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5w4bk2 | How can we be sure of the precision and accuracy of modern measurement tools? | Suppose I have defined a 'redditmeter' [rm] in some acceptable way (that is - I can always know that this 'thing' that I measure is indeed rm units in size). After a few months, a new way was invented to measure 0.5rm, so on so forth - we get to the smallest scales.
I logically conclude that this process is a very crude way of what happened in the way we humans measure things like length, weight etc.
But how can we be sure that the scales we measure today are actually accurate? if we can measure 0.5rm with 99% accuracy, then measuring 0.25rm might have even less accuracy, going all the way to 1*10^-[integer] rm.
How can we know that our measurement tools are actually acceptably precise?
Or to put it in another words - How do we check our most modern and precise measurement tools?
*Edit*
Thank you for your current attempts of answering, but my question wasn't how can we be sure that a kilogram is a kilogram.
To clarify furthermore - How can we be sure that the most modern measurement device actually measures with a good enough precision and not with it's measurement fault being 50% of accuracy (50% of times or 50% of given value). | askscience | {
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"Currently, most units of measurements are derived from fundamental physical properties. For example, the meter is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds. There is no ambiguity or inaccuracy in this definition, because it's defined relative to an unchanging constant of the universe. \n\nIf you look up various other units, you'll see that they are defined in this same sort of way. This was done to avoid any confusion as to the accuracy or measurement issues with picking a set of units.",
"Not sure if this is what you're asking but I'll try to chime in.\nOn the industry or production side, measurement assurance can be achieved by verifying a tool meets the requirements to successfully measure the measurand, typically using what is called a \"[Gauge R and R](_URL_0_)\".\nThere are of course other methods. For instance, ASME and ASTM provide guidance and documentation on measuring tools and setups for a particular measurand so you can make sure your tool accuracy doesn't significantly contribute to the error.\n\n\nIn the calibration side of things, there is an industry set up to verify that tools are traceable back to the SI units through an appropriate governing body (NIST in the US, NFL in UK, lots of others...). There is strict documentation on verifying the tools accuracy, in the past a loophole in ANSI z540 allowed for a 4:1 Test Accuracy Ratio to be used meaning the calibration standard needed to be at least 4 times more accurate than the unit under test. This has given way with the hesitant adoption of ANSI z540.3 which now uses a 2% Probability of False Accept, which requires the lab to use the Measurement Uncertainty instead of Accuracy.\n\nAt any rate, there are strict guidelines in place to verify the tool is performing within its manufactured specifications.\nWith a properly calibrated tool, a proper measurement system, and possibly control charts and check samples, you can assure that your instrument does not contribute to the error in a significant way.",
"Typically, it is through repeated measurements of the same object/event. Taking your example, I may measure an object and find that it is 0.75 redditmeters. If I am uncertain in my measuring tool's accuracy, I can measure the object multiple times–maybe I get 0.74, 0.745, and 0.78 redditmeters for my new measurements. I can then use statistics to compute a confidence interval around my measurements. In the above example, the 95% confidence interval would be: 0.75375 ± 0.018. \n\n\nThe interval is calculated using the mean and standard deviation from the 4 measurements. You may want to look into *measurement error* for more information.\n\n\nEdit: See the **Distribution Curves** section [here](_URL_1_) for more information.",
"In practice, it works like this\n\nA primary standard is created, based on physical constants. The primary standard is usually located in a lab, and is expensive and complex to use. It is used to calibrate secondary standards, which are distributed to users\n\nSecondary standards are used to calibrate working standards, which are used to calibrate the measurement tools used in the shop\n\nDepending on requirements, periodic re-calibration is often required. The calibration process is controlled by paperwork and oversight by inspectors\n\nI used to work in metrology\n\n_URL_2_",
"To your revised question: We can never be sure an instrument of any kind is measuring with a good enough precision until we have defined what good enough precision means.\n\nI once had a client walk into our machine shop and ask for an aluminum part to be custom made within a millionth of an inch of the specified dimension. We agreed because we knew he couldn't measure that close. The part would change dimension more than that from the heat of his hand.\n\nThe simplest means of accurate measurement of something really small, like a few millionths of an inch, is an optical comparator. It basically projects an image of the small feature onto a large screen. We know the precise amplification. We can simply compare the shadow on the screen to a cardboard template made to the same proportions, and tell with excellent accuracy if the part feature is 2 millionths high or 5 millionths high. We can also tell if the angles on the part are within spec.\n\nAnd there you have the most important phrase: \"within spec\". Measurement only has meaning relative to an expectation. \n\nThe front tube of the Hubble Telescope has a series of graphite rings of varying inside diameter. They are spaced a few inches apart. The function like a pinhole camera, causing the light entering the tube from different angles from the axis of the tube to be absorbed, never reaching the lens of the telescope. These all reduce noise in the images captured by Hubble. \n\nSo the accuracy of those images depends on doing the best we can with all the operational parameters we are faced with, and with the technologies at hand. \n\nBTW, those graphite rings, or baffles, were machined along the inside diameter to a taper, such that they became translucent near the inside diameter. Does anyone here know why? We on the shop floor who did that grinding of the taper never learned why.",
"Let's assume you're a land surveyor with the latest mm accurate total station. All over the world there are survey marks set up that very accurately give a position on the Earth. Firstly, you will need to figure out where you are by 'shooting' some of these known marks. Say you can see 5 marks, you can find where each one should be based off known records. Then calculate where your machine believes each one is compared to the others. Is it the same? Congratulations, your machine is well calibrated. Better total stations with better optics will get more precise and accurate results.\n\nThis is the basics of how land surveying is generally done. Find out where you are by shooting known points, make your own new points once you know exactly where you are on the planet.\n\nOther measurement devices will have slightly different methods. Usually though starting at a known point, take a bunch of measurements and end up at the same point. If your reading of the start and end point (Which is the same point) is actually the same, then the equipment is good.",
"If a new method of measuring a reddimeter was developed I would expect an organisation like NIST to deliberate over the science of how it works in order to understand it's accuracy and precision and eventually make a ruling on whether this method should be certified as a measurement standard (or indeed alters our understanding of existing reference materials). It would be good to find out if such a situation has arisen before and how it was handled.",
"So for SI units we have the kilogram, which is a physical object made of platinum kept safe in France. All measuring units are weighed against that kilogram. So we know exactly what a kilogram is because we have an object that we all agree is a kilogram. You could take a fancy new scale and calibrate it to the official kilogram, but most kilograms weights are accurate enough. \n\nThis is true of pretty much all standard SI units. Because measurement units are entirely human conceived and arbitrary, all that really matters is that we agree on.\n\nMeasuring technology will never be perfect, it just has to be perfect enough for our own uses.",
"Most tools are now calibrated using very precise and accurate electronic measuring equipment, touch off probes, radial arms, gauges, and many other means. Some electronic equipment includes anything from lasers to equipment that measure the resistance or checks the inductance against a control, and even more devices and means of calibration. Other means of equipment calibration is done with very precisely measured sets of weights and scales. These weights and scales have been so precisely and accurately calibrated that they have a shelf life do to the decay of the particles that make up the sets weights and scales used to check equipment calibration. Equipment can now easily be calibrated to a very high degree of precision and accuracy.\n\nYes,\nThere is a paradox as to precision and accuracy in wave functions and pin pointing your location in space. As you zoom in more and more, your location can become next to impossible to pinpoint and accuracy is decreased... zooming out has the same effect... and in space it becomes very difficult to figure out what is actually traveling where, when, and how fast... thus where are you, how fast are you moving, and where are you? \n\nHope this was somewhat helpful.\n\nEdit: For quality information check with the International Standards Organization.",
"I know it's not exactly what you're asking, but some \"measurements\" have changed.\n\nI'm a musician we have this thing called \"concert pitch\" which is generally A = 440hz. \"A\" being the pitch most orchestras tune to. It means that if I'm reading a piece of music, the notes I'm playing are exactly in tune with someone else, somewhere else, playing the same notes.\n\nHistorically, musicians used to tune to much lower versions of the pitch \"A\". Like A = 415 (which we would now call G#). But since they had no way to measure the exact vibrations to calibrate tuning devices (mainly tuning forks), tuning has varied over time and even over different locations.\n\nNow that we have scientific instruments that can measure sound waves exactly, musicians all over the world can use the same version concert pitch.\n\nExtra fun fact, some orchestras like using a slightly higher version of concert pitch... like A = 442. I actually like the brighter sound this can make, but most people can't tell the difference."
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} | How can we be sure of the precision and accuracy of modern measurement tools?
Suppose I have defined a 'redditmeter' [rm] in some acceptable way (that is - I can always know that this 'thing' that I measure is indeed rm units in size). After a few months, a new way was invented to measure 0.5rm, so on so forth - we get to the smallest scales. I logically conclude that this process is a very crude way of what happened in the way we humans measure things like length, weight etc. But how can we be sure that the scales we measure today are actually accurate? if we can measure 0.5rm with 99% accuracy, then measuring 0.25rm might have even less accuracy, going all the way to 1*10^-[integer] rm. How can we know that our measurement tools are actually acceptably precise? Or to put it in another words - How do we check our most modern and precise measurement tools? *Edit* Thank you for your current attempts of answering, but my question wasn't how can we be sure that a kilogram is a kilogram. To clarify furthermore - How can we be sure that the most modern measurement device actually measures with a good enough precision and not with it's measurement fault being 50% of accuracy (50% of times or 50% of given value). | [
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1txe13 | Which one of these is more energy efficient? 1. Climbing a staircase skipping one step at a time. 2. Climbing a staircase without skipping any steps. | askscience | {
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"[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\n > This double-step strategy required a greater activity for propulsion during stance for the ankle and knee extensors. In summary, to maximize metabolic cost and muscular activity, we recommend a double-stair-climbing (skip a step) strategy.",
"Ok, so I did some back of the envelope calculations. I'm an engineer so I looked at the human body as a mechanism. It looks like [this.] (_URL_1_)\n\nIn order to your level, F, the force you're pushing the ground with, has to be greater the G, the force of your weight. G is your center of mass and you need to always keep it over your point of application for F, or you will loose balance.\n\nI assumed the following:\n\n1) Most of your body mass is concentrated above your legs. Lifting your legs requires energy also, but is far smaller than the energy requires do lift and move the body.\n\n2) The torque is generated in different ways in the body joints, but still, greater torque requires larger forces in your muscles, therefore, more energy. \n\nThe torque in the joints is\n\n M=F* L*Cos(alpha) \n\nAlpha - the angle between the vertical plane and the bone axis.\nL-Length of the bone segment\nF-The force with witch it acts upon the ground.\n\n~~You use the least energy when your body is the most upright. So, assuming we're right, our mechanism would use less energy when it executes movements where the bones are closest to vertical as possible. Therfore, if we climb 2 stairs 10 inches high, we should use less energy than climbing 1 stair 20 inches high.~~\n\n~~If my mechanism is correct, climbing stairs one by one uses less energy.~~\n\n~~We can complicate things A LOT, ans we might loose some efficiency in some spots, but overall, the results should be the same.~~\n\nEDIT: As BASE726 pointed out, though for higher angles the forces may be greater in the joints, we still use the same energy to climb a certain distance. We need the same energy in order to lift the body if you don't consider the losses. So my conclusions are FALSE. I need to know more about the way muscles act under loads and their efficiency if I am to jump to any conclusions.",
"None of the people who have answered this question have formulated the problem correctly, as far as I can see. This is not a physics problem, it is a biomechanical problem that is impossible to answer without more information. Here are some of the issues:\n1. It takes energy to stay upright, and not fall down because of gravity. Some leg positions will require more energy than others.\n2. Energy provision to the muscles is limited by the amount of oxygen that can be taken in at one time. The more energy efficient way of climbing the stairs may be influenced by cardiovascular load\n3. The rate of climbing stairs, the number of stairs, the height of the stairs, and the height, proportions, and muscular characteristics of the person in question climbing the stairs will also influence the result, particularly in light of the first two points.\n4. The muscular actions taken in climbing a number of stairs at once may be fundamentally different then climbing a single stair for all I know. \nAnyone trying to answer this question in terms of force, energy, and/or work is trying to use high school physics to solve a much more complicated problem.",
"Most people's answer to this don't take into account the basic energy expended to move your muscles. When you climb a large number of stairs the action will introduce muscle fatigue. Consider climbing 30 stories of 1 inch stairs vs 15 stories of 2 inch stairs by skipping. One would get much more fatigued earlier on if cycling through every step on 30 stories of stairs rather than skipping. I imagine there is not a single answer for the question and depend on the speed you're moving and the depth of stairs as well as length of the legs.",
"Since the total displacement in the vertical direction is equal, it's about which movement is more efficient, thus which has less redundant movement/exertion, like balancing (and other things not utilised for the upward movement). \n \nThis is why I think running up the stairs with a sustained speed would be best, because you would be constantly using your remaining upwards momentum, and after the first big push upwards you'll need less strong thrusts upwards to maintain momentum, and less energy is wasted on balance because you'd be done faster.\n \nThen again, this problem's answer differs per body. I'm sure for many bodies it would be less tiring to simply walk up the stairs, due to differing muscle efficiency and build etc, but in terms of pure energy efficiency per displacement, I am pretty sure the above would be the most efficient.",
"the latter. the more energy you exert per motion the less \"efficient\" that motion is.\n\nyou have two energy measurements here.\n\none is the energy requires to lift your mass up 1 or 2 steps at a time or a total of 2 steps in 2 different ways\n\nthis energy is the same.\n\nbut you also have the energy you have to expend to actually make your muscles do this. its pretty easy to verify this experimentally.\n\ngo walk up and down your steps twice.\n\nnow do it again taking 2 steps at a time. the difference is pretty pronounced even if your in very good physical condition.\n\nas wh44 points out of your already expending energy for \"SPEED\" than taking two steps at a time might be less tiring. but its still more \"energy\" than 1 step at a time at normal speed.",
"I did this experiment as a sophomore at MIT.\n\nI placed a series of scales (hooked up to data loggers) on stairs of different pitch and had people of different height walk up and down them. The scales were essentially rigid plates (a little travel). By integrating the force v time curve I found the change in momentum (impulse). Energy expenditure is the same regardless of step strategy (ignoring physiology - from an m*g*h standpoint).\n\nTo minimize impulse, one has to maintain a constant velocity vector of the bulk of the body, while the legs do their thing. When asked to walk normally it was found that a double step up almost always resulted in decreased total impulse - less bounce in the body. When instructed, people could \"glide\" up one at a time. I can't remember the results for descent.\n\nThe impact and results were very height dependent (both person and steps). I also documented some soft info from the participants. The goal in the end was to make some estimates and recommendations for optimizing energy harvesting stairs.",
"Without doing any calculations, I too am an engineer. Efficiencies of the human body aside, it will take about the same amount of energy to get to the top either way. Imagine two cars that both weigh 2000 lbs and have engines operating at 70% efficiency, one a porsche and the other a VW Bug. Both drive to the top of a hill as fast as they can. The porsche gets there first because it has much more power, but they both require the same amount of total energy And both have the same potential energy sitting at the top.\n\nOf course, in the real world, the porsche engine may operate at a lower efficiency at full throttle. And your body might operate at lower efficiency going 2 steps at a time, but in the end, I bet the difference isn't too great.",
"Taking a single step may require less energy, but less energy does not equal greater efficiency. Taking the double step strategy means you get up the stair case quicker. \n\nI'd personally expend the extra energy and get up the stairs quicker."
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} | Which one of these is more energy efficient? 1. Climbing a staircase skipping one step at a time. 2. Climbing a staircase without skipping any steps.
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1yp97p | How do we know days were shorter in the past? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfmiqlt",
"cfmoelc",
"cfmnbyt"
],
"text": [
"Geological tidal records show the daily/seasonal deposits of silt. Which show that the hours in a day during the reign of the dinosaurs was about 21 hours\n\nThe moon is the cause of the elongated days. Slowly slowing the Earth down.\n\nEdit: Just to clarify, the tides aren't the only contributor to the slow down of rotation of the Earth. Angular momentum and the tides contribute. \n\nThe main relation the tides have in regards to OPs question is that they have left behind evidence.",
"Radiolab actually did a short about this recently:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThey use coral reefs as a point of reference in determining how the length of a day on Earth has changed. They also go over the length of a day on other planets; Apparently you could run towards the sunset on Venus and prevent it from setting.",
"Coral grows by excreting calcium carbonate. This process stops at night. With a microscope a person can count the days of separate seasons of coral. This is true for fossilized coral as well. There are basically lines that form. Count the lines, that's the number of days. \n\n[Source](_URL_1_)\n\nIf someone wants to clear up my cluster of confusion please do so. I heard about this on a podcast, probably radio lab."
],
"score": [
72,
17,
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/times-they-are-changin/",
"http://www.miguasha.ca/mig-en/a_devonian_day.php"
]
} | How do we know days were shorter in the past?
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invl4 | If I want to work in an observatory, what type of degree should I get? | I'm currently brushing up on all my highschool math that I forgot while earning my bachelor's degree in art school. What degree do I need to work in an observatory, mapping the heavens? I'm seriously considering this. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c25a6dc",
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"text": [
"I worked at an observatory, and am now working on a PhD in astronomy. Nearly all of the telescope operators I know, both at my former employer and at many other sites, don't have PhD's. Many of them have a masters in physics or astronomy, however. Some have engineering backgrounds.\n\nWorking at an observatory usually means living somewhere a bit remote. Some of my friends who are working at telescopes live in Chile, Hawaii, New Mexico, California. You have to be ok living not in a big city, usually. Telescopes need to be away from city lights, after all!\n\nThe public doesn't often visit telescopes. Some, like in Hawaii, are visited frequently. Many are only visited by the public a few times a year.\n\nResearch astronomers these days will either travel to the telescope only for their specific observations, or not at all (a growing trend). There are almost always on-site permanent staff. This is probably the job you'd want. There's not a central job repository for these jobs, but this is probably the closest you'll find: \n_URL_0_\n\nWorking at a telescope can be an AWESOME job. Many nights it's a total breeze, things run smoothly, neat science is happening, interesting people to talk to! Some nights... you fight clouds/rain, it's freezing-ass cold the remote observer is an ass, and the instrument they wanted is broken indefinitely. \n\nSCIENCE!",
"You'd want physics or astronomy. Engineering would probably cover a lot of the stuff too.\n\n*But* it depends on what you want to do exactly. If you want to do real scientific research, then you'll basically need a PhD in astronomy, but then you generally don't actually *use* telescopes, at least not in a hands-on sort of way. But if you want to operate a telescope for tourists and show people around a planetarium night sky, then you'd do better with just messing around yourself - go visit your local observatory as much as you can, get your own telescope and get to know the sky. There is likely an astronomy club in your home-town as well, so spend time attending lectures and star-parties and just get more and more familiar with the world of astronomy.",
"Depends on what you want to do. As an astronomer I rarely go to telescopes. You should get a degree in engineering and learn how to fix things. A degree in optics is also an idea because then you understand mirrors. But astronomy is not what you want if you want hands on with a telescope."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
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]
} | If I want to work in an observatory, what type of degree should I get?
I'm currently brushing up on all my highschool math that I forgot while earning my bachelor's degree in art school. What degree do I need to work in an observatory, mapping the heavens? I'm seriously considering this. | [
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|
klyu1 | Could one freeze an electric dipole moment into ice? | This [comment](_URL_0_) got me thinking. Suppose we applied a large voltage differential across a container of water as it froze. (and then removed this voltage differential after freezing) Would the molecules of water freeze *more* along this orientation than just randomly? What if we dissolved some ions in the water (say salt), would there be a concentration of + ions near the - plate and - ions near the + plate? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ld1s6",
"c2ld2mt",
"c2ldr5n"
],
"text": [
"Interesting. What you are asking is whether you can make a permanent electret out of ice. \n\nI don't it's possible for water/ice to have a persistent oriented dipole. It's too easy for water molecules to exchange protons with one another (they essentially trade around hydrogen bonds and real O-H bonds) which re-orients the dipoles. This is just one possible mechanism for dielectric relaxation in ice. It could be that there is sufficient ambient energy even in very cold ice for the individual H2O molecules can simply re-orient themselves. The rate of dielectric relaxation has actually been measured for some forms of ice at 0 C. So, I suppose it must be possible to set up a dipole polarization but I think it does not persist for very long at practical temperatures. \n\nI don't think it would be practical at all with ionic water/ice. The charge mobility through ice is much too high. Protons are especially mobile in ice. They'll just move to balance any charge gradient that you set up. \n\nTypically electret materials are made up of really huge, heavy dipolar molecules that have trouble re-orienting or have ions trapped in regions with really terrible charge mobility. Or both. \n\nSo no ice-bullet-electric-cannon for you. :)\n\n\nedited to minimize jargon",
"are you asking if the oxygen and hydrogens would all point the same way? (maybe not all?)\n\ni don't think it would work. i think if you aligned the water molecules in that direction by force, then it would be very hard for them to form the crystal lattice. i dont think it would even freeze, and if it did, then it would *have* to be in the \"correct\" orientation. having said that, there are like 15 different ice crystal lattice structures, so maybe it would freeze.\n\nedit: after looking at the different crystals, i don't think its possible.",
"This reminds of me of work we do in our lab... We take paramagnetic beads ~1 micron in diameter and turn on a magnetic field to align them in chains. Then we link them with DNA and turn off the field to get floppy bead-chains."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/klo04/can_a_bullet_made_of_ice_feasibly_be_fired_into_a/c2lbpu6"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Could one freeze an electric dipole moment into ice?
This [comment](_URL_0_) got me thinking. Suppose we applied a large voltage differential across a container of water as it froze. (and then removed this voltage differential after freezing) Would the molecules of water freeze *more* along this orientation than just randomly? What if we dissolved some ions in the water (say salt), would there be a concentration of + ions near the - plate and - ions near the + plate? | [
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|
5i2uuk | Why is SO2 possible, but not S2O? | Or for example why is H2SO4 possible, but not H2OS4? This question may sound dumb, but I can't work it out. Sulphur and oxygen have the same amount of electrons in the valence shell, so shouldn't they be interchangeable in compounds? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"db573rc",
"db56y9b",
"db572uo"
],
"text": [
"You are correct that sulfur and oxygen have the same valence electrons but that is only one part of the picture. the other is electronegativity. \n\nOxygen is more electronegative than sulfur, so it has a stronger tendency to \"hold onto electrons\". In H2SO4, the oxygens are \"borrowing\" electrons from the central sulfur. In H2OS4 the sulfur atoms would need to borrow electrons from a central oxygen atom, and that is unlikely.\n\nTheres a more thorough explaination involving the different electron orbitals (sulfur has its valence electrons in the 3sp shell, oxygen is the 2sp, so the electrons are closer to the nucleus) but i am not very well versed in that",
"One problem with interchanging Sulfur and oxygen is that sulfur can break the octet rule as in H2SO4 in which it has six bonds around it, while oxygen can't. This is due to Sulfur's position in the periodic table. Its valence electrons are in the n=3 shell and it can utilize the 3d subshell to form additional bonds. Oxygen cannot readily do this because its valence electrons reside in the n=2 shell. Thus oxygen can only have eight electrons around it in a compound, typically being composed of two bonds and two lone pairs of electrons.",
"O has a valence shell of 2s2 2p4 and S a 3s2 3p4 configuration. Both have two upaired p's so should only want to form two bonds, right? Although there is some controversy about this, the way I learned it is that the 3p4 electrons can be promoted to the 3d orbital, which is only possible for Sulfur because the d orbital emerges only in the 3rd row of the periodic table. This enables it to have up to 6 bonds, as we see in SO4."
],
"score": [
13,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is SO2 possible, but not S2O?
Or for example why is H2SO4 possible, but not H2OS4? This question may sound dumb, but I can't work it out. Sulphur and oxygen have the same amount of electrons in the valence shell, so shouldn't they be interchangeable in compounds? | [
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|
jomy5 | What's the purpose behind sympathetic embarrassment? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"[Mirror Neurons?](_URL_0_) Empathy is a useful adaptation for social animals.",
"[This is a pretty great video by RSA Animate about it, and I'm pretty sure it covers mirror neurons in it.](_URL_1_)",
"It is a socialization thing - you learn how to act appropriately because you feel it when someone else does something wrong. You would wince if you saw a guy drop a big boulder on his hand. Your brain is teaching you to associate one type of action with one type of sentiment. A couple other people mentioned \"mirror neurons\" - I'm not positive that covers it. I think it has more to do with \"Theory of mind\" and understanding that the events you are witnessing cause emotions to someone from a different perspective.",
"I'm guessing it evolved so you can learn from other peoples mistakes.",
"There could be many positive gains from such a system, but we have a quite general empathy system, and I don't know at what level the decision is made."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neurons#Empathy",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7AWnfFRc7g"
]
} | What's the purpose behind sympathetic embarrassment?
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1f5hnk | If i flipped a coin from the top of, say, The Empire State Building, in a perfect environment would it continue spinning all the way down to the bottom? Would it stabilize? Would the rate of spinning increase? | Wondering if eventually it would stabilize itself and fall flat or vertically, or just keep spinning. | askscience | {
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"It would for a little while (several seconds) use up the energy imparted on it to continue spinning as it fell(this would be \"absorbed\" by the surrounding air). Then it would start to attempt to find its most efficient path which would mean minimizing air resistance, this would not be sustainable due to minor variations in air resistance and the coin not being shaped in an aerodynamic way (think bullet or missile) This would create a seemingly random series of flips, stalls, and reverses as it fell and gained speed. It would for very short intervals gain speed as it fell in its most aerodynamic way (on its side) and slow down in very short intervals (falling on its side) and this would change randomly and very quickly as it went from spinning to not spinning to spinning and so on as it fell. It would basically fall in a very random way, even if you threw it as if it was rolling (falling on its side) it would eventually start to randomly flip as it used up the imparted energy and became a non-aerodynamic object falling at terminal velocity (it would not be a constant speed as i have described above).\n\nSource (physics studies at University)",
"It looks like this has been researched a bunch in the past. Here are two good references on the matter, though both involve objects falling in liquids. The second actually references to the first.\n\n* [Steady and Unsteady Motions and Wakes of Freely Falling Disks](_URL_3_)\n* [The Behavior of Large Particles Falling in Quiescent Liquids](_URL_5_)\n\nBoth sources compare the moment of the inertia of the falling object to the Reynolds number for flow around the penny. Here's [Figure 8](_URL_0_) and [Figure 11](_URL_4_) from the first source. The figures imply that above a Reynolds number of 100 the disc would not fall in a stable manner and will tumble or flutter.\n\nTo save some calculation time, I pulled some numbers from [an old USENET post that estimates the terminal velocity of a penny](_URL_2_) or you can use this [book page which also estimates terminal velocity](_URL_1_).\n\nFrom the first source, the terminal velocity in the face down state is 35 ft/s and in the edge down state is 84 ft/s. From the second source, the terminal velocity face down is 11 m/s = 36 ft/s, which is pretty good agreement. Using some numbers from the book link we can estimate the Reynolds number (density\\*diameter\\*velocity/abs viscosity) in each state is (1.225 kg/m^3 \\* 0.019 m \\* v m/s)/(2 x 10^-5 kg/m*s) is \n12800 for face down and 29000 edge down. Since those are 2 orders of magnitude greater than 100, a penny in air will tumble or flutter (depending on the moment of inertia, see fig 11). I did this math a little hastily, so feel free to double check it or read the refs in more depth. There are some diagrams of the different modes of tumbling or fluttering in the first two sources.\n\n**TL;DR the penny would tumble (keep spinning) or flutter.**\n\nEdit: Since you asked about the rotations speeding up I went ahead and calculated the dimensionless moment of inertia based on eqn 2 in the first reference. Using density_penny=7140 kg/m^3, density_air = 1.225 kg/m^3, diameter = 0.019 m, thickness = 0.00155 m, you get I* = 23. Based on Fig 13 from the first ref (also Fig 11) we're off the chart in terms of I* by two orders of magnitude. I think the penny/air example pushes way outside the boundary of what they tested in the paper, so that correlation may not be valid. Not sure where to go next to estimate the rotation speed in free fall.",
"If the coin is perfectly balanced it will want to stabilize and fall flat. This is because as the ~~coil~~ coin is flipping, the side that is flipping towards the ground is moving faster and encountering more resistance than the side flipping away. Coins are light though so any tiny change in air density or direction will start it tumbling.\n\nI don't know how long it would take to get close to stabilizing so if someone else could chime in (or tell me I'm way off), that would be great."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/KkXsRbG.png",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=gvjVXl3FR0IC&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135&dq=falling+penny+reynolds+number&source=bl&ots=YhO0FDga3z&sig=w9zrCqflNQTNS-zXJc0R_WPx0YI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YdGjUbOkJqakiQKa3YDQBA&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=falling%20penny%20reynolds%20number&f=false",
"http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/99/fallpenny",
"http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/71206/PFLDAS-7-2-197-1.pdf",
"http://i.imgur.com/ys9JdHA.png",
"http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0562c/report.pdf"
]
} | If i flipped a coin from the top of, say, The Empire State Building, in a perfect environment would it continue spinning all the way down to the bottom? Would it stabilize? Would the rate of spinning increase?
