you balance scientific complexity and context with effective communication and time constraints?",
"I think bats are adorable, are they friendly when they are in captivity? I like to imagine they would make awesome pets.",
"Does the spread of white nose syndrome seem to be slowing down?",
"Hi there! I'm actually very interested in this because bats are big deal where I live. I live in an area with lots of cave systems, and therefore lots of bats. Recently, as in the past few years, bats in one of our local caves that is a popular tourist spot, have become afflicted with White-Nose Syndrome. I understand the basics in that it causes pre-mature hibernation (or late hibernation, it's been a few years), and this is what causes the large numbers of deaths. What causes WNS specifically, how is it treated or combated, is this something bats can become immune to on their own, how contagious is it, and what does its prevalence mean for the future of the North American bar population or the global bat population in general? If this is a lot to answer, feel free to pick and choose whichever you would like to answer. Since it's a local issue, I'm very interested.",
"Hi Dan, bit cheeky but two separate questions,\n\n1 - I am a reserve manager in the UK with a GHS(greater horseshoe) maternity roost and we have a live feed cam. When we see the bats huddling together every so often they shudder. Why? Does it perform a function such as thermoregulation within the group? or perhaps confirming contact with the rest of the group whilst sleeping?\n\n2 - With climate change, and possibility of milder winters, which 2015/16 was, we were observing much greater activity through Dec, Jan and Feb. Do you think the lack of a period of 'hibernation' or torpor with have a positive or negative on; a) individuals that have become used to that cycle? b) the roost over time and generations\n\nThanks in advance, Just a few thoughts I had been having recently?\nKeep up the good bat work, awesome creatures. Them, not you :) \nAll the best\nNoel",
"I've had a bat fly into my bedroom two years in a row, once in July, the other the next August. Animal control companies have inspected my house and swear I don't have a colony. I have had the house sealed by one of the companies, and added a chimney cap. \nDo I just have bad bat luck?\nAlso, each time this happens, my anxiety goes into over drive waiting to hear back about whether or not the bat had rabies. What are the chances a flying bat caught at night has rabies?",
"Hi Dan! \n\nI met you at the University of Montana some years ago while I was getting my undergraduate degree in wildlife biology. I remember you being a really laid back and nice person, thank you for taking the time to chat with an undergrad! I'm very concerned about WNS and our populations of bats. Has there been any uplifting news about its spread or treatability lately? Thanks!",
"I have heard of bats hibernating in such low temperatures and lowering their body temperature to the point that ice envelopes them and in order to thaw said ice they must gradually warm their bodies. Could this process be applicable to cryogenic sleep and preservation of humans? Is any research being done regarding these bats and their ability to revive after such a hibernation?",
"I read somewhere that the the term acting \"batty\" means to be awkward in situations-deriving from bats being the only mammal who can fly, yet have not mastered the art of flying such as birds. Why are bats the only mammal that can fly and do you think that in the future bats will be more \"aerodynamic\" like birds over time?",
"Hello! This is more related to Monsters Inside Me but I thought I would give it a shot. I have had toxoplasmosis since birth and as a result, have scarring on my eyes which cause partial blindness (macular scarring). Do you see technology advancing to the point of being able to easily fix or even replace eyes?",
"This past spring (in Ontario), while I was cleaning out the air filters in my home, I found a mummified bat lodged in the filter, right next to the furnace. No idea what the little guy was doing in there, or how he even got there.\n\nBut just...how?",
"Hi I'm a big fan of Monsters Inside Me! Just wanted to know how the Ebola virus which is supposedly from bat droppings came to be a virulent agent in other mammals such as humans and monkeys? What caused us to be susceptible to this?",
"I love bats, we have plenty of them where I live, on mobile bay. I'd like to get a prefab bat house, what is in your opinion the best off the rack bat house I can buy?",
"Dr. Riskin,\nWhat are you and other fellow biologist doing to reduce the decline of the bat population in the Northeast US due to white-nose syndrome?",
"Hi dan! Love daily planet. \nWas it hard to fill jay ingrams shoes?\nHow do you think you're doing ?",
"Two questions:\n\nIs NYC a good habitat for bats?\n\nWill the bat house at the Bronx Zoo ever re-open?",
"Hi, I've read that many bats exhibit signs of homosexual behaviour, is there any biological explanation for this?",
"Dan, as a human species. Where would we be without bats? In terms of ecology.",
"Hello Dan! I'm currently doing research on Pd and WNS here in Colorado for my undergraduate thesis, and let me tell you it has been a blast working with Tadarida brasiliensis and a number of Myotis species this summer! My question is do you have any theories as to why WNS has leapt to Washington and skipped so many western states? Or do you think it was simply spread anthropogenically? Thanks!",
"There has been a lot of talk lately about eradicating mosquitoes from earth as they are the number 1 killer of humans in the animal kingdom. This debate got hot in the summer because of olympics and Zika virus. The counter to eradicating mosquitoes is the effects that would have on bats. Does this argument hold water? What would happen to the bats if we got rid of the mosquitos?",
"Would white nose syndrome become less of a problem if we as humans just stopped going into caves as much? I wonder because a lot of caves are barred for people to prevent shoe/clothes transfer. But given the gravity and widespread incidence of problem even in less disturbed areas I can't help but think there is some other way the fungus(?) is spreading.",
"Hi!! \n\n\nWhat advice would you give to a young scientist interested in the honorable work of science communication??",
"How did you train the bats to use the treadmill? Was there some method that you used?",
"Thanks for doing this! I never realized how interested I could be in bats. They're pretty awesome.",
"How did you feel when you found out you would be filling in Jay Ingram's shoes?",
"So... Are bats - bugs? \nAsking for a friend, cuz of their homework that's due...",
"Love Monsters Inside Me, thanks for doing this AMA!\n\nAre bats your favorite animal?",
"Can you just wing it? and tell us stuff?",
"How does a bat become a biologist anyway?"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://itunes.apple.com/podcast/recent-paper-decent-puzzle/id1095842472",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-xz-O5udQ4U",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukIZRD1mzLg",
"https://twitter.com/riskindan/status/791659729047216128",
"https://www.facebook.com/MonstersInsideMe/",
"http://www.discovery.ca/extra/daily-planet",
"https://www.amazon.com/Mother-Nature-Trying-Kill-You/dp/1476707553/"
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"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/hJKSDCw.jpg",
"http://www.noctilio.com/bats/natalidae_natalus_tumidirostris/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8515478",
"http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2005/03/vampire-bats-keep-out-trouble-running-study-shows"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dan Riskin: author, bat biologist, host of Animal Planet's Monsters Inside Me and co-host of Daily Planet. I wrote my PhD on bats and since it's Bat Week, I thought I'd take a swing at some of your questions. (See what I did there?)
I've seen > 100 species of bats in the wild (not bad but far short of the 1,300+ species out there). For my PhD, I put vampire bats on treadmills to compare their walking performance to those of other animals. To my surprise, vampire bats had a [running gait](_URL_2_). That was my big break. Soon, I got TV gigs, like the job hosting Monsters Inside Me for Animal Planet, and guest appearances on [Craig Ferguson](_URL_1_), Jay Leno and Dr. Oz. I am the co-host of Discovery Canada's flagship daily science show, [Daily Planet](_URL_5_), and I'm the author of [Mother Nature is Trying to Kill You](_URL_6_) (2014). My latest project is a weekly 10-15 minute podcast called [Recent Paper Decent Puzzle](_URL_0_) in which I pick an interesting scientific journal article paper to break down and then “cleanse your mental palate” with a fun puzzle. I often talk about bat papers because let's face it, bats are the most charismatic creatures on Earth. Did you know some bats feed on fish? Did you know there are bats with suction cups on their wrists and ankles? Did you know some bats perform oral sex on one another? I could go on. Oh wait, I will! Let's blab about bats. Also, I'll happily answer questions about other things, too, like what it's like to work on Monsters Inside Me (there's a new episode [tonight](_URL_4_)!), or about my experience doing the podcast. This will be my third AMA, and I hope it is just as fun as the last two. Coming on at noon (ET), bring it, Redditors. Proof: _URL_3_ **** Thanks so much everyone. This was a lot of fun. If you like learning about this kind of stuff, please check out my new podcast when you get time: Recent Paper Decent Puzzle. And Happy Bat Week! | [
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|
b832lc | Do overweight people have extra amount of nerves and pain receptors distributed around their body? | I always thought the amount of nerves and pain receptors is fixed regardless the size you are, and the bigger your are, the less nerves density you have, which should make you less sensitive and more resistance to pressure pain. However a study: "Body mass index and distribution of body fat can influence sensory detection and pain sensitivity" I ran into suggested the opposite.
Do overweight people grow "extra" amount of nerves to cover their bigger surface area? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ejw4wbz",
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],
"text": [
"Yes - _URL_0_\n\nBasically the skin is an organ and is continuously remodeling itself. This includes generating more nerves to “conform to the sensory profile of a particular area”.",
"Follow on, more general, question. \n\nDo all humans have roughly the same number of never endings? Are tall and short people just taking the same amount of never and stretching it compressing the amount of nerves they have per unit area?",
"You might find the dermatomal pattern of never distribution interesting. It is a hangover from evolution in which nerve roots from the central nervous system (CNS) innervate the level at which they exit. Looking at a worm, this makes sense, but given our spinal cord spots in our upper lumbar region, you have to follow from limb buds to legs to imagine how the tissue is stretched and twisted into what we have now.\n\nLooking at dermatomes, you can start to get an idea for where these nerves come from and go to. An obese person does not change their # of dermatomes, as that is based on nerve roots leaving the spinal cord. These will ultimately go on to form the named nerves or dive straight into some tissue... But these numbers don't really change. These never roots take information from many receptors. These receptors can have very broad or narrow fields they respond to as they send information back to the CNS... Kinda how we have different degrees of sensation for fine touch vs feeling the temperature of a room\n\nAdmittedly, I do not know the answer to receptors density, but these branches can change # and reorganize. That should make sense because of you are injured, you will eventually gain sensation back (most of the time). This is likely the # that is changing on you (again, not my specialty). I did not see anything really compelling in a quick search of \"cutaneous nerve density,\" other than in diabetics with neuropathy (that is kinda of the rails for a few reasons)."
],
"score": [
135,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.quora.com/Do-obese-people-have-more-touch-receptors-than-non-overweight-people-Or-are-people-who-are-obese-less-sensitive-due-to-their-touch-receptors-being-spread-out-over-their-bodies-increased-skin-surface-area"
]
} | Do overweight people have extra amount of nerves and pain receptors distributed around their body?
I always thought the amount of nerves and pain receptors is fixed regardless the size you are, and the bigger your are, the less nerves density you have, which should make you less sensitive and more resistance to pressure pain. However a study: "Body mass index and distribution of body fat can influence sensory detection and pain sensitivity" I ran into suggested the opposite. Do overweight people grow "extra" amount of nerves to cover their bigger surface area? | [
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|
21wqs8 | Where does the energy come from in capillary action? | [Capillary action](_URL_0_) involves a liquid travelling up a porous substrate, seemingly of its own traction. Where does the energy come from for this movement to occur? Should the substrate be considered an engine in the sense of energy transfer? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cgh7vnl",
"cghg5vo",
"cghawfd"
],
"text": [
"The liquid that is drawn upwards is becoming bound (\"stuck\") to the substrate. Removing it from the substrate—by whatever means—requires at least as much energy as the gravitational potential energy that the fluid gained through the motion.\n\nThe motion is ultimately the result of electrostatic interactions between molecules.",
"To get a bit more specific, in a liquid-surface interaction that involves capillary action, the solid-vapor (solid-air) surface energy is higher than the solid-liquid surface energy. Thus, wetting reduces the system energy which is thermodynamically favorable.\n\nOne way to demonstrate this mathematically is with the [surface energies involved in a droplet contact angle](_URL_0_):\n\nY_sg = Y_sl + Y_lg*cos(angle). If increased wetting is thermodynamically favorable, then angle < 90deg and cos(angle) > 0, giving us Y_sl < Y_sg since Y_lg cannot be negative.\n\nSo, could you technically derive energy from this process? Yes, but reversing it in some convenient way would be tricky and the energy gain would be very, very small.",
"You link to the wikipedia page, and the answer is right there. The [energy](_URL_2_) comes from the surface of the porous substrate, as indicated by the formula in the chapter 'height of the meniscus'. [This image](_URL_2_) shows that the molecules/atoms on the surface have a different 'equilibrum' from the molecules/atoms in the bulk of the material. \n\nI wouldn't consider this an engine, because I don't see how it can provide work."
],
"score": [
28,
4,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_action"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_angle#Thermodynamics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_energy",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/fluids/imgflu/surten2.gif"
]
} | Where does the energy come from in capillary action?
[Capillary action](_URL_0_) involves a liquid travelling up a porous substrate, seemingly of its own traction. Where does the energy come from for this movement to occur? Should the substrate be considered an engine in the sense of energy transfer? | [
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28agm6 | If I walk one mile forward and one mile left, I've gone two miles but am SQRT(2) miles from where I started. If I chop the forward/left steps into smaller and smaller pieces, will the distance traveled eventually asymptote to SQRT(2). If not, why? | It's hard for me to understand what is fundamentally different between a jagged path of infinitesimal size and a path straight from start to finish. Thanks! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The distance traveled will always be 2 miles. This is the same fallacy behind pi = 4 as seen [here](_URL_1_), and the [coastline paradox](_URL_0_).\n\nEDIT: This is a common mistake made by people that are not well versed in mathematics. Just because something looks like something else does not mean that is it even closely related. The zig-zagging pattern is not approaching the properties of a straight line although it may seem to be.",
"Compare to the function (1/n) sin(x * n^2 ) for some positive n.\n\nAs n goes to infinity, the function approaches a constant 0 everywhere, but the derivative, the slope of the function, goes to n * cos(x * n^2 ) and blows up.\n\nWhen dealing with functions, the limit of a sequence can have properties which differ from every element of that sequence.",
"I think it's better to visualize the distance traveled as a composite of vectors than as a straight line. It makes it more clear that the reason you travel a longer distance is due to the redundancy in direction.\n\nLet's say the proper direction is NW. You travel one mile N, and one mile W. This is true regardless, of how piecemeal the individual vectors are (how often you switch between 'working' on the N and W vectors.)\n\nConceptually break the vectors into the components going IN the correct direction, and the ones not going in the correct direction. NW component of N vector: 1/(sqrt 2) is about 0.707. Same with W vector. So, you travel 2/sqrt(2) = sqrt(2) total.\n\nThe additional work you do - the distance you travel N and W that is not in the NW direction - will not go away. You travel off-base (since you're 45 degrees off from your original path) with one vector, than offset it with the other vector. \n\ntl;dr Your jagged line conserves REDUNDANCY in DIRECTION, which is the reason effort is wasted in your path.",
"> jagged path of infinitesimal size\n\nFirst, we must agree that this is not a well-defined object. Either, the distance between left turns is not zero and hence it is a positive number which is not \"infinitesimal\", or the distance between turns is 0 and this doesn't mean anything.\n\n > will the distance traveled eventually asymptote to SQRT(2)\n\nNo. The distance is always 2miles with jagged path.\n\nWhat you are thinking about is a sequence of different paths, each one being more jagged than the previous one. And you want to say that as your path become more and more jagged, the path is closer and closer to the diagonal.\n\nThis is mostly correct. However, the sequence of lengths is not getting closer and closer to the length of the diagonal.\n\nThis may look paradoxical, but the explanation is really simple once you understand a little bit of topology. As I don't have time to teach a full course about that, let me simplify the arguments.\n\nWhat does it means for a sequence of paths to become closer and closer to the diagonal ? The intuitive definition, is that you look if every point on the jagged path is getting closer to points of the diagonal. While this definition is good enough for many things, it does not behave well with respect to distance. In particulat if you use this definition, the length function is not continuous on the space of paths (it is not even well-defined but that is another problem)\n\nSo, the surprising consequence of the non-continuity is that the length of the limiting path (the diagonal) has no reason to be equal to the limit of the lengths (which is always 2 miles)."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_rw-AJqpCM",
"https://www.khanacademy.org/math/recreational-math/vi-hart/pi-tau/v/rhapsody-on-the-proof-of-pi---4"
]
} | If I walk one mile forward and one mile left, I've gone two miles but am SQRT(2) miles from where I started. If I chop the forward/left steps into smaller and smaller pieces, will the distance traveled eventually asymptote to SQRT(2). If not, why?
It's hard for me to understand what is fundamentally different between a jagged path of infinitesimal size and a path straight from start to finish. Thanks! | [
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|
pm03v | I am the "X" number person to have existed, ever. How would I approximate "X", for a given year in time? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3qfbt9",
"c3qi16h",
"c3qh5gz",
"c3qin11"
],
"text": [
"I can tell you how to do it in a very round-about way as I don't know the exact method (which I think you may be after here, rather than just a way to get \"your number\"), however - have you seen:\n\n_URL_0_ this?\n\nIt works out from your date of birth what number out of \"the 7 billion\" you are (you can add the total estimated people to have died before this point to figure your \"X\" for \"to have existed, ever\").\n\nIf you want to do the calculation yourself the information behind this thing should be available I think... if you scroll to the bottom of this page and see under \"Sources\" there's a bunch of information on how this was worked out, it's linked to some UN studies and data - check the FAQ link at the end in particular I guess.",
"Well, first you'd need to decide what constitutes a person for your purposes. Evolution doesn't produce neat little tags on the back of the neck with one's species written on them, and at what age even a modern human may be considered a person is very dependent on your definition.",
"That's impossible to do unless you first pick a definition for person and a date at which you start counting.",
"Exponential Function\n\nX=A(1+V)^(N/G)\n\nX: Number of people to live\nV: Expected number of offsrping divided by number of parents for that offspring\nN: Years\nG: Years between each generation\nA: Coefficient that will match curve to available data."
],
"score": [
27,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-15391515"
]
} | I am the "X" number person to have existed, ever. How would I approximate "X", for a given year in time?
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twb3c | Fight or flight: human's natural responses to stress. What about the third F--freeze? | I know enough about the fight or flight response when faced with stress, but what happens when we freeze...when we neither prepare to fight or flee? | askscience | {
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"There is such thing as the \"Koala Stress Response\". Koalas have a vestigial adrenal gland that prevents them from exhibiting the fight or flight response due to lack of hormone response. When they see oncoming cars, etc- they freeze instead of taking action.",
"The freeze response is largely thought to be a defense against predators that hunt by sight, namely birds. Additionally, when combined with camouflage, it can be effective against larger predators, such as in the case of deer, although largely, they seem more prone to the 'flight' response. This is a huge problem with native species in places such as New Zealand, where there are large numbers of introduced predatory mammals combined a bird population that evolutionarily, is accustomed to only avian predators (some history on the biogeography of NZ: The islands broke off of Antarctica in the time of the dinosaurs, and as a result, there are no 'native' mammals other than seals, sea lions, and bats, which respectively swam or flew over). Many of the flightless birds in New Zealand respond to active predators by remaining motionless (originally thought to be a sign of low intelligence). This is very ineffective against introduced predators such as stoats or weasels, which hunt in a large part by following scent trails, and as a result, the native bird population has been decimated following the introduction of these predators (which was originally done to keep rabbit populations in check). Prior to the introduction of mammals, all of the apex predators in the country were avian. Of particular note is the Giant Eagle (_URL_0_), which was hunted to extinction prior to European Colonization, but there are (or were) a number of other flightless, and non-flightless (the Kea, a carnivorious alpine parrot: _URL_1_) predatory bird species.",
"What is the best response if suddenly a large snake appears on your path? Snakes and other similar creatures have been important factors in our evolutionary heritage, and at certain stages, snakes were a lot more abundant in our ancestors ecosystem than now. The automatic freeze response would have become hardwired as freezing lowered the chance of a strike from a startled snake. Evolving in environments that had many poison snakes has likely been a large factor in the evolution of our vision and also has hardwired a freeze response for certain triggers.",
"Many prey animals also freeze. Rabbits for example. Then, if a predator approaches too close, they leave with a burst of speed in seemingly random directions. \n\nThis also can be seen in several antelopes in the plains of Africa.",
"There are many examples of animals freezing to avoid detection or dodge attacks. \n\nMany mammals have quite limited colour vision. Often, the best defence against detection is to stay as still as possible, but only if you lie downwind to the predator, otherwise smell can give you away. I've got no knowledge of any study in which investigators looked at changes in the frequency of freezing whenever the animal in danger is found up or downwind from whatever is posing a threat.\n\nFreezing can also be seen in many flying insects. It's how moths dodge bats at night, so the trait of freezing to avoid danger goes really far back in the evolutionary lineage.\n\nThese mechanisms probably all evolved in tandem with one another, since they're all effective ways of staying alive depending on the situation at hand.",
"Some animals 'freeze' as the final behavior in the fear/stress response (possums, other things that play dead or give up), while many other animals freeze only momentarily. During this time, they rapidly collect & integrate information about their situation & their internal physiological state. This processing is almost purely subconscious, relying on sub-cortical brain structures that are evolutionary conserved across species. After a brief moment, they will proceed into flight or fight behavioral programs. The tendency for an animal to choose one response over the other can be severely modulated by physiological state - for example, flight gets taken off the table entirely for lots of maternal animals who choose fight nearly every time, against all odds, to protect their offspring.",
"Fight or flight has been deprecated in animal behavior, because the response to predation or other stressors (say wildfire) is rather complex. Many animals have evolved to freeze, like a fawn, to avoid predation. Human behavior is much more complicated, so it could be anything, like dysfunctional regulation of various hormones."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haast%27s_Eagle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kea"
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} | Fight or flight: human's natural responses to stress. What about the third F--freeze?
I know enough about the fight or flight response when faced with stress, but what happens when we freeze...when we neither prepare to fight or flee? | [
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|
33dgx2 | Is there any function that can't be represented graphically? What about functions that can only be represented in more than 2 coordinates? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"> Is there any function that can't be represented graphically? \n\nWell sure. It depends what you mean by \"represented\" though -- by definition any graphical representation of a function is *an approximation* meant to aid in visualization or understanding. The [Weierstrauss function](_URL_0_) comes to mind as a particularly nasty one to attempt to draw.\n\n > What about functions that can only be represented in more than 2 coordinates?\n\nWell sure, anything that's a function of more than 2 inputs. I work with fluid fields which are functions of 3 space dimensions and time, which you're not going to accurately represent on a piece of paper (typically a solution to this is to look at individual 2D planes, or do some sort of projection to visualize.)\n\nI also sometimes work in higher-dimensional data sets analyzed by something called [principal component analysis](_URL_1_) where you're attempting to extract those \"coordinates\" which are most important in the data.",
"The [Dirichlet function](_URL_2_) comes to mind. It's zero on irrational numbers and one on rational numbers. The closest you could get to drawing it would to draw y = 0 and y = 1. You could construct a function that has points arbitrarily close to any given (x,y) coordinate. If you tried to draw that with a pencil of positive radius, you'd just fill in the whole coordinate system.",
"I think the easiest example is a complex surface. We often have to visualize the function in Real and Imaginary parts because visualizing 4D is fairly difficult.\n\n[Here](_URL_3_) is an example of what I mean. Note how there are 2 surfaces: one for the real part, and one for the imaginary part.",
"I've been thinking about this, and there's a flip side to it. There are some functions you can plot, but will come out as an empty set of points. It is being correctly represented, but nothing shows up.\n\n A simple example is solving for z in the torus equation : (√(x²+y²)-R)² +z² = r² , where z goes straight through the hole. It's not completely true to say that z has no solution, because moving the torus sideways will bring 1 to 2 points into view (by skewering through the ring). The function is working correctly, but the points lie outside the 1D z-axis.\n\n A neat, more complex example of this effect taking place is [here](_URL_4_), where this is a 5D hypertorus being rotated, so that the 3-plane is contained inside the (hyper)donut hole. That's when the 4 tori disappear. They still exist as discrete locations of points, but are spaced above and below the 3-plane, in 4-space.",
"You have to define what you mean by \"represented graphically.\" If you mean that it can be characterized as a particular set of points in some space, then any function can be represented. But if you mean drawn on paper, hardly any functions have that lucky property. They just happen to be the ones you study in school. But most functions are incredibly wild, as some of the examples given by others indicate. Most functions are far too wild to graph in any practical sense.",
"The domain or the image of a function don't have to be in the real numbers (or tuples of real numbers). It can also map between two completely different sets, that cannot be represented in any easy graphical way."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weierstrass_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowhere_continuous_function#Dirichlet_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_W_function#Plots",
"http://i.imgur.com/x7aF0AN.gif"
]
} | Is there any function that can't be represented graphically? What about functions that can only be represented in more than 2 coordinates?
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||
3fztbi | AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I’m Jennifer Below, here to chat with you about all things human genetics! Here we go- ask me anything! | Hello reddit!
My name is Jennifer Below (though everyone calls me Piper), and I am an assistant professor in the Human Genetics Center at the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston in the School of Public Health. I work to understand the genetic basis of human diseases, from complex traits (in which multiple environmental and genetic factors play a role in susceptibility) like type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease, to rare Mendelian disorders such as distal arthrogryposis, ataxia, or opsismodysplasia (which can be caused by a mutation in just a single gene).
Specifically, I love to spend my time thinking about novel mathematical or statistical approaches to finding genes that contribute to risk, particularly approaches that work in related people (families). I recently [published a method](_URL_0_) called [PRIMUS](_URL_1_) (yes, like the band...) that can read in raw genetic data for related people and from that information alone, draw the genealogy that fits the data. This is useful for correcting errors in family data and detecting family structures that we did not know were in our data.
Some colleagues and I will be available to answer your questions at 1 pm EST (17 UTC). Ask away!