Wondering if eventually it would stabilize itself and fall flat or vertically, or just keep spinning. | [
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50suy3 | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Carin Bondar with all you ever wanted to know about animal mating and my book, "Wild Sex". Ask Me Anything! | Dr. Carin Bondar is the author of [Wild Sex: The Science Behind Mating in the Animal Kingdom](_URL_0_), just published Pegasus Books. She received a PhD in population ecology from the University of British Columbia and has since hosted a variety of online and television programs, working with Scientific American, National Geographic Wild and the Science Channel. She is currently the lead presenter on Discovery World's "Brave New World with Stephen Hawking"and a featured presenter on all four seasons of "Outrageous Acts of Science" (Discovery, Science Channel). Her independent web series "Wild Sex" has engaged over 55 million viewers and was the subject of a presentation given at TED Global in Edinburgh in 2013 which received over 2.3 million views. She lives in British Columbia, Canada.
I'll be on around 4 PM EDT (21 UT), ask me anything!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"What percent of the animal kingdom has recreational sex?",
"With animals that mate for life, like penguins, how common is cheating?",
"This is probably a really sensitive topic, but to the non expert rape seems to be a pretty normal thing with wild animals. How common is it really? Also, are there any problems, health or otherwise, that it causes? I'm also interested in hearing about any advantages, disadvantages, or evolutionary adaptations that may be interesting to the discussion.",
"If you could have humans and any other species trade the way we reproduce, which animal would you pick?",
"Let's get a little weird here (and I'm being serious.)\n\nAre there documented cases of paedophilia and bestiality (i.e. organisms mating with completely different organisms) within the animal kingdom, apart from humans?",
"Hi Dr. Bondar in your opinion where on the scale of animal sex frequency do humans fall? IE: behind rabbits, bit ahead of tortoise",
"What is the most unique breeding pattern you have observed in the animal kingdom?",
"How many animals engage in homosexual behaviour, and aren't homosexual animals the ultimate argument against 'homosexuality is unnatural' arguments?",
"I know plenty of animals will do a lot to impress a mate in order to have sex, but do any animals celebrate afterwards? If so, what's the most interesting post-coitus ritual among them?",
"Hello!\n\nIt's been shown that in species that have recreational sex, such as humans, bottlenose dolphins, and bonobos, female sexual pleasure and climax has a clear role to play and is evident in the behaviour of the animals. In species that purely have sex for procreation, however, is it evident that females enjoy sexual pleasure/orgasm, and is there an evolutionary benefit?",
"Is pubic hair in humans there due to sexual selection, or is it due to other benefits (preventing skin abrasions and subsequent infections, for example)? What is the evidence either way? Are there any other animals with pubic hair just around the genitalia?",
"Most humans are preoccupied with the notion of \"making it last.\" But whenever I see a nature doc, the whole act seems to take a minute or even seconds between animals. Why is this? Are there any species who go at it for, say 15-30 minutes or more?",
"Are there any animals other than humans that engage in anal sex?",
"I've always wondered, do any animals actually feel pleasure when mating the same as humans do, or is it more so for relief like when they're in heat or haven't mated in a while?",
"Hello and thanks for doing this AMA!\n\nWhat percentage of the \"sounds of nature\" is mating calls?",
"Hi Carin - love you in Outrageous Acts of Science (which is my and my 10 year old son's favorite show to watch together). \n\nI know the Liger and Tigon species happened in captivity, but has there been an instance in the wild where two big cats of different species (let's say Lion and Leopard since they both live in the African Savannah) conceived a hybrid offspring?",
"Do pets born in the same litter (sibling male and female cats/dogs) who grow up together in a domestic household know they are siblings and therefore don't have a tendency to mate?",
"How do squids, octopi, cuttlefish, etc stab their mates with their tentacle to insert their spermataphores? I understand the whole mating process but just the fact that these animals stab their mates with a soft appendage confuses me.",
"What, in your opinion, is the most interesting behavior a species exhibits to attract a mate or encourage mating?",
"I had someone claim that humans are the only species that has sex \"face to face\". Is this true or there other animals that mate in positions where they look each other in the face?",
"I've heard that some female hyenas have a pseudo penis, I'm wondering how much of the animal kingdom has similar traits?",
"How prevalent are sexually transmitted diseases in the wild? Have animals ever developed some sort of resistance against them?",
"I know that lions have a harem. But do those lionesses get jealous each other?",
"Dr Bondar. Any relation to the other Dr. Bondar? Roberta Bondar, the neurologist that went to space as Canada's first female astronaut? I saw her speak when I was a teenager, around 20 years ago.\n\nBack on topic though, do you see any evidence that wild animals are capable of making the connection between sex and pregnancy, or are we the only animals that have figured it out?\n\nEdit: GAH! I just found a picture of you, Chris Hadfield, and Derek Muller! That's like a supergeek trio!",
"Why are ducks so inclined towards forced copulation? If I remember correctly, female ducks have actually evolved complex spiral vaginas to try and make it harder to be raped, which in turn has forced male ducks to evolve ridiculously complex corkscrew like penises to be able to penetrate. Why would it be evolutionarily advantageous to have a mating system like this?",
"I've always been oddly fascinated with animal penises, by which I mean I like to Google them because some are really strange, not some kind of bestiality fetish, which penis do you think is the oddest and why?",
"Dear Dr. Bondar,\n\nThank you for your AMA, your work has always interested me and I have found that some of [your endeavors](_URL_0_) in particular help capture students' attention in ways few others manage. I have two questions.\n\nHow has your work influenced your life the most?\n\nWhat was your most exciting revelation?\n\nThanks!",
"How common is rape in the animal kingdom? Are they essentially just rapeing each other or are there forms of consent?",
"Do animals tend to have erogenous zones like humans do? (I.e. The nipples)",
"Hello, Dr. Bondar! I loved the TED Presentation (going to watch the series too now). I have two questions:\n\n1. Do you have examples of animals that \"enhance\" their looks, like with stuff from around them in nature or something else, to attract a possible mating partner? (Like humans do plastic surgery, dye their hair, making their penises larger, using jewelry and so on)\n\n2. Do you have any book recommendations on the topic of sex? (I have already read books like Mary Roach's Bonk and Sex At Dawn by Christopher Ryan, among several others)",
"What species are exceptionally fertile? I don't mean frequency or large litters, I mean most likely to successfully conceive from one \"encounter\". What characteristics of said species contribute to this?",
"Ethics (and taste) aside, are there any non-human primates that humans could mate with that could result in hybred offspring? Think ligers, etc.",
"Hi, I was wondering, you know the movie Jurassic Park? There's a scene where the dinosaur breeding lab scientist says to Jeff Goldblum \"You're implying that a group composed entirely of females will breed?\" Do you agree with me that this is the most absurd moment in an otherwise classic film? \n\nSecondarily, the presence of humanity and the sprawling civilization has had influence on wildlife in a lot of ways few of them good. Displacing animal populations, hunting, introduction of new species. And some animals have adapted to living in the vicinity of humans. I'm wondering if there are cases where the reproductive strategies and behaviors of different animals has been affected by the presence of humanity substantially. In the sense of cycles of estrus and litter sizes, age of sexual maturity or age at insemination in those cases where its substantially different, rearing of young, etc. Fundamentally balances exist in terms of how many offspring, how much energy is invested in them compared to likelihood of survival. Has humanity changed the equations of reproduction in nature?",
"Hi Dr. Bondar! What species has the most elaborate mating or breeding rituals? Which species practice monogamy?",
"What other animals apart from humans and chimpanzes masturbate?",
"Do you truly believe humans mate for life?",
"In humans we can take medications and things to help make us more fertile and keep a healthy pregancy. And those that can't concieve can adopt or in extreme situations steal other's babies. How do animals handle infertility?",
"Okay doc, which animal has the biggest member in the animal kingdom?",
"Do you have any thoughts on evolutionarily-counterintuitive human sexual practices like anal sex, cuckolding fetishists, and other behaviors that take a step beyond just \"sex for pleasure not reproduction?\"",
"Thank you for your work, it has actually been of interest to me. I was wondering if you planned on making more YouTube videos, I really miss them.",
"There are plenty of examples of (what would be) rape in the animal kingdom. Are there examples that are closer to explicit consent?",
"I'm really not into cows because you have to get down off the stump and walk around front to kiss them.",
"For animals that show homosexual tendencies, are there \"tops\" and \"bottoms\"",
"What's one thing in your research that legitimately surprised you?",
"Can animals have fetishes? Like gangbangs and facials?",
"What were some of the problems biologists encountered while trying to get Lonesome George to mate? Did we learn anything that did/didn't work that will help us in attempting to get future endangered animals to reproduce?",
"Are there other species in the animal kingdom that seem to put a preference on duration of the sexual activity?",
"Why do some female spider kill the male after sex?",
"Two questions:\n1) Dr. Bondar, could you tell me the citations of your _URL_2_. / _URL_2_. / Ph.D. thesis and if they're available somewhere online?\n\n2) How did you get the idea to get from ballet, to marine biology, to population ecology, to sex (ok, this step is more obvious) and to become a psychotherapist?",
"we hear about females that would eat the males after mating usually with bugs, now what are some of the more messed up things an animal may do after mating that made you go 'celibacy is better than this'?",
"Why do dogs hump our legs and even other male dogs? Shouldn't they realize that mating with our legs, that doesn't have a dog vagina, won't produce fertile offspring?",
"Very much enjoy you Outrageous Acts of Science. What has been your favorite show to be on? What would be your dream job?",
"Hi!\n\nIs it possible at all for two unlikely 'species' to make babies but those animals never got the chance to mate?\n\nI'm thinking maybe they are from two different continents, maybe they never found each other attractive, or maybe none of them ever tried. \n\nI don't know the biology term for it but perhaps scientists could mix and match until there's some new animals which the nature never explored on its own?",
"Do you know if we have any real concrete evidence for insight in to how a stegosaurus would mate? I've always assumed it was like a porcupine.",
"As someone who is looking to break into conservation/science education, how did you get involved in the media side of things?",
"Are there two biological sexes? There seems to be a lot of confusion about this lately.",
"What is the most interesting fun fact about Bonobos' sexual life that you know?",
"A friend of mine is studying to become an ornithologist, specifically field work(research or conservation) What advice would you give her to achieve this goal? Both in general and it you think there is a difference, woman-in-biology specific advice.",
"My question is based on a thought from Louis CK's standup. \"Nobody cares if the girl rat cums.\" Are there any animals out there that consider the female orgasm as part of reproduction/mating behavior?",
"I've heard that leopards mate for 2 days copulating once per hour every hour. Can you explain the physiological and hormonal differences between leopards and Homo Sapiens in that regard?",
"Hey everyone, thanks so much for your awesome questions. You will find much more information in my book - link here: _URL_3_",
"Are there any animals that shape sexual practice with social values like humans do with monogamy?",
"Which animals are the most promiscuous in terms of number of sexual partners per lifetime?",
"Please explain, in great detail the mating selection and h5avits of snails",
"Which animal has the most passionate sex moves?"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.amazon.com/Wild-Sex-Science-Behind-Kingdom/dp/1681771667/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1472488992&sr=8-1&keywords=wild+sex+bondar"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dx-Sy5M3bME",
"B.Sc",
"M.Sc",
"https://www.amazon.com/Wild-Sex-Science-Behind-Kingdom/dp/1681771667"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Carin Bondar with all you ever wanted to know about animal mating and my book, "Wild Sex". Ask Me Anything!
Dr. Carin Bondar is the author of [Wild Sex: The Science Behind Mating in the Animal Kingdom](_URL_0_), just published Pegasus Books. She received a PhD in population ecology from the University of British Columbia and has since hosted a variety of online and television programs, working with Scientific American, National Geographic Wild and the Science Channel. She is currently the lead presenter on Discovery World's "Brave New World with Stephen Hawking"and a featured presenter on all four seasons of "Outrageous Acts of Science" (Discovery, Science Channel). Her independent web series "Wild Sex" has engaged over 55 million viewers and was the subject of a presentation given at TED Global in Edinburgh in 2013 which received over 2.3 million views. She lives in British Columbia, Canada. I'll be on around 4 PM EDT (21 UT), ask me anything! | [
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|
k9p7f | Another question from my 10-year-old son. Could there be such a thing as a "full stop" in space? What would really happen when Capt. Picard gave that order? | I'm being a good mom and watching Star Trek: TNG on Netflix with my son. The Enterprise often comes to a "full stop" in space. But can anything really "stop" in space?
Nevermind the other 1,000 questions he has about Star Trek science! This is tonight's :)
(His name is Ben and I'm letting him read this conversation and respond.)
EDIT: thank you all, especially those who have tried to answer on Ben's level (and mine, really). We're reading and asking more questions as he thinks of them. Anyone care to take on transporters? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ijuph",
"c2iklmu",
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"c2ikdl8"
],
"text": [
"One of the underpinnings of [special relativity](_URL_0_) and, in turn, all of modern physics, is that there's no such thing as an absolute frame of rest. Let's say you're in a train with closed windows moving at a constant velocity, moving smoothly. You have no way of telling whether or not you're moving. Special relativity takes this and elevates it to a principle of physics. If two spaceships are in motion relative to one another at a constant velocity, either one can claim to be at rest and neither is more \"correct\" in saying so than the other. It's only when you start to move at a non-constant velocity - i.e., accelerate - that you can tell for sure if you're moving. So no, there's no such thing as an *absolute* full stop. The closest you can do is come to a full stop in your own rest frame, which to any other observer will either look like you're at rest or moving at a constant velocity.",
"In the navy the 'All Stop' bell is engines off. The ship will still drift with the currents. If you want to stop stop, you need to drop anchor.\n\nSo I imagine when they say stop you can just take it to mean either 'Turn the engines off' or 'Match velocities with that other ship over there so we are at rest relative to each other, then shut the engines off'.\n\nOr just tell him its star trek and is not meant to make actual sense. :)",
"No, it can only come to a stop relative to some other point or frame in space. Now they may choose some semi-natural frame, like the rest frame of the star, or maybe the cosmic microwave background rest frame, and call that \"full stop.\"",
"No, unless it is relative to something else.\n\nSo you could come to a 'full stop' relative to a space station - but it will really be orbiting something (at least the center of the galaxy and more likely a star, planet, moon or whatever)... so a lot of the time it's really just going to be \"matching orbits\" with something or other."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
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]
} | Another question from my 10-year-old son. Could there be such a thing as a "full stop" in space? What would really happen when Capt. Picard gave that order?
I'm being a good mom and watching Star Trek: TNG on Netflix with my son. The Enterprise often comes to a "full stop" in space. But can anything really "stop" in space? Nevermind the other 1,000 questions he has about Star Trek science! This is tonight's :) (His name is Ben and I'm letting him read this conversation and respond.) EDIT: thank you all, especially those who have tried to answer on Ben's level (and mine, really). We're reading and asking more questions as he thinks of them. Anyone care to take on transporters? | [
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kzbpn | Is there something genetically particular about Canis lupus familiaris that allows the breeds to vary so widely in size? | Cats have been divided into distinct breeds, too, but they're all about the same size. Is that simply because they weren't selected for size, but for coat an other appearance features? Is it reasonable to believe that we could breed "toy" house cats and lion-sized house cats if we wanted to?
Would it be reasonable to believe the same could happen to humans - not just a size difference, but the kind of size difference you see between a Chihuahua and a St. Bernard, but without speciation? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Stubby dogs like dachshunds have a gene similar to the one that causes dewarfism in humans. They're basically midgits.",
"Yes, there is. No, we don't know the full answer, yet, but [dogs really are highly malleable](_URL_0_), even compared to other domesticated species.",
"No reference for you, but. I think there is a single gene that controls a dog's size. As a Great Dane owner who knows folks with Chihuahuas the curiosity has stricken me before. I think it was probably a Nova science/now episode.\n\nAs I recall, the number of copies of the gene determines the size. One copy gives toy sizes; seven copies gives giant size. Selective breeding give rise to these sorts of mutations whereas in the wild those mutants would probably be killed by the pack for being the wrong size (too small=can't hunt. too big=too hungry).",
"national geographic did a great feature on this that discussed the genetics of dogs and how they can vary in size and other characteristics, it's on netflix streaming, should be somewhat easy to find",
"When you think about the purpose for each of the common domestic animals, it seems to make sense that dogs would be have been selected to be more widely varied. Cows, goats, etc are used for meat and milk so there wasn't any particular reason we'd want to try create the extreme phenotypes found in dogs. Cats, likewise, where domesticated solely for vermin control. Dogs were selected to perform a wide range of tasks from animals meant to hunt lions to those meant to squeeze into tight burrows to those meant to sit in the laps of royals. There are things like [miniature horses](_URL_4_) and [miniature cows](_URL_4_) as well, which are significantly different in size. I don't know if size is necessarily significantly more variable than other animals, though it's possible. What I find far more striking is the skeletal differences among dogs, particularly skull shape. The skull of a German Shepherd and an English Bulldog don't even look like the same genus!\n\nMy feeling would be that this variation in the canine phenotype is highly related to the pressures of selective breeding, but yes, there are genetic factors as well, which are likely related. Dog's traits are said to be especially polymorphic, leading to a wide gradation of phenotype. I'm not on my university network, so I can't link you to the full text, but this article talks about [using dogs as a model of complex traits](_URL_4_). So, while I can't quantify this for you right now (maybe someone else here can) there is a wider variation in the canine genome than in most other animals, and definitely more than humans. Humans are one of the least genetically diverse of the primates, which is said to be related to early population bottlenecks and [the way early cultures of humans interacted](_URL_4_)",
"There's a doc on netflix about dog breeding, they talk a bit about dogs having genes that lend themselves to greater diversity than many other animals. Something to do with dna codes that tend to repeat in dogs, and the more repeats of the snout gene means longer snouts. There's another redundant gene for leg length, etc. Selective breeding enourages more or less otherwise benign redundancies. Im sure Ive butchered it, but Ill post movie title when not commenting from phone.",
"[This](_URL_6_) Science article by Nate Sutter showed that changes in the IGF1 (insulin-like growth factor) gene account for the majority of the size differences in dogs. It was on the cover of Science, with a rather striking picture, [shown here](_URL_5_).",
"Phenotypic plasticity and alteration of development has a tendency to go hand in hand with domestication. This has been documented recently in the [domestication of foxes](_URL_7_), and a variety of information sources are available based on these experiments",
"[I think QI had a question on this.](_URL_8_)\nRoughly 2 minutes in."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/tandem-repeats-and-morphological-variation-40690",
"http://www.girlshorseclub.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/miniature-horse.jpg",
"http://genomebiology.com/2011/12/2/216/abstract",
"http://www.wemoss.org/images/april10/lilcows1.jpg",
"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2009/01/08-02.html?etoc",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5821.cover-expansion",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5821/112.short",
"http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/early-canid-domestication-the-farm-fox-experiment",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=65rqNVEy75Q"
]
} | Is there something genetically particular about Canis lupus familiaris that allows the breeds to vary so widely in size?
Cats have been divided into distinct breeds, too, but they're all about the same size. Is that simply because they weren't selected for size, but for coat an other appearance features? Is it reasonable to believe that we could breed "toy" house cats and lion-sized house cats if we wanted to? Would it be reasonable to believe the same could happen to humans - not just a size difference, but the kind of size difference you see between a Chihuahua and a St. Bernard, but without speciation? | [
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3uuifl | Would it be any dangerous at all to split even one atom? | How many atoms would you have to split to for example take out everyone in a 1 meter radius?
I remember a SciShow video that said something along the lines of splitting the atoms in a log would would take out a whole city, but there's billions of atoms in one.
Edit: I'm aware that it's gonna be hard to calculate exactly, but is there an estimate? | askscience | {
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"Here are some rough numbers to give you a feeling for the energy scales that are involved in nuclear reactions:\n\n**1\\. The decay of one atom of uranium-235 releases about 200MeV or about 3\\*10^(-11)J.**\n\nFor one atom, this is a huge amount of energy, about a million times more than the energy of a photon of visible light. Nevertheless, while this more than enough energy to rip apart chemical bonds in your body, it's far from enough to create much of a bang on a macroscopic scale. To see why, let's compare this energy to something we know for sure can rattle things around, such as a nicely sized ball of TNT:\n\n**2\\. The explosion of 1kg of TNT releases 4MJ (4\\*10^(6)J).** \n\nIn other words, you would need to split ~1\\*10^17 atoms of U-235 to get as much energy as you could get from blowing up 1kg of TNT. However the comparison becomes much more favorable for uranium when you make the switch form atoms to mass. When you consider that each atom of U-235 only has an atomic mass of ca. 235amu, you see that: \n\n**3. The fission of ~5\\*10^(-8)kg of U-235 releases as much energy as the explosion of 1kg of TNT**.\n\nThis mass, which can be expressed in more convenient units at 50 micrograms, is actually smaller than the mass of one human eyelash! Nuclear energy certainly packs quite a punch...",
"> there's billions of atoms in one.\n\nAnd the understatement of the year award goes to...\n\nTo put some actual science (or at least math) in this top-level comment: Let's suppose instead of a log we have a sample of pure carbon weighing twelve grams. The number of atoms is, naturally, Avogadro's number: 6.02×10^23. Or approximately 6.02×10^14 billion. An actual log is not only much bigger, but also contains smaller atoms such as hydrogen.\n\ntl;dr: The difference in scale between an atom and a macroscopic object cannot be measured in mere billions.",
"The energy released in the fission (splitting) of ONE atom of U-235 is enough to make a single grain of sand visibly move. \n\nAnd then nothing else would happen if it was just that one atom. No danger. \n\nUranium atoms fission all the time naturally. If you held a sub critical mass of it in your hand it would feel warm. That's from all the natural fission happening. You'd have health issues afterwards but that's due to the radiation from way more than the ONE atom you asked about.",
"Splitting atoms is just an expression - you can't split one atom or a few of them. \n\nHere is an extremely simplified explanation of an atomic explosion, full of technical inaccuracy but giving the general idea:\n\nAtoms consist of protons, electrons, and neutrons. Some uranium atoms have extra neutrons which they slowly lose, mostly flying off into space. On the way, some neutrons hit other uranium atoms and knock off other neutrons, which do the same thing. Most of the neutrons fly off into space before they hit very many others, so nothing happens. But if you put 4 or 5 pounds of uranium together in a chunk, about a 2-inch ball, a neutron will knock off enough other neutrons that the process quickly ramps up. The ball gets hot, melts, and vaporizes. \n\nMelting and vaporizing moves the atoms farther apart. This means fewer of them get hit by neutrons, and the process immediately slows back down. But if you hold the uranium together in one piece long enough, the storm of neutrons rages out of control and becomes \"critical\". At this point the hot uranium is trying so hard to expand, it can't be contained - this is an atomic blast. \n\nThe trick is to hold the uranium together long enough for it to go critical. Even though it only takes a fraction of a second, the expansion is so strong that it's very difficult to keep together. In an atom bomb the uranium is wrapped in a layer of normal explosives. Setting them off compresses the uranium together and holds it together long enough to go critical and create an atomic explosion. \n\nSo the answer to your question is that you can't split just a few atoms, or a few billion. Going critical takes a minimum of a couple pounds of uranium (or plutonium).",
"If you consider a log, it actually will take a lot of energy to split its atoms (carbon mostly). You can benefit only from taking apart large atoms with a lot of protons, because electric repulsion between those overwhelms strong forces (which binding them together) and making it possible to release energy. For lighter elements, any two parts of the nucleus (when taken apart) have larger energy, thus you cant break it without extra energy from outside. For log, you can actually fuse carbon into larger atoms and get energy from that, but it will require an enormous temperature (millions of kelvins)",
"radioactivity is atoms 'splitting' at a normal rate. There are things around you are are constantly radioactive, such as the carbon 14 that you are breathing in and out *RIGHT NOW*.\n\nSO what's dangerous? A harmful dose of radiation? a lethal dose of radiation? A release of energy big enough to create a shockwave/fireball? Let's go with that..\n\nOK, to follow your question, you want to create a shockwave that would be lethal to any human within one meter of the origin.While I don't have the exact knowledge and math you need, I can provide you with the series of questions you need.\n\n1) how much energy do you need to create a 1-meter lethal shockwave/explosion?\n\n2) how much energy is released per split atom of a given element (let's pick something well known, uranium 238).\n\n3) Then how many atoms of uranium 238 does it take splitting simultaneously to create that shockwave?\n\n4) what's the minimum amount of U238 that you'd need to make that release of energy probable, even given ideal conditions to induce it? (this one may be a null question, it might not be possible to trigger a nuclear explosion that small)",
"It would be dangerous if you were a cat in a box next to a Geiger counter connected to a gun in a thought experiment by a man named Erwin Schrödinger. Otherwise, no.\n\nTo take out everyone in a 1 meter radius? Depends on the atoms. Also depends what you mean by \"take out\". If you want to blow them up rather than poison them, and you use something like Uranium 235, the required mass would be grams. Avogadro's number of atoms ought to do it, 6 x 10^23. That's assuming, by the way, all the atoms fission at the exact same time, which isn't how fission works in real life. In real life you need more atoms, a critical mass, and lots of atoms split, but never all of them.\n\nSplitting the atoms in a log wouldn't take out a whole city. Logs are almost exclusively made of light elements: C, H, O, N, and you have to put in a LOT of energy to split these. If you had the same number of atoms of Uranium 235 as there are atoms in the log then yes, it would take out a whole city.",
"The vast majority of atoms in a log are on the back side of the binding curve below iron. Splitting the atoms in a log would require a great deal of energy, they wouldn't release any energy at all.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIf the atom is to the left of iron it makes energy by fusing. If it is on the right side it makes energy by splitting.\n\nIf the atom is on the left of iron it requires energy to split. If it is on the right side of the curve it requires energy to fuse.",
"Single atom fission occurs everywhere all the time due to cosmic radiation (e.g., iron atoms from supernova that are ionized hit and split apart atoms when they hit the earth). The rate occurs at about 9 ions/cm^2/hour at sea level, up at 40,000 feet it's about 1000x that. As they travel through the atmosphere they hit oxygen atoms so by the time they get to the surface very few survive."
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How many atoms would you have to split to for example take out everyone in a 1 meter radius? I remember a SciShow video that said something along the lines of splitting the atoms in a log would would take out a whole city, but there's billions of atoms in one. Edit: I'm aware that it's gonna be hard to calculate exactly, but is there an estimate? | [
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1ee2go | Inspired by SimCity on Super Nintendo: Could the US be powered by many nuclear power plants in one central location, such as Kansas or Nebraska? | Where there isn't a major threat of earthquake or hurricane?
Or do power plants need to be spaced closer to the cities they are powering? | askscience | {
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"Centralized power generation of any type is going to have issues generating demand and then seeing much of that lost over transmission lines. \n\nThe most efficient way to generate power would be where it is being used. As it would minimize the amount of loss due to transmission. However, it isn't practical to have traditional generating sources in each location where power might be used. The compromise position is similar to what we have today with regional generation combined with a small range, interconnected grid network.",
"Kansas and Nebraska are smack dab in Tornado Alley. Just thought I would point that out.",
"As has been stated, a major obstacle to this sort of thing is transporting the power without losing too much in the lines.\n\nAnother issue is that steam turbine generators (as are used in nuclear plants) are difficult to speed up and slow down according to changes in demand. This is why there are so many gas turbine systems being installed lately. They can be up and running at full capacity within minutes and turned off just as quickly. Granted, in a centralized system, fluctuations in demand would be much smaller and more predictable, but it's something to consider.",
"The problem with transmission over long distances, as others have noted, is that you'll lose a lot of the power you create as heat in the line. How much? Well, it is estimated that over half the power we generate is lost as heat, and that is shipping the electricity over short distances. It scales linearly, so if you double the distance you transmit, you double the amount of power loss. Thus, this seems like a major blow against your plan. So, is there anything we can do to make it feasible?\n\nYes there is, and we're currently working on it. Power loss in a transmission line is described by the equation P = I^(2)\\*R. This shows why we have such high voltage lines. The higher the voltage, the lower the current to maintain the same transmission power. This is why the overhead lines will be hundreds of thousands (or even millions) of Volts, which is then stepped down before coming into your house. However, there is also that R, which is the resistance of the wire. [Superconductors](_URL_1_) are materials which have a resistance of zero (under certain conditions). Thus, when transporting electricity through a superconductor, there is no heat loss of transmission. This sounds so wonderful, you might be thinking \"why don't we always do this?\" Well, it is because currently our best superconductors only become superconductive at very low temperatures (around -200 degrees C or -400 degrees F). Thus, in order to make the materials behave as superconductors, they have to be cooled. Luckily, that temperature is a little bit warmer than liquid nitrogen, so it is relatively cheap to do so (immerse the wires in a pipe of liquid nitrogen) but it is a major infrastructure upgrade. [A few cities have done it, with more on the way](_URL_0_) but as of now, it is not extremely popular. If we could invent superconductors which remained superconductive at higher temperatures, then your plan would become even more feasible.",
"I work in the electric utility industry. Something nobody has mentioned yet is that siting, funding, and constructing long range transmission lines is difficult, expensive, and time-consuming, in addition to posing the issue of creating inefficiency through line losses.",
"1. T & D: All that power would have lots of transmission lines radiating to all the places in the U.S. It would be vulnerable to tornadoes, etc. knocking out power. The longer the lines, the greater the risk, so NY and LA would *both* be vulnerable to problems anywhere along the way. \n\n2. Cooling: Nukes generally need lots of water, and that many in a small space would need a huge lake or river to carry away the heat. Even then 'thermal pollution' would be likely to affect the ecosystem. \n\n3. Efficiency: Even at high voltages, power would be lost along the way.",
"Remember the boston scenario in SimCity for SNES? Everyone flushed their toilet at the same time and the water pressure loss caused... what was it? 3 nuke plants to blow up?\n\nNow what if some other disaster befell one of the reactors and contaminated the area (think Chernobyl). How do you maintain the other reactors if going near them means exposure?"
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"url": [
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity"
]
} | Inspired by SimCity on Super Nintendo: Could the US be powered by many nuclear power plants in one central location, such as Kansas or Nebraska?
Where there isn't a major threat of earthquake or hurricane? Or do power plants need to be spaced closer to the cities they are powering? | [
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|
1ey7we | Why is there a gap between the intake and body of modern fighter jets? | If you look at [this picture](_URL_0_), you can see that the F-15 and F-22 have a gap in between the main body and the engine intakes, but not on the F-4. What does that provide? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ca4xy95",
"ca4yeb1",
"ca5fbw5"
],
"text": [
"The aircraft fuselage is surrounded by a boundary layer which generates a significant amount of turbulence. Optimum operation of a jet engine, however, requires a clean, non-turbulent airflow to the intake. Separating the engine intake from the fuselage keeps it clear of that turbulent layer in most flight profiles.",
"Actually the F-4 *does* have a gap there, as you can see [here](_URL_1_). This gap serves two roles - as noted already, it keep turbulence out of the intake, but it also allows for the movable intakes used on both the F-4 and F-15. On both of those aircraft, the intake can be adjusted in flight to change the behavior of incoming air, which is discussed [here](_URL_0_).",
"These are called Boundary Layer Diverters. If you look at them up close you'll see a ramp between the intake and fuselage which diverts the boundary layer above and below the centerline. Some aircraft like the F-16 will draw some of this air into the fuselage for equipment cooling and you may see small intakes.\n\nThe reasoning behind it is for engine performance and reliability. The boundary layer around the fuselage is very turbulent and low speed compared to the 'freestream' air that the engine is designed for. If you draw a lot of boundary layer air into the engine you'll at least lose performance because you're not drawing in as much air as you're expecting. Less air means less fuel, less combustion energy, and less thrust. \n\nWorst case is that in some conditions ingesting low energy, turbulent air can cause weird things to happen in the intake and compressor stages which can cause instabilities. We tend to like a nice uniform flow into the compressor. Chaotic turbulent flow can mean that one side of the compressor sees more speed than another side and the engine controller might not be able to account for it. If the amount of air pressure into the compressor gets low enough, the compressor can't hold back the combustion pressure in the burner and you can get a 'flame-out' where the burning fuel/air pushes its way out the front of the engine. This would mean damage to the engine and at least shutting it down in-flight. \n\nThe solution is to just not bother dealing with the boundary layer at all and just push it out of the way. Lockheed Martin and the F-35 use a newer approach which uses a bulbous diverter which is stealthier than just a flat plate and a gap which can be somewhat radar-reflective."
],
"score": [
22,
10,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/JcFlOSU.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intake_ramp",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Air_Force_RF-4C_Pahntom_II_at_Ellington_Field_\\(Houston\\).jpg"
]
} | Why is there a gap between the intake and body of modern fighter jets?
If you look at [this picture](_URL_0_), you can see that the F-15 and F-22 have a gap in between the main body and the engine intakes, but not on the F-4. What does that provide? | [
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13jrrh | How are the forces exerted on the human back by carrying a heavy object different from those exerted by unsupported breasts? And how does a bra redistribute force to relieve back pain/damage? [possibly NSFW] [x-post from r/AskEngineers] | **edit. Current Answers of Note, 14 hours after original post:**
*(A work in progress. More answers/clarification are still needed, PARTICULARLY on force analyses!)*
**Why do women's backs not grow strong enough over time to support the weight of their breasts? Why are specific back-strengthening exercises necessary?**
* [dhumraketu on allowing muscles to recover](_URL_17_)
**Force analyses**
* [playinodds](_URL_8_)
* [Nessie](_URL_12_)
* [LookieLuke](_URL_19_)
**What back-strengthening exercises can help?**
* [thesteelwolf, willisevo on weights](_URL_11_)
* [smalstuff, faunblues on core and aerobic and different muscle fibers engaged](_URL_18_)
* [BBP and boobforces on yoga/pilates](_URL_7_)
**How do you measure breast-weight?**
* [DrMilkyFox, checksumfail, et al on methods](_URL_14_)
**What about women from bra-less societies?**
* [2nd_class_citizen and dikdiklikesick on Project Uplift and indigenous women from Fiji](_URL_0_)
------
**edit:** [link to original post](_URL_3_)
**edit:** [bra-fitting guide](_URL_1_), which may be helpful in figuring out bra function
Throwaway, as this is a somewhat embarrassing subject.
**Question:**
There are women who can carry 15kg objects in their arms all day (taking frequent breaks) without experiencing back pain. However, if those same women do without a bra, leaving their 2.5kg breasts unsupported, they experience backaches in their lower and mid-spine within the hour. Why is this? Why do their backs not grow strong enough over time to support this weight? Also, how exactly does a bra redistribute force such that breasts no longer cause back pain?
Please don't brush this off as trolling; many people suffer severe medical problems as a result of poorly-supported breasts, and so any answers which may help educate people on this topic are greatly appreciated. (Full disclosure: My aunt, whose breasts appear to be roughly 2.5kg, experienced early-onset osteoarthritis of the spine, possibly due to very unsupportive bras--the very weight of her own breasts may have induced severe trauma/injury to the cartilage between her vertebrae. I am also a female with 2.5kg breasts, and am concerned about developing this condition.)
**Possibly useful references:**
* [2007 research paper from Tel Aviv University presenting mechanical properties of tissue components of the breast + force diagrams of unsupported breast](_URL_16_) (SFW?)
* [(Unlabeled) heat map illustrating forces exerted on a bra](_URL_15_). Periwinkle (very light blue/lilac/blue-purple) = less force exerted, maroon (highly-saturated "red-purple") = most (SFW) (sorry guys, I TRIED to find a more traditional/quantitative heat map....)
* [Diagram illustrating the suspensory ligaments (Cooper's ligaments) as they attach to fascia, which attaches to muscle. Also illustrates distribution of fatty tissue along ribcage (axillary tail).](_URL_10_) (Possibly NSFW; illustration)
* [Diagram more cleanly illustrating suspensory ligaments](_URL_4_)
* [Very short page on spine biomechanics](_URL_6_) (SFW)
* [Spine in neutral position](_URL_9_) (SFW)
* [Position of breasts on ribcage in relation to spine](_URL_5_) (SFW)
* [Movements undertaken when carrying heavy objects](_URL_13_) (SFW)
* I will also answer academic questions concerning forces experienced in all three scenarios. (Answers will be both anecdotal and qualitative.)
**Suppositions/Possible Factors:**
* Range of motion experienced when carrying a heavy object is more limited (only standing, walking, squatting).
* Breaks are taken when carrying a heavy object to allow time to recover.
* When carrying a heavy object, muscles of the arm, back, and shoulders are involved. With breasts, only muscles of the back and shoulders are involved.
* For easier analysis, could the force distribution on a bra be comparable to the force distribution on a high-set backpack, worn front-ways, with [the sternum strap](_URL_2_) fastened tightly?
Thank you very much for your time. | askscience | {
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"All of this information is very interesting, but there is one point I would like to quibble on: I feel that the anecdote about having back pain within an hour of not wearing a bra proving that the bra prevents back pain is conflating two different categories:\n\n* people who never wear bras and their muscles and back are used to supporting the weight, and \n* people who usually wear bras and thus when they aren't wearing a bra, the balance is different, thus causing pain and discomfort.\n\nIn an otherwise science-filled discussion, that one point stuck out to me as a point of concern.",
"side question: how does one weigh their breasts? do you put bench scales on a table and flop them out onto it? or is there a special attachment for hanging scales",
"> There are women who can carry 15kg objects in their arms all day (taking frequent breaks) without experiencing back pain.\n\nFirst arms are basically two beams on a hinge. The back has many points of articulation, and the muscles are smaller. Second, if you're standing and holding a bag, for example, most of the force is tension on the arms and compression in the longitudinal direction of the spine. The only force you need is the grip in your hands and the force to keep your spine in line, which is easy since most of the force is acting in that dirction anway. \n\nBreasts are not in the same plane as the spine, so their downward force levers each segment of the spine forward. The heavier and farther out the breasts are, the more leverage they have. \n\nIt's the difference between holding your arm out to the side vs. holding it danging straight down.",
"I just posted this in r/AskEngineers, but I'm going to post it here too so more people can pitch in (and probably correct me).\n\nOkay, I'm a mechanical engineer, but I have almost no experience with biomedical design and not much more experience with boobs and bras. I also don't know how all the muscle groups function and which ones are stronger, so almost all of the stuff I am going to say is speculation. That said, I will do my best to help.\n\nWhat I see as the fundamental problem is that your shoulders aren't doing any work when wearing a bra. I've uploaded a couple images [here](_URL_0_) to help illustrate my point. Sorry for the poor image quality, it was just a quick photoshop, but what I wanted to illustrate was where the forces were acting. The thicker the line is, the more load it feels.\n\nFrom what I understand, the way a bra basically works is it ropes a stiff band around your torso with cups on the front that help support your breasts. There are shoulder straps, but the main point of them isn't to bear any load, it's to make sure the band doesn't slip. That's why the strap material is much weaker than the band material. So what this does is it places all the load from the bra on your upper back. You aren't using your shoulders or your pectoral muscles (which is what it looks like the breasts are doing naturally), you're only using your upper back. Basically your boobs want to fall down, and the bra forces you to use your back to pull up and support them.\n\nWith a backpack, first off the load is better distributed along your back, the moment from the backpack is pulling you backward so you have to pull forward which is using your abs more, and the load from the bag is placed on the shoulders. That last one is the most significant. A majority of the weight of a backpack is being supported by your shoulders, your pectoral muscles, and your abs. While your back is doing some work, much more of the load is put on the top and front of your body, which makes it easier and less stressful to carry.\n\nThe last image in that set that I uploaded is what I think would be a better design. It's kind of goofy looking, and yes, there is a counterweight, but the main point is to try to bring the load of the breasts to your shoulders and chest and to try to relieve your back from doing so much work. Also, I'm a mechanical engineer, so counterweights are part of my toolbox.\n\nI am going to speculate a whole bunch in this next section, so please correct me if I'm wrong. I think your back muscles are fundamentally weaker when they are acting to pull your body up. They are great at helping you pull stuff toward you (in a row), but they don't get as much work in straightening out your body. This is the same reason it's much easier and less stressful on your back to slouch (note: I am not advocating bad posture, just making an observation). If you try sitting up straight for a few minutes, you should feel your back get stiff. A bra is basically forcing you to use those muscles nonstop. With the chest and shoulders, while I'm not sure if they are actually stronger than the back, the action that they are doing when carrying a backpack is much more aligned with how they normally operate, so they are basically \"stronger\".\n\nLet me know if that makes sense. And if someone else would like to pitch in and correct my BS, it would be much appreciated.",
"I just want to say that as a larger breasted women, I find that doing exercises to strengthen my core muscles and improve my posture decreases the back pain I get when wearing, or not, a bra.",
"the increased eccentricity by having the center of gravity of the objects being supported further away from yours spine induces increased bending moments in your spine. basically, your spine is a column that is being loaded unaxially. When a column is loaded axially it experiences pure compression. If the load is not at the centroid of the column, the column experiences a bending moment that your muscles must counteract to keep you upright. the greater the eccentricity, the greater the stresses due to moment and the harder you have to work.\n\nedit: all this assumes the biological considerations are equal and this is a purely mechanical system with equal capacity and loading, but different eccentricity.",
"This is a legitimate scientific question about physics and anatomy.\n\nIf this post it not safe for your work, then there's something wrong with your work.",
"A note about your last point/inquiry. The sternum strap of a backpack should hold no weight and is designed to hold the straps in place, out of your armpits.",
"As a side question, is wearing a bra even useful to women, regardless of breast size? \n\nI assumed we were adapted to our own bodies, bras are relatively recent and I have never heard of any problems with breast weight before bras were invented.",
"In any case, how should the back be strengthened so that a female doesn't hurt from not wearing a bra?",
"Not to make fun of the situation, but on one of the linked sites above I saw this picture where it said, \"The areas in purple are the highest load-bearing areas\" so as a male I thought \"Oh they mean the straps, then! Those are purple.\"\n\n[Imgur](_URL_1_)\n\nNo, they meant the band. Tell me: aren't they BOTH purple?",
"While I did not find the story right now on google there's been done science on large breasts and bra's. The conclusion was that most would benefit from not wearing a bra. As there's quite a lot of women living places where a bra is uncommon. And the study showed that they experienced less back troubble than in places where it's common to wear a bra. Maybe someone with better google skills than me can find it? It's a fairly recent study. I will however not vouch for the study. I am a skinny guy.",
"Some very interesting reading in this thread!\n\nBut I'm just chiming in to say: **please don't throw away this username** - it's just too awesome aha"
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} | How are the forces exerted on the human back by carrying a heavy object different from those exerted by unsupported breasts? And how does a bra redistribute force to relieve back pain/damage? [possibly NSFW] [x-post from r/AskEngineers]
**edit. Current Answers of Note, 14 hours after original post:** *(A work in progress. More answers/clarification are still needed, PARTICULARLY on force analyses!)* **Why do women's backs not grow strong enough over time to support the weight of their breasts? Why are specific back-strengthening exercises necessary?** * [dhumraketu on allowing muscles to recover](_URL_17_) **Force analyses** * [playinodds](_URL_8_) * [Nessie](_URL_12_) * [LookieLuke](_URL_19_) **What back-strengthening exercises can help?** * [thesteelwolf, willisevo on weights](_URL_11_) * [smalstuff, faunblues on core and aerobic and different muscle fibers engaged](_URL_18_) * [BBP and boobforces on yoga/pilates](_URL_7_) **How do you measure breast-weight?** * [DrMilkyFox, checksumfail, et al on methods](_URL_14_) **What about women from bra-less societies?** * [2nd_class_citizen and dikdiklikesick on Project Uplift and indigenous women from Fiji](_URL_0_) ------ **edit:** [link to original post](_URL_3_) **edit:** [bra-fitting guide](_URL_1_), which may be helpful in figuring out bra function Throwaway, as this is a somewhat embarrassing subject. **Question:** There are women who can carry 15kg objects in their arms all day (taking frequent breaks) without experiencing back pain. However, if those same women do without a bra, leaving their 2.5kg breasts unsupported, they experience backaches in their lower and mid-spine within the hour. Why is this? Why do their backs not grow strong enough over time to support this weight? Also, how exactly does a bra redistribute force such that breasts no longer cause back pain? Please don't brush this off as trolling; many people suffer severe medical problems as a result of poorly-supported breasts, and so any answers which may help educate people on this topic are greatly appreciated. (Full disclosure: My aunt, whose breasts appear to be roughly 2.5kg, experienced early-onset osteoarthritis of the spine, possibly due to very unsupportive bras--the very weight of her own breasts may have induced severe trauma/injury to the cartilage between her vertebrae. I am also a female with 2.5kg breasts, and am concerned about developing this condition.) **Possibly useful references:** * [2007 research paper from Tel Aviv University presenting mechanical properties of tissue components of the breast + force diagrams of unsupported breast](_URL_16_) (SFW?) * [(Unlabeled) heat map illustrating forces exerted on a bra](_URL_15_). Periwinkle (very light blue/lilac/blue-purple) = less force exerted, maroon (highly-saturated "red-purple") = most (SFW) (sorry guys, I TRIED to find a more traditional/quantitative heat map....) * [Diagram illustrating the suspensory ligaments (Cooper's ligaments) as they attach to fascia, which attaches to muscle. Also illustrates distribution of fatty tissue along ribcage (axillary tail).](_URL_10_) (Possibly NSFW; illustration) * [Diagram more cleanly illustrating suspensory ligaments](_URL_4_) * [Very short page on spine biomechanics](_URL_6_) (SFW) * [Spine in neutral position](_URL_9_) (SFW) * [Position of breasts on ribcage in relation to spine](_URL_5_) (SFW) * [Movements undertaken when carrying heavy objects](_URL_13_) (SFW) * I will also answer academic questions concerning forces experienced in all three scenarios. (Answers will be both anecdotal and qualitative.) **Suppositions/Possible Factors:** * Range of motion experienced when carrying a heavy object is more limited (only standing, walking, squatting). * Breaks are taken when carrying a heavy object to allow time to recover. * When carrying a heavy object, muscles of the arm, back, and shoulders are involved. With breasts, only muscles of the back and shoulders are involved. * For easier analysis, could the force distribution on a bra be comparable to the force distribution on a high-set backpack, worn front-ways, with [the sternum strap](_URL_2_) fastened tightly? Thank you very much for your time. | [
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|
bcdk88 | Are the nearby airplanes cleared of the sky when launching Falcon Heavy? I was checking Flightradar24 when launch occurred and didn't see any difference. Also, 3 boosters landed back successfully. I assume the sky has to be clear of airplanes to avoid any potential collision? | EDIT:
Wow, THANK YOU for gold kind stranger! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The Falcon Heavy (and Falcon 9) launch from Florida towards the east, flying over the Atlantic. This isn't a particularly busy part of the airspace, so the impact is limited. But even so, for launches like this, aviation authorities (the FAA in this case) clear a section of the airspace for some time, requiring airlines to fly around the section that is restricted.\n\nIn the case of SpaceX launches, the restricted airspace is a thin, but long slice that starts at the launch site and extends far into the Atlantic Ocean. This restriction primarily affects flights from the US east coast towards the Caribbean and vice versa.\n\nRight now, the combination of low frequency of launches and launch sites that are away from busy airspace means that the impact on air travel is quite small. However, in a future where rocket launches become more frequent and with additional launch sites closer to population centers (for example for space tourism), the impact may increase.\n\nSee also this [Washington Post article](_URL_0_) for more on the impact of the Falcon Heavy launch (last year) and rocket launches in general on air travel.",
"Yes, there's an exclusion zone. This will be published in a NOTAM - Notice To Airmen. Pilots are expected to be aware of relevant NOTAMs before they fly. Should a pilot enter the exclusion zone, the launch will be delayed or cancelled (\"scrubbed\"). Though once the rocket is in flight, not much can be done. Similar applies at sea, for safety in case the rocket fails and crashes into the ocean.\n\nIn 2014 an Antares rocket launch was scrubbed due to a boat in the exclusion zone, and the rocket failed during the next launch attempt the day after. In 2017 another Antares launch was scrubbed, 90 seconds before liftoff, due to an aircraft.\n\n_URL_1_",
"Florida pilot here. Any time there is a launch a TFR (temporary flight restriction) is issued, normally a few days in advance, over an airspace for a specific block of time. These TFRs rarely, if ever, impact travel or even recreational flights since they are relatively small and getting vectored around them would only add 10-15 minutes to an overall flight time. TFRs are issued for all sorts of things: large sporting events, VIPs flying into an area or in this case, rocket launches.",
"ATC here that works the airspace affected by one of the Space X sites. It’s an enormous PITA when they launch. We block off hundreds if not thousands of miles of airspace for hours, affecting routing into one of the USA’s biggest international airports. Some flights from literally halfway across the world get rerouted 100’s of miles out of their way so Space X can use a huge block of Ocean Airspace that is normally a major multi-direction commercial airline route. \n\nWe definitely over protect for it, but it’s definitely a better safe than sorry kind of thing. There’s also generally always at least one flight whose dispatch didn’t check NOTAMS and files through the hot airspace, and has to get rerouted around which can turn into a fuel issue. There’s no divert options out there so it can get a bit scary sometimes. \n\nTbh the biggest safety issue with the launches, are the insane amount of private pilots that want to come circle around the safe side of the launch site to see it from the air. That’s the most stressed out I’ve ever been as a controller, was watching 15-20 Cessnas putter around all trying to see the launch and somehow not hit each other.",
"I had a payload on [CRS-5](_URL_2_), so I got to see how a little bit of how this works. Launches from Florida's Space Coast are coordinated between NASA, which operates Kennedy Space Center, and the Air Force, which operates Cape Canaveral, the launch operator (SpaceX in this case), the Coast Guard, the FAA, NOAA and local agencies (I may be forgetting a few). During the launch, all of these entities are constantly in contact with each other using a couple of different nets. A \"net\" is what radio operators call a radio channel being used in a coordinated way by several people, though they're not necessarily \\*literal\\* radio channels. Think of them like a party line or a conference call with a bunch of very specific rules of etiquette.\n\nWhen you watch a launch on NASA TV or one of the SpaceX webcasts, the chatter you are hearing is one of these nets. In the broadcasts meant for the public, they usually don't patch in the nets that include that USCG, FAA, or USAF, so you usually only hear from the Range Safety Officer indirectly.\n\nDuring both our first launch attempt which got scrubbed due to a mechanical issue and the second (successful) attempt, a couple of small boats and planes came pretty close to the restricted area. Not close enough to cause an incident, but close enough that their presence was mentioned on the nets we could hear from inside the launch center.\n\nTemporary restricted areas are commonplace in aviation and maritime navigation, and a large component of the training and licensing for pilots and skippers is about identifying, classifying and respecting these restrictions. If you are mostly familiar with driving a car, it's a very weird idea. Legally speaking, the ocean and sky are covered with the equivalent of stop signs and traffic lights, but they aren't *physically* there. It's your responsibility as a pilot or skipper to look up (or ask) where they are and what they mean, and to obey them.\n\nIt sounds like it shouldn't work. Who would obey an imaginary traffic light? If you ignore an imaginary traffic light floating in the middle of the sky thousands of miles from anyone, who would even know? However, consider that if you are in a boat or an airplane, you are being constantly tracked by radar and satellite, often by multiple countries at once. The traffic light might be imaginary, but the traffic *cops* are absolutely real, and they watch every very boat and aircraft carefully, and they will *definitely* get in your face if you don't obey the imaginary traffic light.\n\nPersonally, I think modern international aviation and maritime navigation is one of the most beautiful things human beings have ever done. Every day, hundreds of thousands of vehicles zip around between nations representing every culture, language, religion and history. That includes every conflict, every war, every ugly thing that happens among nations. It's the sum total of all humanity. Our whole planet. Intuitively, I would expect chaos. Instead, international navigation is orderly and *astonishingly* safe, and the only thing that keeps it that way is politeness and compassion. It is an elaborate, highly technical sort of politeness and a very legalistic sort of compassion, but that is what it is. Individual nations control their individual zones, but nobody is in charge of the whole system. Pretty much every nation on earth negotiated and *agreed* to a detailed and surprisingly egalitarian set of rules for how to safely fly and sail to and from literally anywhere on the surface of our planet, and it *freaking works*.\n\nIf you think humanity is doomed to conflict forever, here is irrefutable proof that it doesn't have to be that way.",
"I am a model rocket enthusiast. If I want to launch a model rocket that weighs more than 0.5 KG at take off, I have to contact the nearest air traffic control / airport and ask for a launch window. My rockets only go up a KM at best. There are clubs that have models that go up several miles. By law, you have to be in contact with local air traffic control.",
"I'm an air traffic controller. These launches are a real PITA. Hundreds of airplanes who normally fly over the water north and south were rerouted west of Canaveral. This made sectors working traffic very busy and overloaded. As a result, even more aircraft had to be rerouted further west due to volume. We did this for 4 days I believe (I'm not too sure, I only worked Wednesday and Thursday). But it's exceedingly annoying to reroute planes for a launch that doesn't occur, knowing tomorrow will be a repeat. Imagine kicking a hornets' nest. That's what it feels like on days like these. \n\nNot only were planes rerouted inland, but planes to certain airports (MIA, PBI, FLL, etc) had to be rerouted away from the airspace. Typically we want these routings to be issued on the ground before takeoff, but that isn't always the case. Issuing a full route clearance in the air just adds to our workload.\n\nWe had to wait for the launch, then the boosters to confirm landed before normal ops could occur.",
"Restricted airspace is more common than you think. It is done for special events(including space launches), government officials, natural disasters, as well as anything else unusual. Usually they last anywhere between a few hours to a few days. \nInterestingly enough, Disney(not sure if it's it's world or land) has a temporary restricted airspace (TFR) that's been going on since 9/11.",
"Flight instructor here!\n\nFrom Temporary Flight restrictions to just restricted airspace in general we have many ways of keeping traffic away. I've been a pilot since 06 and did most of my training both as an instructor and a student in this area. While there isn't a lot of Large commercial jet traffic there is usually a metric shit ton of small trainer aircraft. The issuance of a Temporary flight restriction (TFR) can be for anything from a baseball game to the president of the united states. the can very from a 30 nautical mile ring to a 5 mile ring. [Here is an example](_URL_3_) I went and grabbed this just now. The red is a security TFR setup (for those who know, this is also within the SFRA) There is actually a small orange one inside, most likely for another time but still a restricted area.\n\nThese are for big events but even the airspace that NASA sits is controlled by the airforce [here](_URL_4_) What you see in this photo with the dark blue shaded area is the restricted airspace. You may see numbers like R-2932 and R-2933 or R-2934 Those are the specific numbers you can use to look up the applicable altitudes and times in which they are considered \"active\" For instance one of those starts at 11,000 feet so if you are below that you are not considered as \"inside\" that airspace, however that's not to say a different numbered restricted takes the place below it.",
"As an interesting side note, I once read that fish populations are booming around cape Canaveral because they restrict access for private boats around the region resulting in significant spill over into the surrounding waters. No idea when or where I read this but makes sense at face value.",
"They have what's called a TFR in place (temporary flight restriction) which does exactly what the name implies, Restricts flight from certain altitudes in certain areas during certain times. A guy over on r/flying posted [this](_URL_5_) video earlier today of him flying on the edges of the TFR filming the launch and landing of falcon heavy. It's great footage and I hope it gets more views, this guy really deserves it.",
"They probably issue a TFR, or Temporary Flight Restriction. You can use [this website](_URL_6_) to see where TFRs are currently issued as red and orange highlighted areas - like now, in the Los Angeles area (which is where the map on the site defaulted when I clicked the link) shows two TFRs, one for security (it's actually for Disneyland if you click on it and read down) and one for the Brewers v Dodgers baseball game.\n\nTFRs are something all pilots/dispatchers check for when planning a flight route. Even so, aircraft (usually students in small Cessna's or the occasional clueless recreational pilot) will still wander into TFR areas. They, of course, risk losing their license - and airspace is probably watched closely by Range Safety to prevent any accidents from potential situations like this.",
"Slightly on topic. I live on the coast about 190 miles south of the Cape. In perfect conditions (and mostly only at night) I can just barely see some of the launches. While I was looking yesterday I spotted an airplane flying northbound at cruise altitude right at launch. I'm sure those pilots were able to spot it. \n\nI was curious if ALL pilots automatically would be told that its a launch or if it's just a generic stay off my lawn area of sky.",
"Not an expert on anything, but I do some hobby high-powered rocketry. (10k ft+) and for Tripoli sanctioned launches, you have to get FAA clearance and they designate a no-fly zone around the launch site for the duration of the launch event.\n\nSo I assume it's the same for the big boys.",
"Have a look at _URL_7_\n\nIt is intended as a flight planning utility, but you can see things like temporary flight restrictions. There is currently a large block east of the Chesapeake Bay marked \"space launch\" set to go active in 5 days.",
"There's an existing rocket/missile range called the Eastern Test Range that is plotted on maps and then anytime there is a missile test, it's published in a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM), this is a global thing, we see the Russians off the coast of Syria announcing them for warship weapon tests\n\nThe range starts at the launch pads at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and John F. Kennedy Space Center and extends eastward over the Atlantic Ocean to 90 degrees East longitude in the Indian Ocean, where it meets the Western Range\n\nThe Western Range goes from Vandenberg Air Force Base to 90 degrees East longitude in the Indian Ocean.\n\n_URL_8_",
"I did air traffic in the Air Force for my enlistment. \nWhen things like this happen, the FAA designates “restricted areas” of flight. Yes so that no collisions happen. You can typically find restricted areas in instrument flight publications for wherever you’re looking for. \n\nAn example of this is of a few Air Force bases in Florida where they launch “sub orbital sounding rockets” for weather purposes. There are restricted areas that get activated.",
"This question has been answered already but I wanted to add that the ICAO requires airspace advisories for all kinds of launches and that's one of the way our intelligence community knows to turn their eyes (Cobra Ball) towards a certain area to watch for launches. That being said they often schedule several decoy launch windows to throw us off.",
"The FAA uses a NOTAM [like this one](_URL_9_) to clear the airspace of traffic. Failure to abide by a NOTAM can result in a warning letter from the FAA, a suspended/revoked pilot license, or being intercepted by military fighters."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/business/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-faa-air-traffic",
"http://spaceflight101.com/antares-launch-scrubbed-by-wayward-plane-liftoff-re-set-for-sunday/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-5",
"https://imgur.com/a/Zp1Psud",
"https://imgur.com/a/j9MHAkj",
"https://youtu.be/AuTAu5VmtFw",
"https://skyvector.com/",
"www.skyvector.com",
"https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/home/eastern_range.html",
"https://tfr.faa.gov/save_pages/detail_9_0332.html"
]
} | Are the nearby airplanes cleared of the sky when launching Falcon Heavy? I was checking Flightradar24 when launch occurred and didn't see any difference. Also, 3 boosters landed back successfully. I assume the sky has to be clear of airplanes to avoid any potential collision?