P.S. I’m also the person that reddit helped to find her dog nearly two years ago. Jack is super and I am still tremendously grateful for all the reddit community did to help us. [You guys can be totally amazing.](_URL_2_)
Edit: Hey friends, I'm going to head home. Today has been super fun! Thanks for your awesome questions. I'm around on reddit generally, so I'll check back a bit to see if any new questions come up. Many thanks! Piper (and team) | askscience | {
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"Hi Piper thanks for doing this AMA\n\nMy question is about current human evolution.\nIn western countries, due to unlimited food and contraception, the number of viable offspring is not really determined by your genes any more but mostly by how many kids you want to have. Is there any evidence that there could be genes that make you want to have children?",
"What's your opinion of the 23AndMe venture? Have you tried it? I just sent in my saliva sample last week. Thanks for the AMA!",
"What sorts of things do you expect will be achievable due to genetics advances in 50 or 100 years?",
"In your personal and professional opinion, why are certain human genetic disease research and modification research considered unethical? What do you feel is \"crossing the line\" and why? \n\nIn the \"Star Trek\" story line of genetic research and modification, it is believed that genetic research could/would lead to a tiered class of humans (smarter, stronger, disease resistant, faster healing, etc..). \nDo you think that genetic classed humans would be any worse or better than the current financial/educational/race class separations that dominate the first world today?",
"Are we learning anything new about how what we used to call \"junk DNA,\" or noncoding DNA, might affect our susceptibility to diseases?",
"Piper, My question is in regards to gene editing. \n\nCRISPR seems to be the way we as humans will rewrite our future. Curing diseases via gene editing is a very important step on that path. Though I see much potential for unethical experimentation (i.e. creating super heroes). What, in your opinion, would be the ethical \"cut off\" point? Do you believe there is one?",
"We often hear about how information technology and faster computing are acting to acelerate research in so many different fields.What has your experience of this been specific to genetic studies in the lab,and where do you see this going in the next few years?",
"Hi, a future student of biochemistry here. What was your educational path and what does your average working day look like?",
"Hi! Thanks for taking the time to answer questions here! \n\n > ... that can read in raw genetic data for related people and from that information alone, draw the genealogy that fits the data. This is useful for correcting errors in family data and detecting family structures that we did not know were in our data. \n \nI'm very curious about why this was necessary. \n \n\nPresumably most of your data were collected from known subjects and the relationships would have been known would they not? \n \nAnd more intriguingly, how often are there unknown family structures in your data? And what are the sources of those? \n \nAnd lastly, When you say \"read in raw genetic data for related people and ... draw the genealogy that fits the data\", do you have to know that the individuals *are* related, or can your method infer that?",
"Hi Piper!\nIn addition to another question. How long would You think will it take for humans to accept using genetic techniques (including not as controversial ones like sequence based family planing,...) to alter human DNA and get rid of at least some genetic deseases?",
"Hi Jennifer!\n\nSo here's my situation: I'm 6'1\" tall, and my wife is 6'3\" tall. Our son is 11 months old and is currently projected to be somewhere between 6'8\" and 7'2\" tall (BIG BOY!). The current explanation I'm using to explain this to folks is that my \"tallness genes\" and my wife's don't overlap completely, so he's getting a combination of both. Is this a semi-accurate explanation for laymen, or is there something else you think I ought to be saying?",
"Hi, this is a question that has led many people to assume that my parents are lying to me.\n\nMum has green/blue eyes, Dad has hazel eyes. Brother and I have dark brown eyes. We're also the only two with that except for a great Grandfather. \nHow does this work?",
"It seems like we constantly hear that a new genetic factor that causes a major disease like diabetes or heart disease has been found. My question is twofold: Why are different studies of the same disease giving different results? Are researchers doing meta-studies to look at all of the extant studies and find possibly overlooked results?",
"Jennifer, how much of a threat is the new technique where genes can now be written in DNA so that it propagates through species. It's an ultra-rapid technique (the name eludes me) and it could be used for good but it could also be used for very seriously dangerous applications?",
"Hello!\n\nI am a graduate student, mostly studying microbes and the human gut microbiome. I have two main questions:\n\n1.) What do you think about the gut microbiome and it's impact on human health? Would these microbes play a role in human genetic regulation?\n\n2.) In your opinion, what are the huge differences in human and microbial genetics? I am relatively unfamiliar with eukaryotic genetics but I'm unsure where to start filling in the knowledge gaps.\n\nThanks!",
"I've learned so much from this AMA already!\n\nI'm really interested in how you utilize math in your work. As a math major, I always heard about how advanced math can be used in different fields and genetics was always used as an example, but I never got to hear the specifics. Now, as a high school math teacher, I would LOVE to be able to explain how math is used in cutting edge scientific research.",
"Hey Piper!\n\nIm going to be working on sorting the species of passion vines in Peru in order that they appeared evolutionarily. ( 3rd year biology student, UK) Would PRIMUS be a useful tool for this? Gene change over time sounds up PRIMUS' street. \n\nAlso, if you feel like giving your two cents, do you think biological patents are a good thing? Could you see a system where they didn't need to exist?",
"Hi! Thanks for taking the time to do this AMA!\n\nMy question is in regards to a recent article that I read (which can be found [here](_URL_0_)) about a study that positively correlates telomere length to increased risk of lung cancer. Since it appears that longer telomeres are associated with higher cancer risks, would it be possible to shorten telomere length or inhibit telomerase function through some sort of genetic engineering process?",
"Hello! Thanks so much for this AMA. I'm currently doing my BSc in Genetics at university and I would love to go into the genetic disease field. \n\nMy question is this: what has been the most interesting 'genetic' disease you have come across and what is the average process regarding your work? (Bit vague, but I mean how do you find a likely gene etc).",
"Hello Piper, thank you so much for doing this AMA!\n\nThere is so much I could ask about human genetics, so I'll just go for this one:\n\nAre there any tell-tale signs for RNA splicing errors or defects being linked to disease when performing a statistical analysis on a family tree?",
"Hey, Piper! \n\nCan someone who has type 1 diabetes pass it down to their kid who gets type 2? \n\nAnd is Tourettes Syndrome genetic? (Edited)",
"Hi 2 questions\n\nWhat do you think the future holds for genetic privacy? Could sequencing become so inexpensive that Big Data gives way to Big Genetics, where corporations market to our predispositions?\n\nAnd how big a role do environmental factors play in \"gene switches\" for example I run really fast occasionally in the hopes of triggering positive gene expression. And do you think a Western diet triggers negative gene expression? As we can see Aboriginal populations quickly develop Diabetes etc. when exposed to western lifestyle.\n\nThank you for sharing your time and knowledge.",
"Dear Jennifer (or colleague of Jennifer if you're reading),\n\nI would like to hear some explanation or clarification about the plasticity/changeability/adaptivity of genes.\n\nI suppose my question is: Is my genome static and fixed from birth?\n\nIf not, how does it change? Why does it change (or under what circumstances)? And via what mechanisms?\n\nI truly hope you see this, I've wondered about it for a long while ever since hearing that genes are not static. Thank you for your time!",
"Hi Piper. Thanks for doing this AMA. \n\nRecently i've came into a research that talked about The Genetics of Loneliness[1]. It hinted about the possibility of finding a biological cure to loneliness which sounds fascinating. \n\nSo i wonder how much time/money would it take to do the necessary studies to understand the genomic basis for a complex psychological trait like loneliness ? have we done something like this before ? And how would the process look like(generally) ? \n\n[1]_URL_1_",
"Hi Jennifer, thanks for doing this AMA. My 4 year old son has a rare disease, Nonketotic Hyperglycinemia (NKH). I'm wondering what you think can be done to raise awareness and fundraising for rare diseases in the public eye. It's so frustrating to see millions of dollars raised for big companies like Susan G Komen where the CEO is making tons of money or for a condition that doesn't affect as many people as the public imagines.",
"Maybe a bit of sci-fi, but will take a shot. Suppose we get to the point where human genetic modifications become acceptable, at what stage of human development do you think we'd have to start modifying? For example, is it after fertilization? Would it work better if you modified the egg and sperm cells and then do IVF? Lastly, what kinds of things do you think are realistically modifiable? Hair/eye color? IQ? Resistance to disease? Everything?",
"Hi Piper and colleagues! Thank you for taking time to do this AMA.\nWhat are your opinions on genetic ancestry analysis kits like those provided by 23 and Me or _URL_2_? How accurate is the data that they provide? I'm studying to be a Genetic Counselor, and this is a question I get asked a lot. Thanks so much!",
"Both my spouse and I are left hand dominant. Both our children, one male, one female, are right hand dominant. What is the probability of this? And why?",
"Ok so male pattern baldness? People say that it is inherited from your mothers father is there any truth behind this? Is there anyway to beat it?",
"What's your favourite sci-fi film and explain why!",
"Hi! \n\nSo something I've been wondering ever since I learned about DNA and chromosomes is what would happen if you took out the Y chromosome of someone's cell and replaced it with the X chromosome from another one of their cells and made a clone with that cell? Would that clone essentially be a female version of the original person, or am I just a moron that doesn't understand biology and cells? \n\nAlso another thing I'm rather curious about is white people with black hair. The majority of people in my immediate family have it, but I can't seem to figure out what kind of gene it is, and I've never met a white person outside my family with black hair. My dad's parents and siblings (100% Italian) all have black hair. The only people in that part of the family who don't have it are my two female cousins, who have regular brown hair like their mother, but my other cousins, their brothers have the same jet black hair. On my mom's side of the family (80-100% Irish) my grandpa had black hair but my grandma had light brown hair. My Uncle has black hair as well, but my mom got brown hair. Then comes my sister and I. I have the same black hair as all the other guys, and my sister has VERY dark but observably brown hair. Any idea what's going on there?",
"Hi Piper,\n\nI'm a genetics and animal science student at Texas A & M, but I am also very interested in human genetics. In food production, feed efficiency is widely studied as a way to increase the amount of weight an animal gains as compared to its dry matter intake with the goal of finding genes that increase efficiency and increasing their frequency in populations. I know that metabolism has a lot of factors such as nutrition, level of exercise, sleep, stress, other environmental factors. Are there any other epigenetic factors on metabolism that someone could focus on to become more efficient in their processing of food? My understanding is that epigenetics controls an \"on/off\" switch on genes. Are there any genes that can be turned \"on\" permanently in adolescence or youth that could increase metabolism or longevity in old age?",
"Hello! Thank you for doing this, I have been an amateur genetic researcher and would love to ask like 50 questions! But I'll be brief. \nHuman evolution so far has largely been dictated my environment and geography. Skin tones lighter to absorb vitamin D specifically. So with the recent migration from all over the world to America, will all inhabitants eventually evolve to have a darker skin tone or lighter skin tone to match what the Native Americans look like even if they only breed within their current race? Basically, will there be a new race developed eventually by staying put in one location and our skin adjusting accordingly to the sun?",
"Hello Dr.Below,\n\nThank you for doing this AMA. We all sincerely appreciate it. My question is about Z-DNA, I've learned very little about what Z-DNA does and mostly only know that it is left handed, syn or anti, and that it occurs in the body but not in large amounts. What could we do with Z-DNA if we were to modify it? Since it is not as organized as A-DNA or B-DNA, is it easier to modify and say mold it to do as we please in a much easier manner? What can we do with genetically modified Z-DNA?",
"From what I read it SOUNDS like CRISPR technology can genetically modify humans. My question is \"How?\" but from a more practical standpoint - like I go to the \"CRISPR-ologist\", can they change my [insert trait here] as an adult or can they only do prenatal? Is it... an injection? Surgery? I know I sound like a child but if you can \"cut out portions of genes and replace them\"... How ACTUALLY do they do that? All ethical and cost considerations aside, can I \"Island of Dr. Moreau\" myself? Thanks Piper!",
"Hi Jennifer! \nI work in the medical field and have noticed that redheads (adult and children) seem to have a higher incidence of allergies and strange medical problems. I've looked through PubMed for studies on this observation, but have not found any so far. Are you aware of any genetic problems relating specifically to redheads? The allergies and diseases that so many of them have, seem to be more than coincidental. Do you know of any genetic link?",
"What is this I hear about adding two more bases to the four already in DNA. How is the research on preserving telomeres going? Do we really want people to live to 120? I understand there are switches to turn on and off different traits in the DNA, how many do we understand in the human genome. Are there any creatures (fruit flies, rabbits etc) where we can really successfully design the end product?",
"Hi Piper, thanks for doing this AMA!\nIf I wanted to get genetic testing done which testing company/tests would you suggest for:\n* Finding out predisposition for issues with certain drugs or chemicals (say sulfur based)\n* Finding markers that could present as disease throughout life\n* Bonus if it could do the above and tell about ethnicity background\n\nThanks again for doing this AMA, this is such a fascinating topic!",
"Hello\n\nWhat are your thoughts on the use of mitochondrial DNA and Three Person IVF to make a three-parent baby? The process was legalised this year in the UK but I don't think it has been deemed safe yet in the US. There is much controversy and many ethical issues surrounding it, but apparently it prevents mitochondrial diseases such as diabetes.",
"Hi Piper,\n\nWhat are your thoughts on the clinical utility of NexGen sequencing? Especially when the threshold is generally 20x - in comparison with research sequencing which tends to be > 100x. In addition, the costs of the actual bioinformatic analysis added on top... Especially when Sanger sequencing is used to confirm NexGen results anyways.\n\nWould love to hear your thoughts!",
"Has the cost of a full sequence fallen to a point where the average person or medical lab can afford to perform the task? Does that data serve any valid purpose? I mean, hoe accurate is a DNA sequence and to what degree can we tell eye colour, skin colour or heart rhythm issues with it?",
"Hi, Piper. A woman has amyloidosis and is now dying from related multiple myeloma. Two of her daughters have Crohn's Disease and a son has symptoms of it, but has not been diagnosed. I have the feeling that there is some genetic connection between the amyloidosis and Crohn's. What are your feelings about this?",
"How much does what you do in life affect the genetics you pass on? Say you're naturally scrawny or not athletic and you work out a lot and get pretty muscular and fit. Will your kids receive and different genetic make up because of that? Or is it predetermined from birth?",
"Why do irish people, such as myself and my family have Epicanthic folds on our eyes like asians even though we bear no asian ancestry? its surprisingly common here, and unlike the Poles who also have a high frequency of it, we never had eastern invaders.",
"Thanks for the AMA, fellow Houstonian!\n\nIn the 90s, people seemed to be very excited about designing retroviruses to change human DNA. Everyone seems to have forgotten that dream.\n\nDid this end up being more challenging than expected? Was the previous excitement always premature?",
"If, say, I wanted to learn about gene-doping with the goal of inducing Myostatin production in humans to counteract ALS, where would I start and how far off do you think we are from doing something of this caliber?",
"I'm working on my thesis over at UTMB publishing their chromosomal microarray data. I was wondering your opinions on the test and its current/future utility. Thanks for your time today!",
"What is the difference between the genetic material in the slowest sperm vs the fastest sperm? Would a person made from one be noticeably different from the other?",
"What do you personally see in the future of cloning humans/other species as well as the future for stem cell research?",
"In your opinion/knowledge, how does anxiety/depression pass down to children? Is it genetic, how they were brought up, or just chance?",
"Thanks for doing this! What is your position on basic genetic tailoring for in vitro fertilization?",
"What's the most laborious part (either in time or in resources) of genetic research?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I’m Jennifer Below, here to chat with you about all things human genetics! Here we go- ask me anything!
Hello reddit! My name is Jennifer Below (though everyone calls me Piper), and I am an assistant professor in the Human Genetics Center at the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston in the School of Public Health. I work to understand the genetic basis of human diseases, from complex traits (in which multiple environmental and genetic factors play a role in susceptibility) like type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease, to rare Mendelian disorders such as distal arthrogryposis, ataxia, or opsismodysplasia (which can be caused by a mutation in just a single gene). Specifically, I love to spend my time thinking about novel mathematical or statistical approaches to finding genes that contribute to risk, particularly approaches that work in related people (families). I recently [published a method](_URL_0_) called [PRIMUS](_URL_1_) (yes, like the band...) that can read in raw genetic data for related people and from that information alone, draw the genealogy that fits the data. This is useful for correcting errors in family data and detecting family structures that we did not know were in our data. Some colleagues and I will be available to answer your questions at 1 pm EST (17 UTC). Ask away! P.S. I’m also the person that reddit helped to find her dog nearly two years ago. Jack is super and I am still tremendously grateful for all the reddit community did to help us. [You guys can be totally amazing.](_URL_2_) Edit: Hey friends, I'm going to head home. Today has been super fun! Thanks for your awesome questions. I'm around on reddit generally, so I'll check back a bit to see if any new questions come up. Many thanks! Piper (and team) | [
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|
8urzbk | Does blood conduct electricity? | My mind says it does, because theres iron in it, but my gut doubts it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e1hz1lb",
"e1hzojl",
"e1iapew"
],
"text": [
"Yes. The reason common water conducts electricity is that is has a bunch of impurities and minerals in it. If you distill water, taking out the impurities, it stops conducting electricity. Blood is essentially water with a ton of impurities in it allowing conductance.",
"It does conduct, but not as well as metals. The iron in blood has nothing to do with the conductivity. There is very little iron in it. An entire adult contains only about 3.5 grams of iron. Sodium, chlorine and other ions are responsible for the conductivity.",
"> My mind says it does, because theres iron in it, but my gut doubts it.\n\nIt is conductive, but it's not because of the iron. The iron is all locked up in hemoglobin in our red blood cells. The main reason blood is conductive is that it contains salt. Salt is an electrolyte, which means it causes water to become conductive when in a solution."
],
"score": [
21,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does blood conduct electricity?
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|
1ztjux | FAQ Friday: Do we know why we see a color wheel when light is on a spectrum? Find out, and ask your color questions here! | This week on **FAQ Friday** we're delving into the interdisciplinary subject of color!
Have you ever wondered:
- Why red and violet blend so well on the color wheel when they're on opposite ends of the visual spectrum?
- How RGB color works? Why do we see the combination of green and red light as yellow?
- Why can we see colors like pink and brown when they aren't on the spectrum of visible light?
Read about these and more in our [Physics FAQ](_URL_3_), our [Neuroscience FAQ](_URL_2_), *and* our [Chemistry FAQ](_URL_1_)... or leave a comment.
_____
**What do you want to know about color? Ask your questions below!**
*Past FAQ Friday posts can be found [here](_URL_0_)*. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfwwzwr",
"cfwv3nv",
"cfx008a",
"cfwu5iy",
"cfx27jd",
"cfx5rgu",
"cfx6flt",
"cfx24pw"
],
"text": [
"What is the evolutionary advantage to developing vision in the wavelengths perceived by most animals (i.e., what we call visible light) as opposed to detecting a different set of wavelengths (infrared, ultraviolet, or even higher frequencies)? Or was it just an accident and we could have as easily developed microwave \"eyes\"?",
"How do dichroic mirrors work? What is it about the structure of the coating that allows photons of some wavelengths to be reflected and others to be transmitted? How do engineers go about designing the coatings for all of the different colors available?",
"I have never fully understood how we see color. From my understanding the colors we see are from the parts of the light spectrum that is being reflected back to us IE \"not obsorbed by object\". \n\nWhat confuses me is what part of the object reflects the light? is it the atoms? if its the atoms then are there diffrent types of atoms etc? \n\nI guess my question is how far down into a particle do we go till it hits the point of reflecting back the light we see. \n\nWhen we make things like colored plastic or paint are we simply just changing the structure of how those particular particles obsorb light? \n\nSorry if this is a simple question. I have read so much but never can get a clear answer. everything I read just indicates that its light that gets reflected back to us but im curious of the nature of the particles that reflect the light. IE: what is it about those particles that obsorb certain types of light and reflect others..\n\nThank you in advance!!!!",
"I'm really curious about structural color, like [you see in a lot of birds](_URL_1_). I feel like I understand how it works, but what I don't get is how a blue structural color over a yellow pigment base can look green! This is how [budgies are green](_URL_0_), for example. \n\nIs it just that the structural color doesn't completely interfere with the light reflecting off the underlying pigment? Or is light interacting differently with the feathers themselves?\n\nEdit: < puts on mod hat > Speculation isn't appropriate in /r/AskScience. Please don't post answers that can't be backed up by scientific sources! Thank you! < /mod hat >",
"I have a type of protanopia (red-green color blindness) and I've always seen orange and green as being relatively similar colors. I often have trouble telling them apart, and feel like they should blend easily into each other (like how red and orange do). But people with normal color vision have told me that these colors are almost completely opposite for them? I had always assumed red and blue or blue and yellow were the colors that were the least alike. So my question is: \n\nFor people with normal color vision, do orange and green look strikingly different to you? Like as different as black and white? If I had to describe their similarity I'd say that orange and green are to me as yellow is to red, or as blue is to purple. Is there physics or biology to show what colors we should see as similar and different?",
"Can I please get an explanation of the colour wheel and spectrum thing? I was wondering about it while high recently. In particular, I'd like to know why the non-visible parts of light can be excluded from a colour wheel without it looking wrong.",
"> Why do we see the combination of green and blue light as yellow?\n\nI think you meant the combination of **green and red** light as yellow. Green and blue light yields cyan.",
"Sulfur is yellow. Is a sulfur atom yellow?"
],
"score": [
7,
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3,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/chemistry#wiki_colorr",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/neuroscience#wiki_visual_neuroscience",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/physics#wiki_optics_and_color"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melopsittacus_undulatus_Revivim_4.jpg",
"http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/studying/feathers/color/document_view"
]
} | FAQ Friday: Do we know why we see a color wheel when light is on a spectrum? Find out, and ask your color questions here!
This week on **FAQ Friday** we're delving into the interdisciplinary subject of color! Have you ever wondered: - Why red and violet blend so well on the color wheel when they're on opposite ends of the visual spectrum? - How RGB color works? Why do we see the combination of green and red light as yellow? - Why can we see colors like pink and brown when they aren't on the spectrum of visible light? Read about these and more in our [Physics FAQ](_URL_3_), our [Neuroscience FAQ](_URL_2_), *and* our [Chemistry FAQ](_URL_1_)... or leave a comment. _____ **What do you want to know about color? Ask your questions below!** *Past FAQ Friday posts can be found [here](_URL_0_)*. | [
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|
pyfru | How did life develop the ability to clot blood and how did they thrive before this ability? | Im sure there's a simple and clear answer to this question, I just can't put my finger on it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3t8ecd",
"c3t8ae4",
"c3tgm8b"
],
"text": [
"Different types of life have developed the ability differently. \n \nMammals (like you, me and your hot sister) have mostly platelets and fibrin strands to thank every time we get a cut and don't bleed to death. \n\nThe platelets are flat cells that looked like raisins in my text book - like dried out red blood cells. \n\nFibrin is the stringy protein substance that helps clot it all together. \n[Some smart dude](_URL_0_) wrote an article explaining how platelets developed in mammals, and in his second paragraph he describes how some invertebrates ( he uses a horseshoe crab for example) have only one cell circulating in the bloodstream, and that one cell, a hemolymph, heals wounds.\n\nSo we can imagine at some point all these crabs were running around, fighting, bleeding out dying. Then one baby crab is born with hemolymphs just slightly more useful than those of his parents, and he survives his battles. This crab, henceforth referred to as \"Achilles Crab\", then becomes the stuff of crab-legend, defeating multiple foes and recovering with his god-like healing capabilities and mating with mad amounts of hot female crabs.\n\nAll his baby's mommas' kids then get the Achilles Crab hemolymphs and live longer and have more kids. \n\n\nBefore blot clotting, you had to just hope your balls would drop before you got a papercut so you could spread your seed.\n\nInteresting note: We can survive without the ability to clot - it's called hemophilia and was common in royalty (in-bred and all that) [Link](_URL_1_)",
"It is very unlikely that the ability to clot blood just appeared in one generation . \n\nMost probably the proteins and enzymes and platelets needed to clot developed very very slowly in parallel with everything else in the circulatory system- just like all organ systems, basic functions and systems develop at the same time, and a mindnumbingly slow pace.\n\nThese slow changes constituted enough of an advantage to those organisms that it was selected for by environmental pressures.\n\nSomebody else may be able to discuss the chemistry of these changes.",
"The problem you have is that you are assuming we had blood without the ability to clot.\n\nAnimals clotted before they really had 'blood'. Drosophila clot their hemolymph for example. As you get smaller and more primitive, you stop really having blood at all like in c. elegans.\n\nClotting and blood probably came hand in hand."
],
"score": [
11,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=GnIQGmiSylkC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=platelets+evolved+blood+cells&source=bl&ots=iWkVemx1O7&sig=-zmF-1Z2v5dtG-Ga3OgiEu5XCpQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=z9RCT6mCEsHb0QGknpHJBw&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=platelets%20evolved%20blood%20cells&f=false",
"http://www.sciencecases.org/hemo/hemo.asp"
]
} | How did life develop the ability to clot blood and how did they thrive before this ability?
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|
9nu9ck | Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill? | My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There certainly do exist some chemicals where just a few drops on your skin can kill you. The chemical in question needs to have two properties:\n\n1. It needs to be lethal at very low concentrations (e.g. as measured by [the median lethal dose or LD50](_URL_0_) or a related metric). Specifically for your question we would require that a volume of ~0.5mL of the substance should be enough to kill a person. Quite a large range different solutions actually fit this bill. But then there is a second requirement:\n2. The chemical needs to be easily absorbed through your skin, such that enough of the active component can cause damage. Your skin is actually a decent protective barrier for a lot of substances, but some compounds are more easily absorbed.\n\nA very famous example of a chemical that fits both criteria is [dimethylmercury](_URL_1_). This is a powerful neurotoxin that is frankly terrifying. To quote the Wiki article:\n > The toxicity of dimethylmercury was highlighted with the death of Karen Wetterhahn, a professor of chemistry at Dartmouth College, in 1997. Professor Wetterhahn specialized in heavy metal poisoning. After spilling a few drops of this compound on her latex glove, the barrier was compromised and within minutes it was absorbed into her skin. It circulated through her body and accumulated in her brain, resulting in her death ten months later.\n\nIn other words, even when wearing safety attire, just spilling a few drops on a glove was enough to send the researcher to an early grave.",
"TMAH [(tetramethylammonium hydroxide)](_URL_2_) is a nasty chemical that a spill roughly the size of your hand will kill you. \n\nLike start making phone calls to the people you love sort of kill you. It is also used in industry so it is possible that he was hauling it.",
"Nerve agents such as [VX](_URL_10_ [Novichok](_URL_8_) (keeping it topical, no pun intended) will certainly do the job. Several types of alkaloid would be classed as deadly enough that a drop would kill you e.g. [Nicotine](_URL_10_), [Batrachotoxin](_URL_9_), [Epibatidine](_URL_9_), [Tetrodotoxin](_URL_10_). [Methylated mercury](_URL_9_), as another comment stated, will certainly kill you albeit not quickly. \n\nVery often the lethality of a substance is lower than might be expected due to poor absorption upon skin contact e.g. [Fentanyl](_URL_8_). \n\n & #x200B;",
"hydrofluoric acid in the right concentrations will do some pretty gnarly stuff to you. Get a drop or two on your skin and it'll eat away to your bone. It'll react w the calcium phosphate in your bone to give calcium fluoride, which travels around in your bloodstream to your heart. \n\n\nMy old mineralogy professor in undergrad used the stuff to dissolve zircons for chemical analysis, probably well before these things called \"safety standards\"",
"A less likely but still somewhat plausible candidate is chlorine trifluoride, whose properties are described in vivid detail by Dr Derek Lowe [here](_URL_11_). A droplet of *that* hell-brew doesn't even need to hit your skin to kill you.",
"There are a lot of common chemicals that would be lethal in higher concentrations than we commonly see. One that I am familiar with is Nicotine. Nicotine can be absorbed through the skin, and the lethal dose of nicotine is 500-1000 mg.\n\nWhen you buy ejuice for vapes in a store, the nicotine concentration is commonly between 3 mg/mL and 18 mg/mL (.3 - 1.8%).\n\nWhen making ejuice for vapes, it is possible to buy nicotine in 250 mg/mL concentrations(25%), meaning as little as 2 mL on your skin could potentially be lethal. If you had pure nicotine, one mL would be fatal to almost anyone.",
"Along with what others said, DMSO is incredibly good at both solvating things and going through your skin. Almost any compound dissolved in DMSO would immediately get to the bloodstream if spilled, so that relaxes the skin absorption requirement.\n\nFun fact, DMSO will also make you taste garlic immediately upon absorption on any part of your body.",
"I currently work in a chemical company and deal with some nasty stuff. Certain chemicals we get in drums we resell as is without transferring them. hydrofluoric acid is one of those chemicals. Not sure it would kill immediately but I know it burn immediately and will eat all the calcium in your body if not treated properly and immediately.",
"[Dimethyl mercury](_URL_13_) is an organic compound containing mercury that causes it (the mercury) to be *very* easily absorbed by your body.\n\n[Karen Wetterhahn](_URL_12_) was an expert in organic mercury exposure who had 2 small drops of the chemical fall onto her *gloved* hand and promptly performed the proper safety procedures afterwards. There were no lapses in her lab's safety measures and she did everything right (according to knowledge at the time).\n\nShe also quickly went to the hospital when she started feeling ill.\n\nShe still died months after exposure and measurements of the mercury in her urine were up to 230 times the normal level, and nearly 5 times the toxic level. Basically after it happened there was no saving her. She was dead the minute that drop landed on her *glove*.\n\nAfterwards they found out that dimethyl mercury can go through a latex glove much quicker than they had anticipated: *15 seconds*",
"Not exactly a perfect fit to your criteria, but your description reminds me of this [video](_URL_14_) of an anhydrous ammonia spill we were shown in paramedic school. \n\nIn the video, a police officer is the first on-scene to an MVA involving a truck carrying anhydrous ammonia. Clouds of ammonia are billowing out of the accident. He sees victims on the ground, rushes in, and in doing so inhales the anhydrous ammonia. This proves fatal, as his lungs rapidly shut down and he struggles to breathe. The clicking you hear is each respiration of the state trooper keying his microphone - it records him going into respiratory arrest. The trooper does not survive. \n\nAnhydrous ammonia kills by reacting with the moisture in the airways, increasing their pH which damages the underlaying tissue. Massive edema (i.e. fluid leaking out of the cells) results, and the patient literally drowns in their own fluids.",
"Not skin, so maybe this doesn't count, but only a tiny amount of H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide) can paralyze or kill you. The reason why you post reminded me of it, is because [truck drivers have been poisoned](_URL_15_) and even killed by H2S. \n\n* 50–100 ppm leads to eye damage.\n* At 100–150 ppm the olfactory nerve is paralyzed after a few inhalations, and the sense of smell disappears, often together with awareness of danger.\n* 320–530 ppm leads to pulmonary edema with the possibility of death.\n* 530–1000 ppm causes strong stimulation of the central nervous system and rapid breathing, leading to loss of breathing.\n* 800 ppm is the lethal concentration for 50% of humans for 5 minutes' exposure (LC50).\n* Concentrations over 1000 ppm cause immediate collapse with loss of breathing, even after inhalation of a single breath.\n\nThe reason why this is so scary is that it's naturally occurring and kills people [all the time.](_URL_16_) It has this habit of pooling in low lying areas (manholes, creekbeds, mines, manure pits, oil wells), and when one person walks in and suddenly collapses, their friends/coworkers rush in and try and save them only to die seconds later.",
"I used to do autoradiography on post mortem brain tissue. We used various non reversible antagonist drugs. The drugs were tritiated to create the images and show where in the brain they were binding.\n\nEssentially these were radioactive neurotoxins. I'd imagine much less than a drop would've been deadly before it was diluted. Though none would have killed in minutes.",
"There are plenty of chemicals that can kill you in very small quantities and/or quite quickly when absorbed through the skin, but 2 minutes is a bit of a stretch. [Your brain can *survive* for around 6mins after the heart stops](_URL_20_) so you wouldn't really die in 2 minutes after skin contact with some chemical that would kill you by preventing oxygen to the brain. Only if something physically destroyed your brain would you be able to *actually* die that fast. \n\n[Here's an article about brain death](_URL_17_)\n\n[Here's a video of that dimethylmercury case](_URL_19_)\n\n\nHe's probably right that it was Phenol which is used in industrial applications but no it won't kill you that fast though it is [decently dangerous](_URL_18_).",
"[Etorphine](_URL_21_) or it's brand name \"Immobilon\" is used in horses by Veterinarians. It's required that 2 Vets be present upon administration incase the administering vet pricks themselves with the needle. Just a single prick from the needle of a loaded syringe causes instant cardiac arrest.",
"A patch of phenol the size of a half dollar left untreated for a extended time (in the order of hours) will stop your heart. Most of it can be pulled out with polyethylene glycol if the response is prompt.The more you get on you the less time you have. If you don't mind me asking, what part of the world was he trucking in? Philadelphia? Louisiana? Was it even in the US?\n\nHere's another one. \nPhosgene is used in the commercial production of plastics and as a weapon in ww1. Exposure will smell like wet hay and then your lungs will be rendered useless.",
"NaN3 AKA Sodium Azide. \n\nI used to weigh the stuff out into smaller, sellable portions for a chemical company. While we routinely worked with some very hazardous stuff, this was the one that was ALWAYS taken seriously. \n\nWe were told that exposure to this chemical would bring our blood pressure down to lethal levels and our heart & respiratory rates would drop to near zero\n\nUS “Recommended Exposure Limit” or REL is 0.3 mg/m3, which is extremely small.\n\nFun fact, it was widely used as the explosive propellant in air bags in cars for decades (no recorded deaths due to NaN3 exposure btw)",
"Chlorine trifluoride is pretty freaking dangerous. It is such a strong oxidizer that it can cause things normally thought of as fireproof to burn violently. \n\nStuff like asbestos, sand, glass and concrete will burn when exposed to chlorine trifluoride. \n\nThey can also corrode things like Platinum and gold that are thought to be non corrodible. \n\nGetting it on your skin would cause your skin to burst into flames. The burning would release moisture from your body. when the moisture comes in contact with the chlorine trifluoride it releases Hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid. Because the acids would be vaporized by the flame, you would most likely inhale them. So even if you didn't die from being burned alive you would die from inhaling hydrofluoric acid which kills you in several different ways. \n\nI know the stuff is used in the semiconductor industry but I'm not sure what kind of quantities. A tanker truck of it would be super dangerous. Probably not even legal to ship in such large containers.",
"There is a tragic story about mercury poisoning even through gloves, 1-2 drops. \n\n > Accident and death\n\nOn August 14, 1996, Wetterhahn, a specialist in toxic metal exposure, was studying the way mercury ions interact with DNA repair proteins, and she was investigating the toxic properties of another highly toxic heavy metal, cadmium.\n\nDimethylmercury was a compound used, almost exclusively, as a reference standard for 199Hg nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements,[4] a particular type of specialized chemical analysis.\n\nWetterhahn would recall that she had spilled one or two drops of dimethylmercury from the tip of a pipette onto her latex-gloved hand. Not believing herself in any immediate danger, as she was taking all recommended precautions,[5] she proceeded to clean up the area prior to removing her protective clothing.[6] However, tests later revealed that dimethylmercury can, in fact, rapidly permeate different kinds of latex gloves and enter the skin within about 15 seconds.[4] The exposure was later confirmed by hair testing, which showed a dramatic jump in mercury levels 17 days after the initial accident, peaking at 39 days, followed by a gradual decline.[6]\n\nApproximately three months after the initial accident Wetterhahn began experiencing brief episodes of abdominal discomfort and noted a significant weight loss. The more distinctive neurological symptoms of mercury poisoning, including loss of balance and slurred speech, appeared in January 1997, five months after the accident.[6] At this point, tests proved that she had a debilitating mercury intoxication.[2][3][5] Her urinary mercury content had risen to 234 µg per liter; its normal range is from 1 to 5 and the toxic level is > 50 μg/L.[6]\n\nDespite aggressive chelation therapy, her condition rapidly deteriorated. Three weeks after the first neurological symptoms appeared, Wetterhahn lapsed into what appeared to be a vegetative state punctuated by periods of extreme agitation.[6] One of her former students said that \"Her husband saw tears rolling down her face. I asked if she was in pain. The doctors said it didn't appear that her brain could even register pain.\"[5] Wetterhahn was removed from life support and died on June 8, 1997, less than a year after her initial exposure.[6]\n\nThere had been previous documented cases of death due to dimethylmercury poisoning. In 1865, two English laboratory assistants died several weeks after helping to synthesize dimethylmercury for the first time. In 1972, a 28-year-old chemist in Czechoslovakia had the same symptoms as Wetterhahn after synthesizing 6 kg of the compound.[2][6] \n\n_URL_22_\n\n\n-----------\n\n\nThere is supposedly another lethal chemical used to remove ballpoint inks from checks. If you get any on your skin supposedly you could die. Not sure the name or if it's true.",
"[Karen Wetterhahn died in 1997](_URL_25_) after absorbing a very small amount of organic Mercury though latex gloves. 3 months after exposure she began developing symptoms of poisoning including abdominal pain. 3 weeks after that she developed severe neurological symptoms due to presence of Mercury in her brain and lapsed into a vegetative state. Less than one year after exposure she was taken off life support.\n\nAlso famously [Kim Jong Un had his brother assassinated with a VX nerve agent.](_URL_23_) VX is nasty stuff and it's said the lethal dose can be a couple of drops on the skin, and it immediately begins attacking your nervous system. Without immediate treatment, and provided the antidote, you will die within 30 minutes. \n\n[The US military famously recorded VX being administered to rabbits](_URL_24_), with the first rabbit being given the antidote, and the second allowed to die. Caution, it straight up shows a rabbit suffering of VX exposure and allowed to die in a matter of minutes. So NSFW/NSFL. \n\n[Russia also famously assassinated a former KGB agent with Polonium-210.](_URL_26_) They administered an estimated 10 micrograms of Polonium to the victim's tea which poisoned him with deadly radiation. After experiencing severe vomiting and diarrhea he died three weeks later.\n\nNeedless to say, every single one of these methods is an absolutely horrific way to die, is slow, painful, and torturous.",
"I've worked with hydroflouric acid (HF) to process pollen out of sediment. A single drop on you can absorb through your skin and burn the calcium out of your bones. When I was first taught to use it, I was told if there was a spill in the lab that got on me to yell for help, have someone call 911 or pull the fire alarm if the spill is bad enough, strip naked in the emergency chemical shower (you wear 2-3 layers of protective polymer clothing, face shield, etc.), and aggressively rub calcium paste on the place the acid touched you so that it would consume that instead of, well, your bones.",
"I work in refineries/plants all along the gulf coast. I've heard that the Rubicon plant in Louisana has around 10 chemicals that will kill you quickly. A friend of mine was there when they lost a contractor. Said it was due to a chemical dripping into the mask of his respirator that he left unattended. I was told it was only a drop or 2 but as soon as the guy put the respirator back on he collapsed dead. Not sure of which chemical though.",
"Etorphine (M99) is a super powerful synthetic opioid. Used to sedate elephants. It's LD50 in humans is only 30 ug. Definitely a drop or two would take you out. Veterinary strength etorphine is packaged with the human antidote as well as etorphine due to this reason. \n\nIt's also the drug Dexter used to knock out his kills, which proves it was fantasy because they'd die from the med before he ever got them on the kill table in real life.",
"There's a story that gets taught to ADR truckers in the UK about an oleum (sulphur trioxide) spill. An off duty nurse witnessed the crash and got out to help not knowing the contents that where spilling from the tanker where highly dangerous whilst the driver was trying to motion to her to stay in her car. \n\nShe was quickly overcome by the fumes and fell face first into it, dying near instantly.",
"I got permission as an undergrad to work with Dimethyl Sulfate for my capstone project in my major. This compound reacts rapidly with mucosal surfaces to make methanol, sulfuric acid, and methyl hydrogen sulfate. Blindness can occur because of the methanol, and the latter two compounds are corrosive and irritants to those surfaces. On the safety data sheet, it literally said fatal if inhaled. It was one of the coolest reagents I have ever worked with. There was a case study done about 9 hose repair workers who were exposed to it, really interesting. \nLink: _URL_27_\n\nIt smells like onions.",
"Has anyone mentioned batrachotoxin from poison dart frogs? It's lethal at 2ul/kg. Wikipedia also says treatment includes administering pufferfish venom so you'd need a pretty specific set of circumstances to live through the experience.",
"I did a project once with hydrofluoric acid (in vapour form) for etching of small components. When handling the acid you need to wear a rubber apron and elbow length gloves and glasses over you cleabroom suit. I was told if a drop got on you it would go through the skin and de calcify your bones. The fact we then turned it into a vapour freaked everyone else in the clean room out!",
"I believe some of the fentanyl analogues are potent enough to kill with particle sizes approaching those affected by Brownian motion. Looking at a sun-lit area, the tiny specs of dust floating randomly... If *one* of those specks were to be of these analogues, you'd be dead if you inhaled it.\n\nIf that was made into a droplet that absorbed on skin, it would fit the bill.",
"Cyanide in a strong enough concentration can be absorbed through the skin. I was taking a toxicology class and heard of a hitman from NJ in the 70s that used cyanide in this manner. He would be at a bar and act like he spilled a drink on you, but it was cyanide. He killed over 30 people using this method (I believe).",
"Look into \"Hydrofluoric acid\". Even a puff of air in your face from this acid can kill you. It attaches to the calcium in your bones and essentially destroys them. It's also one of the very few acids that can't be stored in glass containers because it will eat through glass.",
"Organic Mercury, 2 drops and it instantly seeps through most gloves/clothing into your skin where it then diffuses into your blood then it makes it's way to your brain where it slowly breaks your brain down as the brain cells die, causing physical and mental ailments for months, most noticeably impaired vision, uncoordination, slow speech, and inability to concentrate at all. Then you go into a catatonic state and lose the ability to speak. Then months, maybe a year, after the contact with organic Mercury you die.\n\n _URL_28_",
"[FOOF](_URL_29_), or [Dioxygen Difluoride](_URL_30_), is an incredibly unstable molecule that will react with many things that you wouldn't think would be that reactive. Also, these reactions tend to be violent explosions. So, for example,\n\n* It can set glass on fire\n* It explodes when reacting with water ice.\n* It explodes when added to things like Methane at 90K. That's just above -300 °F.\n\nSo if you had a drop of this on your skin, you'd definitely feel something.",
"Theres a story of a girl handling a substance called dimethylmercury and getting a couple drops on one of her two layers of gloves. she promptly changed the gloves out and thought nothing of it. She then experienced a slow, painful and terrifying death by mercury poisoning over almost a year.",
"_URL_31_\n\nDimethylmercury, she got a drop or two on her glove (the incorrect PPE btw) and wiped it off as quickly as she could but it was already to late, it penetrated the glove got on her skin, died a year later.",
"The attempted murder of Sergei Skripal using Novichok-5, that led to the fatal poisoning of Dawn Sturges and the near fatal poisoning of Sergei and daughter Yulia, Detective Sargent Nick Bailey and Charlie Rowley, is an example of poisoning with a toxin so toxic that just a few drops on skin can kill. \n\nThe Novichok military never agent was coated on the front door handle of Sergei's home by Russian GRU operatives, Dr. Aleksandr Mishkin and Colonel Anatoliy Chepiga.\n\nThe nerve agent was so toxic that not only didn't it poison Sergei and Yulia via direct skin contact when they touched the contaminated door handle, it also poisoned Detective Sargent Bailey though his police issued leather gloves after he visited Sergei's home a few hours later, after they were found collapsed at The Laurals, Salisbury. He had gone to Sergei's home to try to find out who they were and why they collapsed.\n\nA few months later Charlie Rowley found a small box he thought was Nina Ricci perfume, and gave it to his girlfriend Dawn Surges. She sprayed a few drops on her wrists, thinking it was perfume, it was 99% pure Novichok-5. Within a minutes she collapses in the bathroom and stopped breathing. Charlie called an ambulance and did CPR, she went into cardiac arrest as the ambulance arrived. She died a few days later. Charlie cleaned up the perfume bottle after the ambulance had taken Dawn to hospital and got some on his hands, washed it off as best he could, due to his lower dose he collapsed about 5-6 hours later and spent nearly a month in hospital.\n\nEdit: Spelling",
"I used to work in a herbicide manufacturing plant. During our training they had someone come in and tell a story about a friend of his who had died on shift. I dont remember any names so bear with me. \n\nHe was cleaning out some pipes, which involved opening specific valves to purge the system. He was supposed to have been in a full tyvek suit with a respirator and gloves but he neglected to wear any of that because he felt it was too comfortable and was overly confident. Just a couple drops got on him and he ran to the locker room (passing two safety showers on the way mind you.) The guy telling the story had been in the control tower and his friend told him something along the lines of, \"I messed up.\" As he was passing through. After a few minutes later he entered the locker room and found his friend dead on the floor in the shower.",
"Not sure on the actual toxicity of this substance but Otto 2 fuel used in torpedos we carried for anti submarine warfare while I was in the Navy and was said to be so toxic that the only way you would know there was a fuel leak was if you saw someone dead near one of the torpedos.\n\nSaid to be so toxic to us guys the worked with/around them that basically if you saw a pool of the orange(ish) fuel you’d register that you saw it and would pass out soon thereafter, then respiratory failure would incurs soon after that.",
"Nickel tetracarbonyl, aka \"liquid death\".\n\nNot sure it meets the requirement of \"a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two\" but it's still pretty nasty. It forms vapours easily at room temperature, and inhaling them results in a quadruple whammy of (famously not-to-be-inhaled) carbon monoxide molecules, whilst simultaneously lining your lungs with toxic, carcinogenic nickel.\n\nIf that's not enough, those vapours are also explosive, and are so heavy that they may not be contained by a standard laboratory fume hood...",
"Not likely the chemical in question but botulinum toxin has a crazy LD50 in like the nanograms per kilogram. I thought it was the most toxic substance to humans (by LD50) though it’s thankfully rare to be exposed at potentially lethal quantities...\n\nnow for cosmetic purposes and headaches though it’s quite helpful and readily used",
"The factory that I work at there is a chemical used to clean baked on paint spots it is called \"Comasol\" and it smells kind of like permanent markers and on the bottle it says it causes cancer not may cause will cause but hey the friggin glass is clean...",
"Nicotine, pure, will kill you of even a single drop touches your skin. Your body has what are called nicotenic receptors for the majority of body function, imagine flipping all your bodies switches at once both on and off. Not a neuroscientist but it is fun to read about.",
"I recon it could be hydrogen Fluoride (HF). I'm a chemical engineering student and we do a module on the most dangerous chemicals widely used in industry and how to use them safely. Here is a video documenting a leak of this stuff that killed five people.\n\n_URL_32_",
"Not as a drop on the skin, but botulinum H is a rather interesting neurotoxin. 13 billionth of a gram (0.000000013 gram) is enough to kill a person. In comparison, arsenic requires a dose of 0.1 g to kill someone.",
"I worked with a chemist who had worked for a major chemical company that sounds like a stock exchange. She knew someone personally who died due to exposure. He got it on his hazmat suit, and he didn't shower off properly, so when he took off the suit, he got some on him. He realized it immediately and died while trying to somehow do something about it.\n\nThat's vague, I know. It was 9 years ago that I heard the story. I could probably just search the local newspaper's website, though I'm sure there won't be that much detail. It might have the chemical name, though.",
"I work at a plant that produces 99% phenol (or some high concentration) and it's no joke. A drop won't kill you instantly but if you get more than 15% -20% of your body covered in it and don't wash it off in time, it could be potentially lethal. And if you do get it on you regardless of how long, you go into a supervision period where your blood and health is monitored every 2 weeks or something like that.",
"When I was an organic chemistry TA, our professor who just arrived from Harvard worked with this lady during his post doc and said it was very sad. Basically we knew that dimethylmercury was dangerous, but didn’t know how dangerous it was until it killed her. I thought it was 6 months later though. Either way, very sad",
"What's weird about this is that as a trucker hauling chemicals, OP's grandpa should have an MSDS on board and have read it prior to accepting it for transport. OP's grandpa should be able to say exactly what he's transporting. Now, if this was years ago and he just doesn't remember, that's a different story.",
"There's a molecule called Very Fast Death Factor. It's also known as Anatoxin-a, and is produced by some cyanobacteria. I couldn't find info about recorded human deaths from it and unsure if it can act through skin contact alone, but leathal ingestion dose is estimated at 5mg and can be lethal within 4 minutes.",
"Hydroflouric acid will kill you if it gets on your skin. Not sure if just one drop will do it, but it doesn't take much to be fatal, and there is no treatment or cure. If enough gets on your skin, you're going to die in a day or so, end of story.",
"HF absorbs easily through the skin and ic a calcium scavenger. Small amounts of HF can result in heart attacks due to removal of circulating Ca. Not sure why it would be used with tyre making, but HF is used to etch glass so tanker would fit as would automotive.",
"There is another. Hydroflouric acid. One drop kills in hours. Could crystallize I suppose. Is used to etch glass, especially pure fused silica preforms for drawimg optical fiber. If you dont have the counter agent, the only way to survive a drop is to amputate."
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_lethal_dose",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylmercury",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetramethylammonium_hydroxide",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epibatidine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fentanyl",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylmercury",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent))or",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novichok_agent",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachotoxin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrodotoxin",
"http://blogs.sciencemag.org/pipeline/archives/2008/02/26/sand_wont_save_you_this_time",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wetterhahn?wprov=sfla1",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylmercury?wprov=sfla1",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znQwAcOQffQ",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTUbEo0o9ng",
"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/01/18/three-utility-workers-descend-to-their-deaths-in-florida-manhole-overcome-by-fumes/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.1fe6e927fdee",
"https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/brain-death5.htm",
"https://sp.ehs.cornell.edu/lab-research-safety/Documents/Phenol_First_Aid_and_PPE.pdf",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJ7M01jV058",
"https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/brain-death1.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etorphine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wetterhahn",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Jong-nam?wprov=sfla1",
"https://youtu.be/wXUeLwAit3Y",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wetterhahn?wprov=sfla1",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko?wprov=sfla1",
"https://emj.bmj.com/content/22/12/878",
"https://youtu.be/NJ7M01jV058",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxygen_difluoride",
"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ja00893a004",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wetterhahn",
"https://youtu.be/6EpE3JHHoaI"
]
} | Are there any chemicals so deadly a mere drop on skin could kill?
My grandpa (a known story stretcher) told me he used to haul tankers full of this chemical. It was supposed to absorb really fast and that it was so deadly a drop on your skin would kill you in a minute or two. It was used in the production of tires. He said it was phenol but phenol doesn't match up with his description. He's told me this story since I was a kid but now at 23 I'm curious as to if there are any chemicals that deadly and what they would possibly be used for. | [
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|
mh0sc | If I were to travel 60 light-years from the Earth... | ...to a hypothetical planet, and I were to build a powerful enough radio telescope, would I be able to watch—for example—the Queen's coronation "live"?
I guess a better question would be "would a television signal from the 1950s be strong enough to be decoded and watched after travelling through space?"
If so, which transmissions would I be able to pick up, as surely not *all* television and radio signals were broadcast into space? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c30vpdh",
"c30wqr2",
"c30uq84"
],
"text": [
"yes, but the signal would be very weak, as it drops off with the square of the distance. also, you wouldn't be able to hear any short band or AM radio signals, since those low frequencies are unable to penetrate earth's atmosphere (which is actually why they travel farther on earth because they bounce off the ionosphere).",
"You cannot, of course, travel 60 light-years from the Earth in less than 60 years. Thus, the best you can do is listen to stuff currently being broadcast.",
"The answer to your 'better' question is yes, you could receive the signal.\n\nAll television and radio that was sent over airwaves (rather than cable, wire, etc) are in fact electromagnetic radiation and thus will radiate into space. The direction of the signal would have to be pointing in the general direction of the receiver (your planet) - so the signals (shows) would change as earth rotates.\n\nA planet 60 light years away would be receiving shows 60 years old. **LUUUUUUCY**\n\nConsider, as an example, spacecraft we have sent up that are just now leaving the edges of the solar system - these had very weak transmitters on board to send info back to earth - and those work very well and are still transmitting and being received by us. With big ears on the ground, and not much in space, tiny signals can be easily detected and amplified.\n\nEdit: An example of something else that travels at 'c' but is not a photon would be the massless gluons. Neutrinos 'may' (which is being tested now)."
],
"score": [
8,
8,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If I were to travel 60 light-years from the Earth...
...to a hypothetical planet, and I were to build a powerful enough radio telescope, would I be able to watch—for example—the Queen's coronation "live"? I guess a better question would be "would a television signal from the 1950s be strong enough to be decoded and watched after travelling through space?" If so, which transmissions would I be able to pick up, as surely not *all* television and radio signals were broadcast into space? | [
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uq26m | [Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? | This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: _URL_0_
The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go "Wow I can't believe we know that" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go "Wow science is cool".
The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.
If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: _URL_1_ | askscience | {
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"The scale of everything. We play with quarks all the way up to galactic superclusters and everything in between. Our habitable zone is as thin as a soap bubble and just as vulnerable and insignificant.",
"What makes me marvel at the world is microbes. They don't have what we call a brain, they don't \"think\" they just respond to chemical signals, magnetic signals, etc. but they almost seem to think. They evolve so perfectly, in the case of pathogens like *S.aureus* (my particular area of research), to combat our immune system. Our immune system evolved alongside them in what is essentially an arms race. How did they evolve to produce superantigens, cytolysins, etc. ???? We come up with an antibiotic, boom, they've developed resistance within a few years - sometimes only a few months - which from the evolutionary standpoint is lightning fast... \n\nThey have a \"need\" to survive - and they make it happen. It blows my mind. Something so small can be so viciously lethal. We'll never beat them...\n\nAnd then there are all the methods people have come up with in microbiology to detect a pathogen, or to amplify DNA, or to clone a gene, or to delete a gene, or to learn the entire sequence of a bacterial genome in (now at least) a few hours... Microbiology is so amazing. It moves me all the time. I'll never do anything else.\n\n\nOn a side note - and this becomes a philosophical discussion not for this thread - but we've had many discussions in my lab and with other labs about whether or not bacteria are basically little single-celled brains or not. It's a pretty fun, neat, debate.",
"I'm amazed at how much overlap there is in the sciences. How many things are \"interdisciplinary\" or related really drives it home that science is the study of the world, a world that is deeply interconnected.\n\nJust using my own field as an example, acoustics shows up all over the place. Phonons in the crystal structure of a solid? Acoustics. You can use the modal characteristics of the crystal to find the heat capacity of a material. And those properties scale up. You can build a scale model of a crystal structure using resonators and elastic bands to study atomic structures at a macroscopic scale (don't believe me? [It's been done.](ftp://_URL_0_))\n\nHow do we [measure the gas constant](_URL_1_)? Sound speed in argon. And that is used to give us our definition of [Kelvin](_URL_2_). In other words, our fundamental measurement of temperature comes from acoustics.\n\nAt very large scales, ultra-low frequency sound waves can travel through the near vacuum of space. You can see them coming from [Super Massive Black Holes](_URL_3_).\n\nIt goes both ways. Where does Sonoluminescence come from? Chemistry. A small air bubble resonates, and forces out everything except the noble gas, Argon. When that argon is heavily compressed at the bottom of the cycle, it emits light. That's an acoustic phenomena that needs chemistry to be explained.\n\nAnd given that there is so much overlap in the sciences, it's amazing that experts in different fields can work together to solve the mysteries of a universe that needs more than a single specialization to be unravelled.",
"Overall - I am amazed and awed by how everything about the shape/makeup/structure/behavior of Earth has a reason and explanation - and that these explanations are often something anyone with a moderate education can surmise (or at least make educated guesses about). The types of sand grains you find on a beach can give you hints to processes happening hundreds of kilometers away. A rock you find in the mountains can tell you a lot about the past millions of years of the mountain's history, even without fancy lab equipment (or any equipment at all, often). Every fold and hill and mountain and stream has a reason for why it is there, and often these structures record much about the past in many different ways. Once you start seeing them, it's impossible to ever go back (nor would you want to!)\n\nMore specifically, some facts that have shocked me are:\n\n**1)** When ice sheets melt on top of continents, the entire continent rises up in elevation. This same process happens when the tops of mountains are eroded over time. So in order to erode a 5 kilometer mountain to ground level, you actually have to erode 30-50 kilometers of mountain (since as you erode off the top, pressures that were once balanced become unbalanced and you will get uplift of the mountain range through earthquakes). This is also why you find sedimentary basins where you have 15 kilometers of sediments stacked on top of each other!\n\n**2)** The gravitational pull of ice sheets is actually quite significant. If the Antarctica ice sheet were to melt, local sea levels would *drop*, despite a ~65 meter increase in average sea level around the world. This is because the Antarctica ice sheet pulls a lot of water toward it right now through gravity. Combine this with my previous point about how land masses lift up after having ice above them melt, and Antarctica might be lifted 100-200 meters above it's current sea level (those are the current estimates, anyway). Awesome!\n\n**3)** We have evidence for life at least 3.8 billion years ago. The Earth is 4.57 billion years old or so, and much of its early history involved massive bombardments from many asteroids. So relatively quickly after stable liquid water as on Earth, life sprang up. I think it is really amazing to think about how readily life takes advantage of environments when they are suitable, even when it comes to abiogenesis (it at least seems that way).\n\n**4)** Huge amounts of water are cycled through subduction zones. Oceanic crust actually incorporates water into the rocks, morphing the rocks into new forms (Olivine to Serpentine, for example). When oceanic crust subducts, it warms as it sinks into the asthenosphere, which results in this water being released, which produces magma, which produces volcanic arcs when it erupts. The cool part is the sheer volume of water cycled this way. The entire volume of the world's oceans has cycled in this manner (metasomatism) many times throughout the history of Earth.",
"[This](_URL_4_) **PDF warning**\n\nHeck, that's a wildly abbreviated version!\n\nSeriously, the fact we've figured all that out, and put it all together? That a lot of disease and drug treatment is a breakdown of one spot in there? That everything in the body is in some way interconnected?\n\nThe metabolic pathways chart **blows my mind.**",
"Biomolecular interaction networks, especially proteins (though I have nothing against RNA :P). It amazes me that proteins (which everyone is basically taught to think of as a single chemical in food) are essentially nano-devices that underpin the functioning of biology. In particular, signaling pathways involving GPCRs and functional selectivity. Just a little set of molecules (well, big for molecules, little for us) can not only pick out its ligands, but actually *distinguish* between different ligands, and activate different signaling pathways accordingly. That is facking awesome.\n\nAlso, I'll take a serving of \"the scale of everything.\" I recall exploring a structural model of LeuT based on some x-ray diffraction, and noting the location of leucine, and looking off into the distance in the picture, seeing two spheres. Those spheres were sodium ions, and it wasn't much of a distance- a handful of nm. Yet as I study the molecule, it becomes like its own world, operating by its own rules, with its own fantastic potential for discovery. Then I realize that in a human alone, there are at least hundreds of thousands of these protein \"worlds,\" and am ecstatic at the thought that I'll never run short of things to discover.",
"This is a small one compared to the others, but how well the pieces of physics overlap. If you look at a photon - when you view it as a particle, you get that it should impart momentum when it hits an electron. When you calculate it as a classical wave, the magnetic field imparts the same momentum.\n\nWhen you calculate the redshift from a gravitational field on a wave, it gives you the same answer as consider a particle climbing from a potential well. Even though GR and quantum aren't compatible.\n\nThings work out and its incredible.",
"I find the many ways that you can mathematically model things incredible. In classical physics, you have Newtonian mechanics, basically f = ma. But then, you can also use Lagrangian mechanics, which looks absolutely nothing like Newtonian mechanics and is founded on a different mathematical/physical basis, but with a bit of work, you can show that the two are equivalent. And then you have yet a third way of doing things, Hamiltonian mechanics which is related to Lagrangian mechanics but is somewhat different. And despite all of their differences and many different ways these interpretations can be thought of mathematically, they all give you the same answer.",
"The fact that nature seems to obey Quantum Field Theory, and the simple fact that we are able to \"decouple\" short scales from long distance experiments.\n\nSuppose that you do an experiment in which an apple collides with a table. You do not need to know the fundamental theory of nature in order to create an effective law that only depends on a finite set of parameters. In other words, despite the fact that a collision of an apple is actually a huge complicated phenomena in terms of atoms, and nucleons, and quarks and electrons... it is very simple in terms of this effective degree of freedom that we call apple. You can parametrize all your ignorance about the fundamental structure of the apple just by measuring its mass, volume, elasticity and some other quantities...\n\nThere is no reason in first place that nature should behave this way, but the fact is that it does. And this alone is the reason why we are able to do physics.",
"[Moore's Law and similar laws](_URL_5_). Every time we think we're going to hit a limit, we make a new discovery that let's us keep advancing at the same speed.",
"I still haven't gotten over how awesome [the comparative method](_URL_6_) is. \n\nWhen I was a little kid, I wanted to be an astrophysicist because it was so cool that we could know so much about things *so far away*. I feel the same kind of awe now when I think about how much we know about something like Proto-Indo-European, a language that has been gone for thousands of years, had no written record, and whose homeland is still somewhat debatable. The distance may be literally much smaller, but it feels just as unbridgeable sometimes. Yet, here we are, building a small (and somewhat shaky) bridge anyway.",
"The way it all ties together in an enormous majestic whole, and the way that by observing and measuring it we can get a real understanding of how things work.\n\nI get a bit wound up when people dismiss the whole thing as some kind of creation miracle, because frankly the science of planetary formation, development and the evolution of life is a far more beautiful and detailed. \n\nBut most of all, I love that I can go and pick up a bit of rock and learn so much about what has happened int he past, and that rock provides a direct physical link. It's like holding one of da'Vinci's pencils.",
"It amazes me how much life and precise orchestrated activity is ongoing in a single living cell. If you think of yourself as a newly-made protein on your way out to perform your job in the cell, for you, the available space inside the cell would seem infinite. There are billions of other proteins making the same voyage around the cell and the cytosol would seem like a busy metropolis. What amazes me about this perspective is the vastness located within such a tiny space like a simple skin cell, that is simply performing maintenance level activity.",
"Not a scientist, but I'm amazed that a disease that would kill you 80 years ago is now curable with a pill. Humans lived for millions of years at the mercy of disease.",
"That almost every phenomenon we see or touch in our daily lives can be described by something as simply elegant as quantum electrodynamics. The situations may be complicated, but the rules aren't. Reflection, refraction, polarization, the illusion of touch, colors, *all* of chemistry even! And all with electrons and photons.",
"Our understanding of water displacement. In a span of about 200 years we went from, \"ships can only be made out of things that float\", to, \"this is the USS Enterprise. It weighs 96,000 tons\"."