EDIT: Wow, THANK YOU for gold kind stranger! | [
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k3k1o | Suppose I were to travel back in time 2,000 years. How well would modern vaccines protect me from the pre-modern diseases? | In those 2,000 years, thousands of generations of microbial evolution have taken place, but to what extent would that reduce the efficacy of modern vaccines? Clearly with some diseases there is a pretty broad range of immunity, as illustrated by the fact infection with *Vaccinia* yields immunity to the related virus *Variola* (smallpox). On the other hand, influenza vaccines only cover a single strain, leaving the patient unprotected from very similar strains.
So going back to our hypothetical time traveler, how much would he/she need to worry about diseases like polio, smallpox, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis, rabies, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, typhoid, etc? Are some vaccines more likely to retain their effectiveness than others, and if so, which ones?
This question is being asked as a part of the [Rome Sweet Rome](_URL_0_) project. Additional discussions, possibly relevant:
_URL_0_comments/k36hy/correction_malaria/
_URL_0_comments/k2kys/as_much_as_i_hate_to_do_this_i_think_germs_have/
| askscience | {
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"I think they would actually protect you well. Influenza is a special case because it's a member of the virus family Orthomyxoviridae, which contains its genetic material in 8 segments of RNA. This genetic segmentation dramatically increases the rate of recombination of various surface markers that the virus uses to enter and infect a cell; if you have two different strains of influenza co-infecting a single organism, then the possibility of genetic recombination becomes higher. This kind of recombination isn't nearly as common in most other viral illnesses. Sure, you'll see microbial evolution taking place and causing resistance to antivirals/antibiotics, but if you're talking about going back in time, it's unlikely that these resistances would be present.",
"Some misconceptions:\n\n1) What you have protection to probably won't be around back then, and what was around back then might not be around today. Depending on the bug, viral evolution occurs quite rapidly. Certainly any bug currently circulating that has a vaccine to would not be recognizable from an antigen perspective. We have emergent viruses all the time (SARS, Ebola, EV71 etc...), and similarly there's no reason certain lines extant 2000 years ago would necessarily be around today.\n\n2) Influenza is not the same thing as a cold. Other people mainly covered this one but let me add that the more virulent forms of influenza short-circuit a specific arm of immunity and this leaves the healthiest people the deadest. Seasonal flu is milder, but given that you wouldn't have been around for the seasons preceding it, I would not be keen on catching it... And the anti-flu drugs you might take prophylactically are the same ones that killed cut-throat bitch on House, so caveat emptor.\n\n3) Anything you are currently infected with is unlikely to create a super-advanced plague back in Rome. Different population density than we have here, so transmission would be an issue. More importantly, we're mostly very very healthy and well nourished and most of our bugs are of very low virulence. In other words, you might give them a cold, but chances are you're not bringing back Cholera, Polio, Smallpox or TB just because... They don't appreciably exist in western society. \n\n4) a more fun and speculative point responding to edubation below\n\n > Correct me if I'm wrong, but would not the very fact you're alive meant your ancestors made it through that period, and thus have an immunity?\n\nYou're not completely wrong, but you're a bit wrong. There were indeed bugs that left genomic scars in the relatively recent past [(ccr5d32 for example)](_URL_2_), but how or why or what is another story. That the human genome at a population level (in Europe) has some scars from a virus at some point in our history does not mean that EVERYONE has the 'good' mutation. I for one do not (you can check on 23andme)! So, not everyone needs to be resistant for a colony of people to survive and the mutations never reached 100% of the population, so that nixes the whole idea doesn't it? I would [suggest reading up on balancing selection](_URL_0_) and [herd immunity](_URL_1_). If you want further reading I can point you to some interesting textbook chapters.",
"I think the Romans would have to worry about disease more than the marines would. A hundred generations of living in increasingly dense populations has probably caused significant development to the immune systems of the time travelers. I imagine the diseases of the past would effect them strictly less than they would effect the Romans.\n\nThis is kind of like how when Europeans encountered Native Americans the diseases of the Europeans wiped out the Americans but the diseases of the Americans had no notable impact on the Europeans. The Europeans had better immune systems from generations of living in high population density areas. The same thing is true, I suspect, but to an even greater extent for the marines and the Romans.\n\nAny infection that exists among the time travelers, even if it is subdued or not apparent may develop into a super advanced plague for the Romans which could wind up wiping them out.",
"[I've been waiting for the occasion to post this for so long](_URL_3_)",
"You would be protected against diseases you had previously been exposed to our vaccinated against. If you are from the U.S., those vaccines likely includes measles, mumps, rebella, hepatitis A & B, diphtheria, pertussis. In terms of the Rome Sweet Rome project, Marines may or may not be vaccinated against smallpox, yellow fever, plague and anthrax, depending on the risk assigned to the group and theater of operation. The main concern would be segmented RNA viruses and retroviruses, because of the increased rate of mutation. Of the standard vaccines, the only concern here would be flu. So, the vaccines would provide strong protection.",
"Nobody seems to have mentioned it, so I'd like to point out that in that situation even lowly Penicillin would immediately return to wonder-drug status, so the antibiotics and antivirals any military unit carries would be super effective.\n\nAlso, sanitation habits, such as latrines, water purification and hand-washing, would prevent transmission of most common diseases that used to be deadly for traveling armies of the past.\n\nI can't speak with confidence to the issue of vaccines, but I'm pretty sure our time traveling Marines would be in good shape. Worst case scenario, they just treat a smallpox outbreak as if it were a biological attack, and it would be up to the author of the story to decide whether they did or did not have enough of the proper equipment transported thru time with them...",
"Unless you were born before 1979 or outside of the US, Canada or Western Europe, you will proabaly get small pox.",
"Chances are a time traveler would likely infect the place he is visiting than the other way around.",
"I agree with qxrt and crownofworms.\n\nThough I think your real issue (and you kind of touched on it using the word \"microbial\"), barring being placed in the middle of a viral plague, bacterial infection would be much more of an issue than contracting viruses.",
"Correct me if I'm wrong, but would not the very fact you're alive meant your ancestors made it through that period, and thus have an immunity? \n\nAssuming Euro descent.",
"FYI there's a sci-fi book by Connie Willis called Doomsday Book that has a very similar premise."
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"url": [
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/RomeSweetRome/comments/k36hy/correction_malaria/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/RomeSweetRome/comments/k2kys/as_much_as_i_hate_to_do_this_i_think_germs_have/"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balancing_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCR5",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/loom/2011/06/16/sex-with-someone-from-the-future-can-be-hazardous-to-your-health/"
]
} | Suppose I were to travel back in time 2,000 years. How well would modern vaccines protect me from the pre-modern diseases?
In those 2,000 years, thousands of generations of microbial evolution have taken place, but to what extent would that reduce the efficacy of modern vaccines? Clearly with some diseases there is a pretty broad range of immunity, as illustrated by the fact infection with *Vaccinia* yields immunity to the related virus *Variola* (smallpox). On the other hand, influenza vaccines only cover a single strain, leaving the patient unprotected from very similar strains. So going back to our hypothetical time traveler, how much would he/she need to worry about diseases like polio, smallpox, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis, rabies, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, typhoid, etc? Are some vaccines more likely to retain their effectiveness than others, and if so, which ones? This question is being asked as a part of the [Rome Sweet Rome](_URL_0_) project. Additional discussions, possibly relevant: _URL_0_comments/k36hy/correction_malaria/ _URL_0_comments/k2kys/as_much_as_i_hate_to_do_this_i_think_germs_have/ | [
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|
1kok2f | How high could you get on a giant swing? | I have seen some giant swings in german tv adverts recently and asked myself if it were possible to reach the same degree of slant as on a small conventional swing.
[Imgur](_URL_2_)
[Imgur](_URL_3_)
Here are the full advertisings:
[Yogurette](_URL_0_)
[Einhell](_URL_1_) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbr14dw",
"cbr13ck",
"cbr8y72"
],
"text": [
"No. The rider adds a small amount of potential in each swing by shifting their center of gravity to a point above the force vector on the suspension (rope or chain).\n\nIn order to increase the angle of the next swing, this added potential has to exceed what is lost due to air resistance and internal friction. At some point, it would be impossible to shift the center of gravity enough to provide that potential.\n\nThat point would be reached long before reaching the suspension lengths depicted in the images.",
"There's not really a limit to how high you can swing, but bear in mind that as the swing travels through it's range, it's converting gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy, back to gravitational, and the cycle continues.\n\nAt the top (both forward and backwards) of each swing, the velocity is zero, so the full kinetic energy has been converted to gravitational energy. At the bottom of the swing, kinetic energy of motion is at it's maximum, and gravitational potential is a minimum. The relationship is that max speed = sqrt (2 * g * h), where g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the max height during the swing, relative to the bottom of the arc.\n\nSo you can see that as the swing goes higher and higher, the velocity at the bottom increases - for a very large swing, air resistance due to your speed at the bottom will be a limiting factor.\n\nTheoretically, any swing connected to a non-rigid support (rope, chain, etc.) can only go as high as the rope is long, because beyond that, the rope won't stay tight through the travel range. So going above the pivot point would result in a jarring acceleration when the rope goes taut again. If instead of a rope or cable, a rigid link is used, this limitation is not a problem.",
"The longest swing that has been swung 360 degrees is 7.02 m.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nHere's a successful attempt at 6.64 m by the world record holder.\n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
8,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZOHbzYg7FWE",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPLO7kTd9NQ",
"http://i.imgur.com/8426dsH",
"http://i.imgur.com/WHSo0BK"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiiking",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yVGu4xRWBk"
]
} | How high could you get on a giant swing?
I have seen some giant swings in german tv adverts recently and asked myself if it were possible to reach the same degree of slant as on a small conventional swing. [Imgur](_URL_2_) [Imgur](_URL_3_) Here are the full advertisings: [Yogurette](_URL_0_) [Einhell](_URL_1_) | [
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mdrqp | Would it make sense to do away with the Latin phrasing of scientific terms? | It reminds me of how the bible used to only be written and read in Latin. This was a deliberate and malicious attempt to keep the common folk from grasping it, leaving them dependent on the clergy. Science, if I am not mistaken, does not have the same aversion towards people learning about it and criticizing it.
Might not there be some brilliant minds out there who just aren't strong enough with language to have non-native Latin phrases stick in their brains? Surely science can come up with simple, memorable phonetic constructs to replace all that Latin.
Edit:
Thanks everyone. I will take your advice and ask Neil Tyson DeGrass when he has his next AMA! Thanks! | askscience | {
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"Latin has a history with science, as with religion, but its purpose was the opposite. Latin was used as the universal language of science. At one time any scientific writing was expected to be written in Latin, as so many (European) scientists could read Latin, regardless of their native tongue.\n\nThere is no culture of exclusivity in scientific Latin. Some terms are obscure and difficult, and there's nothing you can do about it. If the name is too simple/common, it can be confused with something else, if the name is seemingly random (Sonic Hedgehog gene/Plank's constant) its meaningless unless you already know it. Latin allows you to use common roots and combine them into (mostly) precise terms. \n\nUntil the 1950s, Latin was taught in (mostly) all schools, so students already knew the roots for the scientific terms they were learning, and when they grew up, they used that knowledge to create/modify their own terminology.",
"like what? Aside from the latin names of species, it really isn't used very much at all. What science *does* often do is use *precise* language.",
"> Surely science can come up with simple, memorable phonetic constructs to replace all that Latin.\n\nWe do this all the time in biochemistry naming enzymes and pathways. Guess what - it's God Fucking Awful. At least with the Latin and Greek naming system there's some clue to the thing you're talking about in the name if you bothered to pay attention in vocabulary class or, like some of us, actually learned some Latin. When everything gets reduced to acronyms, a lay person, even someone just out of their field, can't follow a talk about Three Letter Protein interacting with Three Letter Kinase in the Three Letter Pathway because it's just arbitrary acronym after arbitrary acronym. Keep a bit of Latinate description in the name and it's perfectly coherent.",
"Proly not. One of the reasons Latin was chosen for taxonomy purposes for eg was because it was a dead language, and thus least likely to change over time, as opposed to say English which constantly has words added or gets newer meanings assigned to words",
"Ooo, interesting question! Here's my answer.\n\nReally, I think Latin and Greek roots, which appear in many English words as well, are _easier_ to remember than arbitrary phonetic constructs. For instance, telomeres are at the ends of chromosomes. Telo- is from Greek for far-away, and shows up in telephone, television, and telepathy. If we came up with new things, they wouldn't have this relationship to the rest of our vocabulary. So why, you ask, don't we just use plain English terms for things? For technical terms, it's better NOT to use plain language, because those words already have meanings. Take fitness for example, it has a meaning in common useage and a different meaning in biology, and people getting the two confused causes no end of trouble. \"Altruism\" in the context of animal behavior has subtle but important differences from how the term is commonly used.\n\nI guess the tl;dr is this: We need to coin terms to use in science, either because appropriate terms don't exist or already existing versions have broad, misleading meanings. We might as well coin them in Latin and Greek, so they will share roots with a large number of words already in use, not only in English, but in many European languages.",
"Part of it is political; the language of the dominant nation of one era may not be the same as the previous. Consider the expression \"lingua Franca,\" which now refers to a common language. French, during the 17th and 18th centuries, was one of the most common spoken languages due to the cultural, political and military power France wielded. Right now it's arguably the United States at the moment and therefore English is the dominant language (just look at what most of the internet is coded in), but who's to say that it won't be Mandarin in a few decades, or if the Call of Duty franchise has anything to say, Russian? \n\nMy point is that you're going to have pick a language to communicate in science; Latin is fairly stable and since there is no country anymore that is associated with it, it's politically neutral. I suppose alternatively you could come up with a new language, like Esperanto, but that would be a pain for everyone else to learning.\n\nI take it someone's being forced to learn Latin taxonomy? The trick is to figure out what the Latin name means, which helps build association. Example: *Staphlycoccus auerues*, which translates to \"Golden grape (or berry cluster) cluster,\" which is what they look like on microscopy.",
"Here's the deal: learning the Latinate or Greek-inspired terminology is not the hardest part. There is no person who could have made great discoveries except that they couldn't master the meaning of classically-derived affixes. Because of the number, and complexity, of terms used in various fields to fix often strange and exacting concepts in language, any possible gloss would require some study.\n\nFor example: in my field, the _photomyogenic response_. Rarely, people exposed to flashing lights have muscle twitches. This is in the context of electroencephalography, when flashing lights are used to try to stimulate findings. You could call it (in a naive Anglish translation) the \"light-muscle-starting response.\" This is just as opaque for somewhat not initiated in the field as the original.\n\nThe impenetrability of scientific jargon comes not from the classical inflection, but the great number of foreign concepts."
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} | Would it make sense to do away with the Latin phrasing of scientific terms?
It reminds me of how the bible used to only be written and read in Latin. This was a deliberate and malicious attempt to keep the common folk from grasping it, leaving them dependent on the clergy. Science, if I am not mistaken, does not have the same aversion towards people learning about it and criticizing it. Might not there be some brilliant minds out there who just aren't strong enough with language to have non-native Latin phrases stick in their brains? Surely science can come up with simple, memorable phonetic constructs to replace all that Latin. Edit: Thanks everyone. I will take your advice and ask Neil Tyson DeGrass when he has his next AMA! Thanks! | [
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|
4otsf7 | Why are supercomputers measured in flops instead of hertz? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d4fj8s7",
"d4fsc20",
"d4fvosn"
],
"text": [
"FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second) give you an idea of how much a computing device can do in a second. Hertz is just frequency. While you can measure core speed in Hertz, that doesn't directly relate to the computational power of a piece of hardware. CPUs are actually slower now in terms of clock speed, but achieve more FLOPS due to architectural improvements.\n\nExample: If you have a single core CPU running at 4GHz and you compare it to a Quadcore or a GPU at 2-3GHz the single core, the latter will beat the single core *if* the task is parallelizable.",
"Hertz is a useless measure of processor capability. _URL_0_\n\nFor example, the Pentium Extreme Edition hit 3.73 GHz, and the Core i7-6800T is 3.6 Ghz. The i7 has a slightly slower clock speed than the Pentium but is vastly faster, because it can do more in one clock cycle, and a lot of operations take fewer cycles. It has better branch prediction (meaning there is less chance of a delay while waiting for an if statement) and a shorter pipeline (so when it *does* have to backtrack it takes less time).",
"Hertz is a measurement for the frequency or clock rate and thereby for the duration of a cycle. A modern CPU core can perform several floating point operations (FLOP) each cycle in parallel (MIMD/SIMD). That is why we can compute the FLOPS of a single core using the formula:\n\nFLOPS = CYCLES_PER_SECOND * FLOATING_POINT_OPS_PER_CYCLE\n\nIf we have a supercomputer with many cores we can adjust the formula to:\n\nFLOPS = AMOUNT_OF_CORES * CYCLES_PER_SECOND * FLOATING_POINT_OPS_PER_CYCLE\n\n\nSo why do we use FLOPS as a measurement for speed of supercomputers? First the bare frequency just can be used for giving us an lower bound for the latency of arithmetical instructions: Each arithmetical instruction has a latency of at least 1(?) cycle, whereas the exact number of cycles depends on the specific CPU architecture. However, the number of FLOPS gives an upper bound for the computational throughput of a machine. Applications for super computers perform many computations in parallel and are usually only interested in throughput and not in latency: They want that *ALL* computations are completed as quickly as possible. But for this the duration/latency of a single computation usually is insignificiant. \n\nSecond, summing up the frequency of several cores does not make any sense. If a quad core CPU has for cores each running at 2.5 GHZ, the CPU is not running at 10 GHZ overall. However if each core can perform 10 GFLOPS, the whole CPU can perform 40 GFLOPS."
],
"score": [
17,
8,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz_myth"
]
} | Why are supercomputers measured in flops instead of hertz?
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kq793 | Physics problem that has been plaguing me since high school. | Hypothetical situation. Lets say you have a fighter airplane that flies at a maximum velocity of (just throwing numbers out there) 100 m/s. This plane can fire missiles, which travel at 200m/s. If the plane is flying at 100m/s and fires the missiles, the missiles would travel faster than 200m/s, right?
Ok. So what happens if the same missiles are equipped on a jet fighter that can travel 500m/s. If the jet fighter is flying at 500m/s and fires a missile, will the missile now be able to travel faster than 500m/s or would it trail behind the jet fighter, kind of like when you throw a ball out the window of a moving car (I know its an entirely different phenomenon). I don't know how air resistance would play into this, assuming there is or isn't any. Also, assume the missile is loaded under the wing of the aircraft (not in some tube that could jam).
This hypothetical situation has seriously been giving me headaches for about 10 years because I simply can't wrap my mind around it. I'd appreciate some clarification! | askscience | {
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"The question at hand is: What causes the speed limit on the motion of the missiles? Is it air resistance (as is the case for airborne missiles)? \n\nIf so, then firing a missile (limited to 200 m/s velocity in air) from a jet (traveling at 500 m/s in air) will cause the missile to fly backward at 300 m/s from the perspective of the jet pilot. Imagine throwing a beachball from the window of a rapidly moving car. The air catches it going \"above its speed limit,\" and drags it back down pretty quickly. \n\nIf all of this is happening in outer-space, where there is no air resistance, whatever speed limit is imposed won't be with respect to the air, so you're the pilot will likely see the missile move forward in the expect fashion.",
"Remember that the missile is not travelling at 200m/s relative to the plane as it is released, or it would probably rip a wing off with it!\n\nThe missile will detach and fire. Its initial speed will be that of the plane, but if it cannot maintain this speed then it will slow down.\n\nObviously in reality missiles are far more aerodynamic and have much higher thrust/weight ratio than a plane so the missile is likely to have higher speed!\n\nEDIT: To add to this, consider 3 phases:\n\nPhase 1, Missile attached to plane, travelling at the same speed as plane\n\nPhase 2, Missile detaches and reduces in speed due to air resistance\n\nPhase 3, Missile fires and its speed increases upto and beyond that of the plane (for a real world missile).",
"Thanks for the replies everyone! Love this subreddit. My mind can rest easy - I had forgotten that the velocities can just be added to each other (assuming no air resistance). If there's air resistance, the missile will lag behind the plane. Many future headaches avoided.",
"With no air resistance:\n\nFighter travelling at constant 100 m/s fires missile. Missile gets up to 200 m/s relative to fighter. So missile looks like its going 300m/s, measured by someone on the ground.\n\nFighter travelling at constant 500m/s fires missile. Missile gets up to 200 m/s relative to fighter. So missile looks like its going 700m/s, measured by someone on the ground.\n\nThis assumes that the fighter is not accelerating. If the fighter is accelerating, and there is no air resistance, then the fighter will go faster. Air resistance determines the \"maximum speed\" of fighter jets and missiles. So yes, **air resistance is of crucial importance**.\n\nIf there were no air resistance, the fighter could theoretically get up to 8,000 m/s, like the space shuttle (if it had enough jet fuel). And the missile would go even faster. I assume that the maximum speed of the missile is based on how much fuel is inside it.",
"It will help your understanding of many physical systems to consider, in this case, that the top speed of a missile is not an intrinsic property of the missile, nor is the top speed of an aircraft. Consider instead more intrinsic properties: that a missile or jet aircraft has some intrinsic maximum thrust (force), and its shape endows it with certain drag and lift properties. A missile launched from an aircraft traveling at 100 m/s will accelerate if its intrinsic thrust force can overcome the drag at that speed. Maximum speed in these cases is reached when the drag force increases to match the thrust force, whatever speed that may be.",
"The jet has the power to take the rocket to 500. Once dropped, the rocket engine kicks in to accelerate it toward 700. but the second its dropped from the jet, it no longer has the added power of the jets engine. Once the rockets engine reaches max power, it slowly losses the momentum of the +500 boost of the jet. Since the rocket engine is only capable of 200 it is not capable of maintaining a speed above that. Once the momentum of the jets initial 500 boost wears off the rocket slows to 200."
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} | Physics problem that has been plaguing me since high school.
Hypothetical situation. Lets say you have a fighter airplane that flies at a maximum velocity of (just throwing numbers out there) 100 m/s. This plane can fire missiles, which travel at 200m/s. If the plane is flying at 100m/s and fires the missiles, the missiles would travel faster than 200m/s, right? Ok. So what happens if the same missiles are equipped on a jet fighter that can travel 500m/s. If the jet fighter is flying at 500m/s and fires a missile, will the missile now be able to travel faster than 500m/s or would it trail behind the jet fighter, kind of like when you throw a ball out the window of a moving car (I know its an entirely different phenomenon). I don't know how air resistance would play into this, assuming there is or isn't any. Also, assume the missile is loaded under the wing of the aircraft (not in some tube that could jam). This hypothetical situation has seriously been giving me headaches for about 10 years because I simply can't wrap my mind around it. I'd appreciate some clarification! | [
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|
p2sh8 | YOU are finalists for the Best Big Community of 2011! | For anyone not already aware, [AskScience is a finalist for the Best Big Community of 2011!](_URL_1_) We've seen a ton of change here in the past year, and it has been driven by YOU: the people asking questions, the people answering them, and the rest who are voting to keep the signal-to-noise ratio so high. The moderators want to thank everyone who contributes to AskScience for making it more than any of us ever dreamed of a year ago.
Last year, we had roughly 20,000 readers and finished a close second in the voting for Best Little Community. Now, we are a default subreddit, have over 300,000 users, and see hundreds of questions about science posted every day! We hope that everyone who has learned something here in the past year can take a second and cast a vote in the poll.
Whether or not we win, we would also like to thank everyone for the actions that have helped us do our moderating jobs. Voting on comments based on the guidelines and hitting the "report" button for anything that breaks the rules makes our job easy.
We are happy to report that [most AskScience users](_URL_2_) seem to support the actions we take as moderators. Collectively, the AskScience moderation team [has been nominated for the best moderator(s) of 2011 award!](_URL_0_) If you like the job we do, we encourage you to vote for us!
____
We would also like to hear your thoughts and suggestions on AskScience. What do you like/dislike? What do you want to see change in the next year? What would help us keep the quality high in the subreddit? Give your feedback (on anything!) in the comments. We love feedback. You can also get in touch with the moderators by hitting "message the moderators" underneath the AskScience submission button. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3m1gd3",
"c3m31ky",
"c3m1x3l",
"c3m2gfn",
"c3m3ehh",
"c3m4whr",
"c3m31pp",
"c3m4roe",
"c3m3cly",
"c3m45pk",
"c3m4apj",
"c3m6mi4"
],
"text": [
"The heavy-handed moderation has been very successful here. People visit this subreddit for interesting scientific questions with legit answers. /r/askscience owes its success to the lack of BS and rage comics that have plagued other subreddits.",
"Guys, I'm seeing a lot of layman celebration in here. Be sure to include data to back up your gratitude.",
"I not only like, I absolutely LOVE that everything off-topic and all the lame jokes are deleted. Every other subreddit has them so it's a pleasure to read [/r/askscience](/r/askscience) and not seeing the same shit here. I will press my mouse button with extra effort when upvoting this subreddit as the best big community and the subreddit with best moderators.\n\nA lot of feedback was received in that survey that took place here recently and overall it looks that the vast majority of the readers of this subreddit are happy with how things are going.",
"I get downvoted for posting comments that are factual (i.e. simply quoting reputable sources) in other subreddits if the information contradicts popular opinion.\n\nNot in r/askscience! Thanks r/askscience!",
"AskScience also appeared in the nomination for [comment of the year](_URL_0_) (RobotRollCall - [why nothing goes faster than c](_URL_1_) ).\n\n[RRC](_URL_3_) was also nominated as [commenter of the year](_URL_2_) despite her not posting anything since about October.",
"[/r/askscience](/r/askscience) is hands down the best subreddit in terms of quality and content. Most subreddits are good at giving some cheap stimulation, but [/r/askscience](/r/askscience) delivers real intelligent discussions with depth, a feat many subreddits have tried but have not attained to this level.",
"AskScience is one of my favorite sub-reddits, and the moderation is the main reason that it is so successful",
"I don't really frequent this reddit, but props to you guys.",
"While the SNR has been quite high, it's annoying to see that people don't follow commenting rules. I recently posted a question that received a lot of replies and more than 80% of them were anecdotes and bad jokes. It would be nice to not just downvote, but eliminate posts that add clutter. Still, this is by far the greatest sub on Reddit and with the glut of f7u12, adviceanimals and other crap that floods the front page, I am glad I can get some good information out of this site.",
"This is my favorite subteddit, or as I like to call it, circle jerk 2.\n\nBut seriously this entire thread is speculation and not science related - shut it down now!",
"This poll's methodology is flawed, and so this post needs to be deleted as un-scientific.",
"and /r/mylittlepony was doing so well too, well played askscience you win this round"
],
"score": [
235,
161,
67,
37,
19,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Bestof2011/comments/ouz5n/final_round_moderator_of_the_year/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Bestof2011/comments/ouzvj/final_round_best_big_community/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/oxxcd/raw_data_is_available_from_our_askscience_survey/c3l0fve"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Bestof2011/comments/ouslu/final_round_comment_of_the_year/c3k7ijo",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/fjwkh/why_exactly_can_nothing_go_faster_than_the_speed/c1gh4x7",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Bestof2011/comments/outrt/final_round_commenter_of_the_year/c3k7kse",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/RobotRollCall"
]
} | YOU are finalists for the Best Big Community of 2011!