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_constant#Measurement",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin",
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/09sep_blackholesounds/",
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/img/assets/4202/MetabolicPathways_6_17_04_.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore's_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_method"
]
} | [Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world?
This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: _URL_0_ The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go "Wow I can't believe we know that" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go "Wow science is cool". The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar. If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: _URL_1_ | [
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|
4wnl9y | What does the wave component of light mean? I'm having a hard time wrapping my head around this one. | I understand light (electromagnetic radiation) is composed of photons. Photons have a dual nature - they are simultaneously a particle and a wave. I can grasp the particle component. How a photon can interact with matter (electrons), causing electrons to change orbital level, eject other photons, in displays of absorption, reflection, refraction, etc. However, I have a difficult time envisioning the wave modality. I know this corresponds to frequency and energy of the photon, but I don't understand what is actually happening. As an example, let's say the source has a frequency of 1 hertz. One peak and trough of the wave every second. Does this mean that photons (from the light source) are emitted one every second, photon after photon? Does it literally mean the photon is traveling in a oscillating wave motion once per second? Does it mean the photon is vibrating back and forth once per second, and if so, how much distance does it vibrate? Or something much more complicated than I can't simply imagine?... In other words, how is the energy stored in the photon as a wave?
I've been trying to find an answer that satiates my curiosity for a day or so now, but all I find is information regarding electromagnetic fields, and maybe it's my lack of understanding in that area that is making this difficult to imagine. Please help.
Cheers.
Edit: Thanks so much to everyone who has replied to my question. It appears I was trying to apply my macro experiences to the bizarre quantum world. I think during my time at university I made this same mistake, and electromagnetism was unnecessarily confusing. I'll have to dive deeper to mature my mental image of "what a photon is", as it is quite abstract. The world of the very small is incredible, and I see how it can consume a persons life! Again, thanks to the supportive community here at r/askscience. I'll definitely be asking more questions.
| askscience | {
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"There's a lot going on in your paragraph but I'm just going to address the main question: what are the transverse components of an electromagnetic wave? They are, as the name suggests, an electric and a magnetic field, oscillating perpendicular to each other. The wave propagates in a direction perpendicular to both of them. [Like dis](_URL_0_)",
"> Photons have a dual nature - they are simultaneously a particle and a wave.\n\nNeither the wave nor the particle model is more fundamental than the other. Neither model encompasses the other model. They are separate models that can be used to explain how light behaves. Remember, these are just tools we use to help us understand the physics of what's going on - it's not that light *is* a particle sometimes, and it *is* a wave other times - it's that we choose one model over the other at different times because it makes the situation more intuitive or it just makes more sense. It's best not to mix the models, though - you can't really think of the wave as being a collection of photons moving in a wavey pattern - that's not correct. Simply treat the models as separate and independent from one another. A good rule of thumb is that 'light travels as a wave but interacts with matter as a particle'. (really, when we say that, we mean that it's simplest to think of light in those terms under those circumstances)\n\n > I have a difficult time envisioning the wave modality.\n\nLet's step back for a moment and talk about fields. In the most general sense a field is nothing more than some physical quantity described at different points throughout space. For example,we can describe the temperature field at every point in a room. We can do the same thing for the electric and magnetic fields - they can be measured and defined at every point in space. If nothing about the field changes in time, we call it a static field. If instead something happens that changes the field (a charged object moves from one place to another, for example), the change moves outwards as a wave and propagates through space at some speed. Light is the name we give to the change or the ripple in the electromagnetic field. The quantity that's changing is the *strength* (or amplitude) of the electric and magnetic fields. This change that propagates outwards can be described using things like amplitude, wavelength, frequency, etc...\n\n > How a photon can interact with matter (electrons), causing electrons to change orbital level\n\nRemember, light is an oscillation in the electric and magnetic fields. Electric fields will exert a force on charged particles via the lorentz force. So if we were to switch on an electric field near some electrons, they'll get tugged in one direction which depends on how strong the field is, and the direction the field points. This is the *fundamental* interaction that occurs whenever light interacts with matter. If you go back to this notion, you can derive nearly all of optics from the most fundamental level. \n\nImagine an electron bound to an atom - it has associated with it some unchanging electric field. Now because the electron is the source of the electric field under discussion, if you perturb the electron in some way, you will also perturb the field. That perturbation will then travel through space as a changing electric (and magnetic) field - light.",
"To some degree it's a semantics problem.\n\nThe smallest bits of \"stuff\" of the Universe (such as photons, electrons, neutrinos, etc.) are not easily describable according to the rules that humans learn about the way things work based on a lifetime of experience at the macro scale. The only reasonable way to explain the behavior of that \"stuff\" is with some fairly complicated mathematics (the Schrodinger equation, et al), but that doesn't exactly help us poor humans develop abstract mental models. So instead we talk about \"particles\" and about \"wave-particle\" duality, but the reality is that it might be more accurate to call \"particles\" by some other, novel, name, because they are neither particles nor waves though they have some properties of both.\n\nIt's a bit like a human from a pre-industrial age coming across a car and calling it an elephant, and developing the theory of \"boat-elephant\" duality, since the car sometimes has properties of a boat and sometimes of a car. But, of course, a car is not a boat or an elephant, it's just a car. But imagine if cars were sub-microscopic and it was extraordinarily difficult to get direct experience with using them, boat-elephant might be the best non-mathematical model of a car you could come up with. And that's how it is with \"particles\". Particles are fundamentally waves, but only in the same sense that a car is a boat. That doesn't mean that there's a particle (like a tiny billiard ball) oscillating back and forth. It's that at a fundamental level the \"particle\" has wave-like properties so it's best to sort of think of it as a wave, even though that's not exactly any more accurate than thinking of a car as a boat.",
"The relationship between the wave and particle viewpoints is pretty weird. You should probably first learn the classical wave nature of light (which was all anybody knew for a couple hundred years) before trying to connect with photons.",
"When most of us think of light we think of photons because photons are analogous to things we are familiar with, like billiard balls, only really tiny (dimensionless actually). But most of the everyday behaviour of light comes from its wave-like properties and waves are a much more abstract concept. And the fact is, anything in motion has wave-like properties.\n\nWe say that light is both a wave and a particle. This seems impossible, but it is the model science has made to explain and understand light. It is the only model that accurately predicts the behaviour of light and is both internally consistent and consistent with observations. The seemingly impossible nature of this duality is due to the fact that it is a scientific model, and a model of a deeper reality we don’t (maybe can’t) understand or visualize. The way science (and our mind) works is to build models of the underlying realities that make up the universe. Whether these models actually look like that underlying reality isn’t important if they work, and science has gotten very good at building models that work.\n\nAs someone already said, familiarize yourself with the wave aspects of light and try to relate that to the things you observe about light. You will find that you only have to resort to photons for some of the more arcane properties of light. You can get yourself into a bind trying to fit the particle properties into the wave-like behaviours."
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} | What does the wave component of light mean? I'm having a hard time wrapping my head around this one.
I understand light (electromagnetic radiation) is composed of photons. Photons have a dual nature - they are simultaneously a particle and a wave. I can grasp the particle component. How a photon can interact with matter (electrons), causing electrons to change orbital level, eject other photons, in displays of absorption, reflection, refraction, etc. However, I have a difficult time envisioning the wave modality. I know this corresponds to frequency and energy of the photon, but I don't understand what is actually happening. As an example, let's say the source has a frequency of 1 hertz. One peak and trough of the wave every second. Does this mean that photons (from the light source) are emitted one every second, photon after photon? Does it literally mean the photon is traveling in a oscillating wave motion once per second? Does it mean the photon is vibrating back and forth once per second, and if so, how much distance does it vibrate? Or something much more complicated than I can't simply imagine?... In other words, how is the energy stored in the photon as a wave? I've been trying to find an answer that satiates my curiosity for a day or so now, but all I find is information regarding electromagnetic fields, and maybe it's my lack of understanding in that area that is making this difficult to imagine. Please help. Cheers. Edit: Thanks so much to everyone who has replied to my question. It appears I was trying to apply my macro experiences to the bizarre quantum world. I think during my time at university I made this same mistake, and electromagnetism was unnecessarily confusing. I'll have to dive deeper to mature my mental image of "what a photon is", as it is quite abstract. The world of the very small is incredible, and I see how it can consume a persons life! Again, thanks to the supportive community here at r/askscience. I'll definitely be asking more questions. | [
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|
r5uas | why my flight wasnt on a straight line? | i took a flight from america to japan. the flight path was:
west coast going north, following canada and alaska coast, then going down in russian coast to japan.
instead of a straight line trough the pacific | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c434z9g",
"c435v12",
"c434zan",
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],
"text": [
"It was, or fairly close to it. Your plane probably followed a [great circle](_URL_0_). On flat projection maps, these often don't look straight (unless they're along the equator or directly North-South), but they are the equivalent of \"straight\" lines for lines on spheres. It may have veered away from a true great circle a little to follow air currents or to stay near land for safety reasons.",
"Also, on the return flight, you actually fly more of a 'straight' path back, and the flight a couple hours shorter. \n\nAnother thing that people aren't mentioning is tailwinds. the ideal solution is to fly in a path where there is tailwind (wind pushing you in the direction of travel) This helps a lot with fuel efficiency",
"The flight likely was on a \"great circle.\" A great circle is the shortest path between two points on a globe (it's a sort of spherical version of a line). Great circles look curved on many map projections, but they are in fact shorter. The one exception is the Mercator projection. In a Mercator projection a great circle looks like a line. In this case the line was probably shorter going up through the north part of the map than cutting straight across the center. Unfortunately maps distort distances, so it's hard to tell that going north is shorter unless you look at a globe.",
"It's called the great circle route. Due to the curvature of the earth, it's actually shorter than going \"straight\"\n\n_URL_1_",
"Long oceanic flights use frequently updated routes dependent on weather to maximize tailwinds and minimize headwinds. The Pacific has PACOTs (Pacific Organized Track System) - see _URL_2_.",
"> i took a flight from america to japan. the flight path was: west coast going north, following canada and alaska coast, then going down in russian coast to japan. instead of a straight line trough the pacific\n\nIt's time for you to get hold of a shoelace and a world globe. Stretch the shoelace between the origin and the destination of your flight. Surprise! The route your plane took was most likely the shortest route *on a globe*. It's called a \"great circle route\".",
"It was a straight line through the pacific, a line that followed the shortest distance possible on the spherical surface of the Earth.\n\nSee: _URL_3_",
"Find a globe and a piece of string, and pull the string so it's taught between the places you're flying. If you look at the string compared to the grid lines it should follow a curved line. \nIt's because the projection from the earth's surface to a map isn't an isomorphism, i.e. it doesn't preserve distance. \nSource: Me trying this out once and also completing a course in Geometry."
],
"score": [
81,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_circle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great-circle_navigation",
"http://zak.vatusa.net/tutor/pacots_tutorial.htm",
"http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=sea-nrt&MS=wls2&DU=mi"
]
} | why my flight wasnt on a straight line?
i took a flight from america to japan. the flight path was: west coast going north, following canada and alaska coast, then going down in russian coast to japan. instead of a straight line trough the pacific | [
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1nvu7x | What is the life expectancy of an integrated circuit? If you buried one in the right environment, what's the plausible upper limit on it still being functional? | I was recently working on an electronics project and some of the ICs I bought second-hand (7400 series TTL chips) were manufactured in the late 1970s, and they still work fine. I've also used various other electronic devices which were manufactured over 40 years ago and those IC components are also fine.
I know some electronics components tend to degrade with time. Electrolytic capacitors for example, rarely last more than a couple decades. The seal on vacuum tubes erodes and eventually they fail. But ICs, if treated gently, seem likely to outlive me!
What's the upper limit for regular ICs? If I sealed one in a container with the right properties (perhaps an inert gas) and buried it in a geologically stable place, would it still be functional if dug up in 100 years? 10,000 years? A million years?
Are there chemicals that will break down regardless of the environment used to store the IC? What's the timeframe on that?
I know ICs for space applications need to be radiation-hardened. Would normal ICs, such as your average boring microcontroller, accumulate enough radiation damage to fail after a time? How much time? Would it depend on the degree of miniaturization, with a modern 22 nm CPU accumulating damage more quickly than an older chip in a 1 µm process?
Thanks for any insight, this has been bugging me for a couple days now :)
(I'm unsure if I should categorize this as Computing, Engineering, Physics or Chemistry, heh.) | askscience | {
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"Semiconductor reliability engineer here: \n \nThis question is difficult to answer. In an inert, cool environment a properly manufactured silicon IC would have a very, very long shelf life. But not infinite. As you noted, a lot of old parts still work fine. \n \nMost of the failure mechanisms we normally worry about either require an electrical bias to cause, or require some specific environmental issues (such as high temperature or humidity). But if you take away those factors, there would still be a few issues left to contend with. \n \nThe first one that comes to mind, and the one I suspect would be the biggest killer, is stress. Silicon ICs are made using a variety of materials processed in thin layers at various temperatures. This causes residual mechanical stress; so much so that the wafers actually bow after manufacturing. This mechanical stress leads to stressmigration failures, primarily in metal conductors. The atoms \"creep\" in response to stress differentials and that leads to high resistances or opens. This is an issue even during the normal lifetimes of ICs, so I think it would be your most likely lifetime limiter. But the actual lifetime is going to be dependent upon various design and manufacturing specifics. I would not expect an advanced part to last for hundreds of years, though. \n \nWhile the silicon ICs are pretty much inert, there can be chemicals in the packaging that will degrade over time, or even attack the IC over time. But in an inert storage situation, I would expect this to take many decades, at least. (Different packages have different issues, so this one is hard to answer generically.) \n \nOver an extremely long time frame you would get some diffusion of dopants causing them to be redistributed. But now you are talking about things that would take a very, very, very long time at room temperatures. Probably tens of thousands of years. \n \nRad-hardening is generally not a concern for terrestrial parts that are powered off. I suppose that you still get the rare cosmic ray induced damage. I'm guessing you'd need hundreds of years for this to matter, at least. Maybe longer. Yes, a 22nm part would be more susceptible due to its smaller features.",
"> I know ICs for space applications need to be radiation-hardened. Would normal ICs, such as your average boring microcontroller, accumulate enough radiation damage to fail after a time?\n\nLow-level cosmic radiation doesn't actually cause any persistent damage to ICs (at least at a logical level - I can't speak to the materials they're made of). The problem is that a high energy particle striking the chip may cause electrons to be knocked free, which in analog circuits could induce noise or an erroneous voltage spike or in a digital circuit flip a bit. The latter is the big concern - if that bit happens to be in memory that holds your program or some crucial data, then all kinds of random and unpredictable issues can occur. Maybe that bit will cause the wrong branch of an if statement to execute, or some invalid memory to be accessed... in either case, probably not a good thing if your computer happens to be controlling something important.\n\nAlso, it's a problem that's by [no means limited to space](_URL_1_). Even in space, you don't *have* to have radiation hardened equipment. Instead of hardening individual computers on Dragon against the effects of radiation, [SpaceX opted to harden the system as a whole against *failure* caused by radiation](_URL_0_).",
"The datasheet for an Atmel ATmega328P (known for being an average, boring microcontroller at the heart of the Arduino board), has its flash memory (where the program is stored) rated for data retention to 100 years when stored at 25C.\n\nIn addition, these ratings are the minimum guarantee, and in real life will last much much longer. The same device also has EEPROM memory that has been tested in practice to approx 1.25M write cycles, more than 10x the rated 100K cycles.\n\nIn short, there's little data on the upper limit, but even conservatively, a simple device operating within ratings will last many many decades.\n\n[m328 datasheet](_URL_2_)\n\n[328 EEPROM Soak test](_URL_3_)",
"In 40 years, I don't recall ever seeing a spec sheet on silicon (or other semiconductor devices) with a shelf life specified. Storage conditions, yes, but not a shelf life. \n\nMost of the old tech (DTL, RTL, TTL, early CMOS) was large geometry by today's standards. The diffusion and deposition processes used in the manufacturing of these took place at extremely elevated temperatures, but I suspect they continue at glacial, non-zero rates at room temperatures. Depending on the tech, and how important/on-the-edge the features are, the elements of the circuits might eventually degrade to the point of failure, but I do suspect you are talking eons, not centuries. No proof, of course. \n\nLike you, I still build stuff out of tubes of original 741 op amps and some standard TTL. I consider all new-old-stock to be good. You might want to consider that there is a lot of vacuum tube stock still being sold in original packaging and still as good as day 1. (Not directly relevant to your question, but another 50 years older than TTL.)"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.aviationweek.com/Blogs.aspx?plckBlogId=Blog%3A04ce340e-4b63-4d23-9695-d49ab661f385&plckPostId=Blog%3A04ce340e-4b63-4d23-9695-d49ab661f385Post%3Aa8b87703-93f9-4cdf-885f-9429605e14df",
"https://blogs.oracle.com/ksplice/entry/attack_of_the_cosmic_rays1",
"http://www.atmel.com/Images/doc8161.pdf",
"http://tronixstuff.com/2011/05/11/discovering-arduinos-internal-eeprom-lifespan/"
]
} | What is the life expectancy of an integrated circuit? If you buried one in the right environment, what's the plausible upper limit on it still being functional?
I was recently working on an electronics project and some of the ICs I bought second-hand (7400 series TTL chips) were manufactured in the late 1970s, and they still work fine. I've also used various other electronic devices which were manufactured over 40 years ago and those IC components are also fine. I know some electronics components tend to degrade with time. Electrolytic capacitors for example, rarely last more than a couple decades. The seal on vacuum tubes erodes and eventually they fail. But ICs, if treated gently, seem likely to outlive me! What's the upper limit for regular ICs? If I sealed one in a container with the right properties (perhaps an inert gas) and buried it in a geologically stable place, would it still be functional if dug up in 100 years? 10,000 years? A million years? Are there chemicals that will break down regardless of the environment used to store the IC? What's the timeframe on that? I know ICs for space applications need to be radiation-hardened. Would normal ICs, such as your average boring microcontroller, accumulate enough radiation damage to fail after a time? How much time? Would it depend on the degree of miniaturization, with a modern 22 nm CPU accumulating damage more quickly than an older chip in a 1 µm process? Thanks for any insight, this has been bugging me for a couple days now :) (I'm unsure if I should categorize this as Computing, Engineering, Physics or Chemistry, heh.) | [
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1793ho | When 'unlikely' animals tolerate the company of each other, what is happening at a psychological level? | I refer to posts [such as this.](_URL_0_)
Often you'll see other posts on Reddit with Dogs and foxes, cats and squirrels etc all seemingly comfortable in each others company.
Are these anomalies or could these "friendships" end in an instant if the dominant animal got a blood lust? Are there specific trains in, for example, certain cats which make them more friendly towards animals they might otherwise attack? | askscience | {
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"A polite reminder. This is AskScience. No layman speculation, no guessing, no anecdotes, no jokes. Please check the sidebar if you're unsure whether your answer should be here or not.",
"There's not really a field of animal psychology (even though some will claim to be animal psychologists) since we cannot ask animals what they are thinking. We do behavior studies on them, and from those studies we make conclusions about the reasons for their behavior. So I'll try to tackle this from an animal behavior point of view. Please keep in mind that animal behavior is a constantly evolving field. \n\nSo there are three main types of \"odd friendships\" that occur between to animals of different species: prey-prey (e.g. a squirrel and a rabbit), predator-prey (cat-squirrel), and predator-predator (e.g. zoos often pair dogs with cheetahs on purpose since it makes the cheetahs easier to work with). There are lots of examples of each kind. Predator-prey relationships are perhaps the most interesting, so I will try to explain that one first.\n\nRelationships that develop when the animals are young (still developing) can be easily explained due to imprinting in the prey species and socialization periods in the predator species. Keep in mind that only precocial species (species where the young are born fairly independent - able to walk within hours of birth, have all their senses - e.g. cattle, horses) imprint. Keep in mind that precocial typically means \"prey.\" The reason they are born so independent is because they need to be able to run away from predators within hours of birth. Predatory species on the other hand (like dogs) are born very very dependent on their mother (puppies don't open their eyes for days after birth). \n\nOk, back to Imprinting! Imprinting is an important time (and it is a defined time, the exact time varies between species, but it's typically very very young) where the animal essentially learns what is its own species. There are many cases of aberrant imprinting - where an animal is separated from its species during imprinting and it is exposed to another species. If the animal imprints on that other species, it will direct its social and (later) sexual behavior toward that other species. It will typically even be fearful of its own species. Remember, this occurs only in precocial (\"prey\") species.\n\nSo aberrant imprinting can explain the young prey animal's attachment to an animal of another species. What about the predator animal? Well, altricial (opposite of precocial) species DO have critical periods where they need to be socialized to their own species, it's just not as strong as anything in precocial species. Example, puppies need to be socialized to humans otherwise as an adult dog they can be aggressive toward people (example: feral dogs). However, if they are exposed to new species during this time, they don't form an irreversible attachment. Their sexual and social behavior will still be normal toward their own species. \n\nSo those two combined things: imprinting in the precocial species and socialization period in the altricial species can explain how two young animals, separated from their respective species, could form a bond. This also explains the other types of bonds between two prey species and two predator species. However, there are many examples of adult animals becoming \"friends\" ([here's one)](_URL_0_) From what I know, I have no science-supported data that can explain that. \n\nI used my animal behavior notes from last semester (I am a first year veterinary student) to write this response. There are many nuances that I didn't get to touch on. But I hope this answers some of your question. If more sources are needed, please let me know.",
"With some googling I've come up with some very vague answers. \nHopefully this satisfies your curiosity, or at the very least points you in the right direction. \n( Now bare with me, I'm mobile so no fancy pants formatting. )\n\n\"\"The particular phenomenon I want to focus on is cross-species friendships. There are broadly speaking two sorts of cross-species friendship. One is a friendship between an animal and a human – most obviously, the pet-owner relationship. This typically involves some degree of parent-child dynamic: the human keeps the pet in a sort of extended childhood, relating to its owner as a permanent parent. The other is friendships between two non-human animals of different species: a cat and a dog, a tiger and a dog, a cat and a crow, an elephant and a dog, a gorilla and a cat, even a hamster and a snake. All of the preceding can be seen on youtube, and I imagine pretty much any combination is possible. Here there’s likely to be a mixture of parent-child relationships, with a (usually female) animal raising an infant of another species, and peer relationships, analogous to those that would obtain between two animals of the same age.\n\n\nWhat does this tell us about the animals in question? Broadly speaking, it tells us that they have the psychological ‘equipment’ to form certain sorts of relationships, but that the objects of those relationships are not specified. At the same time, the fact that such things happen quite rarely, and that in the wild, the great majority of animals form relationships with their own species, tells us that this equipment is primed to look for certain characteristics. A wolf, for example, will be most prone to relate to the scent and appearance of other wolves, but will potentially be able to respond in the same way to a different creature. Presumably the most important feature involved is movement – the main thing that all animals have in common is a shared ability to move in a certain way, with apparent purpose. Bilateral symmetry may well also be an important cue.\n\nNow what jumps out at me is how similar this is to humans. Humans, like animals, are primed to respond to certain features that are distinctive of humans – the best way to see what those features are is probably to look at cartoons and dolls, where the key features are retained and the irrelevant ones not. And those features certainly make it easier for us to empathise with a being. Yet at the same time, the relationship schema itself is ‘open-ended’: it can be applied to any number of objects – the most important thing generally being that they can move in a purposive way.\"\"\n\nSource1: _URL_2_\n\nAccording to Dr. Marc Bekoff Ph.D., emotions like joy, love, empathy, compassion, kindness, and grief can readily be shared by improbable friends including predators and prey such as a cat and a bird, a snake and a hamster, and a lioness and a baby oryx.\n\nThe popular PBS series, Nature, featured Bekoff in a documentary called \"Animal Odd Couples\", which aired last week.\n\nThe Professor Emeritus of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Colorado, Boulder presents solid science to help explain the cross-species relationships, including the biological similarities between all mammals, including humans. They all share the same structures and neurochemicals in the body's limbic system, for instance.\n\nSource2:_URL_2_",
"Nature recently did an [episode](_URL_3_) on this subject.",
"This was posted on reddit a while back. While I doubt it applies to all of these situations, it seems likely that signaling \"play\" behavior could be a major part of some of these interactions. I highly recommend the relevant TED talk.\n\n* Relevant page of National Institute for Play website: _URL_4_\n* TED Talk: _URL_5_",
"How is it any different than the myriad of animals we've been able to domesticate with humans? They've identified another animal that does not seem to threaten them or their food supply, and come to treat them like another 'cat/dog/etc'"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/178l3i/my_university_has_a_cute_couple_a_cat_and_a_duck/"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/11/04/bella-the-dog-dies-tarra-the-elephant-mourns_n_1074531.html",
"http://directionlessbones.wordpress.com/2009/01/30/cross-species-relationships-and-the-minds-of-animals/",
"http://www.goodnewsnetwork.org/most-popular/pbs-features-cross-species-compassion.html",
"http://video.pbs.org/video/2300668052/",
"http://nifplay.org/polar-husky.html",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/stuart_brown_says_play_is_more_than_fun_it_s_vital.html"
]
} | When 'unlikely' animals tolerate the company of each other, what is happening at a psychological level?
I refer to posts [such as this.](_URL_0_) Often you'll see other posts on Reddit with Dogs and foxes, cats and squirrels etc all seemingly comfortable in each others company. Are these anomalies or could these "friendships" end in an instant if the dominant animal got a blood lust? Are there specific trains in, for example, certain cats which make them more friendly towards animals they might otherwise attack? | [
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|
119rd8 | When putting her to bed last night, my daughter (7) asked me to get her "a science book, and a book about space!" Any recommendations to nurture a budding 7-year old scientist, reddit? | askscience | {
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"When I was that age (and as I got older), I loved looking at books with lots of pictures and little blurbs covering a variety of topics and using that as a jumping off point when something in particular struck my fancy. I would suggest going to a local book store and looking at some of those big, glossy coffee table books and how-things-work books or anything similar that is in the kids section. I would avoid getting too focused a book until she expresses a more focused interest.",
"I had a copy of the Kingfisher Visual Factfinder when I was a kid that I really enjoyed, but it looks as though it is no longer being published (last edition was in 1997 from the looks of things).\n\nA quick search shows that kingfisher has a science encyclopedia that appears to be along similar lines: [The Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia](_URL_0_). I can't vouch for the accuracy or appropriateness for her age level on this one personally though, since I haven't read it.",
"Mr. Tompkins in Paperback is great if she likes reading stuff on her own (or having it read to her!). I agree with StrewwelChris that big picture books are awesome. In the 1970s we had the \"LIFE Science Library\", which was just about perfect -- lots of cool pictures with interesting captions, and text articles that I completely ignored until I was 11 or 12 and the pages were already well worn. Reading the articles was like rediscovering the books.",
"[Mousetronaut](_URL_11_)\n\nMax goes to [mars](_URL_11_) or [jupiter](_URL_11_) or [the moon](_URL_11_)\n\n[Magic of Reality](_URL_11_)\n\n[The Space Child's Mother Goose](_URL_11_)\n\n[Mr. Tompkins](_URL_11_)\n\n[Alice in Quantumland](_URL_11_)\n\n[The Wizard of Quarks](_URL_11_)\n\n[Scrooge's Cryptic Carol](_URL_11_)\n\n[Number Devil](_URL_11_)\n\nIf you want more I can look in my library, but that should be a start.",
"Large format books about the human body and biology are very interesting at that age. Coupled with a microscope and a pond, the possibilities are endless.\n\nAlso, a hardback of Sagan's Cosmos is a thing of beauty (though a little difficult for a 7yo)",
"A short history of nearly everything by Bill Bryson was one of my most favorite science books. There is a kids version that I bought for my son. [A Really Short History of Nearly Everything](_URL_12_)",
"The astronomy section of your local bookstore or library should have a bunch of books that are mostly pictures. I loved those when I was 7....and I still do.",
"My daughter, also seven, is currently big on the [Exploring Science](_URL_14_) books, and her stand-by bed-time book is the [Biggest Ever Book of Questions and Answers](_URL_13_).",
"The only way for a 7 year old to fly: [To Space and Back](_URL_15_) by Sally Ride, first American woman in orbit.",
"I had most of the [Horrible Science](_URL_16_) collection. They were awesome.",
"The Usborne Space books were my favourites as a kid.\n\n_URL_17_",
"Cartoon Guide to Physics and/or Cartoon Guide to Chemistry",
"A Short History of Nearly Everything by Bill Bryson",
"It's not a science book at all, but Umberto Eco wrote a great children's book called \"The Three Astronauts,\" on the we-may-be-from-different-countries-or-planets-but-we're-all-the-same-inside that's really beautiful and great for elementary school kids.",
"A Brief History of Time - Stephen Hawking\n\nIt might be a little bit advanced, but it should get the gears churning for a good long time.",
"Hard to find, but a full color copy of the Cosmos companion book was my best friend as a child."