For anyone not already aware, [AskScience is a finalist for the Best Big Community of 2011!](_URL_1_) We've seen a ton of change here in the past year, and it has been driven by YOU: the people asking questions, the people answering them, and the rest who are voting to keep the signal-to-noise ratio so high. The moderators want to thank everyone who contributes to AskScience for making it more than any of us ever dreamed of a year ago. Last year, we had roughly 20,000 readers and finished a close second in the voting for Best Little Community. Now, we are a default subreddit, have over 300,000 users, and see hundreds of questions about science posted every day! We hope that everyone who has learned something here in the past year can take a second and cast a vote in the poll. Whether or not we win, we would also like to thank everyone for the actions that have helped us do our moderating jobs. Voting on comments based on the guidelines and hitting the "report" button for anything that breaks the rules makes our job easy. We are happy to report that [most AskScience users](_URL_2_) seem to support the actions we take as moderators. Collectively, the AskScience moderation team [has been nominated for the best moderator(s) of 2011 award!](_URL_0_) If you like the job we do, we encourage you to vote for us! ____ We would also like to hear your thoughts and suggestions on AskScience. What do you like/dislike? What do you want to see change in the next year? What would help us keep the quality high in the subreddit? Give your feedback (on anything!) in the comments. We love feedback. You can also get in touch with the moderators by hitting "message the moderators" underneath the AskScience submission button. | [
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7uqu0s | AskScience AMA Series: "I am Rhett Allain, physicist and technical consultant on Mythbusters and MacGyver. Ask me about the physics of pretty much anything! | Hi r/AskScience. I'm Rhett Allain, a physics professor at Southeastern Louisiana University and writer of the [Dot Physics](_URL_2_) column at WIRED, where I dissect the physics of everything from viral videos like the [Invisible Box Challenge](_URL_0_), to the (often flawed) science in TV shows and movies like '[Stranger Things](_URL_1_)' and '[Iron Man](_URL_3_).' I also consult on Mythbusters and MacGyver to make sure the science in their shows is sound. I'm here to help you better understand the world around you through everday physics, and generally answer any questions you have about my work and science in general. Ask me anything!
I'll be here at 12 PM ET (17 UT), ask me anything!
| askscience | {
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"Are there any series or movies you would say standout as having especially realistic physics? I always loved that Babylon 5 had silent spaceships, for instance.",
"As a consultant for sci-fi type things, do you ever find yourself in tension between wanting to deliver something wowing to the producers and wanting to maintain scientific accuracy? Is there anything you've ever put your foot down on and refused to compromise?",
"What are some of the more outrageous miss-conceptions that you have encountered in your job as a consultant?",
"What about the droid attack on the wookiees?",
"What advice would you give to an aspiring Physicist? I am a freshman pursuing a physics-engineering and mathematics double major and have a decent amount of research under my belt. I’m not sure if I want to pursue a career in academia after school or go into industry. I just really love doing research. Do you find that doing both, like you are, has been a good in between for you? Or can it be overwhelming?",
"Hello, it is I - Rhett. I'm signed in as wiredmagazine - but trust me, it's really me.\n\n- Rhett",
"Hi Rhett - avid reader of your column, thanks for dropping by here. Is it true that you foresaw the black hole firewall paradox in the 90s, and could you expand on the temporal implications of this problem? Any clues on when *NecroPhysics* will be published? (I loved the extract I saw about the \"desolate symbol of the neutron star, in which elemental meaning collapses.\"!)",
"How far do you feel TV or movies can or should stretch the scientific principles for the sake of a plotline or story?",
"Question on The Last Jedi: Could Leia's body, skin, eyes, and extremeties have survived their exposure to space, absent any supposed intervention from \"The Force\"? \nDo you have any opinion or commentary on this particular scene? Thx!",
"Hello there, thanks for being here! How did you first get into the consulting business? Is it something that you had to seek out or did they come to you about it?",
"I heard that gravitational waves were detected for the first time using a device called LIGO. Could you tell me more about what can we learn from the findings of these wave sensing experiments? Can it help us detect the gravitational field from a person as well? How do you think it will help the society in future? I do realize not all science is directly practically useful but it does help you understand some rudimentary principles of the universe and that’s cool too.",
"Feel free to ask more questions - I'm still here. The questions so far have been great.\n\n-Rhett",
"**What would be the best way to create a \"gravitational field\" in space shuttles/stations?**\n\nIn science-fiction pieces, two of the most common ideas are using centrifugal force, which pushes objects against the outside of the shuttle or using something akin to an magnetic fields on the floors while wearing special boots that allow you to walk on surfaces. How limited are these approaches and are there better ones? \n\nSomething akin to a gravitational field might not be \"necessary\" and there are bigger problems for long space journey (like cosmic radiation), but it seems like having no gravity can take a toll on health.",
"Science and religion always seem to be at odds with each other for presenting often contradictory views of the entirety of existence. Do you think observations in physics, the complexity of mathematics, the beauty and structure of the cosmos, et cetera corroborate some form of creator or debunk the idea completely?",
"As someone who loves the grandiose in physics, do you think we’re close to unifying quantum physics and relativity? The problems are enormous but do we just need the next Einstein to come along and find the link? Love your column, keep it up",
"Hi, Rhett! Got any ideas on plausible physics behind [Wonder Woman's plane](_URL_0_) being invisible? Are we dealing with simple refraction? High tech camouflage?"
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"url": [
"https://www.wired.com/story/the-physics-of-the-invisible-box-challenge/",
"https://www.wired.com/story/the-science-of-sensory-deprivation-tanks-in-stranger-things/",
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]
} | AskScience AMA Series: "I am Rhett Allain, physicist and technical consultant on Mythbusters and MacGyver. Ask me about the physics of pretty much anything!
Hi r/AskScience. I'm Rhett Allain, a physics professor at Southeastern Louisiana University and writer of the [Dot Physics](_URL_2_) column at WIRED, where I dissect the physics of everything from viral videos like the [Invisible Box Challenge](_URL_0_), to the (often flawed) science in TV shows and movies like '[Stranger Things](_URL_1_)' and '[Iron Man](_URL_3_).' I also consult on Mythbusters and MacGyver to make sure the science in their shows is sound. I'm here to help you better understand the world around you through everday physics, and generally answer any questions you have about my work and science in general. Ask me anything! I'll be here at 12 PM ET (17 UT), ask me anything! | [
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1c7zah | What the continuous function increases at the greatest rate? What function in general increases at the greatest rate? | I had this on my mind for a while. In my calc class, we went over a hierarchy of increasing functions (as in, which functions increase faster than others) For example, of the functions we've been taught, ln(x) (or log functions in general) increases the slowest, followed x^(1/n), x^n, a^x, n!, x^x. After reaching the class x^x, I asked what functions increase faster than it, and she said x^x^x, then x^x^x^x, and so on (I think thats arrow notation, or x ^ ^ x). That answer seemed too neat for math, and, I was wondering if some other type of function increases more quickly than x^x, no matter how many exponents of ^x.
So, formally, the question is: what class of functions that are continuous x > 0 ( continuous on all real numbers is fine as well) increase more quickly than x to an arbitrarily large amount of exponents of itself ( can choose x to as many ^ ^ ^ x as you want). What is its derivative?
Also, what function do we know of that increases the most quickly ? What rate does it increase at?
does not need to be continuous)
I'm sorry if how I asked the question isn't using exact vocabulary. I chose continuous functions because they seemed to go with most of the other classes of functions we have been learning. I'm not sure that x^x, or x to an arbitrarily large amount of arrows is continuous though. I had a ( ) for me explaining what I meant if I wasn't sure my choice of words were correct.
Thank you for the help! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"For any function f(x) that tends to infinity, e\\^f(x) increases more quickly, and log(f(x)) increases more slowly. So there is no fastest or slowest.\n\nWith that being said, there are functions that grow faster than anything of the form x^x^... . I highly recommend [this essay](_URL_0_) on how to think about such functions. Similarly, there are extremely slow-growing functions. A famous example is the [inverse Ackermann function](_URL_1_).",
"Every finite exponential tower is [computable](_URL_5_). Thus, if we have a function that grows faster than every computable function, it will grow faster than your exponential towers. Such a function is the [Busy Beaver function](_URL_4_).\n\n[edit]\n\nIn fact, your towers are examples of [primitive recursive function](_URL_5_) (well, provided we restrict to integers, but that won't affect asymptotic growth), so anything that grows faster than all primitive recursive functions will grow faster than all of them. Such a function is the [Ackermann function](_URL_4_). Of course, the Ackermann function is itself computable and therefore also grows slower than the Busy Beaver.\n\n[edit 2] I missed that you're looking for continuous functions on **R**. For that, I don't know of any specific fast growing functions, but username45879's method works.",
"**First, a small point:**\n\n x^x is decreasing on an interval (0, ε) for some 0 < ε < 1. [See here.](_URL_8_)\n\nAnd it appears that the question has already been sufficiently answered. \n\n**There is no fastest growing continuous function.**\n\n**To put within the context in which you are familiar:**\n\n Has any function (that you mentioned) grow faster than a function with a vertical asymptote? No. Is there a fastest growing function among these (that is continuous as we approach the limit point from the left, say)? No. You can use username45879's argument again.\n\n**For a concrete example:**\n\n The function [f(x)=tan(x)](_URL_7_) has a vertical asymptote at x= pi/2. And as x- > pi/2 from the left f(x) - > infinity.\n\nOnly considering the function over the reals, we can see that [g(x)=e^tan(x) ](_URL_6_) also has an asymptote at x=pi/2 and grows even more swiftly.",
"The [Ackermann function](_URL_9_) is not continuous but increases at a huge rate, much faster than exponentials or factorials.\n\n**EDIT**: You also might find [this](_URL_10_) interesting. The question you asked is very important to computation, as the run time for algorithms will usually have some kind of functional dependence. For instance it might be easy to write a sorting algorithm that completes in exponential-time, but will be very slow for long lists, so if you can write one in polynomial time you have succeeded in life. For instance, the fastest sorting algorithms will run in *n*log(*n*) time (at worst)."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.scottaaronson.com/writings/bignumbers.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_function#Inverse",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_function",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_function",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busy_beaver#The_busy_beaver_function_.CE.A3",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_recursive_function",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=e%5Etan%28x%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=tan%28x%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=x%5Ex+on+%280%2C1%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackerman_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity"
]
} | What the continuous function increases at the greatest rate? What function in general increases at the greatest rate?
I had this on my mind for a while. In my calc class, we went over a hierarchy of increasing functions (as in, which functions increase faster than others) For example, of the functions we've been taught, ln(x) (or log functions in general) increases the slowest, followed x^(1/n), x^n, a^x, n!, x^x. After reaching the class x^x, I asked what functions increase faster than it, and she said x^x^x, then x^x^x^x, and so on (I think thats arrow notation, or x ^ ^ x). That answer seemed too neat for math, and, I was wondering if some other type of function increases more quickly than x^x, no matter how many exponents of ^x. So, formally, the question is: what class of functions that are continuous x > 0 ( continuous on all real numbers is fine as well) increase more quickly than x to an arbitrarily large amount of exponents of itself ( can choose x to as many ^ ^ ^ x as you want). What is its derivative? Also, what function do we know of that increases the most quickly ? What rate does it increase at? does not need to be continuous) I'm sorry if how I asked the question isn't using exact vocabulary. I chose continuous functions because they seemed to go with most of the other classes of functions we have been learning. I'm not sure that x^x, or x to an arbitrarily large amount of arrows is continuous though. I had a ( ) for me explaining what I meant if I wasn't sure my choice of words were correct. Thank you for the help! | [
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|
qh6kv | I've been seeing this image on Facebook about the "horrible effects of cold water" and I think it's BS. Is this really true? | Here's the image: _URL_0_
It makes absolutely no sense to me but I've been seeing it EVERYWHERE. Can anyone prove or disprove the statements in this picture? I'm not so sure about the heart attack facts but I think the cold water facts are faulty science. | askscience | {
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"Heart attack facts are somewhat accurate - pain in the chest and left arm is not present in _all_ cases (and in fact is less common in women).\n\nThe cold water stuff is pure BS - there is one sentence that managed to relate a non-specific word \"fats\" straight into cancer.\n\nI think the fact that the last paragraph sets it up as a chain/spam mail is enough to disregard this.",
"According to Snopes, it's false. And the myth has been around for a while. \n_URL_0_",
"This is crap. \n_URL_1_\nThe small intestine secretes bile which enable emulsion.\nEmulsion is the mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (cannot be \"blended\")\nSo right there it should tell you that the lipids or \"fats\" will not line the intestine and \"cause cancer.\" \n\nWhere do people come up with this stuff?",
"The origin of this myth seems to be that some Asian cultures prefer to drink water warm. In my experience living in China, no one asserted that this was to avoid medical risks (cancer, heart attack, etc.) , but because:\n\n* It was a preference developed when people began boiling water to decontaminate it. Tap water is still not potable without boiling in China, so those who can't afford bottled water drink it boiled, usually while it's still hot\n\n\n* There is a prevailing bit of Chinese wisdom that says that one who is sick should not drink cold water or eat cold foods, because if your body wants to be warm (fever), drinking cold water will upset your internal temperature. For this reason my host family would also not allow me to use the air conditioning in my room when I was sick, because they felt that going from the hot common area to my cold room would upset my internal temperatures.",
"I actually teach thermodynamics, so I can help you out here:\n\nThe link states that drinking cold water will solidify your *oily stuff*. This plays on the common understanding that some fatty compounds are solid at room temperature, and some are liquid (and the solid ones are **bad!!!**). However, the melting point of a compound you eat actually has little downstream impact, because your body tends to degrade/digest/chemically change everything you eat before it can absorb it. Also, your body is MUCH more massive than any individual meal, meaning that because you maintain yourself at 98.6 deg. F/38 deg. C, you contain a lot of heat energy. Immediately, when you come in contact with the water, you start heating it up, and you don't stop heating it up until you and it are at the same temperature. This temperature equalization will happen certainly before the water leaves your stomach.\n \nThe link states that the solid \"sludge\" will build up in your small intestine and cause **CANCER!!!** Let me tell you right now that: if the cold water \"solidifies\" the fat, it won't be absorbed faster than the liquid rest of your food. Food cannot be absorbed unless it's dissolved/solubilized in the intestine. This is why we have bile in the first place, to make fats more soluble in the mostly watery food.\n\nYou'll notice that at no point have I made any sort of mechanistic link to cancer. That's because absolutely **none** exists here. I don't fucking understand why some people feel the need to baselessly scare others for no discernible gain to themselves, but it makes me want to kill whoever made this image.",
"Nope, it's a [myth](_URL_2_). Our internal body temperature is almost 100 degrees Fahrenheit, so cold substances that we swallow are warmed by our body, not the other way around. Nothing will stay cold and congealed as this article suggests.",
"This is total garbage! Good on you for recognizing it!\n\nBlood temperature is about 37.5 C, and humans, being warm-blooded, maintain that temperature until we're about to die from hypothermia. A glass of cold water is at its lowest 0 degrees C. An average cup of water is about 8 fluid ounces, or 236 mL. A calorie is defined as the energy required to heat 1 mL of water by 1 degree C, and the specific heat of blood is about 0.9 where water is 1.0. Finally, while the amount of blood in a human body varies, let's take 4L as a lower bound and 8L as a higher bound.\n\nFor a glass of 236 mL of ice cold water at 0 C to be heated to 38C, it would take:\n\n 38 * 236 = 8,968 calories.\n\nThis, translated to heating value in blood, will be:\n\n 8968 C mL water * 0.9 mL blood = 8071 C mL blood\n 1 mL water\n\n 8071 C mL blood / 4000 mL blood = 2 C\n 8071 C mL blood / 8000 mL blood = 1 C\n\nWhich is to say, the most that a glass of ice water can cool your blood, even if it were dumped straight into it and not passed through so many heating systems and high specific-heat sources (i.e. your stomach's chyme) first, is 2 C, if you're a very small person. That means your veins would then be at 35.5 C (37.5 - 2). And of course your body reflexively starts heating right back up, because you're warm-blooded and undergo [thermoregulation](_URL_6_), in every cell in your body.\n\n[Any fat you were eating typically has a melting point below 35.5 C, with the exceptions of \"leaf fat\" lard, and hydrogenated shortening like Crisco](_URL_5_). This means **YOU COULD USUALLY DUMP THE FAT STRAIGHT INTO YOUR VEINS, WITH A GLASS OF ICE COLD WATER, AND BE PERFECTLY FINE**. However, it also means that if you dumped shortening straight into your bloodstream, with a glass of ice-cold water, it would in fact freeze into a solid lump, as the meme suggests.\n\nBut of course we do not just dump oil straight across the intestinal lining, that would be silly. We're not made of tubes and glassware, we're made of cells, themselves titanically complex machines and factories. Blood is water-based, and oils aren't water-soluble by definition, so they get packaged into little [surfactant-lined-bubbles, called chylomicrons](_URL_6_), which look like [this](_URL_4_), and can flow through the bloodstream. So a large amount of fat being digested into the body wouldn't have a chance to agglomerate, in the bloodstream, even if your blood was ice-cold, because the cells that let it cross into the bloodstream package it in an emulsion. The slightly cold temperature won't de-emulsify it.\n\n**EDIT: I was addressing the half-reasonable idea that this could lead to heart failure. The idea that it could lead to cancer is stupefyingly incoherent. Cancer is caused by gene mutation, and our body fights it by having mutation-correction mechanisms in DNA, and by having an immune system that targets cancers. There is no reason to expect that cold fats would be either mutagenic, or immunosuppressant. This is total insanity.**\n\nGood work, OP, on having the acumen to recognize that it was total garbage. This is the kind of stuff that somebody says, and it makes *a little bit of sense* to a layman, and so it gets passed around. In a time when big businesses are pushing science-phobia so they won't get regulated, lots of well-meaning people pass around garbage like this (vaccines cause autism, fluorine is mind-control, crystals can heal you). They want to understand the world around them, but many times they haven't been educated well-enough to see through it. Props to you for knowing it was hooey.",
"Cardiologist here, as has been mentioned in a few different ways, this article is pretty clearly trying to be alarmist and, I believe, intermingling a small amount of fact with a large dollop of mistruth.\n\nThe truthful information here is that pertaining to the various non-typical presentations of acute coronary syndromes (heart attacks). The actual percentages of people presenting with an acute coronary syndrome who have chest pain and those who don't is highly variable due to the number of studies and the vastly different population studies. However, a rough (and commonly taught) benchmark is that of all the people who will end up being diagnosed with an acute coronary syndrome, 1/4 will have typical central crushing chest pain (typically radiating down the arms), 1/4 will have pain somewhere from the jaw to the belly-button that may be atypical in nature, 1/4 will not have chest pain but will have associated features such as shortness of breath/sweating/nausea/vomiting/palpitations, 1/4 will not present initially with any symptoms but it will be discovered later on (the true \"silent heart attacks\").\n\nFrom personal experience, those numbers probably downplay the importance of chest pain and the classic presentation of chest pain, which is probably a higher and more important proportion of people, but the relevance to people to be vigilant is nonetheless important. Diabetics, women, and elderly people are all more likely to have the atypical presentations than classic central crushing chest pain. \n\nThe waking up at night with jaw-pain cited is certainly a possible presentation of a heart attack, and one that I've seen plenty of times, but it is by no means the 'next most common' presentation. Also, nowhere near 60% of heart attacks during sleep are immediately mortal, it's probably about 1/100th of that proportion.\n\nThe rest of the article is rubbish. As far as I know (and a cursory literature search backed this up), there has been no clinical trial or observational study or any other piece of clinical research published that in anyway shows a detrimental affect of cold water on digestion resulting in long term side effects. The justification used in the poster is absurd at many points - cold water can drunk after a meal can affect oils before they reach the stomach (which should be pretty instantaneous), cold water somehow makes oils into a sludge/solid, the sludge both slows digestion and is rapidly absorbred by the small intestine, despite being absorbed faster it also lines the intestine, somehow an intestine lined with fat is carcinogenic. So yeah, not only is there no evidence for the claim, the 'scientific' rationale for it is as ridiculous as you can get. Finally, even the image used in the poster is misleading, as the information has nothing to do with the chest (all the cold water stuff) and this image of a chest doesn't even have the oesophagus on it (which would at least give it some cursory relevance).",
"utter bullshit:\n\n1. if you have a human at 98.6 degrees F with a body containing, on average ~70 liters of water (amongst many other things) and you add 8 ounces of water at 32 degrees F (lowest you can successfully drink...haha), the net result will be a negligible change in total temperature of the system. even if the temperature did change significantly, mammals make their own body heat so...you can't have a change in temperature significant enough to cause fat agglutination in the interior of a mammal and keep the mammal alive. \n\n2. the average time that it takes the stomach to empty fully after ingesting a meal is 4 hours...plenty of time for temperature normalization...also food/ water does not go straight from the esophagus through the stomach into the intestine without mixing for a good hour or two. \n\n3. fat (and all other food) is reacted with stomach acid...bear with me here...only in the stomach. as soon as it exits the stomach, it is mixed in the duodenum with bile salts and bicarbonate (produced by the liver) that help to emulsify the fat and make it more soluble in water so that it can be absorbed more easily by the intestinal epithelium (the cells on the food side of the intestinal tube). when it enters the intestine, the fatty acids are broken down before they are taken into the intestinal epithelium, and broken down again when they exit. \n\n4. disregarding other facts, it would be nearly impossible to eat enough fat to coat the approximately 21-30 feet of pipework in the small intestines...and doing so would likely just cause the person who consumed all of that fat to have liver pain and greasy shits...\n\n5. fat does not directly cause cancer (otherwise everyone would have cancer as we all have fat): eating too much can predispose someone to cancerous conditions, and damaging reactions with the lipids that make up plasma membranes can cause cell function to go awry, but consuming fat and having it absorbed by the intestine is necessary for life...and in normal quantities will not cause cancer.\n\n7. wtf...where did heart attacks enter the picture? \n\n6. heart attacks are not caused by fat (directly). they are caused by obstruction of blood flow to tissue in the heart. the block to blood flow normally arises over a number of decades as a result of injury to the cells lining the arteries of the heart (and others, but those others don't primarily cause heart attack, though they may precipitate on as a secondary effect) and the formation of cholesterol rich plaques which swell and cause arterial obstruction...also, fat has to pass through the liver from the intestines before it reaches blood circulation. \n\n8. whoever wrote that was either a troll, an idiot, or both.",
"Related question: I've been told that drinking cold water will cause your body to burn more calories than if you had drank less-cold water. The logic being that the body burns calories bringing it up to body temp. Can anyone confirm or deny this?",
"Cracked debunked this one a couple years back in their article \"[7 Retarded Food Myths The Internet Thinks Are True.](_URL_7_)\" It's number 4.",
"\"A cardiologist says.....\" Isn't remotely close to being a sited source, therefor it is bullshit. \nAlso \"solidify the oily stuff\"? Wicked scientific. I really can't go on. There is so much fail in this \"article\" or whatever you want to call it.",
"Hold on, isn't calories literally defined as being the amount of energy it takes to heat 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius? Burning calories= leading to fat? Seems illogical.",
"I know people who have said this for years decades before Facebook existed. Even just water cold or not some people won't drink when eating.\n\n Although I'm sure I could make an educated guess why this is hysteria I'm sure someone more qualified than me will answer in more detail soon enough.",
"The human body is a constant temperature of 37 degrees Celsius. It doesn't matter if you swallow an ice cube. It all warms up inside of you. That post is so absurd.",
"Although I can only speak from the perspective of a physiology undergrad, there are a couple things about this post that don't quite add up. First, the lining of the human digestive system gets recycled too often to consider the possibility that food contents stuck on the sides of the intestine would be there for long at all. As well as the recycling of intestine epithelium, certain contractions of the intestine are designed to dislodge food particles stick on the walls of the intestine. Finally, considering the oils they discuss likely refer to fatty acids, the fatty acids of a meal are actually the last of the meal to enter the small intestine. To suggest that fatty acid build up would lead to cancer, well, I'll let you think that one out reddit.",
"Come on reddit, really? Could you possibly be that naive? It brings not even one fact, true or false to back it up. On top of that the last paragraph begs you to send it to 10 other people. I thought this stuff would go away when AOL did. I can't be right all the time.\n_URL_8_",
"Along the same lines, does the body's ability to warm the things we ingest boost metabolism? Lots of diets say \"drink cold water! Your body spends more energy heating the water and has to work harder to stay at optimal temperature, so it burns more calories and you lose weight faster.\" Fact?",
"Cold water will become warm water after being in your body for less than a minute, thus invalidating the entire premise behind this nonsense.",
"Ponter: everything on facebook is bullsh*t. this is like seven independent layers of bullsh*t.",
"[Cracked did an article on it and similar hoaxes](_URL_9_)"
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/FxCJE"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.snopes.com/medical/myths/coldwater.asp",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestine",
"http://goaskalice.columbia.edu/drinking-cold-water-harmful",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoregulation#In_cold_conditions",
"http://pharmacy.unc.edu/research/labs/laboratory-of-drug-targeting/gallery-of-research-photos/simon.gif",
"http://www.vaughns-1-pagers.com/food/vegetable-oils.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chylomicron",
"http://www.cracked.com/article_16785_7-retarded-food-myths-internet-thinks-are-true.html",
"http://www.hoax-slayer.com/cold-water-cancer.html",
"http://www.cracked.com/article_16785_7-retarded-food-myths-internet-thinks-are-true.html"
]
} | I've been seeing this image on Facebook about the "horrible effects of cold water" and I think it's BS. Is this really true?
Here's the image: _URL_0_ It makes absolutely no sense to me but I've been seeing it EVERYWHERE. Can anyone prove or disprove the statements in this picture? I'm not so sure about the heart attack facts but I think the cold water facts are faulty science. | [
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1d0s58 | Is time of death hereditary? | I'm just curious to see if anything is known of age of death being heredity. Is the age a parent or both parents or a grandparent or both grandparents die a good indicator of how long the descendant will live? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9lswhr",
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"text": [
"This is a great question, and as a geneticist, I'll pose my theory. Hell, this would be something great to research (but it would take a lot of computational and theoretical genomics). I will say that it is possible. Since you inherit gene pairs from your parents that have different gene-gene interactions, this could influence telomere degradation. I'd say it's possible that the combined overall genomic profile of the descendant could reflect the combined telomere degradation rate of the lineage before the descendant. In order to study this you'd have to have a longitudinal study to see what happens to telomere length over time within a family (preferably multiple families, some with shorter lifespans, some with much longer). You would also have to take samples from them at various stages in life.\n\nThat's a really tough question to answer, but is it possible? Yeah, in the future when we can sequence your genome for ~$1000 this question will probably be answered quickly, but until then, I don't think there's any research being done on it.\n\nWhat we do know, however, is that telomere degradation is usually about the same in offspring, so it should be a good indicator, however, it's not the strongest. Epigenetics plays a HUGE role in lifespan, because when you methylate or demethylate certain genes, the genomic profile can change dramatically; even when one gene is turned on or off because it can trickle down to hundreds or even thousands of other gene-gene interactions.\n\nTo put it simply: we need quantum computing to be able to show the variability of gene-gene interactions in the body along with a longitudinal study to sample genomic profiles in many familial systems to probably answer this question. I'd estimate that it'll take about 10-15 years to answer your question.\n\nIt's a good one though!\n\nI welcome disagreement, and debate, I need a good internet battle.",
"Yes, although [the heritability is not all that high](_URL_0_). This is a well known phenomenon in quantitative genetics. Traits that seem like they'd be vitally important to survival/fitness (and even survival itself, it seems), tend to be not all that heritable. This is generally because the thing that has the greatest effect on survival is non genetic environmental factors, which swamp out the signal of genetic variation, thus making the trait not very heritable.\n\nStill, ~25% is not negligible. I know of at least a few traits in the biological world that are thought to have lower heritabilities than that (and one or two that are apparently zero).",
"Well, in quite a number of organisms (roundworms, fruit flies and mice are the most prominent), mutations in the insulin signaling pathway have been shown to greatly increase longevity. In humans, [recent studies](_URL_1_) of polymorphisms (essentially benign mutations) have been shown to correlate with lifespan, in this paper specifically those associated with the insulin/IGF signaling pathway. This isn't the only example, a quick search turns up multiple similar studies. \n\nGenetics certainly plays a large role in longevity, but that doesn't mean lifestyle doesn't as well. In fact, there's often an interplay, for example dietary restriction generally lengthens lifespan, but certain genetic lines/mutants have been shown to be resistant to its effects. Many other things that affect our health such as smoking, consumption of certain foods, etc. also have genetic interactions as well."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02185763",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-9726.2009.00493.x/full"
]
} | Is time of death hereditary?