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"url": [
"http://www.amazon.com/Kingfisher-Science-Encyclopedia-Charles-Taylor/dp/0753458861",
"http://www.amazon.com/Mousetronaut-Based-Partially-True-Story/dp/1442458240/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1349905902&sr=8-1&keywords=moustranaut",
"http://www.amazon.com/Alice-Quantumland-Allegory-Quantum-Physics/dp/0387914951/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1349906210&sr=8-1&keywords=robert+gilmore",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Space-Childs-Mother-Goose/dp/1930900465/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1349906123&sr=8-1&keywords=space+child+mother+goose",
"http://www.amazon.com/Max-Goes-Moon-Adventure-Adventures/dp/1937548201/ref=sr_1_8?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1349905926&sr=1-8&keywords=max+goes",
"http://www.amazon.com/Number-Devil-Mathematical-Adventure/dp/0805062998/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1349906282&sr=1-1&keywords=math+devil",
"http://www.amazon.com/Mr-Tompkins-Paperback-George-Gamow/dp/0521447712/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1349906155&sr=1-1&keywords=mr+tompkins",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Magic-Reality-Whats-Really/dp/1451675046/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1349905996&sr=8-1&keywords=magic+of+reality",
"http://www.amazon.com/Scrooges-Cryptic-Carol-Visions-Quantum/dp/0387948007/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&qid=1349906210&sr=8-6&keywords=robert+gilmore",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Wizard-Quarks-Fantasy-Particle/dp/0387950710/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&qid=1349906210&sr=8-4&keywords=robert+gilmore",
"http://www.amazon.com/Max-Goes-Jupiter-Adventure-Adventures/dp/0972181938/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1349905926&sr=1-2&keywords=max+goes",
"http://www.amazon.com/Max-Goes-Mars-Adventure-Adventures/dp/0972181911/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1349905926&sr=1-1&keywords=max+goes",
"http://www.amazon.com/Really-Short-History-Nearly-Everything/dp/0385738102",
"http://www.amazon.com/Biggest-Ever-Book-Questions-Answers/dp/140545895X",
"http://www.capstonepub.com/product/9780756537685",
"http://www.amazon.com/Space-Back-Sally-Ride/dp/0688091121/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1349909441&sr=1-1&keywords=sally+ride",
"http://www.horrible-science.co.uk/welcome",
"http://www.usborne.com/catalogue/catalogue.aspx?id=4512"
]
} | When putting her to bed last night, my daughter (7) asked me to get her "a science book, and a book about space!" Any recommendations to nurture a budding 7-year old scientist, reddit?
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66hp85 | Is there a rule that states that calculations of particle interactions at micro scales, by nature, cannot be scaled up into the macro-systems? Or are we just limited by our current understanding and nothing really prevents us from finding a way to scale quantum equations upwards? | askscience | {
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"The problem is that even quantum systems containing *a few* particles are extremely difficult to solve. Treating a system of 10^(23) interacting quantum-mechanical particles is impossible, even if you know exactly the nature of their interactions.",
"Well there's the correspondence principle which basically says that if you scale the physics to \"everyday life\" measures you should get Newtonian Physics back. However that's not a strict mathematical derivation of the fact, that's common sense (and woe is he who trusts it). The proof is in the form of a statistical (thermodynamical) analysis which shows that for large objects quantum mechanics tends towards classical mechanics.\n\nHaving that said, the fact that there is sound for example (or perhaps better: quantized electrical conductivity) shows that quantum effects can still be seen at these scales.",
"The behaviour of some systems is chaotic, which means that even very small changes to the starting conditions may lead to big differences in outcome. \n\n\nUnfortunately Heisenberg's uncertainty principle means that we can't measure all the parameters we'd need accurately. This means that, even with infinitely fast, infinitely accurate computers, our predictions could still be wrong, because we lack the required input data (and fundamentally cannot acquire it). \n\n\nThe best we could do in principle would be to Monte-Carlo simulate a lot of start cases that are within the measurement error and look at the range of possible outcomes. \n\n\nIn practice, we don't have infinitely fast / accurate computers, nor do we have the ability to measure millions of particles to the Heisenberg uncertainty limit, so we are much worse off than that theoretical best case. \n\nFortunately, many systems are not chaotic, which means that roughly-right inputs give roughly-right outputs. That's why we can predict many physical phenomena (just not all).",
"On the contrary, I'd say that there is a rule, or principle of physics, that the laws of particle physics do scale up to macroscopic systems. That doesn't mean that we are able to compute the behavior of macroscopic systems from the Standard Model, just that if we were able to do so, and it didn't match the actual behavior of those systems, we would assume that there is an error in the Standard Model.\n\nThat could be wrong—it wouldn't be the first time that a seemingly sacrosanct principle of physics was overturned—but everyone works under the assumption that it's true as long as there's no evidence that it isn't.\n\nWe actually have a fairly good understanding of how macroscopic classical behavior arises from quantum rules. Quantum probability averages out to classical probability in incoherent systems (systems where the phases of the quantum amplitudes are random). The technical reason for this is that if you add two quantum amplitudes, a+b=c, the law of cosines says that |a|² + |b|² + 2|a||b| cos φ = |c|², where φ is the relative phase of a and b. If φ is random, the expected (average) value of cos φ is zero, so you get |a|² + |b|² = |c|² on average, which is the classical rule. Macroscopic systems inevitably become incoherent through interaction with the environment, via blackbody radiation if nothing else. This is why macroscopic quantum phenomena like superfluidity require very cold temperatures—warmer objects emit too much blackbody radiation. High temperature superconductivity is not well understood, but there must be a kind of natural insulation of certain parts of the superconducting medium from others.",
"Well, there's a reasonably well understood thing called quantum decoherence which rather precisely describes how \"quantumness\" tends to be lost to the environment over time due to inevitable interactions between the system you are interested in and the rest of the universe, particularly the immediate environment. Very small numbers of quantum particles are easier to isolate from their environment whereas larger numbers of particles presumably are more difficult to \"contain\" thereby losing their coherence i.e their quantumness more readily. \n\nReference, wiki: _URL_0_"
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} | Is there a rule that states that calculations of particle interactions at micro scales, by nature, cannot be scaled up into the macro-systems? Or are we just limited by our current understanding and nothing really prevents us from finding a way to scale quantum equations upwards?
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||
1jisdw | How are the native people of the arctic circle able to survive off of a diet low in vitamin c and not get scurvy, when European explorers succumbed to it after a few months of not consuming it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbf45fl",
"cbfdgdx",
"cbfe5tt",
"cbfbjom"
],
"text": [
"[Muktuk](_URL_0_) (frozen whale skin and blubber) is a source of vitamin C. \n\nThe 19th century British explorers saw the Inuit as primitive savages so it was slow to occur to them that the Inuit might actually know more about surviving in the Arctic than the great British Navy. Their soggy wool uniforms provided little comfort as they slowly died of scurvy.",
"Hey, a subject I know something about.\n\nA recommended read: \"Fat of the Land,\" by the Arctic explorer [Wilhjalmur Stefansson.](_URL_4_) He extensively documented the diet of Inuits, and emulated their diet (subsisting on [nothing more than meat](_URL_4_)) for a full year while under observation at Bellevue Hospital. He and his fellow traveler Anderson were monitored very carefully, as it was thought the two would succumb to vitamin C deficiency very quickly. Some European doctors overstayed their vacation, waiting to see what would happen. At the outside, it was thought they would last no more than 3 weeks.\n\nInstead, they did fine. Again, Stefansson goes into details in \"Fat of the Land.\" But they were given fresh meat, and (in that cooking tends to destroy vitamin C) there is more vitamin C in animal matter- particularly liver- than is generally thought. (Of course, many polar animals have toxic livers- the polar bear most notable- due to hypervitaminosis A: too much vitamin A.)\n\n[Vitamin C in the diet of Inuits](_URL_4_) is well-documented, and is more than adequate to meet sufficiency under Arctic conditions. Also note that [efficiency](_URL_4_) with respect to uptake as intake decreases is well-documented:\n\n > Intestinal absorption of vitamin C is by an active, sodium-dependent, energy-requiring, carrier-mediated transport mechanism (33) and as intakes increase, the tissues progressively become more saturated. The physiologically efficient, renal-tubular reabsorption mechanism retains vitamin C in the tissues up to a whole body content of ascorbate of about 20 mg/kg body weight (30). However, under steady state conditions, as intakes rise from around 100 mg/day there is an increase in urinary output so that at 1000 mg/day almost all absorbed vitamin C is excreted (34, 35).",
"Fresh meat is fairly high in vitamin C (most other animals can synthesize their own; humans are odd in this regard). European explorers tended to carry their food with them in preserved form instead of hunting as they went, so they didn't get any fresh meat. When they *did* hunt, they tended not to get scurvy.\n\n[This is my favorite article ever on the subject of scurvy.](_URL_5_)",
"Certain portions of marine mammals have very high levels of vitamin C. So long as it is not cooked or is undercooked you can get a nice supply of vitamin C. For example the skin of [narwhals](_URL_6_) is quite high in vitamin C."
],
"score": [
40,
8,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muktuk",
"http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y2809e/y2809e0c.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilhjalmur_Stefansson",
"http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic32-2-135.pdf",
"http://www.ergo-log.com/meatonly.html",
"http://idlewords.com/2010/03/scott_and_scurvy.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narwhal#Mortality_and_conservation"
]
} | How are the native people of the arctic circle able to survive off of a diet low in vitamin c and not get scurvy, when European explorers succumbed to it after a few months of not consuming it?
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||
2urird | /r/AskScience Vaccines Megathread | Here at /r/AskScience we would like to do our part to offer accurate information and answer questions about vaccines. **Our expert panelists will be here to answer your questions, including:**
- How vaccines work
- The epidemics of an outbreak
- How vaccines are made
**Some recent posts on vaccines from /r/AskScience:**
- [Is the rise in Measles cases the result of the anti-vaccination movement, or is there another explanation?](_URL_4_)
- [What is partial immunity? I thought a vaccine either worked or it didn't](_URL_1_)
- [Why is it when some vaccines are administered, they require a follow up booster within a few weeks/years?](_URL_0_)
---
Please remember that **we will not be answering questions about individual situations. Only your doctor can provide [medical advice](_URL_2_).** Do not post any personal health information here; it will be removed.
Likewise, we do not allow anecdotal answers or commentary. **Anecdotal and off-topic comments will be removed.**
---
This thread has been marked with the "Sources Required" flair, which means that answers to questions *must* contain citations. Information on our source policy is [here](_URL_3_).
Please report comments that violate the /r/AskScience guidelines. Thank you for your help in keeping the conversation scientific! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"What are the facts regarding the [CDC whistleblower](_URL_0_) incident? What did the omitted data, which some claim demonstrated increased risks of autism on African American boys, actually suggest?",
"Are there any scientifically proven negative side effects to vaccinations?",
"What is the difference between the combined MMR vaccine and getting the three separately?\n\nWhy aren't all vaccines (DTAP, MMR, HPV, etc) combined into one?",
"I have an ongoing disagreement with my girlfriend regarding vaccines. She's very suspicious of them, not because of the supposed autism link, but because her uncle contracted polio a short time after being vaccinated for it. She believes he got it from the vaccine. \n\nWhat could you surmise really happened? It's a tough one to argue because of course the facts are, he had the vaccine, he got polio.",
"I'm not sure if this question is acceptable for this thread, but:\n\nAre there any studies about changing people's minds about vaccines? Are there any methods known to be more effective for convincing someone to vaccinate? Does this change for fence-sitters vs adamantly anti-vaccine people?",
"How and when is the decision made as to which strains to select for the coming seasons flu vaccination campaign?",
"How are the vaccination schedules drawn up and what factors are taken into account?\n\nMany of the parents of unvaccinated kids I have come across are not afraid of their kids getting autism so much as a \"too much too soon\" mentality. As a result they adopt a go-slow method and invent their own schedules out of thin air and delay some vaccines by years on the basis of research they have claimed to have read that the schedules are profit-driven.",
"My son hasn't been fully vaccinated (specifically MMR) due to a severe egg allergy. We've also been instructed by his doctor to not give him the flu shot, which really sucks as he also has viral asthma that requires 24/7 albuterol treatments (every 4 hours) when he does get sick. My wife and I were told by one of his doctors at Mayo Clinic that there was research being done on incubating vaccines in insects; another doctor told us that there were some vaccines on the market that were incubated in something other than egg albumen but despite numerous requests, she would/could not help us locate and administer this or provide further information.\n\nMy questions are: \n\n* Are there vaccines that are incubated in something other than eggs? If so, is it just research at this point or are they commercially available?\n* Any suggested reading on the topic of egg allergies and vaccines? \n\n**edit** regarding my second question: I don't want to violate the rules of this thread and am not looking for personal medical advice, I am just wondering if there is consensus on this approach.\n\n**edit 2** removed my second question, as it was too close to asking for personal medical advice",
"How exactly does a vaccine immunize a patient against a given disease? Is this safe?",
"How many companies make each vaccine? Like, is there only one producer of each and so only one type, rather than a variety of different \"brands\" if you will? What are the other ingredients in each injection, as in, the medium the pathogen is contained or preserved in? A lot of the anti-vax hype I have heard centers on things like the mercury content of the injections (the same amount of mercury in 6 months of breast feeding injected into an 8 pound baby all at once...etc.) As someone who won't use commercial toothpaste because of additives and sketchy fluoride sources, this is by far the scariest part of vaccinating for me. So could they produce \"green\" vaccines that would pander to those of us who fear big pharmas corner cutting with cheap or poorly researched fillers? Or are they really the best possible mediums to hold the pathogens safely while they wait to mingle with our bodies?",
"In what cases has vaccinations caused harm to somebody? \n\nNote: I'm up to date on vaccinations and am **not** against them",
"If a vaccinated person becomes infected with the live virus, can s/he still spread the disease while their immune system produces antibodies against it? In other words, if I got vaccinated for measles as a kid, and came in contact with my roommate who is sick with measles, while my body is killing off the live measles virus with antibodies, am I still spreading it around even though I show no symptoms?\nEDIT: I don't know if my question is clear enough.... Are vaccinated people contagious if they encounter the real virus out in the world?",
"I've recently seen a mathematical model applet that shows infection rates with variable percentages of a population having been immunized. The applet showed no appreciable difference in infection rates between a 75% immunized population and a 100% immunized population. Do these seem like accurate numbers, or am I misinterpreting the data? Second, if our voluntary immunization rates exceed the 75% mark (which they do in most cases), why is there such a large media push for mandatory vaccinations?\n\n[edit] thanks for all the replies. I'm at my day job at the moment. When I get home later, I'll try to find the applet in question. I'm familiar with herd immunity but was mostly curious about the numbers. One person who commented on my question stated an 85% threshold, but I remember the applet showing almost no increased risk with even only a 75% rate. My memory might be faulty, though.\n\n[second edit] My apologies that I've been unable to find the applet in question. You may kindly disregard my \"contributions\" to this topic.",
"Have there been studies that talk not just about potential side effects, but actually give odds for experiencing the possible severe side effects of childhood vaccination? \n\nHow do we effectively judge the risks of non-vaccination compared to the risks of vaccination?",
"This is a question for the social sciences / demographic perspective.\n\nI've never seen an article or met a person who was anti-vaccine. Only seen them referred to in articles / internet things like this. How large is this movement? Where is it popular and who is it popular with? Is it growing or shrinking?",
"I find a lot of conversations about vaccines boils down to relative risk. That is, if I give my child a vaccine, what are the chances that something life-altering will happen?\n\n* What sources are out there that accurately calculates the relative risk of getting a vaccine vs. not getting a vaccine? \n\n* How do these odds stack up to other activities and choices we make in life? For example, what are the odds your child will die in a car accident or will be crippled for life because you let them play sports? \n\n* I've heard (but cannot source) that one child chokes to death on a hot dog every week in the USA. That's some 50 children dying each year because of hot dogs. I imagine that the number of vaccine-related deaths is much lower than 50 a year. Given this, why is there not a larger push to make hot dogs safer?",
"Why do we have to give vaccines to babies? could we just give them to 4-year olds? \n\nI get that having babies exposed for a longer period of time is dangerous, but for those that are scared of autism or other \"weakening immune system\" things and wouldn't get it at all. Why not encourage them to get it once they are out of that 'critical' stage.",
"Why are people who vaccinate their kids worried about others not vaccinating their kids, if vaccinating their kids means they won't get the disease. Won't it just kill off all the people who chose not to vaccinate?",
"Is there any direct evidence that the Measles outbreak is due to the lack of vaccination? In other words, has the possibility of a mutation conferring resistance to vaccination been ruled out? \n\nI know a lot of people are quick to say \"I told you so\" to the anti-vaxxers, and while I support proper vaccination, I worry we are not being objective in these conclusions.",
"Concerning Herd Immunity, how does herd immunity stay established if adults do not get the booster vaccines and the duration for the aforementioned immunity has expired?",
"Let's say I am a healthy average person and I get the whooping cough vaccine every year. I don't \"need\" to get it. What will happen to me? \n\nMy angle on this particular question comes from the concept of \"over vaccination\"; that we vaccinate for diseases that we are already immune to. My follow up question is: so what? Is getting an extra vaccine, or an extra 100 vaccines, really going to cause damage?",
"I've been told that when we are exposed to an illness in nature that we weren't vaccinated to and survive it, we will gain an immunity that has a chance of being passed on to our children. However, a vaccinated immunity doesn't share this characteristic and can't be passed on. How accurate was this information?",
"Is there a study that compares the mental development of a child who is vaccinated completely vs a child whom is not vaccinated? I tried to find a study and cant seem to find anything other than \"austism is not linked to vaccines\", which is obviously everyone should know by now.",
"After receiving the flu and DTP vaccines this year I developed an auto immune reaction to the vaccine that is quite serious. My neurologist diagnosed it as post vaccination neuritis. \n\nMy question is, how common are reactions like this, and am I at increased risk of this happening if I get vaccinated again next year? It would be nice to have my feet, hands, and face stop going numb and burning, so I'm quite hesitant to get vaccinated again.",
"You often hear about the number of shots administered over the last few decades has increased. \n\nHowever, are the shots received the same as there counterparts in the past? Are we receiving a more doses now, or are they just better spread out?",
"I've been exposed to a ton of the conspiracy theory \"facts\" and unfortunately some of it has me not knowing who to trust and what information is actually factual.\n\nWhy isn't it enough for our immune systems to be able to defend against these bacterias/viruses? Can we not do something naturally to boost our immune systems to protect us?\n\nDoes getting vaccines actually create stronger viruses/bacteria because they can evolve and figure out how to get passed our defenses?\n\nDo vaccines really come from aborted fetal/monkeys/pig cells? Also, has there been any studies to show/prove that (if they do come from aforementioned cells) it's safe for humans? Isn't there some problems with mixing DNA?\n\nI'm sure there are many more things that I was unsure of but I can't think of anymore right now.",
"From: _URL_1_\n\nAnthrax section:\n\nMild Problems\nReactions on the arm where the shot was given:\nTenderness (about 1 person out of 2)\n\nRedness (about 1 out of 7 men and 1 out of 3 women)\n\nItching (about 1 out of 50 men and 1 out of 20 women)\n\nLump (about 1 out of 60 men and 1 out of 16 women)\n\nBruise (about 1 out of 25 men and 1 out of 22 women)\n\nMuscle aches or temporary limitation of arm movement (about 1 out of 14 men and 1 out of 10 women)\n\nHeadaches (about 1 out of 25 men and 1 out of 12 women)\n\nFatigue (about 1 out of 15 men, about 1 out of 8 women)\n\nMy question is, why do women get symptoms more often than men?",
"It is widely argued that Vaccines are a public good, and indeed the medical research would prove that the case. \n\nBut why should such a medical necessity be privately owned by a company, and the public be charged much more than need be, for that company's profit, rather than vaccines being a public service?",
"[According to the CDC's website, vaccinations contain Formaldehyde, Aluminum and Mercury](_URL_2_) among other toxic compounds. Is there something special about vaccines that makes these substances safe to inject into the bloodstream?",
"How successful was the swine flu vaccine a few years back when it was all over the news? I feel my impression of the whole thing is very skewed.",
"If anyone is still answering questions, I have one I'm curious about. One thing spreading around lately is an image showing that there have been 0 deaths due to measles in the past 10 years in the US, but 108 deaths due to the MMR vaccine. Now obviously this is misleading as there have been 0 deaths mostly due to the vaccine, and the 108 deaths are things reported to VAERS which could all be completely coincidental. \n\nHowever what I'm curious about is, do we have a good estimate of how many deaths per year we might be experiencing currently from measles if no one vaccinated? It seems to me that even if you take the 108 number seriously, it would only be valid to compare that number to the number of deaths from measles if there was no vaccine. However I have no idea what that number would be. We know what it was before vaccination, but populations have changed and medical care has advanced since then. We also know what the death rate is currently in the US from measles, but I don't know what an estimate for yearly cases of measles would be in a completely unvaccinated population. \n\nJust curious, my gut feeling is that without vaccination the number of measles deaths would be MUCH higher than 10.8 per year but I don't really have any data to back that up...",
"This morning on NPR, they were discussing how anti-vaxxers would be less likely to vaccinate their children if there were PSAs by scientists and doctors explaining that vaccines are not harmful and what they've heard is complete bs. \n\nTheir reasoning was because those people would feel like the doctors and suck were apart of the conspiracy that hurts their children.\n\nThey also explained that there is a mentality of \"every other child is vaccinated so why would I put my kid through the pain when they're already safe?\" but because so many people think this way, a lot of kids aren't vaccinated.\n\nWhat else did they talk about..... I cannot remember if they were saying that social pressure works or it's just being done. Social pressure being that parents with vaccinated kids don't invite kids that are not vaccinated to birthday parties and those parents don't hang out with parents that refuse to vaccinate their kids. \n\nAlong with the above (social pressure) they also discussed about coerced vaccines (mandatory vaccinations for each child) helps, well i mean obviously.",
"Thanks for doing this!\n\nHow are vaccines tested for long-term consequences? I'm specifically thinking of a time frame beyond the ten year mark.\n\nRelated to that:\n\nYears ago at university I distinctively remember sitting down while waiting for an event to start. Over in the corner, a video was playing that documented a group of women that contracted cervical cancer from some form of medication. I believe it was a vaccine—but I could be very wrong. We're looking at the 1950s here. If this rings a bell in anyone's mind, I'd be really interested to hear the case in question. Again: I may be getting this very, *very* wrong here, but I just wanted to put the question out. \n\nEDIT: The drug in question is [Diethylstilbestrol (DES)](_URL_4_) and the name of the movie is [A Healthy Baby Girl.](_URL_3_) DES was a synthetic hormone thought to have helped prevent miscarriage and other complications of pregnancy. It is *not* a vaccine.",
"Is it true that vaccines include common allergens, such as egg, seafood or nuts, to encourage the immune system to flair, creating more antibodies and therefor helping the vaccine to stick? This is information I was told as an explanation as to why there are (or appears to be) more food allergies in the population. And why infant allergies exist, and then the children seem to outgrow them as soon as they are past the common vaccinating age.\n\nAny science or studies that address this?",
"If humans just stopped vaccinating cold turkey, would evolution eventually help humans get over the disease and not be susceptible after a few generations? There has been diseases in the past that have come and gone. Just wondering. If this is the case, is it still possible for humans to evolve the same way with vaccines? If not, what am I not understanding about evolution (might be wrong thread, lol)?",
"I'm not sure if this is really the right place to ask this, so forgive me if it isn't. \n\nWhen people say that vaccines will give your children autism, are they implying that a (for example) 5 year old child will develop autism as they mature because of it, opposed to saying that if you are vaccinated your future children will have autism, or is there an implication I'm missing?",
"I'm interested in the epidemiological consequences of providing vaccines for epidemics vs endemics - in particular, say that a vaccine for Ebola is rolled out soon, is it really expected that it will bring the outbreak to an end (especially as recent data shows it may be already declining), or is there more interest in preventing endemicity?",
"I don't have a medical background but I follow outbreaks for my job and am really interested in epidemiology even though a lot of it goes over my head. I was recently reading about flu epidemics. The article discussed why the Spanish flu seemed to affect young, healthy adults more than any other demographic - because it was the first time they had been exposed to an H1 flu (same thing with why Swine flu had a bad affect on young adults about 90 years later). There had been flu seasons that the elderly had been exposed to that was an H1 flu so they weren't as hard hit as the young adults who had zero immunity to it.\n\nIf I'm remembering correctly, the article explained that the H# part of a flu strain is what we are most concerned with when it comes to our immune system fighting the virus.\n\nI know bird flu is a big concern to the CDC and WHO and they are constantly monitoring it. I believe one of the strains is an H7, which I am assuming is something we have never been exposed to, at least in the US. If this is the case, why not create vaccines around different H#s instead of focusing on trying to guess exact strains? Or, offer them in addition to the seasonal one? Get everyone in the US exposed to some form of ever H# that could possible exist over many years, even if it has very minimal protection - very minimal is better than absolutely none and millions of people being wiped out. I'm sure I'm over simplifying or not understanding something about this.\n\nQuestion two - let's say an H7 strain was created into a vaccine and I got it today. How long would it offer some form of protection, for the rest of my life? (I know maximum effectiveness would be against an exact strain)",
"As far as measles (chicken pox?): is it common to cause death? If it does not cause many deaths why is there a panic over having it as a child? \nI understand that it can be dangerous for infants. If that's the case why not vaccinate when an infant and let that be it?\nI know that shingles is dangerous but how so more than measles as a child? \n\nFinally please help me understand: There is a large number of adults who have been vaccinated for measles but they have to get re-vaccinated on time to resist getting it? They must keep up on shots because they could contract from infected individuals? Is this why many people are angry about unvaccinated people? Simply because they must keep getting vaccines or is it truly fatal? \nSorry I'm uneducated about this. From Oregon (not sorry about that) Anyways, everyone I talk to here just have speculations because most of us are not scared of chicken pox and most have had it.\nThank you. Thank you. Thank you for clearing this up for me.",
"I actually just have a question about what governs the effectiveness of the flu vaccine from year to year. I can't remember where I heard it so it is probably apocryphal, but someone said it was only about 25% effective this year. I always get mine anyways, but I still would like to know how that is determined. I'm guessing the number is calculated by the number of flu visits, but what it is really based on is the percent of flu virus variations that the vaccine protects against. If you have the actual number or where I could find that and what it means, that would be great.",
"Is it possible to make a mathematical estimation of how likely an unvaccinated individual is to get a disease given a variety of known inputs, such as its R0 / basic reproduction number, prevalence in the region, etc., or is it a guessing game? If it were possible, I would find this immensely helpful in a variety of contexts. For example, when it comes to deciding whether to vaccinate my indoor-only, elderly pets who have shown rather unpleasant reactions to certain vaccines, or when it comes to discussing the merits of measles (ludicrously contagious) vs other vaccines in humans.",
"I have no doubt that the efficacy of the seasonal flu vaccine is tracked and eventually reported... does anyone have a link? IN addition, it would be great to see a \"plain language\" breakdown of what the various statistics actually mean. (e.g. what exactly does percent effective mean? is it a comparison of flu rates among vaccinated and unvaccinated populations? is it referring to some measure of strain specificity?)",
"There is one or more vaccines that have a warning label or flyer that comes with the vaccine(s) that states, as a side effect, that it may cause SIDS and/or autism. \n\nWhat's the story or reason for this? I have to assume it's a liability issue or something...but...I still find it interesting. \n\nAnything?",
"I was discussing vaccination with someone and they mentioned that because vaccines contain trace peanut or egg proteins that it's possible a child develop an allergy to peanuts or egg down the line. Is this possible? I couldn't find any studies on the matter.",
"Is it possible to get sick from a vaccine/be contagious with the disease you received the vaccine of? I heard someone who was against vaccines refer to this as \"shedding\" and that this warning is included in an insert with the vaccine.",
"How did the idea that vaccinations can cause autism come about? Is that accurate? I thought autism is a disorder that people are born with.",
"• If vaccines have such a low antigen count compared to what babies fight every day, why do vaccines cause some people (and not others) to have a fever?\n\n• If vaccines are so safe (and I'm not denying they are), why can't we vaccinate babies in the first few weeks of life against all the diseases on the vaccine schedule? Does the immune system have to be more developed to fight off antigens like measles?\n\n• I have friends that insist on sourcing a single measles jab for their child instead of the combo MMR. How much more taxing are combo shots on the immune system compared to single shots? Why is it not a problem to combine three live vaccines (or four in the case of MMRV) into one shot? What science can I point my friends to that shows there is no disadvantage to the combo shots?",
"My understanding of this. \n\nPrior to vaccinations the health industry as a whole was far less advanced than it is today. \n\nWith the recent Ebola outbreak we saw a lot of people in the medical community saying the public's fear wasn't justified in the US. \n\nThose people who seem to be in the most danger of MMR are those with severe illnesses like leukemia and had the immune system killed. They are also in danger from the flu and other more common pathogens.\n\nI have yet to hear of any recent death tolls from MMR in the western world despite coverage not being 100%.\n\nSo the question is: With the advances of modern medicine since the introduction of vaccines and the quality of healthcare we have in the 1st world are we really in that much danger?",
"Lets say parents of unvaccinated children were to be held liable for the harm inflicted upon those reliant upon herd immunity.\n\nHow reliably can infections be traced from any given patient back to whomever infected them assuming these potential sources of infection were already identified?\n\nI'm talking about comparing the degree of variation of genetic information of the pathogen found in the Herd Immune dependent, now infected patient vs those the Genetic information of the same pathogen found in those unvaxxed for non-medical reasons. Can it be reasonably confirmed that person X infected patient Y?\n\nSorry if I'm flogging a dead horse. Also occurred to me that the compulsory genetic testing every time some kid gets sick - some anti-vaxxer parents might cave.",
"I have attempted to work through a sort of approximate risk/benefit analysis for a vaccine (specifically measles) and have found it difficult to find the information needed to inform that analysis. \n\nThe risk of not vaccinating seems to include the risk of actually contracting measles (which could be estimated by using something like frequency of measles cases in a geographical area), and the risk of serious adverse health impacts given you've contracted the disease. However this would leave out impact to herd immunity, which is arguably very important.\n\nCan we estimate the impact of a single individual choosing not to vaccinate on herd immunity? If so, how would this be done?",
"I'm not sure if I'm late to the party, and if anyone will look at my comment now. I'm a vocal supporter of vaccination and basing ones conclusions on scientific studies. \n\nFew days ago I stumbled on this study: [A Positive Association found between Autism Prevalence and Childhood Vaccination uptake across the U.S. Population](_URL_5_).\n\nI found it through _URL_6_. It appears to be published in real scientific journal, and I couldn't find any follow up. I'm a software engineer so I do not have full understanding of article's content, and can't really see if they did something wrong.\n\nSo what am I missing?",
"Is there any reason for a young and healthy adult to get vaccinated for the flu? I got mine the first year that it became a thing with H1N1, and again in the following year. However, I caught a bad flu both years. I understand the vaccine only protects against certain strands, and I intend to take it whenever a more dangerous one like H1N1 and similar outbreaks, but what about every year? I see no reason to get a vaccine for a simple flu, specially when I'm likely to get one anyway. Not to mention the vaccine is expensive where I live.",
"During my study for my chemistry exam i learnt that Aluminumoxid (Al(OH)3) is used in vaccinations to induce an inflammation at the wound, to increase the number of white blood cells around.\n\nAl(OH)3 is known to play a role in the development of alzheimers and i suspect that im in the risk group for alzheimers (every old person in my mothers family had some sort of dementia, we didn't want an autopsy, so we don't know for sure).\n\nIs there a way to get vaccinated without Aluminumdioxide present in the shot?\n\n(And how correct is my information anyways?)",
"Some people are concerned that there is a lot of money involved for the people who make those vaccines, and it may be causing vaccines to be put on the recommended list based on lobbying instead of science.\n\nWhen you look at the list of recommended vaccines, are all of those vaccines available as generics?\n\nAre there drug patents that still restrict those recommended vaccines?\n\nI don't know if the HPV vaccine is on the recommended list.",
"I just saw [this posted](_URL_7_) to /r/autism. \n\nIt is an article centered around the work of Dr.Theresa Deisher, a PhD in Molecular and Cellular Physiology from Stanford University. Its main thrust is that \"A new study published in the September 2014 volume of the Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology reveals a significant correlation between autism disorder (AD) and MMR, Varicella (chickenpox) and Hepatitis-A vaccines\"\n\nWhat are your thoughts on how a layperson should respond to this?",
"How much stock should a person put into the 'adverse reaction' sections of vaccine disclaimers?\n\n_URL_8_\n\nAnd... a complaint I see when I read anti-vaxx commentary often discusses the vaccine compensation fund set up by HHS. How is this relevant to any reluctance to get vaccinated?\n\nand... if herd theory is true wouldn't the effect of non-vaccinated persons on the generally vaccinated public be negligible?\n\nDo you think this outbreak is a lot of hype?",
"Vaccines for pets are often advertised as required annually, for example the rabies vaccine. Is this actually biologically necessary, or is it simply a scam to get owners to come in every year? If it is medically necessary, why are there no annual or semi annual vaccines for humans? If it's not necessary, how often, or how many total, vaccinations should take place in a mammal pet?\n\nThanks!",
"Scientific evidence for a link between vaccines and autism... can someone help me make sense of them?\n\n_URL_9_\n_URL_12_\n_URL_13_\n_URL_10_\n_URL_11_\n\nMy friend just had a kid and is in Marin, CA. He's surrounded by anti-vaxxers, but he does his research. These are some pieces of research he linked to when expressing his genuine concerns about vaccinating his child. Is he missing something?",
"Hi, my research field is in DNA vaccines, 3rd generation vaccines that (theoretically) fix many of the issues with current vaccination practices! I'm working on developing vaccines to help treat cancer. I thought I'd do a little shout-out, just in case anybody was interested in the area. \n\nI'm happy to answer any questions about them, or the future of vaccination!",
"As far as I've understood it, not all who are vaccinated against a disease may form an immunity but instead form a resistance to the disease. What are the figures for that? How many form an immunity? If they get a resistance, what's the likelihood that they'll still get the disease when exposed?",
"Not sure if you're savvy about vaccinations in dogs, but why are vaccinations in humans give only during childhood, for the most part, but dogs are required to get certain vaccinations every year, or every three years? Does their immune system work differently?",
"Some anti-vac believers believe it wasn't vaccines that saved many lives but rather better sanitation/hygiene was the cause for so many fewer deaths due to disease. What sources do we have that show they are wrong?",
"Can some one direct me to the right direction, but why is there a huge talk of vaccine and anti vaccine these days? What's going on? Excuse my ignorance.",
"Is there current information about the rates of Autism in all of these un-vaccinated children we've been hearing about vs. their vaccinated peers?",
"If almost the whole world was immunized against the measles, is it likely the disease would become extinct?",
"How does the body \"learn\" to recognise a virus and remember it for future?"
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2ujxtf/why_is_it_when_some_vaccines_are_administered/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2gx8ju/why_does_the_flu_vaccine_sometimes_offer_partial/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/s4chc/meta_medical_advice_on_askscience_the_guidelines/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/sources",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2sz50j/is_the_rise_in_measles_cases_the_result_of_the/"
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"url": [
"http://time.com/3208886/whistleblower-claims-cdc-covered-up-data-showing-vaccine-autism-link/",
"http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/side-effects.htm",
"http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/additives.htm",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkEpHRO2Fww",
"http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/DES",
"http://sanevax.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Aluminum-adjuvants-autism-Chris-Lucija.pdf",
"schoolar.google.com",
"http://truthstreammedia.com/study-autism-and-cancer-related-to-human-fetal-dna-in-vaccines/",
"http://www.merck.com/product/usa/pi_circulars/m/mmr_ii/mmr_ii_pi.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21993250",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12145534",
"http://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/14/11/2227",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21623535",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12849883"
]
} | /r/AskScience Vaccines Megathread
Here at /r/AskScience we would like to do our part to offer accurate information and answer questions about vaccines. **Our expert panelists will be here to answer your questions, including:** - How vaccines work - The epidemics of an outbreak - How vaccines are made **Some recent posts on vaccines from /r/AskScience:** - [Is the rise in Measles cases the result of the anti-vaccination movement, or is there another explanation?](_URL_4_) - [What is partial immunity? I thought a vaccine either worked or it didn't](_URL_1_) - [Why is it when some vaccines are administered, they require a follow up booster within a few weeks/years?](_URL_0_) --- Please remember that **we will not be answering questions about individual situations. Only your doctor can provide [medical advice](_URL_2_).** Do not post any personal health information here; it will be removed. Likewise, we do not allow anecdotal answers or commentary. **Anecdotal and off-topic comments will be removed.** --- This thread has been marked with the "Sources Required" flair, which means that answers to questions *must* contain citations. Information on our source policy is [here](_URL_3_). Please report comments that violate the /r/AskScience guidelines. Thank you for your help in keeping the conversation scientific! | [
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1qhasc | How can deep sea gigantism exist when there is so much pressure under the sea? | What causes creatures that live in the deep sea to get so big? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Pressure doesn't have much to do with it. Things without air in them don't get \"crushed\" under high pressure, because water is relatively incompressible compared to air. When you swim down deep, the first thing you feel squeezing is the air in your ears. If your body didn't have air cavities, increasing pressure wouldn't crush you the same way.\n\nIt seems to be hypothesized by two general rules - [Bergman's rule](_URL_1_) is a general correlation of increasing body size with decreasing temperature. In warm blooded animals this is because the bigger you are, the less area you have relative to your volume. Since you lose a lot of heat from your skin in the cold, this is advantageous. In the many cold-blooded organisms in the ocean, this seems to be correlated to a slowing-down of cell division and increased life span from the cold. \n\nThis could also be due to scarcity of food. [Keliber's rule](_URL_0_) shows that animals are more efficient when they are bigger. This has been hypothesized to be caused by a lot of factors - Surface area to volume, the fractal nature of blood vessels. The food available to a lot of benthic fauna is scarce, and they have to wait for it to fall from above… so it makes sense to form the most efficient body plan as possible as to not starve.\n\nIf this interests you, read about [allometry](_URL_2_). It's about how size scaling influences metabolism, physiology, anatomy… \n\nEdit: mixed up my definition of Bergman's rule. Thanks for the correction, guys.",
"The water pressure isn't much of an issue, because the organisms are mostly water themselves, and water is not very compressible. In fact, the buoyancy of the organism is what allows them to grow so large, they do not need to support their own weight against gravity.",
"Several replies mention water not bring very compressible. I just wanted to point out that this has nothing to do with it- The animals are not at a lower pressure inside, so there is no force compressing them.",
"Yay!! I finally have somewhere to post [this video](_URL_3_) about this very subject! Basically the answer is because they can! Buoyancy counteracts gravity so they don't have to deal with the weight they would carry around on land. Critters down there are just like ones up here- everything evolves differently and for different reasons. Some find being small suits their needs, others wanna be HUGE. If I were a long-living creature down there, I'd think size would be quite advantageous against predators. And generally, larger animals have lengthy lifespans.",
"The pressure is fairly uniform all around. Our bodies are limited quite a bit by the necessity of being strong enough to lift our fat masses against gravity. In the ocean you just sort of float regardless so being able to stand doesn't exist as a worry, and stops limiting an organisms ability to support larger mass",
"From a microbiology stand point, they don't. Bacteria found at these extreme depths are generally smaller than microbes found on the surface. This of course is subjective because phytoplankton like synechococcus and prochlorococcus are extremely small (~0.5 um) and are found on the surface"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleiber's_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allometry",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrK9WDMOqBI"
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} | How can deep sea gigantism exist when there is so much pressure under the sea?
What causes creatures that live in the deep sea to get so big? | [
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1i4x4d | At what scales do quantum effects/behaviors diminish or disappear? | I'm somewhat familiar with the dual slit experiment and some of its variations. What I was wondering is if they have conducted this experiment with particles larger than electrons and photons. Do they still get an interference pattern with protons? Single atoms? Small molecules? When they fire single particles at a time, is there a size above which they are no longer able to get an interference pattern? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Yes, they have. The double-slit experiment has been done with buckyballs. There's no size limit. Under proper conditions, any object would behave like a quantum object. If you took basketballs and placed them in complete isolation from all other quantum systems, such that they're not absorbing or emitting photons or anything else, they would exhibit particle-wave duality. You can think of an interaction as something that commits a quantum system to one of its possible positions.\n\nThere's some decent discussion here:\n_URL_0_",
"Given our current understanding of quantum mechanics, there is not a single scale that you can attach to quantum phenomena appearing. In theory, arbitrarily big objects show quantum effects, but these \"quantum effects\" will always be suppressed exponentially by a number which is called the \"action\". \n\nIn order to understand this, you should first have an idea of what is the \"path integral\". In essence, quantum mechanics can be understood (in a handwavy way) as \"objects moving from point A to point B will take all possible paths in the journey, but some paths are more important than others, and what measures the importance of the path is this object called the action\". The most important path - and this is a theorem - is the classical one, and as soon as you deviate from the classical path, you start having exponential suppression. \n\nJust fyi, there are objects which are macroscopic (compared to atomic scales) and remain very much \"quantum\", these are Bose-Einstein condensates.",
"I hope someone can clear this up for me -- what sets the boundary, the size or the action of the system? As I understood it, it wasn't size which gave the \"boundary\" between quantic and classic behavior, but the action of the system. The action had to be less than the Planck constant, I think.\n\nOf course this translates into size limits but I always thought action was what really set the boundary. Which is mostly used?",
"A lot of the comments focus on the basics of quantum mechanics and don't seem to point you in the direction of macroscopic quantum effects that you seem to be wondering about. A great example of quantum effects appearing at the macroscopic level in the double slit experiment performed by Yves Couder with silicon droplets at University de Paris 7, further experiments were performed at MIT as well: _URL_1_\nThis experiment is in my opinion the best example of macroscopic quantum behavior in the form of pilot-wave dynamics."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.physicsforums.com/showthread.php?t=487816",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmC0ygr08tE"
]
} | At what scales do quantum effects/behaviors diminish or disappear?
I'm somewhat familiar with the dual slit experiment and some of its variations. What I was wondering is if they have conducted this experiment with particles larger than electrons and photons. Do they still get an interference pattern with protons? Single atoms? Small molecules? When they fire single particles at a time, is there a size above which they are no longer able to get an interference pattern? | [
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aefevy | Is there a particular reason that we use virtualisation in computers and servers? | I know that there are benefits to security using virtualisation in such that the computers can\`t infect each others and that it is easy maintenance.
But isn\`t the fact that running computers inside a computer (multiple OS\`s inside an OS) a big bottleneck when it comes to performance? | askscience | {
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"The main benefit for server virtualization^0 is maximizing hardware utilization.\n\nVirtualization has been around for a long time. IBM pioneered virtualization in the late 60s and early 70s on their mainframe systems, at a time when it wasn't reasonable to just buy another mainframe whenever you had a new job (or set of jobs) to run. Large organizations with mainframes were able to carve off virtual systems for different departments, without the jobs (or user access) from those departments conflicting with each other^1.\n\nVirtualization came much later to smaller servers. Some early virtualization systems were made available for Intel machines in the 80's and early 90's; better processor support for virtualization and the commercialization of the Internet helped drive development and deployment. The problem that was often occurring was that organizations were deploying relatively inexpensive Intel-based systems, but were finding that over time the number of systems they were deploying was growing, and yet the overall CPU/memory/IO utilization for these systems was often low.\n\nThe truth of the matter is that for many server services, utilization can be bursty: it may be quite high for periods of time, but also quite low for long periods. It may have a lot of high CPU use, but perhaps low memory and disk utilization. If you have a good understanding of your server loads, it will probably be more economical to buy a single server with sufficient cores, memory, and I/O that you can carve off into as many virtual machines as you want, than to buy separate smaller servers for each. It's also nearly always better for electrical utilization, and fewer systems will likewise have lower cooling requirements.\n\nIn a sense, having a server with unused CPU, RAM, and I/O (disk, network) is a waste of money, so combining multiple systems into one to better address utilization needs is going to maximize your hardware investment. Having one beefy machine with 10VMs is going to be cheaper and easier to manage than 10 machines that each only have (for example) 20% utilization.\n\nThe use of virtualization on end-user workstations is usually for a different reason: while for some they may need to be able to separate certain groups of tasks, it's often used to be able to run multiple operating systems, or the same operating system but with (otherwise) conflicting software. Think for example of someone who does QA for web applications, and needs to test them in multiple different browsers, on different OSs. A single workstation can run (for example) Safari in macOS, Chrome in Linux and Windows, Edge in Windows, and various different versions of Internet Explorer. You could test a variety of different versions of these browsers^2. And you could potentially do it all at the same time, all on _one_ machine. That's potentially a huge savings for a large organization -- instead of needing a dozen or more systems, a given user can have one and just use virtualization. Again -- it comes down to better hardware utilization (although in this case it's less about maximizing CPU/Memory/IO utilization, as it is minimizing the amount of hardware needed to run different OSs and OS configurations).\n\nHTH!\n\n-----\n^0 -- as opposed to people who use virtualization to run multiple OSs on a single machine. \n^1 -- an interesting side note on old IBM mainframes. When you bought one back in the day, you'd \"license\" a certain number of processing units (CPUs). If you one day needed more, you'd call your IBM rep, and they'd come in, and you'd have more cores. But where you might expect that they came in and installed some additional hardware, the truth of the matter was that all their mainframes (of the same type) had the same number of cores already installed -- the IBM rep would just come in and turn on cores that were already installed and unused. It would be like if all modern Intel computers came with 16 cores built-in, but you could buy a system with two cores, and if you wanted more could just have Intel turn more of the cores you already own on over the Internet. \n^2 -- it's worth keeping in mind that it's often nearly impossible to have two versions of the same browser installed in a single OS instance. [Microsoft didn't support running different versions of IE on the same Windows instance](_URL_0_) for example.",
"> But isn't the fact that running computers inside a computer (multiple OS's inside an OS) a big bottleneck when it comes to performance?\n\nThe phrase \"running computers inside a computer\" leads me to believe that you might be thinking of emulation, which is something very different than virtualization. In an emulated system, you have a piece of software that simulates the hardware and/or software of another system. This process of simulating a computer inside another computer is very slow, but that's not what virtualization does. \n\nModern virtualization is actually very efficient. In a virtualized system you have a hypervisor that shares the system between multiple OSes, and when its time for each OS to run, that OS runs efficiently on the bare metal hardware mostly without intervention. Especially with enhanced OS support for virtualization, a lot of the interaction between the guest OS and the hypervisor can be reduced.\n\nModern virtualized workloads typically lose only 1-10% of their native performance depending on exactly what you're doing and what you're measuring. CPU bound, compute-heavy workloads mainly run straight on the hardware with very little intervention by the hypervisor. Memory heavy tasks or tasks that need a lot of operating system support can be slower, depending on exactly what it is you're doing and how well the OS and the hypervisor cooperate.\n\nEven then, most of the time it's easy to compensate for the effect of virtualization. If you've benchmarked your software and you know that your workload runs 10% slower in a virtualized environment and uses 10% more memory, then most of the time you can just buy a processor that is 10% faster and buy 10% more memory than what you had planned on. Usually this is still far more cost and energy efficient than buying multiple separate servers.\n\nOf course, if you have two virtualized services competing for processor time and resources then they can definitely impact each others' performance. But the same is true for any two programs running on a computer without virtualization.",
"Thanks alot for taking your time to answer. This was so much info I need to read again. But basically its about cost and maximasing the use of your current hardware as well as the \"multiple version of same applications\" problem that you can work around having several os's.",
"There are a few benefits with virtualization in servers in regards to hardware utilization, power consumption and scalability. I recently wrote a paper regarding this topic, but it's in Swedish and so I'll go through the main points of the paper briefly.\n\n# Background\n\nVirtualization enables multiple instances of applications, such as websites and more, to run on one system. This means that instead of having a dedicated server for each instance you divide the resources through virtualization. This technique of dividing resources is widely used in areas such as cloud computing.\n\n# Overprovisioning\n\nDedicated servers require more overhead. Dedicated servers are built with the intention of running one task and must therefore be implemented with enough resources relative to its demand. The demand on an application, however, tends to fluctuate over a period of time, ranging from from very low demands to very high. In order for the application to be functional over the very high demand (peak demand) periods you need to provision the dedicated servers with enough resources to handle those periods. But during the rest of the time these resources will not be utilized. This means that a high percentage of the resources will be unutilized most of the time due to the overprovisioning.\n\nServers that utilize virtualization on the other hand are able to decrease the amount of overhead needed by running multiple applications simultaneously. If you run multiple applications simultaneously the chances of them peaking in demand at the same time is relatively low. This means that of you run enough applications simultaneously you get an average from all the different applications which in turn tends to be much more stable. Due to the lower fluctuation in demand over time the servers won't need as much overhead. As a result each application needs less resources and therefore cost less money.\n\n# Energy Consumption\n\nServers which utilize virtualization are able to reallocate resources depending on the demand. This means that workload can be concentrated and thus enabling resources to go in to sleep mode or shut down. When an instance is reallocated is often dependent on parameters that decide at what utilization percentage an instance should be reallocated. An instances could for example be set to operate within 40-60% utilization before reallocating with less or more resources. In the prior example a utilization lower than 40% percent would result in a reallocation with less resources and vice versa. The narrower the utilization range is, the more aggressive the reallocation becomes which turn results in a lower energy consumption. This has its drawbacks though, as it impacts the SLA (Service-Level Agreement) and QoS (Quality of Service) negatively. Therefore a broader utilization range could be desirable for occasions.\n\n# Scalability\n\nVirtualization also enables applications to be scaled relatively to the current demand. This is good news for companies as they don't have to approximate the resources needed for an application. Instead they can pay for a SaaS Service (Software as a Service) that dynamically adjusts the resources available to the application and handles the servers.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nHope this was somewhat helpful and that you could learn something from this!"
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"url": [
"https://support.microsoft.com/en-ca/help/2020599/running-multiple-versions-of-internet-explorer-on-a-single-instance-of"
]
} | Is there a particular reason that we use virtualisation in computers and servers?
I know that there are benefits to security using virtualisation in such that the computers can\`t infect each others and that it is easy maintenance. But isn\`t the fact that running computers inside a computer (multiple OS\`s inside an OS) a big bottleneck when it comes to performance? | [
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64d89s | Are there any phenomena or patterns in the physical world which behave discontinuously (in a mathematical/topological sense)? | 2nd-ary question: Is there a good reason from physics or philosophy which explains why continuity succeeds so well in describing real-world phenomena? | askscience | {
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"[Phase transitions](_URL_1_) are a good example. According to one common definition, what defines a phase transition is a discontinuity. Specifically it's a discontinuity in the derivative of the Gibbs thermodynamic potential with respect to one of its parameters (e.g. the temperature). \n\nBeyond the free energy, a lot of other properties (or their derivative) can suddenly change at a phase transition [as summarized in this cartoon](_URL_0_). For example, as liquid water freezes into ice at 0^(o)C, its volume, specific heat capacity, copressibility, etc., will all jump to a different value.",
"An easy to understand example of a discontinuity in the \"physical world\" is the point when, while stretching an elastic band, the band snaps. Up until that point, the force required to extend the band is proportional to the extension distance. However, when you go beyond the breaking point this no longer applies, because the band is broken.",
"I don't know the answer but it's probably impossible to tell, because you can't measure anything with infinite precision. If you have a collection of points that look like they lie on a discontinuous curve, who's to say it wouldn't be smoothed if you had more points? You can't sample every real number.",
"Generally speaking, quantum mechanics exhibits many discrete phenomena -- this is why it's called quantum. The paradigmatic example is the photoelectric effect. Atomic line spectra is another.\n\nAs far as topology goes... so-called \"topological phases of matter\" are a huge topic of research in quantum condensed matter. Roughly speaking, these are quantum states of matter whose macroscopic observables are precisely quantized. \n\nMaybe the simplest simplest example is the integer quantum hall effect. There, you take a 2d electron gas (like a very, very thin sheet of metal) and apply a strong perpendicular magnetic field. The interior of the sample will be insulating, ie will not conduct. However, when you measure the conductivity (by tunneling electrons though the sample), you find that is equal to an integer times times e^(2)/h, where e is the electric charge and h the Planck constant. As the magnetic field is increased, the integer increases discontinuously. Essentially what's happening, is that an integer number of electrons are propagating around the edge of the sample. \n\nThe fact that the conductance of the sample increases with the strength of the magnetic field can be understood classically. The precise quantization of conductance however is a purely quantum effect. Mathematically the integer is related to a topological invariant called the Chern number.",
"I would argue that the answer should be no, because\n\n- your measurement devices have some uncertainty, there is no way to distinguish a discontinuity from rapidly changing continuous behavior.\n\n- discontinuities in theoretical physics usually appear when taking some limit such as infinite number of particles/molecules, low energies, or zero temperature. In practice, your sample is always finite, it always has some temperature, meaning there is always some excitation carrying high energy. So while the discontinuous functions will very closely describe reality, the disconitinuity will almost certainly be smeared out at some level.",
"A very famous example is the spectra of atoms; bound electrons in an atom occupy discrete energy levels instead of being able have any energy. E.g. this picture: _URL_2_ \n\nThis is because the energy levels of electrons in an atom come from an eigenvalue problem, and the eigenvalues of certain operators take discrete values."
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"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/0JmKcXD.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transition",
"http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/atoms/atpt-images/atomic_line_spectra.png"
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} | Are there any phenomena or patterns in the physical world which behave discontinuously (in a mathematical/topological sense)?
2nd-ary question: Is there a good reason from physics or philosophy which explains why continuity succeeds so well in describing real-world phenomena? | [
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|
3mkx20 | What's stopping battery powered flight? | Can you theoretically stock up the same batteries that power Tesla automobiles? Is the batteries required for cars different from what you'd need on a plane due to the differences between how a car runs versus how a plane runs? Is it a battery storage issue? | askscience | {
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"Wikipedia has a nice chart of energy density:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAll current batteries are way down in the bottom left. Even hybrid cars are overall only slightly better than ordinary cars. The substantial gain in efficiency that their powertrain offer is offset by the weight of the battery pack.",
"Well you have quadcopters. But the real issue is simply energy density. [Lithium battery energy density](_URL_1_) is around 0.8MJ/kg being optimistic. Jet fuel is around 46MJ/kg (around 57 times greater). Thus, the thing is way heavier. Being heavier results in even more energy consumption (because you have to lift a bigger body), so the actual disadvantage is even greater. Of course you have a base weight for the engine and mechanics, which are much greater for combustion compared to battery, but you get the point.\n\nTL;DR: For the same weight, you get a lot less energy",
"Weight has a much larger effect on an airplane than a car. I did some back of the envelope math on making a personal electric plane a while back, based on the [VariEze](_URL_2_) and a couple similar designs. These are hobbyist, generally home-built designs that have extraordinary range and efficiency. Planes are actually very simple to do these kinds of calculations with, as they behave pretty predictably when you add more weight, very predictably when you increase or decrease the speed, and for the large majority of their flight time they are running at a totally constant power level and speed.\n\nBasically batteries lead to a 10x reduction in range, or a 5x reduction if you take a significant (20%ish) hit to speed. Range can be extended a lot if you take advantage of thermals and gliding and whatnot, but you have to have really big wings and be going really slow for that to help. Since the entire point of airplanes is to go fast, this isn't really an option for \"real\" planes.\n\nEach pound of battery directly increases the amount of power you need to stay in the air, so adding more batteries quickly stops helping. Solar panels don't even really help that much, because they are also added weight. Incidentally, you'd think a solar powered cargo ship would be a good idea, right? I did the math on that too. You'd need ten times the area of the deck in order to supply the energy a typical cargo ship uses. 100% of the deck would reduce speed to 50%-20%\n\nI'm gonna do some back of the envelope work on a 747, but it'll take a few minutes.",
"The energy needed for the flight of an airliner would require quite some battery mass. Kerosene has, even with the inefficiencies of the engines, a higher energy per mass ratio, the so called energy density. For kerosene it is about 46 Megajoule/kg, while for LiPo batteries it's more in the sub 1 MJ/kg range. (_URL_5_) \nFurthermore these batteries are expensive and still quite difficult to handle. IIRC Tesla is still not making a profit from their products. For the safety issues you could take a look at what Boeing had to go through with their Dreamliners, which are using batteries for powering certain parts of the aircraft systems. (_URL_3_) \nThere are of course tests going on for small planes. One of the more known examples would be \"Solar Impulse 2\", which has currently stopped in its world circumvention tour due to a defect in its battery system. For a more complete list of electric aircraft, see _URL_4_",
"Battery technology is very inefficient and heavy. Tesla can get away with it because weight doesn't really matter on cars. Batteries that could power a small sport airplane are still 20 years away. \n\nWhen a battery the size of a AA can power a cell phone for a month of constant use... That's when you'll start seeing electronic airplanes.\n\nAlso keep in mind a battery that could do that will have the capacity to blow up your house if it malfunctioned.",
"All these answers are good, but begging your pardon to wax pedantic, let me point out that energy density actually means energy/volume. More important, especially for flight, is \"specific energy\", meaning energy/mass."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File%3AEnergy_density.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutan_VariEze",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner_battery_problems",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_aircraft",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density#Energy_densities_of_common_energy_storage_materials"
]
} | What's stopping battery powered flight?