I'm just curious to see if anything is known of age of death being heredity. Is the age a parent or both parents or a grandparent or both grandparents die a good indicator of how long the descendant will live? | [
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|
x2irt | Why are 100m athletes built like tanks in upper body? | I was watching the BBC documentary on bolt and saw yohan blake and remembered that other famous sprinters on 100m are built like tanks(not all but many) i know that you need explosive force for this kind of competition but i guess it should limited to lower body in general.I also guess that they must train every part with compound movements but some athletes are huge and i dont think you can achieve that kind of muscle mass "indirectly" from training _URL_1_ is there any reason for training specifically upper body or are they just gifted with god genetics and grow muscle like no others even though they dont target them?
pics for reference
_URL_2_
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5iley9",
"c5ilwjw",
"c5is6el",
"c5ivszb",
"c5isjne"
],
"text": [
"Sprinters will often spend a lot of time working the upper body to help with their economy as they run. I recently saw a BBC documentary about Usain Bolt and when he first changed trainer the first thing his new coach did was put him onto intensive strength training for the core and upper body. The core and upper body contribute a lot to your stability, especially important when you're moving at those kinds of speeds, and not only could it help you run faster it should also help prevent injury.\n\nAnother reason behind these guys *looking* so ripped is that they are likely to have very low boy fat.",
"There's a reason why we pump our arms when we sprint -- it actually assists in the motion (try running without moving your arms, and see what happens). All runners generally want to have a strong set of core muscles as well (abs/back, etc) to help give them better body control and maintain proper form when they begin to fatigue. You can still be pretty fast without having a muscular upper body, but at a highly competitive level, it tends to help more than it hurts. Flexibility is also extremely important for runners (it doesn't help to have big arms if you can't move them easily), so there is some trade off.",
"As someone who followed sprinting in the 80s, one point that I don't see represented is the influence of [Ben Johnson](_URL_0_)\n\nBen Johnson stood out in the 80s as a sprinter with a terrifically developed upper body compared to his competitors. Yes, it was later to be revealed as a product of his steroid used, but analysis of Johnson's technique showed he was using the upper body to get out of the blocks (starting position) in 0.13 seconds, over 0.05 seconds faster than any of the rest of the field. He would throw his arms up as part of his motion and get into a running stance measurably faster.\n\nEven though he was later disgraced for steroid use, Johnson did change the view most sprinters had on upper body development and from that point on, you'll see sprinters seriously working on their upper bodies. I'm not saying that it was because of Ben Johnson, but he was certainly proof that convinced everyone that you could gain an advantage with a large muscle mass upper body.",
"Through my experiences running track during high school and some of college, it's all about balance. Regular Balance and balance of muscles. For instance the purpose of emphasizing the arm movements while running is that it almost tricks your legs in to digging deeper with eaach step. Hope this helps at all..",
"Physiologically, being a world class sprinter tends to select those who have predominantly fast twitch muscle fibers. This, combined with good genetics means that its possible the rest of the body would be more inclined to hypertrophy under even after minor stimuli."
],
"score": [
20,
12,
4,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://media.lawrence.com/img/photos/2006/04/19/Shawn_Crawford_RELAYS_vert.jpg",
"globally.So",
"http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110829/sports/images/YohanBlakeJ20110828RM_2.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Johnson_(sprinter\\)"
]
} | Why are 100m athletes built like tanks in upper body?
I was watching the BBC documentary on bolt and saw yohan blake and remembered that other famous sprinters on 100m are built like tanks(not all but many) i know that you need explosive force for this kind of competition but i guess it should limited to lower body in general.I also guess that they must train every part with compound movements but some athletes are huge and i dont think you can achieve that kind of muscle mass "indirectly" from training _URL_1_ is there any reason for training specifically upper body or are they just gifted with god genetics and grow muscle like no others even though they dont target them? pics for reference _URL_2_ _URL_0_ | [
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1aqiwx | What's the significance of the Planck mission results? | The Planck mission has just released its [results](_URL_0_) I'm especially curious about the new value of the Hubble constant. At 67,15 ± 1,2 (km/s)/Mpc , this puts it outside of the range of the WMAP mission: 69,32 ± 0,80(km/s)/Mpc (the highest value from Planck would be 68,35 and the lowest from WMAP 68,52, so a gap of 0,17). Does that reveal a problem with our understanding of these instruments? And what are the implications of this lower constant?
Also, the age of the universe has been measured at 13,82 vs 13,77. Is this in any way significant? I guess that it will at least help explain the measurement of some stars as potentially "older than the universe".
I should also mention the two other important results: 1) That the universe might not be the same in every direction and 2) that there's a bit more normal matter (4,9% vs 4,5%), a bit more dark matter (26,8% vs 22,7%) and less dark energy (68,3% vs. 72,8%)
| askscience | {
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"Well, first let's say this is a really great day for cosmology. The fact that 50 years after we discovered the CMB, 20 years after we first measured its variations on the sky, we have it mapped out to nearly the maximum physically allowable precision, is absolutely magnificent. The constraints on deviations from our current picture of the Universe are astounding and put some real pressure on us theorists to come up with ways forward that don't break these bounds.\n\n**The Low Hubble Constant** You're right to think that the low value of the Hubble constant is one of the more interesting results. It's certainly lower than we expected (the percentage of dark energy is also lower than we'd thought, and as a result the amount of dark matter is higher). This isn't so bad though; it's worth pointing out that a couple of decades ago people were arguing about whether it was 50 km/s/Mpc or 90 km/s/Mpc. The fact that some people say 68 and some say 73 is by comparison not that bad a problem.\n\nThis is because the Hubble constant is really hard to measure, especially locally. I'd be more inclined to trust Planck, personally; the supernova and Cepheid variable star data (which are the main data that Planck's Hubble constant conflicts with) are fraught with astrophysical uncertainties that are really hard to get a grasp on. The CMB, by contrast, is a much cleaner and better understood source of data. It's not at all inconceivable - quite likely, in fact - that this discrepancy will go down when these supernovae and variable stars are better understood, and I expect this result will spur astronomers on to seek that better understanding.\n\n**The Age of the Universe** The age of the Universe has been revised upwards by about 50 million years - interesting, but not a big deal qualitatively. Any stars which have an older age measurement (and there are very few of those anymore) are going to have errors on their ages far bigger than that anyway, so this isn't significant in that regard. As with the Hubble constant, the CMB is clean and stars are not, so it's going to be up to the stellar astronomers to figure out why these age measurements are a bit high. At this point in history, anomalously high ages like that are a rarity, and nothing that causes people too much concern.\n\n**Trouble at Large Scales?** I'd be very skeptical about these supposed large scale anomalies. They are intriguing, but there's a lot more work to be done before we can be convinced they're important. The trouble with large scales is this: there are only so many data points available because the sky is only so big, and we only have so many universes to work with - that is, one! - so it's next to impossible to discern between unusual physics and statistical chance. Also, the fact that it's aligned with the ecliptic is suggestive that this is a systematic effect rather than a real one... unless the Universe happens to care about our orbit around the Sun! Personally, I think it would be great if some of these anomalies turned out to be signs of new physics, as they could be indicative of some of the coolest speculative physics which would otherwise be impossible to test - physics before the Big Bang, a multiverse, a weird topology to the Universe, etc. - but I also think that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and by their nature the evidence for these kinds of anomalies might never be extraordinary.\n\n**Inflation and Physics Beyond the Standard Model** As a theorist, this is in my opinion the most interesting thing Planck gave us today (and will continue to be the most interesting next year when the polarization data, and a new batch of temperature data, are released). People in my field have been griping a bit today because they'd hoped for some \"sexier\" result - evidence that the random fluctuations in the CMB don't follow a Gaussian distribution, for example - and instead Planck really just confirmed our existing paradigm to greater detail. Things like non-Gaussianity, non-zero spatial curvature, extra neutrino species, and a whole host of other things, all are just constrained to be zero with some really tiny error bars. But those error bars are in many cases magnificently tiny. Planck is really probing the space of allowed models for things like inflation. Even a lot of the vanilla models are being ruled out, and as a result we're really starting to tighten the allowed space of inflationary theories. It would have been cooler if Planck had found, say, non-Gaussianity, but even the fact that it isn't there, as well as the many other constraints Planck found, have ruled out a great many models and that is very significant. See Figure 1 in Paper XXII of the [Planck papers](_URL_0_) to get a sense of just how constraining these new data really are.\n\nAlso, I should note how absolutely awesome it is - though this was sort of found last year by the South Pole Telescope - that Planck's found really strong (6 sigma, I think) evidence that the inflationary power spectrum isn't entirely scale invariant - in other words, that the density fluctuations produced by inflation aren't all the same size, but vary slightly with wavelength. This is a very firm prediction of inflation and just cements this theory even more strongly. I'd also mention that certain notable competitors to inflation, like the ekpyrotic scenario, seem to be more or less ruled out by Planck. So even if nothing weird and new was found, these data are a huge win for inflation, and hence for our understanding of our Universe at absurdly early times.\n\nRight, those are some initial thoughts. I don't work on the Planck data (heck, I just do theory), so these thoughts are just from skimming the papers, watching the press conferences, and spending a lot of the day talking to some Planck people who, fortunately for me, work just down the road. I'm off to go curl up in bed with a few of these papers and see what else there is to learn!",
"Some images:\n\n1. [The Planck full-sky map](_URL_5_)\n\n2. [Comparison of Planck's resolution to that of WMAP and COBE](_URL_5_)\n\n3. [Angular power spectrum graph](_URL_5_)\n\n[Source for 1 and 2](_URL_5_); [source for 3](_URL_5_).",
"one thing about the plus-minus sign when recording data: it's not a measure of tolerance, but a measure of uncertainty. the plus-minus does not mean that there is a 100% chance that the true value lies within the given range; rather it means that there is a very high chance that it does. i think (and there is a good chance that i am wrong) that the uncertainty indicates the second or third standard deviation from the mean, which means that if our original experiment had mean µ and uncertainty σ, then if we repeated our original experiment, we could predict with approximately 97% certainty that our new mean would fall in the range μ±σ",
"The difference in the results is only 1.5 sigma - not that huge a difference really. Right now it doesn't seem as if there's anything huge and groundbreaking from the point of view of anyone who isn't a cosmologist. Of course for cosmologists it is all very new and exciting. And unless one of the Planck team are on Reddit, all the cosmologists will be busy reading the mountain of papers!\n\n(I do have some bias here, as I find cosmology to be the dullest area of astrophysics going.)",
"This is going to sound like a snarky \"haha you made an error\" comment, but it's not intended that way:\n\nI know in some parts of the world, commas and periods are used in numbers one way, and you go elsewhere and they're reversed. Is there any significance to interchanging them within the same post as done above, or was it simply a mistake?\n\nThanks."
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} | {
"url": [
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"url": [
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"http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ipbrowse/PIA16879_ip.jpg",
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"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA16879"
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} | What's the significance of the Planck mission results?
The Planck mission has just released its [results](_URL_0_) I'm especially curious about the new value of the Hubble constant. At 67,15 ± 1,2 (km/s)/Mpc , this puts it outside of the range of the WMAP mission: 69,32 ± 0,80(km/s)/Mpc (the highest value from Planck would be 68,35 and the lowest from WMAP 68,52, so a gap of 0,17). Does that reveal a problem with our understanding of these instruments? And what are the implications of this lower constant? Also, the age of the universe has been measured at 13,82 vs 13,77. Is this in any way significant? I guess that it will at least help explain the measurement of some stars as potentially "older than the universe". I should also mention the two other important results: 1) That the universe might not be the same in every direction and 2) that there's a bit more normal matter (4,9% vs 4,5%), a bit more dark matter (26,8% vs 22,7%) and less dark energy (68,3% vs. 72,8%) | [
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j90rx | Why do domestic dogs fetch random toys... Like over and over and over again? | askscience | {
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"retrievers and many other dogs were bred to do this to be useful in hunting",
"because the owner gives a positive response; treats, picking it up, giving dog attention, etc.",
"(Vet here) It's a combination of many factors, I believe.\n\n1. Dogs have been bred to retrieve things. Many breeds, most notably retriever types.\n\n2. They are rewarded for their behavior. You throw it, which is fun, and they again enjoy chasing it.\n\n3. It is mentally and physically stimulating. Most dogs don't get enough exercise and mental stimulation (and most dogs were bred to work which they typically don't do as pets).\n\n4. Dogs have been bred to retain juvenile characteristics, including the desire to play, well into adulthood.\n\n5. It's fun...if you're a dog, I guess. Kinda like a kid playing with a yo-yo, or a kid shooting hoops by himself. (see #3)",
"Side topic, but you might like the documentary \"Dogs Decoded\" which is streaming on Netflix. It's a fascinating look as to why we think dogs behave the way they do with humans.",
"I would like to add... why does my *cat* do this? It was her idea too and she wants to play fetch almost every day.",
"I can report from personal observation with several puppies that retrieving seems to be a \"built into the firmware\" function for retrievers. A 5 week old puppy that doesn't know it's name, isn't the least bit housebroken and has about a 2 second attention span will readily retrieve toys thrown for it without any training.",
"I guarantee you you could toss a ball to my dog 1000 times and she would get it for you every time, BUT, if I were to set up a pitching activity and used the exact same ball that was tossed about the same distance, I doubt she would get it once if I weren't there.",
"My dog would just run away with the ball and not come back until he needed a new one. Sometimes he liked to be chased so he could mock my futile attempts to retrieve the ball.",
"Well, imagine you weren't a human and you watched a game of tennis. Two people stand in the same place for up to five hours and just hit a ball back and forth at each other... like over and over and over again.\n\nIt seems a fairly pointless activity, no? Just like a dog running to fetch a ball. There are lots of animals which, in a healthy environment, will play. Obviously dogs can't throw a ball to each other, but they certainly engage in play fighting, chasing each other around, etc. The addition of a human just makes dog play even more fun for the dog, because it adds balls, complexity, and more interaction.\n\nI think the dog will fetch the ball over and over again, because it's fun.\n\nSome dogs (like mine), don't enjoy fetch, and won't bring the ball back after more than a couple of throws. My dog doesn't tend to enjoy \"play\" as such. She considers home security to be her primary objective and seems to be able to focus on a potential threat for hours. (Which is somewhat a wasted talent, given that I live in an area where the \"threat\" is most likely to be a ring-tailed possum).",
"Huh dogs? My 4 year old nephew does this. I don't even know why, its not catch, its fetch, I throw the ball at her and she never catches it but she lets it slip, runs to get it and brings it back to me instead of throwing it to me. Weird."
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} | Why do domestic dogs fetch random toys... Like over and over and over again?
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2xbts4 | Is it possible to go from coast to coast of the United States traveling only by waterways? (rivers, creeks, lakes etc) | I came across a very cool visualization of all the waterways in the United States courtesy of **[this website](_URL_0_)**. The more you zoom in on a specific area of the country, the more it refreshes revealing the intricacies of that land's waterways.
Anyway, this got me thinking about whether or not it would be possible to travel across the entire contiguous 48 states by water. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"coyzqbj",
"coze8en",
"coyz7ex"
],
"text": [
"If by \"traveling only waterways,\" you include walking in creeks to keep your feet wet, then the only significant problem would be getting over the continental divide. You would have to find some waterway near it that splits into two distributaries over the divide. There happen to be at least a few of these: [Two Ocean Creek](_URL_2_) in Wyoming, [Isa Lake](_URL_1_) in Yellowstone National Park (which drains in two directions to the two different oceans), and [Divide Creek](_URL_0_) on the British Columbia / Alberta border.",
"William Least Heat-Moon attempted that - he chronicles it in his book River Horse. The short answer is no, it's not possible to do the whole trip by boat, because of the Rocky Mountains - but it is possible to do a surprising portion of it.",
"This [map](_URL_3_) previously [posted on r/MapPorn](_URL_4_) purports to show a way the waters connect although it is not navigable by boat the entire way."
],
"score": [
11,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.somebits.com/rivers/rivers-polymaps.html#5.00/39.754/-100.598"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divide_Creek",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isa_Lake",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Ocean_Pass",
"https://i.imgur.com/1pVB5xZ.png",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/23juqb/the_river_connecting_two_oceans_a_creek_in/"
]
} | Is it possible to go from coast to coast of the United States traveling only by waterways? (rivers, creeks, lakes etc)
I came across a very cool visualization of all the waterways in the United States courtesy of **[this website](_URL_0_)**. The more you zoom in on a specific area of the country, the more it refreshes revealing the intricacies of that land's waterways. Anyway, this got me thinking about whether or not it would be possible to travel across the entire contiguous 48 states by water. | [
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37c9ci | My 4 year old wants to know: Why do magnetic fields exist? | askscience | {
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"Kids usually learn better when they can see and touch things, so I'd do it as an experiment. Get a battery, some anti-tarnish coated (not insulated, the kind with a wax coating) wire, some paperclips, and a small permanent magnet. For extra credit you can grab a small lightbulb too, an LED will work well.\n\nUse the battery and the lightbulb to explain to them how electricity works. Wires connected, electricity can flow through the wire and make the bulb light up: wires disconnected, stuff can't flow, bulb doesn't light up. As a note, if you're using an LED and the bulb doesn't light up, switch the terminals you connected, as electricity can only flow through an LED in one way.\n\nNext, you want to use the stuff I had you gather to build a [simple DC motor](_URL_0_). You can look up a guide for how to build that, it's really simple. If you're lazy, just replicate the setup in that picture, the only thing you can't see is that you have to sand of the tarnish on the copper wire on half of the connection points with the clips. Half the time, tarnish should be touching the clips, and half the time bare wire should touch.\n\nWhen you hook up the battery, the coil will spin. The coil spins because when electricity flows through it, it turns into a magnet, and the permanent magnet pushes on it, thus creating motion.\n\nThe idea here is that magnetism is a result of the flow of electricity: things that have electricity moving around in them are magnets. A permanent magnet is something that always has electricity moving around in it (technically the charges are rotating parallel to one another), which is why it's always magnetic.\n\n\"Why do magnets push on each other\" is a much harder question. Put simply, it's because electric charges (the things electricity is made of) push against each other: you can illustrate this by rubbing a balloon against your hair (causing it to pick up charge) and sticking it to a wall.\n\nMagnetism arises because in order for the law \"electric charges push against each other\" to work with relativity, we have to introduce additional forces (magnetism) for when the charges are in relative motion. Otherwise, electromagnetic forces would break relativity. Good luck explaining that to a four year-old though, I'd just hope \"electric charges push against each other\" is enough.",
"Most people being honest will tell you they don't know. There are very few people I'd accept an answer from, because you're trying to explain why a fundamental force exists. You can *create* magnetic fields from electric fields, but that fails to explain why it is present. Getting to the real root of the answer requires that you're very good at piecing information together and have read a lot of physics material.\n\nIt'd be like trying to explain gravity. The closest we've got is \"some sort of bending in space/time\" which is **incredibly** unintuitive.\n\nBest to tell your kid that even grown scientists have trouble with it, and that it is a great question.",
"That's an incredibly deep question for a 4 year old! Were they just introduced to magnets? Tell them that magnetic fields and electric fields go together like two sides of the same coin.\n\n* Electric fields come from charges. \n\n* Magnetic fields come from when those charges move around.",
"Richard Feynman has a great answer - not too good for a 4-year old but it shows several layers to thinking about this question. _URL_1_ Feynman intimidates the hell out of the interviewer but winds up giving a wonderful explanation as well as explanation of the question.",
"Wow. Deep. :)\n\nIf he really means what causes a magnetic field, others have mentioned one of the things that give rise to a magnetic field -electric currents create magnetic fields. This is why electricity and magnetism are linked - two sides of the same coin, as one poster said.\n\nThe other cause (and please correct me if I'm wrong, folks) is the innate or intrinsic magnetism or some elementary particles (such as electrons). This causes these elementary particles to really behave as tiny bar magnets. Conceptually the way this magnetic field arises is (at least to a layman like myself) not all that different from how a magnetic field arises from a much bigger spinning body that has the same kinds of properties - such as the Earth!\n\nI apologize if I got off base there. :)\n\nNow, if his question was really \"why\" in the more fundamental way (very deep for a 4 year old to comprehend but not unheard of to pose a question like this), well, that seems to be a more metaphysical or philosophical question.",
"I would say that the idea of magnetism is too difficult to explain correctly to a child of this age, but it is worth pointing out that big magnets exist because they are constructed from materials whose atoms act as little magnets (the tiny atomic magnetic fields add up to make the observed field).\n\nThe experience of static electricity in day to day life is useful for introducing forces in general (important to dispel the idea that magnets are special). Unlike magnets, static electricity can be used to tip over a non-ferrous coin balanced on its edge.",
"I would explain it using [gravitomagnetism](_URL_2_) and rotational fluid drag, fifth picture in the article. In short, charged objects like electrons can feel not just the charge, but also the motion of other charges like electrons moving in a wire."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://miniscience.com/kits/Magnet_Motor_kit/Magnet_Motor_LL.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MO0r930Sn_8",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitoelectromagnetism"
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} | My 4 year old wants to know: Why do magnetic fields exist?
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2e2ixq | How does using water irresponsibly remove it from the water cycle? | I keep hearing about how we are wasting water and that it is a limited recourse. How is it possible, given the water cycle will reuse any water we use? | askscience | {
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"Technically, it will not. What it might do, however, is limit the amount of water within the tiny subspace of the water cycle which we (and the rest of the wildlife within our part of the ecosystem) can use directly, which is surface fresh water. \n\nThe key thing to get here is that water transits from one reservoir to the next at limited rates, and that if your water consumption exceeds the rate at which fresh drinkable water can reach you, you are in trouble.",
"Strictly speaking, you're wasting (lack of) entropy. There is tons of water around, but most of it is mixed with other things. This is almost exactly the same situation as recycling aluminum - aluminum is one of the most common elements on earth but it's incredibly energy intensive to purify it, so recycling actually saves energy and not elemental aluminum.\n\nPure water can be separated out but it takes energy. In the normal water cycle, this energy is provided by the sun, but the normal water cycle also produces only a limited amount of standing fresh water - the occurrence of which is relatively rare. The normal water cycle thus provides fresh water at some fixed rate which we do not control - if we want more then we need to provide the energy ourselves somehow.\n\nSo the answer is: \"Using\" water mixes it together with other things, turning \"fresh\" water into contaminated water. We can make fresh water out of impure, to supplement what we get from nature, but it takes a lot of energy to reduce the local entropy in this way. We also have an energy crisis, so it could be said that a water crisis and an energy crisis is the same thing.",
"Globally speaking, water isn't a limited resource, but it's unevenly distributed among the planet. Urban areas need a lot more water than rural areas, but urban areas tend to have fewer and small water deposits.\n\nDesalination plants, purification, fluoridation, reservoirs and infrastructure cost a lot of money and energy to build, maintain and operate. The \"limited resource\" in question isn't the water itself, but the operating costs of the system that gets clean water to your house.\n\n(Edit: typo)",
"Its not a removal of water from the cycle, its the **human effort it took to clean/deliver that water** that is being wasted.\n\nThink about it, a population requires X amount of water to not die. It takes Y energy to continue to produce X amount of water. **When you take clean water and put it in the sewer, you need to use that much more energy to keep the water flowing at an acceptable amount.**\n\nEssentially the 'waste' is of everyone's time, not the water itself.",
"One issue I didn't see here is 'exporting' water out of its watershed. If you take a lot of water out of the Great Lakes, for example, (which had been under consideration), put it in water bottles and send it to Arizona for the tourists to drink, you may have the same number of H2O molecules but you have radically changed the ecosystem.",
"The water cycle is changing - where and how moist air is and where it goes is shifting as the climate changes. There is no rule that says snow must happen over the particular bit of land that feeds a particular river, just because it's been doing that for thousands of years. The problem is, when the water moves elsewhere, our cities can't move with it, they're stuck in places where there was lots of water when they were built (next to a snowmelt-fed river, for example), but where there may be less water in the future, or the same amount of water but falling as rain instead of snow, causing a flood-drought-flood-drought cycle instead of that steady all-year-round river from snow-melt. There is also more competition for water - a city by a river grows bigger with more people and needs more water, meanwhile farms have been built upstream that drain the river for irrigation, so the river has less water when the city needs more. Even when the water cycle is not changing, it is a precious resource because even though it is constantly appearing, the rate at which it appears is limited, and our demand outstrips that supply. That makes it a scarce resource, which means valuable. We have to use less and waste less else we exceed supply.\nAnd if you're a bird or a fish, well, good luck competing with the humans for the water you need...",
"If you live in the West, your water may come from an underground aquifer. If water is extracted from an aquifer exceeding the refill rate, potential problems will emerge.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSimilarly, if water comes primarily from a reservoir, if consumption rates exceed refill rates, scarcity becomes an issue.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThe water cycle of evaporation and precipitation is a global cycle, but dependence on aquifers and reservoirs is local/regional. Overconsumption of water in such regions is very possible, in which case usage must be curtailed to match available supplies.",
"It's **clean** water that's the issue. Not water in general. We have oceans of water, but it's salty which is bad for drinking. It takes resources and energy, not to mention time, to clean water. I'm not entirely sure about the process to desalinate water, but I'm guessing it's worse than cleaning water.",
"It isn't about removing it from the global water cycle, but rather removing it from the local water stores. You don't much care about the water concentration in Siberia or the upper atmosphere when you are looking for a drop in the Sahara.",
"This is related to a question I've been meaning to ask:\n\nMy county has a ban on rain barrels, reason being that it somehow messes with the local water table or something like that. Can someone explain to me how a community of people using rain barrels would destroy the earth (in our very localized region)?",
"The water cycle will only give you so many litres per year. When you accelerate the removal of water from a river (or wherever your water supply is fed from), you aren't accelerating the rate at which rain replenishes that river.",
"There is another issue with ground water:\n\nIf you pump out too much water, the water level gets low enough that other, non-clean (e.g. salt), water sources will seep in. Once that happens the water is unusable (or at least undrinkable) even if the water level rises back as it won't \"push out\" the contaminants.\n\nSo if you over-pump water from an underground water reserve you can actually ruin it \"for good\", even if theoretically the next winter would have enough rainfall to fill it back up again.",
"Overusing ground water can result in its permanent depletion. Generally, groundwater will be replenished by rainwater, but when you overuse groundwater the ground will start to sink. All the space between the soil that the groundwater used to occupy collapses and disappears, leaving less room for water to penetrate the soil. [Here's an article](_URL_2_) with a famous image of the San Joaquin Valley demonstrating how much the ground sank from farmers overusing groundwater. It's estimated that the surface dropped as much as 50 feet in places. That's 50 feet of surface depth that used to hold groundwater that can no longer be replenished by rainfall.\n\nAnother issue is salt water intrusion. Salt water from the ocean penetrates into the ground the same way fresh water does. If there is a fresh groundwater source near a salt groundwater source, overusing the fresh groundwater can cause the salt water to seep toward the fresh groundwater source. Once the salt water penetrates the groundwater source, it becomes unusable. \n\nIn times of drought, farmers tend to overuse groundwater, which always runs the risk of permanently depleting the water source.",
"It's not that the water disappears forever, it's that we're removung it from certain lakes and aquifers faster than it can possibly replenish. A lot of (particularly agricultural) regions get far more of their water from these sources than from rain or rivers and yes, if we quit taking water from the aquifers they will replenish, in a couple thousand years or so. Go look up what the Aral sea looked like 30 years ago and what it looks like now if you doubt water is a limited resource or that some regions will eventually run out of accessible water. It's the same in a lot of other places, except the lakes are underground so it's harder to see.",
"Although the same water will technically be in circulation forever, wasting it is more in terms of unnecessarily using some water to no good use and it having to be repurified all over again when it didn't really do anything worth while, and the cost needed on top of that. \n \nLets say you're washing dishes in the sink, and for the whole duration of dish washing you keep the tap on. A lot of that water was needlessly put down the drain, it didn't wash anything or be used usefully. So instead of only turning the tap on when you needed to rinse soap off dishes and using 5L of water, you end up having used 25L of water with the tap constant on. \nSo 20L of water went to no use. If we up the scale with 1000 people doing the exact same thing, you suddenly have 25,000L of water being used, and only 5000L actually put to good use. So 20,000L of water was needlessly used and so was wasted because now, instead of only 5000L of water needing purification, there's 25,000L. And this example is only ONE session of dish washing by 1000 people, water also gets used a lot in showering etc. \nSo the water will still be reintroduced into the system to be used, but the real waste is in repurifying water that was unused and could've been kept and used better. Like rewashing completely clean clothes, it's time and money consuming as well as delays the washing of ACTUALLY dirty clothes. \n \nAddition: So it's irresponsibly being removed from good use, and from whatever reservoir/lake, because there's a huge amount wastefully going to no use and taken back into wash cycle",
"If you are interested in learning more about this, google articles about the California drought. Basically fresh water accumulates from the rainfalls from the sierras but due to a very dry spell (drought) over the last few years, fresh water is being depleted. A lot of this fresh water is for irrigation as 90% of the countries veggies and many other crops are dependent on this rainfall. Once there isn't enough water, then farmers are tapping into the water table and depleting water reservoir which are depleting very quickly. Once that is depleted, all our veggies will die, food prices will increase and we will be in trouble. This is why municipalities are asking residents to conserve water but too many entitled folks love to wash their cars and water golf courses while killing future generations",
"I was asking myself this question just the other day when I was installing a new shower head. When I turned it on for the first time I realized it pumped out significantly more water than the old one and I felt guilty. Should I feel guilty? I'm not taking it out of the system; just borrowing it. \n \nOur municipal water supply comes from the great lakes, gets treated then gets put back into the great lakes. In this scenario, is the effect of using more water at all significant? (moreso, then let's say, switching to a biodegradable shampoo). We also have an 'eco' toilet with two flush 'settings' for saving water. How much of this makes a difference?",
"To put it simply, water in the water cycle isn't a strictly limited resource, the limited resource is potable (drinkable) water. In many urban and suburban areas this processed (an energy and resource intensive task) drinking water is also wasted on non-native grasses that require supplemental water since they aren't in their native environment. In rural areas, yards and fields are often watered from irrigation ditches that are fed directly from surface water sources and are untreated (non-potable) and many cities are adding or expanding similar water networks.",
"True, water never \"dissapears\" however neither does money, but it is still very possible to waste money. The aquifers of fresh water under the ground in the U.S. are like a huge bank account. One that we are drawing down much more quickly than can be replenished by rain trickling down through the earth (or so I've heard, if someone wants to cite this for me that would be great).",
"related question: I've wondered whether 'wasted' water mitigates the cost of purifying the resulting sewage by providing a more dilute sample to purify (more water per unit sewage). Or worded another way: wouldn't it be harder to reclaim 1 gallon of water if it had 1 gallon of other 'sewage' mixed in, than it would be if there were only 1/2 a gallon of 'sewage' mixed in?",
"One of the most remarkable non-replenished aquifer is the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System in the Sahara desert. This water has been sitting there for a probably a Million years. We will deplete it in a few centuries.",
"We're more concerned about wasting useful energy. We can purify water, but it's resource intensive."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation#Water_resources",
"http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/water-headed-struggling-lake-mead-24970586",
"http://ca.water.usgs.gov/projects/central-valley/land-subsidence-monitoring-network.html"
]
} | How does using water irresponsibly remove it from the water cycle?