Can you theoretically stock up the same batteries that power Tesla automobiles? Is the batteries required for cars different from what you'd need on a plane due to the differences between how a car runs versus how a plane runs? Is it a battery storage issue? | [
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5k3mv8 | Why do skydivers have a greater terminal velocity when wearing lead weight belts? | My brother and I have to wear lead to keep up with heavier people. Does this agree with Galileo's findings? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"For a quadratic drag force, your terminal velocity is proportional to the square root of your weight. If everything else is the same, an object with a higher mass will have a higher terminal velocity.",
"The acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass and is not affected by the lead weights.\n\nWhat is affected is drag. Loosely speaking, the drag when falling depends on the shape of the object that is falling. Your shape does not change significantly with the lead belt, but your mass does, and the result is that drag becomes less important relative to gravity. For similar reasons you will find that a sheet of paper falls more slowly than the same sheet of paper crumpled up into a ball.\n\nWhat Galileo found is that when drag is *not* important, the acceleration of a falling object is independent of mass. This is because, as stated above, the acceleration due to gravity is (to a very good approximation) independent of mass.\n\nEdit: a helpful Redditor suggested the correct term to use here would be \"drag\" instead of friction. Original edited for clarity.",
"Galileo's findings (or [what we are taught about it](_URL_0_) ) are actually in the case in which you can neglect friction. Without friction you have no terminal velocity (except the light velocity but that is an other story) \nSo the terminal velocity occurs because the force of friction (that is proportional to the velocity) becomes equal to the force that pulls you down which is your weight (mass*g). This is how your mass comes into account.",
"Because we don't jump in a vacuum.\n\nIt's all about surface area and total mass.\n\nIt's also why tandem skydives (two people) need a small drogue chute to slow them down to normal skydiving speeds. One person falling on top of another is like twice the mass with just about the same surface area.",
"Yes it does. Terminal velocity is mostly based on mass and aerodynamic \"shape\" in a given non-vacuum medium, such as air.\n\nIn Galileo's experiment (assuming he ever actually did it), the heavier cannonball actually *did* hit the ground first, it was just that the experimental setup was inadequate to measure the very small difference between the two. Drop a lead ball and a Styrofoam ball from an airplane, the lead ball absolutely *will* hit the ground first, and by a wide margin.\n\nIt's only in a vacuum where the mass becomes irrelevant, [as seen in David Scott's famous Apollo 15 demonstration.](_URL_1_)",
"I have thousands of skydives. \nEverything accelerates at the same speed in a vacuum. \nOur atmosphere is not a vacuum, though, so as you fall through the air, there's friction between you and the air. \nYou would just continue to speed up until you hit the ground were it not for that friction. \nBut as you speed up, that friction with the air increases. Once that friction equals the force of gravity, you quit accelerating and remain at that speed. That speed is your terminal velocity. \n\nAt the altitudes we're talking about, gravity remains constant, but the angle and shape of your body that you present to the wind can change your friction with the air as you fall through it tremendously. \n\nA flying squirrel like belly to earth body position will have a slower terminal velocity than a head down dive. Skydivers can use subtle movements to match fall rates during freefall. \n\nAnd - if you push the air that's coming up at you one way, then Isaac Newton will toss you the opposite direction with an equal and opposite force. \n\nSo - the lead weights just \"add more mass for gravity to pull on\" thus making it where it's going to take more air friction to equal out the pull of gravity and increasing your terminal velocity for a given body position.",
"Tl;Dr: more mass means it takes more drag to counter gravity, so you fall faster to get more drag.\n\nI'm going to try and explain this in as plain language as I can, without getting too much into the math.\n\nThat being said, before we start, a recap: \n\nForce = Mass x Acceleration\n\nTherefore Force/Mass = Acceleration\n\nIn freefall, you have two main forces acting on you - Gravity (down, or negative) and Drag (up, or positive).\n\nThe sum of these forces is your Net Force. If the Force of Gravity is greater than the Force of Drag, you have a net negative force and accelerate down towards earth. If the Force of Drag is greater than that of Gravity, you have a net positive force and accelerate upwards. Where these cancel out perfectly is Terminal Velocity. (Net force of 0)\n\nSo if you want to speed up your fall, increase mass and/or decrease drag.\n\nIf you want to slow down your fall, do the opposite.\n\nNow, some people are mentioning the Galileo ball-drop, and think this is unintuitive - that is because in his experiment, drag was assumed to be zero. Drag is a product of surface area, velocity, and the density of the fluid being moved through. \n\nIf you're in a vacuum there is no force of drag, and EVERYTHING feels the full force of gravity while falling - 9.81 m/s^2 down - and that's it. No counter force. Everything falls the same speed.\n\nAdd in air resistance, and everything changes. When you first jump out of a plane, you have zero vertical velocity (I'm ignoring horizontal forces here) and thus no drag. Free falling, you accelerate at 9.81m/s^2. But the moment you begin speeding up, you start getting a little bit of drag force.\n\nNot a lot - just enough to counter a tiny bit of gravity. Your net force gets a little nudge upward. Your acceleration dips to 9.75m/s^2, but you're still speeding up. As you speed up, that drag force continues to grow. You accelerate less and less until you have a net force of zero - the force of drag is equal to the force of gravity, and no force means no acceleration.\n\nWelcome to terminal velocity. Now you have 0 acceleration, so your velocity is constant. Without speeding up, your drag force stops increasing. You're in equilibrium. A balance. Any push one way gets balanced by the other.\n\nNow, you do the same jump, but with a lead weight. Your mass is increased, and the acceleration due to gravity is the same. Force=Mass x acceleration tells us that therefore, the Force that gravity applies must be larger. That means it requires more Drag Force to reach equilibrium.\n\nAssuming you don't increase your surface area, and that you're still falling through air, this means you need more velocity to achieve the higher drag force. Whatever velocity it now takes to make drag equal the increased force of gravity is your new terminal velocity. Thus you fall faster.",
"Simply put, I assume you understand the basics of Newtonian physics. I won't enumerate the assumptions here, just the basic understanding.\n\nThe drag force on the body has the form:\n\nFD = CD x S x q, for which CD depends mostly on the form of the body, S is the reference surface area and q is proportional to V^2 (the falling velocity squared).\n\nNow this force pushes the body against its current moving direction (thus it pushes it upward).\n\nThe other force acting on the body is the gravitational force:\n\nFG = m*g, for which m is the mass (in kg) and g is the gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s^2).\n\nYou basically have, at the terminal velocity (no acceleration, thus the forces are equal):\n\nFG=FD or\n\nm x g = CD x S x q\n\nFor every parameter constant but the mass (m) and the velocity (V), we get\n\nm ~ V^2, where \"~\" signifies \"proportional to\".\n\nEDIT : changed \"*\" for \"x\" as reddit interpret it as markdown formatting",
"Yes, this agrees with Galileo's findings, since Galileo stated that objects in a *vacuum* would fall at the same rate. Here's a video of astronauts proving this on the moon that made it to the front page recently:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nAnd here's a NASA web page explaining the experiment.\n\n_URL_3_ \n\nDon't confuse gravitational acceleration, which for all *practical purposes* is essentially the same for every object, with terminal velocity.\n\nTerminal velocity is an often misunderstood or poorly explained concept. A lot of people think that terminal velocity is some universal constant, but it's different for every object, and every situation. It is the point where the force of acceleration of an object and the force of drag on it are equal, so the object stops accelerating. This applies not just to objects in freefall, but also to cars, jets, etc.\n\nIn fluid mechanics, we say that terminal velocity is a function of the *flow*, meaning it is a function of the viscosity of the fluid and the object's shape, which determine how much \"drag\" it experiences.\n\nSo on earth, in our atmosphere, a hammer, a feather, and a skydiver, will accelerate at different rates until they hit their terminal velocity, which will be different for each object.\n\nAs a skydiver, you can easy change your terminal velocity by changing your shape: pulling your limbs in, sticking them out, diving straight down, etc. Or you can add weight to yourself to to increase the force exerted on your body (F=ma) to make you fall faster. Opening your chute is an extreme case of changing your shape to change your terminal velocity",
"When an object is at terminal velocity the downward force being applied by gravity equals the resistive upward force being caused by air resistance.\n\nForce (measured in newtons) is calculated by multiplying weight by acceleration. The acceleration due to gravity is a constant at about 9.8 meters/second/second..... so every second you are accelerating 9.8 meters/second.\n\nBy increasing the weight with lead belts, you are increasing the amount of force you are applying against the resistance of air. Which means that the speed at which you will be in equilibrium is higher than if you were lighter.",
"Two forces present (friction and gravity) friction will not change because the skydiver's surface area will remain the same. Downwards force will increase due to the increase of gravity acting on the person's increased mass.",
"which falls faster: a feather, or a piece of lead shaped like a feather? in air, the lead falls faster, even if they fall equally quickly in a vacuum.\n\n they are the same size, so air drag is the same against both. gravity is trying to pull them down at the same rate of acceleration too. but air resistance is getting in the way.\n\nthe lead is dense; it has so much more mass for gravity to act on that it generates way more force while falling... the lead bitchslaps the air out of the way like it's nothing, and falls at faster terminal velocity.\n\nthe feather has very little mass for gravity to act on, and cannot generate the force necessary to bitchslap the air out of the way. it has lower terminal velocity and loses the race.\n\nHumans are like this - roughly the same size and shape, but some of us are heavier than others. Even though gravity attempts to pull us all down by 9.8 meters per second every second, some of us have more mass, and have more force to counter air resistance, so heavy people fall faster through air.\n\nthus, light people need weights to match the falling speed of heavy people. but in a vacuum all people fall the same speed",
"Newton's First Law; an object is stationary or travels at a constant speed unless a resultant force acts upon it.\n\nIn other words, as long as you have unbalanced forces, you will accelerate. Any falling object will initially have weight acting upon it and nothing else (ignoring upthrust around us). As it falls, the air around it will produce a viscous drag acting opposite to the motion downwards (commonly known as \"air resistance\") which will increase in magnitude as the object gets faster until said drag is the same size as the weight of the object pulling it down. Once these forces are balanced we get equilibrium meaning there is no more resultant force, and hence no further acceleration (commonly known as \"terminal velocity\").\n\nYour heavier patrons will have a greater weight, and hence will accelerate for longer than you as it will take longer for the drag acting on them to equal their weight. This means their terminal velocity will be greater. In order to avoid them getting away from you, either they need to reduce their weight or you need to gain it! You could also alter either your or their aerodynamics to manipulate the drag and control when you both hit terminal velocity but I'd imagine lead belts would be a far cheaper and easier option than having various sizes of \"drag chutes\" or teaching them to alter their body shape in a very specific way.\n\nHope this helps! (I'm a physics teacher and have multiple physics degrees, so hopefully I'm both correct and have made it easy to understand)",
"Put simply an object falls at the same rate regardless of weight/density **in a vaccuum**. \n\nYou are not in a vaccuum and the relative density of you vs the air determines your acceleration. Think how a piece of wood will float on a lake and something of the right density (like a person) may almost float or just barely sink.\n\n Similarly a feather or a helium ball are similar in density or even less dense than air so they floaton the air. While the denser something is the more it sinks in the air. \n\nAdditionally you reach terminal velocity when the force of your weight is fully countered by the drag of the air. The faster you move the more drag counters your acceleration until you are no longer accelerating and are at terminal velocity. The more weight you have the more of a downward force you are applying on yourself and the more drag that is required to keep you from continuing to accelerate, thus a higher terminal velocity can be reached.",
"Mass doesnt effect acceleration due to gravity in a vacuum. But it does effect terminal velocity. A ball that weighs one kg has a force of 9.8N acting on it, to reach terminal velocity it has to be travelling fast enough that the drag forces =9.8N\n\nIf you have a ball the same size, but weighing 2kg, it has 19.6N of gravity acting on it and must travel much faster before the drag forces equal the gravitational force and it stops accelerating.",
"When the force of you falling is the same as air resistance, you reach terminal velocity.\n\nThe heavier you are, the more force you have at a given speed, therefore the more air resistance you need to stop you at that speed.\n\nExcept, assuming the surface area stays the same, the only way to increase air resistance is to increase speed. Therefore, if you add weight terminal velocity will be higher. If you subtract weight it will be lower.",
"Simplest answer: the lead ball and feather analogy is only valid in a vacuum. \n\nIn reality you have to take into consideration wind resistance. So they have more downward force that you but the surface area the wind works against is close enough to make you reach your maximum speed faster",
"It seems these other answers are overcomplicating things. \nLead belts increase your weight. If your weight is higher it's going to take a greater speed of falling to make the drag from air resistance balance out the force of your weight. So yes it does agree.",
"Your terminal velocity is the speed at which the force of the air pushing up against you is equal to the force of gravity pulling down on you.\n\nThe force of air pushing up against you has nothing to do with mass, and is only related to the surface traveling through the air and the speed at which you travel. Since a lead belt doesn't affect your surface by much at all, you have essentially the same drag as you would not wearing the lead belt.\n\nThe force of gravity will be your mass times acceleration. We know that gravitational acceleration is somewhere in the neighborhood of 9.81 m/s^2 (depending on altitude and location), but your mass can change greatly when you wear a lead belt. \n\nThus, when you wear a lead belt you will have to achieve a higher speed before the drag force of the air will balance out the greater force of gravity acting upon you. \n\nThis is consistent with the findings of Galileo because the premise of those findings are that the objects will fall at the same speed without outside forces acting upon them. This remains true since the acceleration of both objects will be the same, regardless of their mass.",
"In simple terms, Inertia. Terminal velocity exists due to aerobraking; as you push air out of the way, the air pushes back, until the force accelerating you reaches balance with the force the air pushes back with.\n\nNow, because gravity can be called a constant accelerating force, it is acting on all of your mass at the same time. Since the cross-sectional area of the object we're dealing with in this instance stays the same, the area exposed to an aerobraking force is also the same and will experience the same force at the same velocity. However, due to it having more mass, gravity will provide more kinetic energy to the heavier object, and so the law of inertia dictates that a force able to stop the smaller object's acceleration will not arrest the acceleration of the larger object, as it has more kinetic energy to overcome.",
"Terminal velocity occurs when drag equals gravitational pull. Drag relates to the shape and velocity of the object. Pull relates to the mass of the object. Adding lead increases pull without significantly changing the shape, meaning a higher velocity is required for drag to equal pull.\n\nOn a sidenote the concept of terminal velocity is an approximation only valid momentarily or for short falling distances, because both drag and gravitational pull depends on altitude. A skydiver jumping from space will reach a very high velocity before atmosphere is thick enough to impose a \"terminal velocity\". The terminal velocity will then gradually drop as he falls into ever denser atmosphere.",
"I am a licensed skydiver here in Washington state. So the question originally asked is sort of hard to answer. Terminal velocity is a very relative term in the skydiving world. Since it changes constantly depending on the type of jump you are performing. Yes everyone is right about the air creating surface tension on the diver, obviously lead belts help the fall speed increase. But mainly we wear them to to help counter the difference in weight between other skydivers and ourselves but also to help our wing loading for performance maneuvers and landings.",
"Just a basic answer here, but as Force = Mass * Acceleration. Where Mass is the weight of the human and Acceleration is the gravitational pull of the earth roughly 9.8 m/s. This means a person with a greater mass would have a higher force meaning in order to balance this force and create a terminal velocity, the opposite force of air resistance must be higher, which can only be achieved by traveling at a faster speed.",
"The only time i wanted to increase terminal velocity i wore a slick suit top reduce drag. The only weights i ever wore skydiving were when i initial started jumping and a weight belt helped me learn my center of gravity when arching. \n\nEdit: sorry forgot to mention, when jumping with small people they would wear weights when doing crew work or relative work since you have to fall with other people at the same speed.",
"You are wearing led weights due to drag. This is very much so inline with Newton's laws of motion. You still have the same gravitational pull (9.8m/s2), but the air is resisting having to move. This builds up a pressure beneath you that is a factor of surface area to speed. To over come this you need force. That's your F=ma. Your a is constant and so they increase your mass, m.",
"Think of terminal velocity as an equilibrium between two forces: gravity acting on a falling object's mass, and wind resistance acting on its surface area. Adding more mass to an object will shift the equilibrium towards a higher speed. Adding more surface area, e.g. a parachute, will shift the equilibrium to a much lower speed.",
"At terminal velocity, force of gravity is balanced with force of drag. Force of drag is a constant (dependent on shape and fluid) and the square of the velocity.\n\n Cd⋅v² = m⋅g\n v² ~= m\n v ~= m^½\n\nTerminal velocity increases with the square root of mass. More mass, more velocity.",
"Everything has the same terminal velocity in a vacuum. The reason adding lead weights increases a sky divers terminal velocity is because they add significant mass without creating much more drag to slow their fall. The more mass you have, the more drag is required to slow your fall.",
"Terminal velocity is the point when the force of air resistance is equal to the force of your weight. The force of air resistance increases as velocity increases. Therefore, if you weigh more, you must go faster to get a larger force of air resistance.",
"Your terminal velocity has to do with your gravital force vs. Air resistance. Galileos findings relies on the items falling in a vaccum. Try dropping a feather and a book, they don't hit the ground at the same time."
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei#Falling_bodies",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4_rceVPVSY",
"https://youtu.be/5C5_dOEyAfk",
"http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_15_feather_drop.html"
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} | Why do skydivers have a greater terminal velocity when wearing lead weight belts?
My brother and I have to wear lead to keep up with heavier people. Does this agree with Galileo's findings? | [
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6jepka | What is the reason for our irrational disgust of insects and arachnids? Were humans often poisoned-killed by them while we evolved? | [deleted] | askscience | {
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"I can't remember the name of the scientist or the study, but I do recall an experiment where very young children and babies are exposed to snakes and spiders etc, they showed no fear and tried to play as they would with any other toy or pet, this shows that fear of this type of stimulus is learnt and not hereditary.\n\nEdit: A more detailed and interesting explanation here _URL_2_\n\nAnd here _URL_3_\n\nEdit 2:\nThanks to u/Naggins, I'm pretty sure this was the one I was thinking of _URL_0_ \n\nHere's a video with footage of the experiment _URL_1_",
"A swedish scientist named Arne Ohman conducted an experiment to understand fear of spiders, snakes, and other things by exposing a subject alongside an electric shock.\n\nWhat he found was that one shock was enough to create an ongoing fear response for future exposures. This fear persisted for spiders and snakes, but eased over time for other stimuli.\n\nHe concluded that there is a hereditary predisposition to fear of spiders and snakes not present for several other common, learned phobias.",
"I'm surprised nobody has mentioned the fact that humans are predisposed to feel more affectionate towards \"cute\" animals, and feel disgust for those that look alien. _URL_6_\n\nNot only have scientists identified the specific facial traits that trigger \"caretaking behavior\"--big eyes, bulging craniums, retreating chins--dogs and cats have evolved to elicit it. For example, cats purposefully utilize the frequency range of a baby's cry when attempting to solicit care. _URL_9_ And over time dogs have evolved to appear more like human babies over years of humans preferring dogs with paedomorphic facial expressions. _URL_8_\n\nThe examples of preferential treatment by humans for \"cute\" animals is extensive. You can simply look at the types of animals on the endangered creature list, or which animals get funding for research. _URL_8_\n\nFurthermore, it has been shown that this bias isn't learned, but is hard-wired into our brains. The following study found that kids ages 3-6 showed the same preference for animals with infantile features, _URL_9_\n\nAt the same time that dogs and cats have evolved to ingratiate themselves to humans, humans have evolved to utilize dogs and cats to fulfill social and psychological needs. This study of the human-animal bond focuses on neuroendocrine regulation--primarily oxytocin secretions--and the considerable health benefits that result. _URL_7_",
"A famous study indicates that its how dissimilar to us humans they are. I remember a study which ranked self reported fear of a load of animals and it found those with different eyes to us, more legs or different body shape, fur, slime, speed of movement, unexpected movements and fast movements evoked more fear. \n\nVarious combinations came out as scarier or more frightening and I believe spiders, having many more eyes, many more legs, quick and unexpected movements results in significant difference to us, therefore evoked a greater fear reaction in those polled. \n\nEdit :This got more attention than I expected, the study is by Bennett levy and marteau if I remember correctly, I'll try and find a link to some details about it. \n\nEdit 2 : lots of good questions for a good discussion but sadly I'm not a psychologist! However we have to remember that multiple other factors will factor into phobias and fear responses, including past experience and learned behaviour, as well as cultural factors too. This studies results are by no means the sole answer to this question!!",
"[This article](_URL_10_) contains details of a study that showed that areas of the brain associated with fear are triggered when we are shown images of spiders subconsciously(the images were displayed so quickly the subjects weren't consciously aware of seeing them). \nIt would be interesting to see the results of the same experiment with very young children. \n\nFrom the article:\n\n....*Peterson and colleagues examined the degree to which specific areas of the brain involved in fear processing and deciding how to respond to a phobic image were activated when someone was consciously aware or unaware of the spider image. Interestingly, they found that even though non-conscious awareness didn't register in a way that could be brought to mind or was cognizant, this type of exposure caused subliminal fear responses to skyrocket.*",
"Many instinctual fears, caused by evolutionary adaptation, are dormant until triggered by some event. Certainly a fear of spiders would have benefitted humans who co-existed with venomous arachnids in early Africa. And as for bugs, humans likely were better off being wary of getting bitten. \n\nThat said, we are able to overcome fears by continual exposure, and cultural expectation affects our perceptions of what it considered a threat. We may recoil from many insects, but not ladybugs for example. \n\n_URL_11_",
"As a response to the posts about behavior being an an entirely culturally learned trait: there have been some recent studies indicating that there may be an epigentic vector for some fear/disgust response behaviors to odor in mice. At this point it would be a leap to link this to human phobias to visual stimuli, but it's worth noting that it may be an emergent area of study.\n\n_URL_12_",
"I suffer from mild Trypophobia, it is the fear of holes. When I see something that activates it, I get very itchy all over my body and unnerved. I looked it up last year and it comes from early man fearing places where dangerous insects could dwell. I think there is an element of fear regarding insects and spiders for the same reason, they could be dangerous. \nIt is also interesting that we don't fear flies for the same reason due to them feeding on excrement and sometimes carrying disease.",
"There is a lot of research into this, and it is pretty clear from [this study](_URL_13_) that humans *do* have a predisposition to fear snakes (and other creepy creatures).\n\nHowever, the fear is not innate, our species simply has a predisposition to *develop* the fear (at least according to the study). I think it would be interesting to study whether or not certain ethnicities have more or less of this predisposition to develop fears (for example, it would make sense that a South American native or Australian aboriginal would have a stronger fear reaction to spiders than, say, a Scandinavian native, depending on exactly how quickly populations develop these instinctive responses).\n\nI imagine this has to do with how insects tend to infest areas that present a danger to humans: corpses, feces, rot, etc;\n\nThere are other factors, obviously (venoms, infections, poisons, parasites etc;). However, it is significant from an evolutionary perspective that insects are typically associated in an indirect way with *other* dangerous phenomena.",
"_URL_14_\n\nHere's an interesting article specific content to our evolutionary path toward fear of snakes. More an entry point since it's a news article, and not scholarly, but some interesting concepts.",
"I remember seeing an experiment where very young children were introduced to spiders and snakes. None of them had any negative reaction, in fact they were all fascinated and often delighted by them. So it seems that the fear is learned rather than being an innate biological response.",
"I would actually bet on the way we're taught about these things. If you can remember the very first time someone taught you about a spider or snake, they probably said something like: don't ever touch it, don't try to pet it or feed it, start far away from it and call for help. \n\nTo me this impact from a guardian or family member is essentially laws being written in your brain and held there for years until you're old enough to handle a broader perspective.",
"I've been an arachnophobe my entire life. Big, small, \"cute\" or not I cannot be at ease around one. I can control myself to the degree that I can be functional, but it is a real mental struggle. I'm intelligent, educated, and not prone to over emotional behavior, so this is really annoying to me. \n\nI have even studied spiders enough to generally discern which ones I have an irrational fear of, and which ones are justifiably concerning in the hope that I could at least slightly overcome it. Nope. \n\nMore interesting was the time I came across an interesting looking one that my intellectual self really wanted to identify, but my phonic self would have nothing of it. Much comical tiptoeing, convulsing, and screaming like a 4 year old finally identified it as the largest wolf spider that should never live: 2.5 inch BODY! My pulse is raising at the memory and I'm feeling nervous.\n\n\"Something wicked this way comes\" gives me nightmares to this day.\n\nI feel it is indeed hardwired in me. I'd love to know the reason.\n\nTl;dr I'm a baby around spiders, don't know why, would like to.",
"I think its only obvious humans are afraid of bugs. Think about all the small bugs that bite you and you never notice. I see these little noseeum bugs on my skin all the time and theyre so small you can never tell until you focus in on one. I dont mind bugs but havinh several use me as their lunch doesnt sit well with me. Also think about some of the poisons bugs, snakes, and arachnids have evolved to use. Most people would rather just leave all bugs alone for risk of venemous or poisonous animals. I think its just a psychological thing like with snakes. Theyre so different and alien to us that it makes it hard to consider theyre just trying to do their thing.",
"To some degree it's a rational reaction. Emotion plays a part in perception and memory. Strong emotions stimulate the brain like, \"Hey pay attention to this\". So \"disgust\" raises your awareness of an insect in your vicinity and re-enforces the episode in your memory. It's rational in the sense that there are insects and arachnids that carry pathogens and might bite you. With an emotion like \"disgust\" in play, you're more likely to avoid getting infected or bitten. You might remember \"There was a creepy looking spider on that boulder last time I sat there.\" and avoid an unhealthy encounter.",
"I'm guessing because how dogs and other animals have a natural fear of fire. They know it may harm them. When humans see a spider, centipede, snake, etc., some of them are harmless so that's just a reminder that it MAY be harmful. Cockroaches, on the other hand, are harmless to us, but, their feces and such can cause serious illnesses."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Albert_experiment?wprov=sfla1",
"https://youtu.be/9hBfnXACsOI",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20151022-where-does-our-fear-of-snakes-come-from",
"https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/people-arent-born-afraid-of-spiders-and-snakes-fear-is-quickly-learned-during-infancy.html#.WU_XZ8vTVnE",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0082686",
"http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(09)01168-3",
"https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Cuteness",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4782005/",
"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/trends-and-biases-in-the-listing-and-recovery-planning-for-threatened-species-an-australian-case-study/DC0D198D842AE8963787297094B8C263",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4019884/",
"https://www.google.co.uk/amp/s/www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201702/subconscious-fear-exposure-helps-reduce-phobias-study-finds%3Famp",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriele_Uhl/publication/228630522_Spiders_are_special_Fear_and_disgust_evoked_by_pictures_of_arthropods/links/0fcfd50b5330a276ff000000/Spiders-are-special-Fear-and-disgust-evoked-by-pictures-of-arthropods.pdf",
"http://www.nature.com/news/fearful-memories-haunt-mouse-descendants-1.14272",
"http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/cd/12_1/Ohman.cfm",
"http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2013/10/29/241370496/eeek-snake-your-brain-has-a-special-corner-just-for-them"
]
} | What is the reason for our irrational disgust of insects and arachnids? Were humans often poisoned-killed by them while we evolved?
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10fzrd | How accurate is the chemistry of Breaking Bad? | Specifically, can methylamine be used as a substitute for Pseudoephedrine in order to make methamphetamine? And, if so, does doing that make said meth a blue color?
Are there any other parts of the chemistry of the show that are way off? | askscience | {
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"It's not inaccurate, just vague. They never really give you any of the important details, like how he goes about resolving the enantiomers. Also, the chemicals they use would be impractical for most DIY meth cooks, as they are difficult to procure. They make a big deal about getting methylamine, but IRL it's not hard at all to make. It's the other things needed for reductive amination that are hard to come by.\n\nSource: I got my bachelors in polymer chemistry (organic chemistry).\n\nEDIT: misspelled the word \"just\"",
"Insofar as they actually bother to explain the chemistry, it's pretty accurate. There is a way to make meth using methylamine, but I'm not going to go into the details of how it's done here. \n\nThe blue color is artistic flair on the part of the writers, and shouldn't show up in their synthetic scheme; removing deeply colored impurities is also rather easy in organic chemistry.\n\nSurprisingly, they (well, Walt, at least) even pronounce the chemical names correctly.",
"This has bothered me for a long time. Gale (the chemist hired to help walter) uses an IR thermometer to check the temperature of his SHINY METAL TEA KETTLE. Shiny surfaces do not emit like black bodies--their emissivity is quite different, so IR thermometers do not work on them. If he had put a piece of black tape on there it would have worked fine. But apparently their science advisor didn't mention this to them.",
"Remember the scene about getting anhydrous methylamine to do the \"reductive amination\" workup? Well, they'd need that if they couldn't get psuedophedrin, but it's not like it would be the only thing standing in their way.\n\nHowever, one of my better chemistry friends mentioned that one of the syntheses Walter was using would yield a racemic mix of dextromethamphetamine (good shit) and levomethamphetamine (over the counter nasal decongestant).\n\nThe chemistry is kept purposefully vague, with many parts of different recipies being used.\n\n[Blue meth actually exists, too.](_URL_0_) but perhaps not as a consequence of any reactions.",
"Well, the episode early on where Walt made a big batch of fulminate of mercury wasn't accurate. You can't make big crystals of it, it is produced as a powder of tiny crystals, and carrying around a bag of the stuff is a bad idea, the friction produced when the bag is shifted would be enough to detonate it.",
"They consult a chemist who advises on the parts of chemistry that are particularly scientific. She gave an interview a while back wherein she discusses that she makes sure the science and language is accurate enough for the show, but not a step by step guide to meth cooking. The writers have said they do intentionally include/exclude things that are not necessarily applicable so that any would be meth cooks aren't able to get any ideas from the show. But, in general, anything that is on the show that discusses chemistry is correct, if not necessary.",
"There was a guy that made meth just for himself who did an [AMA] (_URL_2_) a few months ago. Of course, people asked the same question regarding Breaking Bad.\n\nThe AMA itself is worth the read. Incredible story.\n\nAnd did you know that you can make meth from [Legos?] (_URL_2_)",
"Check out [these past threads](_URL_3_) as well, where various parts have been discussed.\n\nSpoilers below:\n\n--------------\n\nOff the top of my head, using an electromagnet to erase a hard drive and building a zinc-carbon battery to recharge their RV's battery are examples of something based on a grain of truth, but likely won't work the way as depicted, which is fine - it's a show after all (and it's not as blatant like CSI). The former would require an alternating magnetic field, and the latter won't produce a high enough current to charge the battery.",
"Only blatant thing I've noticed is their obsession with methylamine. It's not difficult to synthesize at all from simple precursors..especially for a \"genius\" like Walt. And yet they pull off insanely risky stunts to steal it...\nEdit: removed incorrect plot comment, thanks",
"Organic chemistry Professor Donna Nelson of the University of Oklahoma is the science adviser for Breaking Bad. She did [this segment of NPR's Science Friday](_URL_4_) last year. It should help answer a lot of your questions.",
"The galvanic cell episode is accurate. When Walt builds a galvanic cell out of the spare metal it would create enough of a jolt to start the RV up.",
"I always wonder why they use hydroflouric acid to dispose of bodies? Wouldn't hydroiodic or another stronger acid be more efficient?",
"Answered this in an AMA I did a while back:\n\nOverall, they don't give a lot of details, and Bryan Cranston sounds like he's reading a script when he uses chemistry terms, but because they don't give too many details of the chemistry, they don't get that much wrong. Does that make sense?\n\nThere are flaws with the chemistry though. First, they mispronounce \"methylamine\", calling it \"methylmine\". No biggie. Second, the \"genius\" of Walter White's formula is that supposedly it can produce enantiomerically-pure dextromethamphetamine. Basically, meth exists in two chemically-identical forms that are mirror images of each other. A right and left hand form if you will. The right hand version is the psychoactive version, and the left hand version does virtually nothing but dilute it. If you have just the right-hand version or just the left-hand version, it will form crystals, but if you have both together, it will form a powder. Thus \"crystal\" meth, is just the psychoactive isomer.\n\nUnfortunately, Walter and Jesse mention using platinum oxide and mercury-aluminum amalgam for reductive amination, something that is absolutely NOT possible without getting a racemic mixture, ie, a mixture of both isomers, so that part is very clearly inaccurate.\n\nPeople have claimed they deliberately got this wrong to confuse wannabe meth cooks, but that's clearly not the case. If you used platinum oxide or mercury aluminum amalgam for reductive amination, you'd still get methamphetamine. It's just that it would be a less desirable form of methamphetamine, ie, not the superb-quality stuff they're supposed to be making. If they wanted to deliberately leave out information, they should have just had Walt invent a \"magic\" hydrogenation catalyst for reductive amination, and just never give out the details of the formula for the catalyst. Just say it's an organometallic ruthenium/iridium chirally selective hydrogenation catalyst or something. That would make it a) theoretically possible, b) satisfactory to real chemists, and c) give out absolutely zero information to wannabe meth cooks. The way they approached it hints that their science advisers may be DEA chemists as opposed to actual chemists.\n\n[source](_URL_5_)",
"One thing that bothers me about the show is the excessive use of hydrofluoric acid; it is not able to dissolve a body (it would definitely do some damage, especially to the bone structure), and is not sold in large jugs that can be procured easily. HF is a weak acid and much more expensive than something like lye, which is far easier to obtain and more efficient at dissolving organic matter such as soft tissue.\n\nThat being said, many of the things that Walt says carry a lot of legitimate chemical knowledge. I am a little disappointed that the show has trended away from hard chemistry since the first season, but that is to be expected with its increased viewer base.",
"Question: For all those posting about the dissolving chemicals: They also drop guns and everything else into the barrels. Would the acids dissolve the metals? What about tooth fillings?"