I keep hearing about how we are wasting water and that it is a limited recourse. How is it possible, given the water cycle will reuse any water we use? | [
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|
1pl51f | Does it take more energy in transmitting electricity uphill than it does downhill? Is the loss during transmission more in one of the two directions? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cd3g08u",
"cd3p48q",
"cd3mnyh"
],
"text": [
"Very, very small difference, so small because gravity is so much weaker than electricity. An electron going through a potential of one volt is a convenient measure of energy called an electron-volt (equivalent to ~10^-19 Joules). An electron moving up one hundred meters requires an energy of about 5 billionths of an electron volt. So in terms of circuits, the voltage required changes by billionths.",
"To frame this a little in the real world, if you're talking about power transmission from a power plant, for example, you are still subject to these uphill and downhill artifacts. HOWEVER, the electricity transmitted has an AC waveform, meaning alternating current. This means that over a single cycle (1/60 seconds for a 60 Hz power line), the electrons in the conductor do not experience any net motion. So even when you are transmitting power, though the electrons may have to move uphill, during the second half of the cycle, they move back downhill. Due to electron motion during the cycle, you will experience resistive power losses, but that is load dependent.",
"The electron movement is a rather small part of the transfer of electricity. In the end the force carrier for the electric force is the photon. Since you move up in a gravitational well the photons do lose a minute amount of energy while going up in the potential. If you had a supermassive star and you would observe light from relatively far away (close enough that the expansion of the universe would still play no significant rolw). The light from the star would be redshifted (less energy - larger wavelength) by a tiny amount."
],
"score": [
21,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does it take more energy in transmitting electricity uphill than it does downhill? Is the loss during transmission more in one of the two directions?
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||
1eqoes | If you split me in half along the Sagittal plane, which side would "I" be on? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ca2t9c7",
"ca2xa39",
"ca2tbkq"
],
"text": [
"Research indicates that the [right frontal lobe](_URL_0_) is likely where our \"sense of self\" is centered, so for the last two or three seconds of your life your right half would be more \"you\" than your left.",
"When Sperry did his famous tests on split-brain patients, he found that the biggest difference was the localization of language to the left. The right brain is a bit of a dumb brute in comparison, what with the lack of language and all. \n \n_URL_1_ \n\n \nMost of the other differences in lateralization are greatly exaggerated.",
"Well you would be dead. But ignoring that...\n\nYou, as you exist currently, would not exist any more. You are only the person you are because your entire brain functions together, as a cohesive unit. \n\nYou might want to look at the case of [Phineas Gage](_URL_2_). Gage experienced an unfortunate railway accident where a tamping iron was explosively shot through his frontal lobe, destroying much of it. He survived the accident, but friends and family observed many extreme changes in his personality. These changes were so extreme that to his friends and family he was a completely different man after the accident. Splitting yourself in the manner you describe would result in similar changes, changes to the extent where you would no longer be recognized as the same person by those who knew you before."
],
"score": [
11,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=study-suggests-where-sens",
"http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/split-brain/background.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage"
]
} | If you split me in half along the Sagittal plane, which side would "I" be on?
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l8e08 | People have survived for years on extremely limited diets (POW's for example). When I read about the substances required for all the complex processes of our bodies, I wonder how this is even possible? | Obviously people on starvation diets lose weight, have little energy etc., but what about something as basic as cell replication? If you aren't getting the nutrients that are the building blocks of new cells, in the heart for example, it doesn't seem possible you could survive long. And nerve transmission, doesn't that require potassium? What if there's no potassium in your diet? How could your heart even beat without the nerve impulses telling it to? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2qlvnk",
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],
"text": [
"A lot of these people *don't* survive. If you don't get enough of an essential nutrient, you eventually die.\n\nAnd that sad reality is that the people who run these sorts of camps, through trial and error, figure out exactly how little they can feed their prisoners to keep them just barely alive.",
"Not my field, but I'll give it a stab.\n\nYour body contains a lot of the basic building blocks in expendable areas that can be harvested to keep you alive. For instance, proteins can be degraded to give tons of different molecules that your body can use for essential processes. This is exactly what you see in people who are starved, severe atrophy and muscle degradation. The body is essentially breaking down itself to yield the building blocks used to maintain the vital processes. Body fat can be broken down to yield energy for the body. Bones begin to become more porous to extract the minerals that are needed for more important purposes.\n\nAs for the potassium question, your body will begin to harvest potassium wherever it is found to maintain the necessary processes.",
"*I am aware this is r/askscience but I have an anecdote to add to this.*\n\n\nA friend of mine, a little french lady who is 75 years old often talks of her father and his time as a POW with the Nazis. He eventually made it out alive, albeit with a range of medical issues. He ended up having to be put on dialysis, granted it was years after the war, but it all stemmed from his time there. He lived for another 15 or so years. \n\nPeople do survive without proper nourishment, however not well. \n\nEdit: I accidentally a word.",
"> potassium\n\n\\- \n\n > Foods rich in potassium include parsley, dried apricots, dried milk, chocolate, various nuts (especially almonds and pistachios), potatoes, bamboo shoots, bananas, avocados, soybeans, and bran, \n\n > although it is also present in sufficient quantities in most fruits, vegetables, meat and fish.\n\n\\- _URL_2_ - \n\n > For a medium potato, with and without the skin, _URL_1_ gives the following:\n\n > Nutrient \tWithout skin (156 g) (% RDA) \tWith skin (173 g) (% RDA)\n\n > Potassium \t17 \t26\n\n\\- _URL_0_ - \n\nSo, if people are eating \"food\", even cheap food, they're probably getting potassium. \n\nCheap rations are often mostly whole grain and potatoes, which are foods that definitely have potassium."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato",
"nutritiondata.com",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"
]
} | People have survived for years on extremely limited diets (POW's for example). When I read about the substances required for all the complex processes of our bodies, I wonder how this is even possible?
Obviously people on starvation diets lose weight, have little energy etc., but what about something as basic as cell replication? If you aren't getting the nutrients that are the building blocks of new cells, in the heart for example, it doesn't seem possible you could survive long. And nerve transmission, doesn't that require potassium? What if there's no potassium in your diet? How could your heart even beat without the nerve impulses telling it to? | [
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10us7l | If a pattern of 100100100100100100... repeats infinitely, are there more zeros than ones? | askscience | {
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"No, there are precisely the same number of them. [technical edit: this sentence should be read: if we index the 1s and the 0s separately, the set of indices of 1s has the same cardinality as the set of indices of 0s)\n\nWhen dealing with infinite sets, we say that two sets are the same size, or that there are the same number of elements in each set, if the elements of one set can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the elements of the other set.\n\nLet's look at our two sets here:\n\nThere's the infinite set of 1s, {1,1,1,1,1,1...}, and the infinite set of 0s, {0,0,0,0,0,0,0,...}. Can we put these in one-to-one correspondence? Of course; just match the first 1 to the first 0, the second 1 to the second 0, and so on. How do I know this is possible? Well, what if it weren't? Then we'd eventually reach one of two situations: either we have a 0 but no 1 to match with it, or a 1 but no 0 to match with it. But that means we eventually *run out* of 1s or 0s. Since both sets are infinite, that doesn't happen.\n\nAnother way to see it is to notice that we can order the 1s so that there's a first 1, a second 1, a third 1, and so on. And we can do the same with the zeros. Then, again, we just say that the first 1 goes with the first 0, et cetera. Now, if there were a 0 with no matching 1, then we could figure out which 0 that is. Let's say it were the millionth 0. Then that means there is no millionth 1. But we know there *is* a millionth 1 because there are an infinite number of 1s.\n\nSince we can put the set of 1s into one-to-one correspondence with the set of 0s, we say the two sets are the same size (formally, that they have the same 'cardinality').\n\n[edit]\n\nFor those of you who want to point out that the ratio of 0s to 1s tends toward 2 as you progress along the sequence, see Melchoir's [response to this comment](_URL_0_). In order to make that statement you have to use a different definition of the \"size\" of sets, which is completely valid but somewhat less standard as a 'default' when talking about whether two sets have the \"same number\" of things in them.",
"Mathematically, I can reconcile that there are no more 0s than 1s, but philosophically I can't agree that there are the same amount of 0s as 1s. When dealing with the infinite, the word \"amount\" goes right out the window, as it is synonymous with \"total\". It's semantic, but I don't think we can say that there are more, less, or the same \"amount\" of 0s or 1s. There is no total, so there is no amount.",
"I'd like to shed an alternative view:\n\nThe answer to your question depends on how you define \"more zeros than ones\".\n\nYou can ask whether there are *as many* zeros as they are ones, and in that case, as at was already explained, there are exactly as many zeros as ones, there are [aleph-naught](_URL_3_) of both.\n\nOn the other hand, you can ask whether the ones are *as dense* as the zeros.\n\nNow, let's get a bit formal here. We're not going to examine your specific pattern but a general [sequence](_URL_3_) a(n) and an arbitrary real number x.\n\nWe ask ourselves \"how dense is x within a(n)\". If a(n) is a finite sequence, say of length m, the answer is simply \"#{n < =m | a(n)=x}/m\" which translates verbally to \"the amount of elements in the sequence whose value is x divided by the length of the sequence.\n\nNow, to transfer this notion to an infinite sequence, we can't simply set m = infinity, because division by infinity is meaningless. What we do is a pretty routine procedure of [taking a limit](_URL_3_), basically, we ask ourselves what's the size of the expression \"the amount of elements of a(n) which are equal to x *out of the first m elements* divided by m\" and examine how this behaves as m goes to infinity. The value of this limit is what we call the *density* of x in a(n). Intuitively, what we did here as to look at the density of an increasingly long head of the sequence.\n\nNow, going back to your sequence, it's pretty simple to so that while the *amount* of ones equals the *amount* of zeros equals aleph-null -- the *density* of 1 in the sequence is one third, which is smaller than the *density* of 0 in the sequence, which is two thirds.\n\nThis little discussion conveys how dealing with quantities can be much richer when infinity enters the picture.",
"[Here](_URL_4_) is a wonderful video that explains the concept in an intuitive fashion.",
"It's the same paradox as this. There is a line of people going through a cashier. For every one person the cashier checks out, 2 join the line. Every (finite number) person that enters the line would make it through.",
"this is set theory and the answer is they are the same. \n\nDone my mathematics for the day.",
"The cardinality of each set will be the same, so, no. There are neither more zeroes than ones, nor ones than zeroes.\n\nEdit: Capitalized a 't'.",
"I do not believe this is a science question. This is more of a /r/math question than a science question. Science has no way of answering this question empirically. If someone were to start counting them the answer to the example would be the zeros were more numerous. Math is a tool used by science, it is not a science in it self. Answering the question requires resorting to mathematics - which is not bad, it is just not an askable question of /r/askscience.",
"I'm late on this, but wanted to express a different viewpoint. As many others stated, it's not really correct to say there are more zeros than ones. We can however say that for any large size of the pattern the ratio of ones to zeros is very close to 1/2. And as the size of the pattern approaches infinity, the deviation from the 1/2 ratio as we add more digits approaches zero.",
"You would have both infinite 1s and infinite 0s. The \"rate\" at which the 1's approach infinity is slower than the rate at which the 0s approach infinity.",
"This question can actually have multiple asnwers depending on how you look at at! \n\nIf we are to simply look at the two separate sequences of ones and zeros and assign to each a natural number by its position relative to other zeros/ones in the set then we can form a bijection between the two sets and thus say that the sets have the same cardinality and thereby there are the same amount of zeros and ones. \n\nWe can also look at this analytically and turn it into a series. We turn the zeros into negative ones, and we start adding up the ordered pattern, obviously this set diverges and goes to negative infinity, Thereby if we were to look at the sequence we can say that there are \"more\" (though not in terms of cardinality) zeros than ones.\n\nWe can also think of this problem in terms of order, as what we have is an ordered sequence. We say that the first one is the first element, zero the second, zero the third, one the fourth , & c. We then perform some hand-waving as say that we see that it is of order omega, or the first infinite order. We then look at the separate sequences of ones and zeros and see that they all have order omega, thus they have the same ordinality. If for instance your sequence was [ 100100100100...(to infinity) 1 ], then the sequence of ones would have order omega+1, and thus be of a higher ordinality than the sequence of zeros.\n\n\nThere are many more ways to look at this problem like distances, densities, enumerability, recognisability, & c.",
"You can't really ask if there are more of one than the other. You might be interested in how mathematicians describe different sizes of infinity.\n\n_URL_5_",
"I found this article to be a tremendous introduction to the notion that not all infinite sets are created equal:\n\n_URL_6_",
"Every infinite subset of a countable set is the same size.",
"**The explanation that should work for most none math-y peeps (I know, because I teach it).**\nLet me explain this using a vending machine as a tool. For sake of argument, let's say there are an *infinite* number of different types items that could be put into the machine [For Americans: candy, soda, gum, ...; For Japanese: used panties, ramen, sushi...]. The machine will also have ** *only one* ** of each item in each dispenser. It must also have just a number pad (no letters, so you would type 345, 3673245, 7098709714332... to order an item).\n\nSo we are comparing the infinite set of **numbers on the pad** to the infinite number of **items in the machine**. \n\n**Same cardinality (size) example:** *Each number only orders one distinct item and vice versa*. In other words, if you *punch 345* and get *Hazuki's pink panties*, then that is the only thing you can get by punching 345, and vice versa (You *hand someone Hazuki's pink panties*, they will know *345 was punched* on the machine). **Math-y lingo:** *one-to-one* [every item has only one number, and every number only has one item] and *onto* [every item has a number]. **(bijective).**\n\n**Different cardinality (size) example:** *There are two or more dispensers that have the same product(s).* In other words, you *punch 345* and get *Hazuki's pink panties*, and then *punch 56339* and get the same thing (and there could be more that yield Hazuki's pink panties, but for sake of argument, all you need is two) . Now you *hand someone* those panties and they will *not be able to tell you with any certainty exactly which number was punched on the machine* to get said panties. **Math-y lingo:** *onto*, **(surjective)**\n*I shall leave it up to the reader to determine which set is larger than the other in this case.*\n\n**Conclusion:** We can assign every distinct 0 to a distinct 1 and vice-versa. Additionally, every 0 has a 1 assigned to it and vice-versa. (**bijective**) So the sets are the same size. \n\nCheers.",
"I would say that the pattern \"01223334444555550122333444455555...\" repeated infinitely has an equal number of 0,1,2,3,4,5 since there would be an infinite number of each. \n\nBasically, any infinite pattern should have infinite members of each. Now, at any finite count, then yes, the count of one would be larger than the count of another, but we are talking about the whole, which has no limit.",
"For a part of the pattern with a finite size, the proportion of ones will vary slightly around 1/3, depending on exactly how many digits are included. As the size of that part of the pattern tends towards infinity, the proportion will tend towards 1/3 for all lengths. At infinity, however, you'd be taking 1/3 of infinity which will still be infinite.",
"Seems to me that as soon as we take a given point in infinity in which we might say \"there are twice as many 0's than 1's\", we are now no longer dealing with infinity, but a finite number.",
"numberphile did a [video](_URL_7_) on infinity, specifically different types of it.\n \nif you're interested or have more questions about numbers i suggest looking through their videos",
"[An interesting video about how some infinities can be larger than others](_URL_8_)"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/10us7l/if_a_pattern_of_100100100100100100_repeats/c6gubfg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleph_number#Aleph-naught",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_(mathematics)#Limit_of_a_sequence",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPA3bwVVzGI",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor%27s_theorem",
"http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/the-hilbert-hotel/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elvOZm0d4H0&feature=related",
"http://io9.com/5909824/some-infinities-are-bigger-than-other-infinities-heres-how-we-know-that"
]
} | If a pattern of 100100100100100100... repeats infinitely, are there more zeros than ones?
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528ynh | How Well Do Giraffe Species Interbreed? | Part of the reason given why their identification as 4 species was not noticed is ability of giraffes to Interbreed. How successful are progeny?
Bonus: Could interbreeding be used to aid in conservation efforts, by introducing more diversity into depopulated a giraffe species? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d7iemqy",
"d7iivcz",
"d7ioukv",
"d7iggxm"
],
"text": [
"There is an article I dug out on the [Smithsonian website](_URL_1_). It appears when in captivity they do cross mate regularly and have no problem producing hybrid offspring. \n\nIn the wild though, it appears they do not cross mate. The [source article](_URL_0_) talks about how how one possible reason for this may be that their biological cycles are tied to the rainy seasons in their home range so that when they do cross paths their mating patterns do not line up.",
"I worked at a zoo for almost 5 years, and in that time we had 4 giraffe calves from mixed-species parents. I mean the parents were mixed-species and their progeny were mixtures of their mixtures. The calves grew up happy, healthy, intelligent, and able to reproduce, themselves. I think the reason the separate species news is making such headlines is because there have never been any real issues breeding different types of giraffes.",
"Species in biology can be defined many ways but generally they all come down to: 1. Do they breed in the wild and 2. Are the offspring capable of reproducing. While the answer to 2. For giraffes is 'yes' the answer to 1. Is no, partly because of location, partly because of breeding seasons. It might also be that where territories overlap there is infrequent breeding but that this is not substantial enough to noticeably affect the gene pool. \n\nThere's lots of examples where, for example a natural event has separated some individuals of a species from each other (this could occur when land masses split or other features change like rivers or mountain ranges etc.). The coolest example of speciation I've heard is from the Hawaiian fruit flies. Each island has it's own species. The only thing that separates them as species (when brought together in the lab or transported to a different island) is their mating dance! Each island has it's own style of dance and if the dances are not compatible the flies don't mate!",
"I was under the (perhaps incorrect) impression that what defines different species is the inability to produce fertile offspring. So, different dogs can usually breed since they are the same species, but a horse and a donkey produce sterile offspring."
],
"score": [
166,
47,
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3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0077191",
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/weather-prevents-different-giraffe-species-from-interbreeding-4766316/?no-ist"
]
} | How Well Do Giraffe Species Interbreed?
Part of the reason given why their identification as 4 species was not noticed is ability of giraffes to Interbreed. How successful are progeny? Bonus: Could interbreeding be used to aid in conservation efforts, by introducing more diversity into depopulated a giraffe species? | [
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|
4l8emh | What are first principles? | So, I'm a simple engineer and had a conversation with a physicist a few hours ago. During the conversation he uttered the sentence "...and of course from first principles we can say...", while I just nodded my head.
Nobody called my bluff while I was faking it until I made it to google, which was of no help. Apparently Elon Musk said something about first principles a few months back, and the whole internet lost its s** composure. I was a bit embarrassed to ask exactly what he meant by first principles because I'm in a somewhat advanced position myself.
So to reiterate, what are first principles? Is there anywhere you could point me towards so that I could do a little digging of my own? And although I was a little pissed that the web was inundated by Musk's comment, how do you apply first principles on everyday life.
Thanks reddit! | askscience | {
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"It's not rigidly defined, but typically it involves making an argument from the simplest concepts available, that everyone agrees to be true without additional assumptions, like conservation of energy and momentum.\n\nWikipedia gives an example of starting with a solution to the Schroedinger equation without fitting any of its parameters to experimental data.",
"To be honest I think the wikipedia page really does sum up my \"feeling\" of what people seem to mean when they say \"from first principles\".\n\n[First principle](_URL_0_)\n\nalso [ab initio](_URL_1_)",
"From first principles means that you've built up your model from some of the most basic building blocks available.\n\nIf you wanted to calculate pressure in a container from first principles for example, you'd consider the mass of the molecules of the gas and basic kinematic ideas, like conservation of momentum.\n\nAn non-first-principles answer would be: PV=nRT and call it a day.",
"In addition to what others have said, \"first principlesiness\" is often judged by whether your model relies on empirical measurements (or how many if at least a couple are definitely required).\n\nThe odds of heads for a truly symmetric, \"well flipped\" coin are trivially 50:50 from \"first principles\" - no experimentation required.\n\nHowever, the odds of getting heads from a bent coin require either modeling (the \"first principles\" approach) or experimentation (the empirical approach).\n\nThough unspecified, the idea is that whatever \"first principles\" you use should require no further justification - *especially* no experimental justification."
],
"score": [
11,
7,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_principle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_initio"
]
} | What are first principles?
So, I'm a simple engineer and had a conversation with a physicist a few hours ago. During the conversation he uttered the sentence "...and of course from first principles we can say...", while I just nodded my head. Nobody called my bluff while I was faking it until I made it to google, which was of no help. Apparently Elon Musk said something about first principles a few months back, and the whole internet lost its s** composure. I was a bit embarrassed to ask exactly what he meant by first principles because I'm in a somewhat advanced position myself. So to reiterate, what are first principles? Is there anywhere you could point me towards so that I could do a little digging of my own? And although I was a little pissed that the web was inundated by Musk's comment, how do you apply first principles on everyday life. Thanks reddit! | [
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|
1ntjsf | Is Neil Armstrong's first foot print still on the Moon or have forces and events removed it? | I have written a blog post about this for my site below which gives my uneducated understanding, but would love to hear fellow Redditors views.
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cclwl99",
"cclwc0h",
"ccm2l3e"
],
"text": [
"> The biggest question for me that I do not have the answer is how careful were the astronauts when leaving and re-entering the Eagle lunar lander to make sure that Neil Armstrong's first footprint was not damaged.\n\nThey weren't careful at all. The first footprint was likely obliterated within minutes of it being made, possibly seconds. Between Aldrin and Armstrong, they likely trampled it to the point of not being visible at all.\n\nThe tracks from the first (and subsequent) Lunar EVA are still visible, however. See, e.g., the [fascinating pictures from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](_URL_0_).",
"A quick google search showed me a Straight Dope forum discussing the matter. (_URL_1_) It also had a bunch of links in the discussion pointing to other pages.\n\nSeems like it's possible that the first footprint was damaged by the engine from the ascent stage, though since it was raised a fair bit off the surface and there's no air to swirl around, it might be okay. So if it survived that, about a century's worth of dust accumulation would obliterate it, as could a micrometeorite impact on or near it, and moonquakes (from impact or tidal stresses) might cause it to settle.\n\nBut for now, there's a fair chance that it's still there, and will be for another 50+ years. Short of going up there and looking at it directly, it's impossible to say with 100 percent certainty.",
"His -first- footprints was obliterated by his next step onto it or by the next astronaut coming out--he did come down a ladder. There was no other place to step. I think what Kebabo means is \"are the footprints from the first moon landing still there?\""
],
"score": [
78,
25,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.magnifiscience.com/blogs/news/9434519-is-neil-armstrongs-footprint-still-on-the-moon"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Apollo11-LRO-March2012.jpg",
"http://boards.straightdope.com/sdmb/showthread.php?t=127681"
]
} | Is Neil Armstrong's first foot print still on the Moon or have forces and events removed it?
I have written a blog post about this for my site below which gives my uneducated understanding, but would love to hear fellow Redditors views. _URL_0_ | [
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|
1h40hj | Is Malthus's hypothesis of the global carrying capacity legitimate? | In my opinion, I believe that the human race reacts to limiting factors much like viruses breed in protection against vaccines; the human race's pursuit of constant adaptation will eventually lead to extremely effective solutions to these limiting factors. However, I also believe that this process will indefinitely repeat itself. What do you thnk? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"caqnp7m",
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"caqqtvm",
"car5t22"
],
"text": [
"Malthusian hypothesis was legitimate in his lifetime. Pre-industrial populations behave just like Malthus predicted. He was essentially correct in his observation. However, technological developments already happening in his lifetime changed things dramatically. \n\nCurrent predictions for population growth don't expect population growth to continue and life standards return to subsistence-level. Population growth turns to decline when people reach certain living standards.",
"Strictly speaking one could still argue that the Malthusian hypothesis holds, but that the carrying capacity has been increased through technological innovation. The problem comes with the fact that the vast majority of the planet's population has a living standard far below that of the west. So for instance if everyone currently in the world was instantly to utilise resources at Western levels we would require somewhere in the region of 3 to 5 planets to support them in a sustainable manner ([source](_URL_0_) powerpoint link)\n\nPopulation growth (fertility rate) does appear to drop as living standards increase, but even if the fertility rate across the world drops to western levels by 2050 we are still looking at around 10 billion people by 2100, and if current rates are maintained there will be 28 bn. At the same time all of these people are going to want an increasing proportion of the world's resources, so (assuming 10 bn in 2100) whilst life will probably improve for the majority of the world expect the living standards in the west to drop dramatically. (It is also worth noting that anything less than a population of 10 bn by 2100 comes at the cost of a demographic inversion (ie more old people than young) which is likely to lead to significant workforce/pension etc problems at least in the short term (where short term is one to two generations) as is currently seen in Japan.)",
"> I also believe that this process will indefinitely repeat itself\n\nImpossible. The Earth is very large, but still finite. No matter how efficient we are, there is a limit to the number of humans it can support even if all we do is lie in some kind of futuristic life support bed.\n\nAt some point we'll run out of materials or energy to manipulate those materials.",
"Malthus greatly underestimated the impact of technology and human innovation - if agriculture, technology, and medicine hadn't improved, we couldn't have reached a global population of 7 billion."