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"url": [
"http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-03-25-flavored-meth_N.htm",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/v17kn/iama_former_meth_lab_operator_amaa/c50e57f",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/v17kn/iama_former_meth_lab_operator_amaa/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=breaking+bad&restrict_sr=on",
"http://www.sciencefriday.com/segment/12/23/2011/the-science-behind-breaking-bad.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/v17kn/iama_former_meth_lab_operator_amaa/c50e5ob"
]
} | How accurate is the chemistry of Breaking Bad?
Specifically, can methylamine be used as a substitute for Pseudoephedrine in order to make methamphetamine? And, if so, does doing that make said meth a blue color? Are there any other parts of the chemistry of the show that are way off? | [
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|
ww3tj | Is there anything on the "human scale" that science still cannot explain? | I realize there are lots of incredibly tiny or massive phenomena that science cannot explain, but are there any mysteries that are on a "human scale" (ie that are visible to the naked eye, or relate to objects that a normal person can actually physically interact with)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"We don't have a good theory of turbulence.",
"Generally speaking, we still have a hard time making predictions for very complex systems that are hard to simulate or model. The weather and the human brain come to mind, though I'm not sure whether you consider either to be \"human scale.\"",
"Humans. There is a lot we still don't really understand about their inner workings.",
"Two common unexplained phenomena are why ice is slippery and why bicycles are so stable. Plenty of things we experience every day don't have rigorous explanations, often because of their surprising complexity. Just take a look at the wikipedia page on [Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics](_URL_0_). There are dozens of effects that go into keeping a bike upright, even though you're only really aware of a few of them as you experience it."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_dynamics"
]
} | Is there anything on the "human scale" that science still cannot explain?
I realize there are lots of incredibly tiny or massive phenomena that science cannot explain, but are there any mysteries that are on a "human scale" (ie that are visible to the naked eye, or relate to objects that a normal person can actually physically interact with)? | [
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zib8v | Is there a reason why the tibia is virtually unprotected? | Most of the other bones that support your limbs are pretty well protected by muscles and ligaments. Your forearms are bare at certain areas, but are still well protected. As for the tibia, it seems weird to me that it would be so vulnerable, with the only protection coming when you flex your leg, and even then most the bone is left uncovered.
Is there a specific reason for this (like optimum functionality of the leg) or is that just the way it is? | askscience | {
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"Three bits.\n\n1. A simple evolutionary answer, Ancestors who had leg structure that was organized in this \"unprotected\" way survived and reproduced more than ancestors who had different musculature organization. That doesn't mean that the current organization of tissue is \"the best\" it just means that it was good enough to survive and reproduce and better than the others that existed at that time.\n\nIf some people were born with mutations that changed how the tissues in their legs was organized, AND they could still walk/function in society, AND the rest of us normals saw it as a desirable trait, THEN humans might end up with different leg musculature. But given our current population size, rate of mutation, and mating styles I doubt it.\n\n\n2. A complex bio-mechanical answer . . . will have to come from someone else. :) I'm not well versed in bio-mechanics.\n\n\n3. I'm not in complete agreement that your tibia is actually all that much less protected than other parts of your body. Your fingers aren't covered by much. Your skull isn't covered by much. Your shoulder blades aren't covered by much.",
"I would look to the skull and assume that evolutionary processes (apologies in advance for personifying them) don't see bone as needing a great deal of protection. Bone is normally used for mobility or to protect vital organs such as the brain and abdominal viscera.\n\n\nA blunt impact on the tibia for instance would probably cause more damage to the skin due to the hard bone. I don't think in the event of a higher energy impact capable of breaking the bone (e.g. motorcycle, despite the evolutionary time issues) would not do so if there were muscles to pad it as fractures are often indirect.",
"There is little necessity for muscles to be anterior of the tibia for means of movement other than moving the foot which the tibialis anterior m. takes care of (dorsiflexion and inversion). Relative to our locomotion, those movements aren't needed to be extremely strong, so one muscle does just fine. Following along the lines of a muscle's primary function not being for protection, it would be inefficient/excessive to have unnecessary muscles.",
"[Cortical remodeling](_URL_0_) is usually most active in the tibia.\n\nThus, it can become quite the formidable bodily weapon. Striking with the legs versus other parts of the body during combat is advantageous in several ways:\n\n1) Critical organs are maintained at a maximal distance from the enemy.\n\n2) Greater force is imparted with leg blows as opposed to other blows due to the involvement of the largest muscles in the body (gluts and quads).\n\nI'm not saying this is the reason why the tibia is not as buried as other bones (excepting fingers and the skull, obviously), but it does have advantages, which may be important from an evolutionary standpoint.",
"A side comment, the simple access to the tibia through the skin makes it easy for physicians to acquire \"interosseous\" access, when IV access is unavailable.\nGoogle IO access for more information.",
"Couple of answers, as you have a number of questions:\n\n- Like others mentioned, muscles and especially tendons are not meant as protection, and are easily damaged compared to bones (ligaments connect bone-to-bone, and so are not easily visible or palpable).\n- The tibia is an extremely strong bone, designed to handle lots of compression force as well as torsion and lateral force. \n- Natural selection isn't \"intelligent\" in any way. One way to look at it is that, at any given point, a feature looks the way it does, let's say human having hairy armpits. Natural selection has no thoughts on this one way or another. The only things that matter are whether or not having hairy armpits results in those that do have them having more viable offspring than those that don't, assuming the trait is genetic to begin with. That's it. One could envision those that had hairy armpits might have more children than ones without due to greater pheromones, or being more sexually attractive, or maybe there's a lethal armpit bug that kills you if you don't have hair. Maybe they have fewer children because of a bad odor, or the odor alerts predators who selectively like the taste of those with hairy armpits (the opposite of the armpit bug above).\n- Adding to the natural selection piece, there would be negative selection for traits that were very \"expensive\" to create, expensive meaning in terms of energy, which assumes that food is scarce, and so creating something that needs a lot of it doesn't make sense if it doesn't have a point. Things that classically describe \"expensive but needed\" are things like peacock feathers, which are a lot of work for them to create, and probably make them easier to catch and eat, but are used to draw in mates, so the pressure is positive. Relating this to the tibia, even if we assume muscle is protective, it would be very expensive to create a muscle just to protect the tibia. That's why we don't see huge muscles over our skull and other places, they provide nothing really positive, but are very expensive.\n- Lastly, natural selection takes a very very long time to have any effect, regardless of whether you believe in the slow change or rapid shift model (forget what they're called). Therefore, the body won't really evolve to prevent infrequent accidents because they don't provide enough selective pressure to move them, and since they're random they'd likely take out those with and those without a mutation. Having a tougher, or more protected, tibia would only make it less likely for you to break your tibia. Although that would be bad, and probably lethal in the old days, they weren't stupid back then and doing things that resulted in broken bones frequently, so if you had a gene for stronger tibia it probably wouldn't have mattered much from an evolution standpoint.\n\nAnyway, sorry so long.",
"Tibias are strong enough that they don't really need to be protected, at least not until shin-height coffee tables were invented.\n\nThe bone there is also a plus in some scenarios. I've seen pictures of old tibetans that sleep kneeling on their shins, to minimize heat transfer to the ground.",
"Related question: how much has our walking upright shaped the muscles on our legs? Is this the reason for lack of front-of-leg muscles/fat?"
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} | Is there a reason why the tibia is virtually unprotected?
Most of the other bones that support your limbs are pretty well protected by muscles and ligaments. Your forearms are bare at certain areas, but are still well protected. As for the tibia, it seems weird to me that it would be so vulnerable, with the only protection coming when you flex your leg, and even then most the bone is left uncovered. Is there a specific reason for this (like optimum functionality of the leg) or is that just the way it is? | [
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|
5s81ci | Does a superconductor truly have 0 Ω resistance, or is it only arbitrarily close? | A true-zero resistance would, to my understanding, cause problems with implementing Ohm's Law. Additionally, I believe there is still a non-negligible degree of Joule heating, which leads me to think that the resistance of the material is some fraction above true zero. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Exactly zero.\n\nThere is no issue with violating Ohm's law: Ohm's law is an empirical law which applies to certain materials, but it isn't true in general. In the same vein, we have no issue applying Ohm's law on circuits with ideal conductors: superconductors are just a practical implementation of what we do in circuit analysis all the time.\n\nJoule heating only applies to materials with finite resistance, and a superconductor has no resistance. This is trivial from the fact that no power is expended by sending current through a superconductor, so no heating can occur (violation of conservation of energy).",
"Many things are non-ohmic in nature, the biggest offender of that law being semiconductors\n\nSemiconductors are non-ohmic due to being reliant on holes and electrons to carry charge in a different fashion than traditional metals.",
"In the sense you're talking about, they really have zero resistance. The phenomenology is kind of vague and confusing, since superconductivity is essentially a macroscopic quantum effect, but if my memory and understanding are correct: currents in superconductors are not driven by potential differences (voltages) as in normal metals, but rather by quantum phase gradients. These don't have a relationship to Ohm's law in the way that voltages do. Another helpful bit of intuition is that in many ways Cooper pairs are condensing similarly to a Bose-Einstein condensate, i.e. the electrons begin to behave collectively on long length scales, so the flow of current doesn't exactly work in the sort of \"one end to the other\" way that we think about when we discuss classical conductivity. (It's a real current in terms of E & M, of course, but the mechanics driving it are just not the same as in an Ohmic conductor.)\n\nThere actually are situations in which Type II superconductors and/or thin films or wires, particularly in magnetic fields, can acquire some finite level of resistivity, caused by chaotic motion of current vortices, which can dissipate a small amount of current under the right circumstances (dissipation = resistance). This is a different mechanism from Ohmic resistance though.\n\nThe Wikipedia article on Superconductivity mentions this (and is very good overall). There's also a review article [here](_URL_0_) that looks fantastic, though I haven't had a chance to read it yet. Also, a quick skim of the other posts in this thread give pretty good explanations with relevant info; I just wanted to fill in some things I thought were neglected."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1005.3347"
]
} | Does a superconductor truly have 0 Ω resistance, or is it only arbitrarily close?
A true-zero resistance would, to my understanding, cause problems with implementing Ohm's Law. Additionally, I believe there is still a non-negligible degree of Joule heating, which leads me to think that the resistance of the material is some fraction above true zero. | [
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1w0xku | Oscillating near the speed of light... | We all know that as you approach the speed of light, time tends to do funky crap(time differences). But what if you were inside something that technically wasn't going anywhere, but it vibrates/oscillates near the speed of light? Would you still be at the point of being an observer? Or would the time differences be at the same rate as the object you are in? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cextvav",
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],
"text": [
"If you were in a capsule, bouncing up and down, then at any one point, you're in motion (except at the top and bottom of the oscillation), and thus subject to relativity of motion.\n\nIf instead you mean that the walls of said capsule are themselves vibrating such that *molecules* making it up are traveling at nearly the speed of light, then nothing much will happen to you (though I expect such walls would be darned hot, and you'd bake). The capsule would weigh more than it would at rest (the energy of vibration is a mass in the system of the capsule). But that's about it.",
"The punchline of the answer is that there would be relativistic effects because you would be experiencing both relativistic speed and acceleration.\n\nWhen you say that some thing is \"technically not going anywhere\", what you mean is that it has no *net* velocity, or that the average velocity is zero. However relativistic effects are calculated from *instantaneous* velocity and acceleration. These can both get quite large for the oscillator you describe, and that is why relativity definitely applies.",
"You wouldn't be in an inertial reference frame because you're constantly accelerating, but yes there would be a difference, for example, between your wrist watch and a clock on the outside of your really fast spring capsule."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Oscillating near the speed of light...
We all know that as you approach the speed of light, time tends to do funky crap(time differences). But what if you were inside something that technically wasn't going anywhere, but it vibrates/oscillates near the speed of light? Would you still be at the point of being an observer? Or would the time differences be at the same rate as the object you are in? | [
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sp6ph | Curious Theist Here | The more I've been reading, the more evolution is acceptable. However, I've been reading theist articles as well. I've recently read a very interesting point that I'd like some feedback on. DNA information and nucleic acids were compared to words, while paper is like the bodies ability to read DNA. Sure paper and ink have a chance of creating themselves, but the odds of having them come together to form anything legible are very slim. The odds of forming information for incredibly complex organisms are almost nonexistent, even over billion or trillions of years! Right?
Maybe I'm missing something, but I'm interested to see comments | askscience | {
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"It is a terrible analogy. They have reduced the problem to the point of absurdity, so any proposed solution to it seems absurd.\n\nThere are tons of web sites, books, and videos out there that will explain in detail why the assumptions of this argument are unrealistic. Feel free to look them up on your own. An incomplete list of the the shortcomings is:\n\n* The scale is much bigger than you can imagine. If you take one Scrabble set and mix up the pieces, then pull 10 \"words\" from it, you probably won't generate anything intelligible. Take 1,000,000 Scrabble sets and draw 10,000,000 \"words\" and you'll definitely find real words there. The formation of the first RNA strings produced orders of magnitudes more random draws from the primordial Scrabble set than this example.\n\n* Words don't replicate themselves. As soon as the first self-replicating RNA strand arose, it created more like it. It doesn't matter how slow, inaccurate, or inefficient it was. It created more copies of itself. If it produced a copy that had an error that made it *better* than the original, that copy would produce more copies of itself than the original and would out compete it. So, once you have made a reasonable word, you will probably keep it.\n\n* Sentences are modular. So are organisms. Sentences aren't created by stringing letters together, but by stringing words together. Once you have \"words\", you are looking at a different problem than you were with \"letters\". Rather than trying to build a sentence by pulling 100 letters from a Scrabble set, you build one by pulling a few words from a dictionary.\n\n* Being *close* in spelling doesn't matter. If it doesn't match a known word, it is junk. In life, that is not the case. Being *close* might be good enough. Further refinements can come later. You're more likely to produce the sentence you desire by starting with 4/5 of the words and then randomly replacing one than you are by starting from scratch each time. \n\n* There is more than one correct way to make your sentence. If you want to identically replicate a Shakespearean play, there is only one correct way to do it and every other way is wrong. If you want to, for example, explain the proper sequence for getting ready for work, there are lots of ways to structure it, different levels of detail you can go into, and different sequences that might work in some circumstances and not others. There is no single perfect way to do it. Organisms aren't Shakespeare. They're instruction manuals.",
"The analogy is dishonest because there is no selection pressure or inheritance governing paper and pen.\n\nA more apt analogy might be the old 'infinite monkeys on infinite typewriters creating Shakespeare' idea, except that there's also an infinite number of humans who burn everything that doesn't look like Shakespeare, saves everything that's partially like Shakespeare, and then reproduces the partial-Shakespeare stuff and makes the monkeys fill in the non-Shakespeare gaps, then iterate this process for billions of years.",
"think of the first organisms as being very simple. their DNA strands were very short, so like a paragraph in length using your analogy. Randomly organizing letters until they form a paragraph won't take a long time(a simple single celled organism). Evolution occurs by adding words to that short paragraph. eventually you add more and more words to that first paragraph until you create a story (multi-celled organism). Darwinian evolution would be like spell check, it would instantly reject spelling errors shortening the time it takes to evolve the story.",
"I believe what you're asking is how life could possibly have been created randomly. The first answer to that is that the question is partially wrong. Life isn't random. Natural selection is a thing. The smartest and best survive while the less equipped die. But that still raises the question as to how life could have been randomly made at all. Well, at the beginning of time, there were a few basic elements. They were, and still are the most common elements. Hydrogen, helium, carbon, and oxygen. We're mostly hydrogen, followed by oxygen (because of water). When you consider the fact that we are made of the most abundant things in the universe, things seem a lot less random. So eventually, a few basic chemicals were made. That's where the [Miller–Urey Experiment](_URL_0_) comes in. This was an experiment conducted over the course of 50 years. Chemicals that would have existed at the dawn of earth were zapped by electrodes. Those chemicals, over the course of mere weeks, became amino acids. The project was abandoned until some 50 years later, a student of Miller resurrected the experiments. Miller had also simulated what would happen if those same chemicals had been swimming around a volcano, a typical thing in old earth. Those flasks that had been put under the volcano experiment yielded even more amino acids. The combination of lightning and volcanoes, which is actually [rather common](_URL_1_), would have given more than enough amino acids to begin life. So keep in mind that amino acids were made over the course of *weeks*. Is it easier for you to see how life could have advanced so quickly? Things becoming more complex and perfectly imperfect with every passing second as natural selection took place? \n\nI really hope this helped. It's my first time answering on this subreddit.",
"Analogies don't disprove science... if someone is trying to use an analogy to prove to you something is wrong instead of using facts that clearly show it's wrong, just don't listen to them.",
"[Here's a great article that answers your question.](_URL_3_)The point is that yes it's very unlikely that complex organisms will come together spontaneously, but it's not unlikely that the building blocks of an organism will come together spontaneously to form life and then gradually become more complex.\n\nAlso, it's hard for our brains to comprehend the infinite amount of time and space available for these things to happen. Given infinite time the odds are actually very good. [Mathematical proof is here.](_URL_2_)\n\nEdit:clarity",
"You want to watch [this video](_URL_4_) which demonstrates how evolution really works. It's a very simple model, but it captures the essential features of natural selection.\n\nThe first minute and a half of the video doesn't really contain anything fundamentally important; actually it's kind of offensively-worded, so I skipped it in the link above. The rest, however, is an excellent demonstration.\n\n > DNA information and nucleic acids were compared to words, while paper is like the bodies ability to read DNA.\n\nThis really isn't the best analogy to use. It would be better to think of a full genome (all of the genes) as the paper, and the individual genes as words. Not all the genes get used, when you write something -- in fact, only a few genes (words) get used. What makes a genome (the paper) a good genome (worth reading) isn't just which genes (words) are used, but it's how those genes (words) are organized. A good paper might start with \"Roses are red, violets are blue,\" but the same paper with the words in a different order (\"Are red are, roses violets blue\") is going to be nonsense. Order matters.\n\nThe \"information\" that creates complexity isn't in the basic, structural genes. It's in the regulatory genes which turn the structural genes on and off, in the *sequencing*.\n\n > Sure paper and ink have a chance of creating themselves, but the odds of having them come together to form anything legible are very slim.\n\nThis is not evolution. The theory of evolution says *nothing whatsoever* about how the paper or ink got created in the first place. *That* theory is called the theory of \"abiogenesis\" -- which literally means, \"creation from nonliving matter.\"\n\nIf you are by chance a Christian, then you already believe in the theory of abiogenesis because your Bible tells you so -- the Bible says that Man was created from the dust of the Earth. Dust is nonliving. So you already \"know\" that Man was created from nonliving materials, it shouldn't be surprising to you that there are scientific theories which are along the same lines.\n\nThe theory of evolution, however, doesn't say anything about how life originated -- it only speaks about how already-existing life changes over time, to suit its environment.\n\n > The odds of forming information for incredibly complex organisms are almost nonexistent, even over billion or trillions of years! Right? \n\nNot really. As long as the basic building blocks for life exist to begin with, then as time passes, simple organizations of the basic building blocks will tend to become more complex, out of the need to survive in a changing environment. The only thing really driving this change is the need to survive.\n\nIf the only organisms that survive are the ones that which are best suited to their environment (i.e. the ones that have complex changes which help them survive), then after *any* amount of time, great or small, the overall population will tend to become more complex. Given a small amount of time, only a small amount of complexity will arise. Given a large amount of time (say, billions of years), there will be more complexity. Given even *more* time (say, trillions of years), there will be still more complexity.\n\nThe basic building blocks of life don't really change much -- it's how those building blocks are organized that changes, and gives rise to complexity. When you hear things like \"98% of DNA is shared between mice and humans,\" most of that 98% are the basic building blocks of life. The other ~2% are the *instructions* for how to arrange those building blocks, to produce either a mouse, or a human, or anything else. Humans are made up of cells, cells are made up of cellular structures like the nucleus, cell wall, etc. So are mice made up of these same basic structures. And plants, and fungi, and all other life. There are some differences, sure, but the biggest differences are in how these structures are arranged, which structures get used and which don't get used.\n\nIt's a lot like building a computer program. When you write a computer program, you use \"standard libraries\" which contain routines for simple tasks, like writing text to a screen, or taking user input, or writing to files, or sending data over a network. It doesn't matter what kind of program you write, your program will inevitably use some of these routines. Some, but certainly not all. And what makes your program different is the order in which it calls these routines -- not the routines themselves.\n\nLikewise with life -- humans and all other creatures have *tons* of genes that simply never get activated/expressed, because our genome never calls for them. We *have* basically all the building blocks in our genome, like a dictionary of words that we can use when writing our paper. But the information/complexity doesn't come from the words alone, it comes from the organization of the words and the choices of which words get used. Natural selection driven by our environment is what ends up making those choices about which words to use and how to organize them. It starts out with very simple phrases, and the bad phrases die and the good phrases live on and become part of the paper. If you have only 10 words available to you, \"I,\" \"you,\" \"dance,\" \"run,\" \"eat,\" \"sleep,\" \"on,\" \"grass,\" \"to,\" and \"bacon,\" not every combination will be meaningful. You might try combinations like \"run eat\" or \"on dance\" or \"I bacon,\" and they will all be stupid. But eventually you find a viable combination like \"I run,\" or \"you sleep,\" or \"you eat bacon,\" and those phrases get kept in the paper (survive) while the bad phrases get thrown out (die). Eventually, by keeping enough good phrases, and building on them, you get even better phrases like \"You eat bacon,\" or \"I run on grass,\" and pretty soon you are writing a good and meaningful paper.\n\nHope that makes sense.",
"As other posters have said (but I will try to state simply), the missing point is natural selection. Think of it like this:\n\n* You have 100 pieces of paper, each with 100 random words.\n* You pick out the pieces of paper that contain the word \"live\" and destroy the rest.\n* You copy each of the surviving papers exactly twice and randomly change 2 out of 100 words on each new copy.\n* With this new, second generation, you remove all of the pieces of paper that now do NOT contain the word \"live\" (which a few won't, because of the random 2 word changes).\n* After repeating this process a few times (until you have at least 100 pieces of paper again), you change the rule: only pages with the word \"second\" will survive.\n* Repeat the whole process a couple of times.\n\nWhat will happen? \n\nWell the first thing you'll notice is that once you hit the second rule-set, you'll still have MOST of the pages with the word \"live\" on it, even though it's no longer required. Why? Because it WAS required at one point, and we're copying those pages to make our new ones. Sure, a very few will lose the word \"live\" through the random changes, but most won't.\n\nThrough this process of preserving only certain pages, and reproducing those pages, you could wind up with poetry.\n\nIn evolution, these \"rules\" are called \"selection pressures.\" Examples might be opposable thumbs, or the ability to outrun your main predator.\n\nThe amazing thing is that these traits can build upon eachother and change as the environment changes, and old traits will tend to stick around even when they're no longer needed.\n\nNatural selection and the pressures placed on us by our environment are really important when talking about how evolution works.\n\nEDIT: One thing I often hear theists say in response to this is \"Well, doesn't the fact that the rules lined up perfectly to make humans mean there MUST be a designer?\" No, not necessarily. Something extremely complicated and beautiful can come from randomness - just look at fractals and self-similarity in nature. Complexity CAN and DOES emerge from randomness. \"But what are the odds of that?\" you might ask. Well, since it DID happen, the odds of it happening are 100%. Sure, from the perspective of the initial conditions the probability may seem low. But it DID happen, so the odds are pretty good :)",
"Evolution is not an explanation of where life came from, but an explanation of how species - which are already established by whatever means - can change over time. People who claim to know where life came from using evolution don't know what they're talking about.",
"Oh man, I remember raging hard at this analogy in a college philosophy paper (chemistry major checking in, it was a blow-off course). \n\nInk doesn't write itself on paper. Atoms and molecules, however, do form chemical bonds by themselves (or with external stimuli such as heat or light). That's the exact point where the analogy breaks down. Someone else mentioned the Urey-Miller experiment as a perfect example of normal conditions randomly creating the building blocks of life by themselves, without any external arrangement or genetic element. And keep in mind, it didn't happen immediately. It was something like 10 with 35 zeroes atoms at the surface interacting a functionally countless number of times about a billion years before life began. All this to create very, very simple self-propagating life forms. Under the ideal conditions that Earth presents, it was inevitable. \n\nIf you must use ink and paper as an analogy, think of it like this: pretend that ink and paper do create themselves by nature, and you see a trillion times a trillion times a trillion letters being written by themselves every second (which reflects the interaction between atoms and molecules). After a shit-ton of random gibberish (maybe years), you will eventually randomly get the sentence: \"This sentence will cause the ink to form legible sentences much like this one.\" A fairly simple sentence that, by definition, will provide the environment necessary to recreate itself. This represents simple self-replicating chemical compounds that, after millions of more years, randomly acquired more atoms and molecules that also follow the same instructions of self-replication but also serve additional functions. Those additional functions are vocabulary, grammar rules, and punctuation. They don't automatically form War and Peace or The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (RNA and DNA) but they provide the founding \"rules\" for all future ink and paper interactions to follow. Those books aren't formed randomly from the letters, but they were formed by a gradual progression of more complex stylistic advancements from the original rules of grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary, just like DNA was formed from a gradual building process rather than randomly from a shit ton of carbons, nitrogens, hydrogens, oxygens, and sulfurs, which is what I interpreted as your particular stumbling block.",
"The development of DNA as a system is the random part. Theoreoman mentioned that the first DNA strands were likely very short (in fact, the very first strands were likely [self-replicating RNA strands](_URL_5_), but that's not the point), and the structure of DNA is very simplistic with only 4 base pairs, but that simple foundation allowed for the information to be sustained over multiple generations (with some variation from mutations). Once you have that simple random event leading to DNA coding for proteins, natural selection (and sexual selection, random mutation, etc) takes over and shapes the ecological landscape. This is fundamentally why ALL life uses the same DNA- > RNA- > Protein system; all cells are derived from that original procell with the spontaneously occurring nucleotide sequences. To fit with your analogy, it would be similar to the transition from doodling to letters to words; once you've created a formalized alphabet and assigned meaning to the shapes, communication allows for an extreme expansion of language in a very nonrandom way.",
"The problem with reasoning by analogy is that you'll usually get the wrong answer, since all analogies are flawed. Analogies are good ways to bridge someones gap to help them understand a new concept by comparing to an old concept, but they're absolutely terrible as a way to reason about something.\n\nFor primitive life to exist I don't see why you need something to interpret the DNA (this is actually called a ribosome). All you need is DNA to start copying itself, not something to interpret the DNA like a ribosome. Once you have copying down, you can start to spread yourself everywhere. Once you've spread everywhere, there's a much greater chance that a mutation will lead to something beneficial, like a ribosome, or something else that gets you closer to what we now call life."
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} | Curious Theist Here
The more I've been reading, the more evolution is acceptable. However, I've been reading theist articles as well. I've recently read a very interesting point that I'd like some feedback on. DNA information and nucleic acids were compared to words, while paper is like the bodies ability to read DNA. Sure paper and ink have a chance of creating themselves, but the odds of having them come together to form anything legible are very slim. The odds of forming information for incredibly complex organisms are almost nonexistent, even over billion or trillions of years! Right? Maybe I'm missing something, but I'm interested to see comments | [
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Subsets and Splits