],
"score": [
29,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.inf.ethz.ch/~fcellier/Pres/AGS_07.ppt"
]
} | Is Malthus's hypothesis of the global carrying capacity legitimate?
In my opinion, I believe that the human race reacts to limiting factors much like viruses breed in protection against vaccines; the human race's pursuit of constant adaptation will eventually lead to extremely effective solutions to these limiting factors. However, I also believe that this process will indefinitely repeat itself. What do you thnk? | [
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|
3yk3kd | How do you calculate load distribution on an uneven beam? | If a beam is supported at either end, but one end is higher, is it correct that the lower end will bear more weight? How would the load difference at the two points be calculated?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cye4rni",
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"cye6rvr",
"cye67s9"
],
"text": [
"You have three things that all have to equal zero for the beam to stay put: horizontal forces, vertical forces, and moment/torque (with respect to any convenient axis of your choice). Horizontal forces are just reaction forces at the supports; vertical forces are reaction forces plus weight at the centre of gravity; moments result from every force (including weight) not acting directly through the axis you choose.",
"As long as the beam is loaded symmetrically and held by rigid walls, both sides will bear the same amount of weight. This includes the beam just under its own weight (assuming it is consistent shape/mass throughout). I can provide hand-work to prove this if you want.\n\nSince others seem to be disagreeing I will post the work in a second. They are falling victim to the scenario below, which does not apply here. \n\nIf you were thinking of the case of carrying a box with your friend (like I was), this answer is not necessarily true because you are not really supporting the box properly, and its more confusing. With the box horizontal, you will both need to hold half its weight (assuming its a even load again), but if its vertical (your hands above his) or at an angle, the lower person will tend to carry more weight, BUT the higher person can CHOOSE to carry more weight (i.e. you can pick it up out of the others hands).",
"> is it correct that the lower end will bear more weight?\n\nNo. It depends where the load is.\n\nConsider a uniform unloaded beam with the center of mass located at the center. Whichever angle you rotate the beam the center of mass will remain in the same place. So by rotating the beam you dont change the magnitude of any of the forces acting on the supports at each end which will be the same. The only way the force on the supports will change is if you load the beam, and it is the location of the load which will determine the force on the supports (by using sum of forces and moments = 0 )",
"It depends on where the load is and how it is applied as to which end will bear more weight.\n\nFor a beam with even weight distribution, with both ends secured by rigid pins, both ends will bear the same net force.\n\nAs others have said for a two dimensional problem, draw a force diagram and solve for:\n\nF(x) = 0 (forces in X direction = 0)\n\nF(y) = 0 (Force in Y direction = 0)\n\nM(a) = 0 (moment or Torque around point a = 0)\n\nSolve the problem accordingly (3 equations 3 unknowns). For the moment calculation pick any point along the beam (usually one of the supporting ends to make the problem solvable).\n\nHere is what a force diagram looks like: _URL_0_"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://moorepants.github.io/dissertation/_images/beam.png"
]
} | How do you calculate load distribution on an uneven beam?
If a beam is supported at either end, but one end is higher, is it correct that the lower end will bear more weight? How would the load difference at the two points be calculated? | [
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6c7cxb | Why isn't there a 50% chance for 3 flipped coins to all land on the same side? | I know this might seem like a dumb question, but here's my logic;
'When you flip 3 coins, at least 2 of them are guaranteed to land on the same side, so surely the other coin has a 50% chance of landing on the same side as the other two.'
Now, we can tell from flipping 3 coins several times, that this is probably an incorrect assumption. What I want know is, what is the error in my logic? | askscience | {
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"Here are all the possible results:\n\nHHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT.\n\nThere are 8 possibilities, and 2 of them have all three coins being the same. Since all of these outcomes are equally probable, the probability of getting the same side in all three flips is 2/8 = 1/4.",
"When you flip 3 fair coins, there are 4 equally likely outcomes\n\n1) Coins A and B match, coin C is different\n\n2) Coins A and C match, coin B is different\n\n3) Coins B and C match, coin A is different\n\n4) All coins match\n\nYou aren't allowed to group together outcomes 1-3 into a single category and claim that it should have equal probability to outcome 4. You must list your outcomes before you observe their results.",
"> so surely the other coin\n\nYou are choosing \"the other coin\" depending on coin results here. That is the problem that makes your two cases different. If you have HHT, for example, \"the other coin\" will always be the T coin, while with HHH, there is ambiguity which coin is \"the other coin\". In that case you cannot assume that your \"other coin\" is independent - because the selection of this coin depends on coin results.",
"That is something of a paradox, since your logic makes intuitive sense, yet when you look at all the possible results there's only 1/4 chance instead of 1/2.\n\nHere's what's going on: when you flip 3 coins, it is guaranteed that at least two will land on the same side, but there is no guarantee as to *which* two will land on the same side. There are three scenarios here, which have some overlap:\n\n- Coins 1 and 2 land on the same side: HHT, HHH, TTH, TTT\n\n- Coins 1 and 3 land on the same side: HTH, HHH, THT, TTT\n\n- Coins 2 and 3 land on the same side: THH, HHH, HTT, TTT\n\nNote that HHH and TTT are \"over-represented\" in these scenarios, which makes them appear more likely then they really are.\n\nedit:formatting",
"> 'When you flip 3 coins, at least 2 of them are guaranteed to land on the same side, so surely the other coin has a 50% chance of landing on the same side as the other two.'\n\nThe first statement refers to all three coins after they've been tossed. The second statement refers to the third coin you flip in particular.\n\nThere's a chance that the two first coins you flipped are not the same, and the third coin is what makes two of them be the same. That's your flaw.\n\nTo be more clear, there's a 50% chance of the first two coins being the same, which is what you counted. The third coin is irrelevant then.",
"\"at least 2 of them are guaranteed to land on the same side\"\nNo, this logic is incorrect. The probability that 2 coins land on the same side is 50% (one coin has 50% chance of being the same as the other), and the probability of the third coin being the same side as the other two is another 50%, totaling the 1/4 or 25% probability.\n\nAnother way you could think about this is: There are two possible sides, and a 50% * 50% * 50% that each coin is the same side, so the probability is 2 * 12.5% = 25%."
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} | Why isn't there a 50% chance for 3 flipped coins to all land on the same side?
I know this might seem like a dumb question, but here's my logic; 'When you flip 3 coins, at least 2 of them are guaranteed to land on the same side, so surely the other coin has a 50% chance of landing on the same side as the other two.' Now, we can tell from flipping 3 coins several times, that this is probably an incorrect assumption. What I want know is, what is the error in my logic? | [
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v3quo | Why the standard system to measure time is not in base 10? | When measuring time, the base used is not uniform and varies from base 60 (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in a hour), to base 12 (12 months in a year) and so on. Would it be far easier to have a metric, base 10 system for measuring time? What are the advantages of the current one? | askscience | {
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"> Before mechanical clocks\n > The Egyptians subdivided daytime and nighttime into twelve hours each since at least 2000 BC, hence the seasonal variation of their hours. The Hellenistic astronomers Hipparchus (c. 150 BC) and Ptolemy (c. AD 150) subdivided the day sexagesimally and also used a mean hour (1⁄24 day), simple fractions of an hour (1⁄4, 2⁄3, etc.) and time-degrees (1⁄360 day or four modern minutes), but not modern minutes or seconds.[8]\n > The day was subdivided sexagesimally, that is by 1⁄60, by 1⁄60 of that, by 1⁄60 of that, etc., to at least six places after the sexagesimal point (a precision of better than 2 microseconds) by the Babylonians after 300 BC. For example, six fractional sexagesimal places of a day was used in their specification of the length of the year, although they were unable to measure such a small fraction of a day in real time. As another example, they specified that the mean synodic month was 29;31,50,8,20 days (four fractional sexagesimal positions), which was repeated by Hipparchus and Ptolemy sexagesimally, and is currently the mean synodic month of the Hebrew calendar, though restated as 29 days 12 hours 793 halakim (where 1 hour = 1080 halakim).[9] The Babylonians did not use the hour, but did use a double-hour lasting 120 modern minutes, a time-degree lasting four modern minutes, and a barleycorn lasting 31⁄3 modern seconds (the helek of the modern Hebrew calendar),[10] but did not sexagesimally subdivide these smaller units of time. No sexagesimal unit of the day was ever used as an independent unit of time.\n > In 1000, the Persian scholar al-Biruni gave the times of the new moons of specific weeks as a number of days, hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths after noon Sunday.[4] In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (horae, minuta, secunda, tertia, and quarta) after noon on specified calendar dates.[11] Although a third for 1⁄60 of a second remains in some languages, for example Polish (tercja) and Turkish (salise), the modern second is subdivided decimally.\n\n\n\nSRC: [Wikipedia](_URL_0_)",
"60 can easily be divided by: \n2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 10. \n\n12 can easily be divided by: \n2, 3, 4 and 6. \n\n10 can easily be divided by: \n2 and 5. \n\nBase 60 and base 12 is easy to divide compared to base 10.",
"Time was metric in France for a brief period after the French Revolution. It never caught on.\n\nThe main advantage of the current one is tradition. In order to change systems would require a lot of new SI units (as time is one of the fundamental units on which others are based)\n\nSources:\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_2_",
"Besides having a historical basis, base 10 time systems are terribly inconvenient outside of science, in which case you usually only work in a single time unit anyway so it doesn't matter much.\n\nThe most logical base unit is of course 1 Day since it is easily measurable and relevant to everyday life. Thus the metric hour would correspond to 2 hours and 24 minutes, the metric minute to 14.4 minutes, the metric second to 1.44 minutes, the metric decisecond to 8.6 seconds and the metric centisecond to .86 seconds. These units aren't particularly pleasant to use, but are passable enough for day to day life once we adjust to thinking of activities in standard time. I'm sure you can see for yourself why it would be hellish to try and organize 1 hour activities under the metric time system, though this really isn't a unique problem for unit conversions.\n\nWhere things really break down are when you scale up from 1 Day. A metric week is 10 days, a metric month is 100 days, and a metric year is 2 years and 9 months. The beautiful thing about standard time is that the units correspond well to every day life: A month is approximately the length of 1 lunar cycle and a year is of course the major unit of time relevant to the seasons and all sorts of life activities which revolve around those weather patterns. A metric year would be a staggeringly useless unit outside of science.\n\nSo really, the answer boils down to that a metric time system just isn't particularly useful, and certainly doesn't outweigh the headache it causes for the uncommon times where you need to convert across many units of time.",
"One big correction.\n\nYou are not using base correcty. Time is measured in base-10. However we have arbitrary limits to time being measured; normally because it is easier to do math with.\n\nHowever to explain, a base means how many symbols or characters are avalaible to express numbers. Base-10 has, well 10 of them, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. After 9, you need to add another digit to express any higher, thus 10, or the number ten as we defined it.\n\nSeconds, minutes, hours, days all only have 10 characters to express the numbers or units. They are in base-10.\n\nIn base-2, you only have 0, 1 so after 1, you need to add a second digit, or 10. In base 3, after 2 you require a another digit after 2, or 10.\n\nWith that being said for time to be base-60 it would have to have 60 different characters, 0-9, a-z and A-X before requiring another digit.\n\nAn example would be 5 minutes and 26 second would be 5q. 38 minutes and 59 seconds would be CX, and 59 hours 59 minutes and 59 seconds would be XXX or an adult movie.\n\nSorry about the last joke.\n\nThough just to note you couldn't really express a base for time, as it goes 60, 60, 24, 31, 12. So the base would be variable if you had to give a base definition. It is express in base-10. This is simliar to metric vs imperial system. Imperial would go 1 inch, 12 inches in a foot, 3 feet in a yard, and other various arbitrary values. While metric takes into account that it is using base-10 and after every increment changes the naming convention."
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"url": [
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} | Why the standard system to measure time is not in base 10?
When measuring time, the base used is not uniform and varies from base 60 (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in a hour), to base 12 (12 months in a year) and so on. Would it be far easier to have a metric, base 10 system for measuring time? What are the advantages of the current one? | [
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|
sygw6 | Is there any truth to "According to physics a bumblebee shouldn't be able to fly". | I've heard this saying quite a few times in my life and to be quite honest I never quite understood how it could be true; however, I'm no physicist nor am I an entomologist so I figure it would be worth asking.
Furthermore if the statement is false how did this idea come about and why has it become wide spread? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4i13iz",
"c4i12fu",
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"c4i12ob",
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"text": [
"It's just bs perpetuated by people who like to show how science can't know everything.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > One set of accounts suggests that the story first surfaced in Germany in the 1930s. One evening at dinner, a prominent aerodynamicist happened to be talking to a biologist, who asked about the flight of bees. To answer the biologist's query, the engineer did a quick \"back-of-the-napkin\" calculation.\n\n > To keep things simple, he assumed a rigid, smooth wing, estimated the bee's weight and wing area, and calculated the lift generated by the wing. Not surprisingly, there was insufficient lift. That was about all he could do at a dinner party. The detailed calculations had to wait. To the biologist, however, the aerodynamicist's initial failure was sufficient evidence of the superiority of nature to mere engineering.",
"No, it isn't true in any way. We've thrown far more complex and strenuous tests at our versions of the laws of physics than a bee in flight, and they've stood up really quite well so far.",
"No, because then bumblebees wouldn't be able to fly.",
"Ok I looked it up. For a while the \"faithful\" among the scientific community Believedthat the bumblebee was proof of gods existence because it's wings are miniscule compared to it's body, and if we built an airplane like the bumblebee it would never make it off the ground. However the bumblebee doesn't fly like an airplane. It's wings fly much more like a helicopter, and this link has the specifics. _URL_1_",
"Even if it were true, which it is not, the bumblebee would not be violating the laws of physics, but rather our limited understanding of the laws of physics.",
"From Wikipedia's awesome [list of common misconceptions](_URL_2_):\n\n > The flight mechanism and aerodynamics of the bumblebee (as well as other insects) are actually quite well understood, in spite of the urban legend that calculations show that they should not be able to fly. In the 1930s, the French entomologist Antoine Magnan, using flawed techniques, indeed postulated that bumblebees theoretically should not be able to fly in his book Le Vol des Insectes (The Flight of Insects).[166][167] Magnan later realized his error and retracted the suggestion. However, the hypothesis became generalized to the false notion that \"scientists think that bumblebees should not be able to fly\"."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/5400/title/Math_Trek__Flight_of_the_Bumblebee",
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1076/is-it-aerodynamically-impossible-for-bumblebees-to-fly",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions#Biology"
]
} | Is there any truth to "According to physics a bumblebee shouldn't be able to fly".
I've heard this saying quite a few times in my life and to be quite honest I never quite understood how it could be true; however, I'm no physicist nor am I an entomologist so I figure it would be worth asking. Furthermore if the statement is false how did this idea come about and why has it become wide spread? | [
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3ss33j | What causes this ring of fire from a Desert Eagle? *Link in description* (x-post r/woahdude) | _URL_0_ | askscience | {
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"text": [
"that ring is a toroidal vortex, it happens because the jet of hot gasses leaving the muzzle shears past the stagnant air around the muzzle creating a ring of rotating air/gunpowder:[ well illustrated here](_URL_0_). \n\nI assume the flame in the ring is more visible because the hot gasses in the vortex ring barely get mixed with outside air and stay concentrated & hot while the main jet of hot gasses will extinguish quicker because it gets mixed with more outside air",
"Short answer: The combustion products of the gunpowder (and some powder that is still combusting) mixing with ambient atmosphere. The ring itself is being pushed by the overpressure wave exiting the muzzle.\n\nAll firearms produce muzzle flashes. A flash hider/suppressor is sometimes used to redirect the gas into discrete jets so that the user's sight is unimpeded. In a rifle suppressor, the amount of heat and pressure produced is often so high that it ignites ambient atmosphere and as a result special materials (like the kind you see in rocket engines, such as inconel) are used.\n\nSo that's a lot of energy, right? Not all of it needs to be used to push the bullet, and isn't: Just beyond the chamber of of the barrel there's a tiny hole that uses some of that gas to work a piston just underneath the barrel, which in turn is what drives the action of the gun. A fundamental design that has been used in rifles and machineguns for over a century. The DE is unique in that it's one of those rare gas operated pistols; it shares more of its DNA with rifles than it does with your typical semiauto handgun; most of those use the recoil generated by the barrel instead of gas pressure to work the action.\n\nThe designers of the original AR15 platform of rifles, from which the M-16 was developed, realized that you don't even need a piston: You can just let some of that hot gas impinge inside of a carrier in the heart of the rifle's mechanism and it works just as well (albeit dirtier).\n\ntldr #2: The same stuff that produces that ring is actually being used to operate the gun.",
"As to why a ring, the answer is it works just like any other ring (toroidal) vortex -- like a smoke ring. You push a fast moving blob of air into a stationary one. The moving air interacts with the stationary air because of viscosity, and that friction slows the outside of the moving air. The core of the moving air moves forward faster than the outside of it now, so the edges move backward, relative to the core, to the point they are at the rear of the fast moving air.\n\nMoving air has lower pressure, so the fluid from the edge is pulled into the core of the blob, making a jet which separates the blob into the ring shape. Sides opposite the jet will counter-rotate, relative to eachother. All sides radially push in on the jet. Think of holding a ball in your hands and push in your thumbs while rotating your wrists out and you'll see how it works. As that air is ejected, the outer edges of the rings slow because of friction, and maintain the jet. It's very stable, and can last for a while.",
"I think it's a thorus because of a similar effect like in this video _URL_1_\n\nJust imagine the plate being a bullet and it happens in one medium and not at the border between two media (mediums?). \n\nSo basically bullet starts a circle shaped vortex by pushing away (to the sides, up and down) the air in front of it and sucking in the air behind it (because of the lower pressure zone behind the bullet). \n\nThe stuff that is still combusting is sucked into this vortex, hence the \"fire ring\".",
"A toroidal vortex of hot gases, caused by the supersonic jet that leaves the barrel interfacing with the relatively stationary air down range of the muzzle. It wouldn't happen if you fired the gun in a vacuum, the gasses would all just continue in an expanding cloud down range. See also, smoke rings. \n\ntl/dr the ring of fire is a toroidal vortex of incandescent ionized gas, formed by the high velocity gas pulse from the bore, like a smoke ring.",
"Shot a night match with a .45 some years ago.\n\nWith a light over your shoulder was surprisingly easy to see the actual flight of the .45 cal slugs.\n\nI'm thinking rings are more visible under some circumstances than others, with various muzzle velocity/calibers. Some loads will clearly leave unburned powder residue which can also contribute.",
"Not sure if this has been mentioned but the Desert Eagle has an adjustable gas system to fire. With the original ones after they are tuned to a bullet I would only shoot that bullet. The gas system probably had something to do with this. I never noticed the ring before though."
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"url": [
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} | What causes this ring of fire from a Desert Eagle? *Link in description* (x-post r/woahdude)
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4ivc04 | Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away!
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"How much does leaving a light on overnight accelerate the heat death of the universe?\n\nI ask this all the time and never get an answer. Obviously it's a stupid question in that the effect is meaninglessly small, I just like to think about the fact that small actions still have an effect on the universe.",
"For any given task in computing, say for example sorting, is there one perfect algorithm that is objectively faster, uses less resources and is more efficient than all others for all similar cases? If so, why do so many sorting algorithms exist if you can rank them in order of speed? Is there an advantage to using a slower sorter?",
"Why is my wifi connection fast when I first connect but over a period of time it gets slower and slower. Once it becomes almost unusable I disconnect or sometimes I eventually have to restart my phone. Once I reconnect the cycle repeats. Why does the bandwidth degrade?",
"Why is a negative times a negative a positive? How can we prove this without the distributive property which already includes multiplication?",
"Why is 0! equal to 1? Why was there a need to define what 0! is equal to instead of just saying \"Hey, sorry, but 0 is off-limits here\"?",
"What is/are your view(s) on computational engineering? \n\n(For those of you who are wondering: Computational engineering is a marriage of engineering, applied mathematics, and computer science. It's a new field that uses cutting-edge simulations to model natural phenomena, especially those that are normally too complex to model, and or are not humanly possible. Consequently, it is considered by some to be the third mode of discovery, rivaling experiments and theories.)",
"On the computer engineering side of things: How in the heck can trillions of bits of information be written so precisely to a hard disk when there are vibrations from the fans in my case? How can their exact location be known and how can they be read so quickly given the same vibrations? I've wanted to know this for years.",
"What is the actual curvature per mile on Earth, and what height can it be clearly observed by eye?",
"Why is a full rotation cut into 360 partitions?",
"Mathematics question. I guess maybe \"math history\", but it seems like it could be about some insight the ancient Greeks had.\n\nWhy was the \"Golden Ratio\" referred to as the \"mean and extreme ratio\"?\n\nIt's always bugged me that I couldn't grasp precisely what was meant by that, as it seems both subtle, and important to understanding the concept. I'm working through *The Elements*, and yesterday happened upon Uncle Euclid putting it thusly:\n\n\"A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser.\"\n\n\nThis definition of Phi is of course familiar to me. But while this is obviously a specific ratio, how is one part considered the \"mean\" and the other the \"extreme\"?\n\n\n\n**Edit:** When the Greeks used the term \"mean and extreme ratio\", they *specifically* meant φ, nothing else. That is the name they gave it. It wasn't \"the golden anything\" for about two millennia. I'm also not asking after how to calculate it.",
"Why does the number \"e\" show up so frequently in nature?",
"What am I missing about a Modern Moon Shot? We did it in the 60's and no one has been able to do it since. Please, Science, Engineering and Math, explain it to me so that I don't go down some conspiracy worm hole.",
"How did the first compiler work? We write code that needs to be transformed to something the computer can understand. But what compiled the first compiler?",
"Does a base 10 system really make sense? Would it be better if we did everything in binary? Or some other system?",
"Is there any calculation a human is able to do better than a computer?",
"How do gyroscopes work to steady tank cannons?",
"**COMPUTER SCIENCE**\n\n*Octave*\n\nMachine Learning and Linear Algebra. How mathematically complex is ML?\n\nMachine learning is looking like one of the #1 spot in M.S. Computer Science programs. Everyone has a spot available for Machine learning. So, as a student looking into M.S. programs, I naturally am taking the Stanford ML course offered by Coursera. I want to see what the coding behind machine learning looks like. Fortunately, so far, Week 1 has been quite simple. \n\nBut, I don't have a Linear Algebra background. The course continually glosses over linear algebra like it's not something you need to know in order to efficiently program for machine learning. To be fair, Week 1 is pretty easy. Linear Regression techniques for reading 2-D data is fairly comprehensible given my Calculus knowledge. \n\n But *now* I'm not entirely sure if I need to take Linear Algebra at a community college. How many of you computer programmers use work in Machine Learning? What kinds of programs do you use? (I regret starting with Octave, I kind of wish I went via MatLab). Do you have an open-source github program that you'd like to share with me so I can get an idea of what work you have done? When programming in C++ is it much harder?\n\nI plan on reading the white docs for *Caffe* after I finish this online course. I want to see if I can help them make their ML more efficient. To be entirely honest, I'm also looking for brownie points when applying to M.S. programs.\n\nSo, how much of an \"expert\" do I need to be in Linear Algebra? As far as I can tell, Linear Algebra efficiently solves problems that are inefficiently solved in Calculus. Seems like my Calculus background would be enough to pick up on the algorithms they use, but I can't quite tell if that's true.",
"Math question here:\n\nThe history of the hyperbolic sine and cosine are something I'm curious about. I've read the wikipedia article and searched around on google, but I can't find where precisely the exponential definitions of the functions come from. I know that the hyperbola x^2 - y^2 = 1 can be parameterized by (cosh(t), sinh(t)), but that basically seems to mean that putting the exponential definition into the hyperbolic equation gives an identity.\n\nSo I guess what I'm asking is, where did they come up with the e^x - e^-x / 2 business? Did it come from the cos(ix) = cosh(x) thing using the taylor series, or did mathematicians just happen upon it, or is there some way to start with the equation of a hyperbola and find those exponential definitions?\n\nI just don't get how the jump from conic sections to exponential equation is made. Nyerg.",
"So, Recently in my high school physics class we have been studying The Special Theory of Relativity and we just learned about Einstein's famous E=mc^2 equation. My question: Say we have a 1kg block of steel, thus by Einstein's equation it has E=9.0x10^19 J . What stops us from harnessing all of that energy? I understand that this fact of a lot of energy coming from small masses is the driving force behind the advantages of nuclear energy, but why do we need to use radioactive materials when harnessing nuclear energy? Is it because the unstable isotopes are already 'spitting' out fast moving particles with the required energy for fission to occur? So, I guess one could theoretically harness the 9.0x10^19 J of energy from a steel block but it would require a higher input of energy than would be output? Any answers appreciated, thanks.\n\n-studentbill",
"Computer science question. Will engineers, physicists, mathematicians and even computer scientists one day be pushed out of work by ever more powerful computer systems. We are training computers to be better than us at extremely complex tasks like driving, and are showing that creativity can be duplicated by a computer to some extent. One day will we all be replaced by a system that can invent new science and new mathematics on its own, be able to write new more efficient machine languages and be able to improve itself beyond our capabilities. Are even the stem fields not safe from automation?",
"Ok, so learning a little bit about vector calc right now, and had a question. So, since gravitational potential is -GM/r, is it possible to model gravity (in the Newtonian sense) as a field of scalars, since it's a conservative vector field? If so, how could I model a bunch of bodies interacting under each other's influence since \"r\" only refers to different bodies? Was just thinking about Kerbal Space Program and the N-Body physics, and I'm not sure how they simulate that.",
"How do you determine ratios of infinite quantities? \n\nWhat's the ratio of even to odd integers? I believe it's possible to create a mapping that would provide almost any ratio I wanted. So saying 1:1 seems as accurate as 1:n. They have the same cardinality which would seem to imply 1:1 but using aleph null as an actual count seems wrong since it's not exactly. \n\nWhere am I messing myself up?",
"Graduating from San Francisco State University (nowhere close to being a top school) next year in Mechanical Engineering with a sub-par GPA of 2.9. How hard will it be to get a job with the average starting ME pay?",
"I didn't quite understand the **Fundamental Theorem of Algebra** and how/why it works."
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} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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6c391u | What is the cause of diffusion and osmosis? How does it work? | I know the general gist of how diffusion/osmosis works, I just don't know *why* it works like it works. | askscience | {
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"There is a chemical potential difference because of different free energy for the different concentrations. Systems tend toward the lowest energy configuration, which occurs when there is no chemical potential difference. \n\nBasically, the system is thermodynamically most stable when there is no concentration gradient.",
"Diffusion is caused by the random movement of particles; anything with energy moves and shakes a little. From this random moving and shaking, it is much more likely that things get further apart from each other, so they do. This is simply because if they _can_ move in all possible directions, what are the chances that each will move toward those that are similar, even after bouncing into each other?\n\nOsmosis is a little trickier. Whilst it can possibly be explained using entropy and whatnot, I like to imagine it like this: in order for something to be dissolved in water, water needs to be able to bond with with it, and stick to it. Most of these things, like salts or sugars, tend to be either larger than water, or quite charged. This means they find it very difficult to pass through the fatty membranes of cells. So, if the water is 'stuck' to them and bonding with them, it is less likely to pass through the barrier as well. Water that has fewer things to bind to will be freer to pass through the membrane. In this way, water always seems to move towards things it likes to bind with, simply because going the other way is harder.\n\nAn inverse example of this is salt channels in membranes. They work by binding to the salt ion in the same way water does, replacing the bonds it would have to break to pass through. Because the bonds are being replaced, it is not energetically unfavourable for it to pass through. In this way, you can also think of the bonds 'pulling' the salt ions through, or the water being pulled back by the things it binds with.\n\n*TL;DR:* 1) things move around randomly. 'Away' direction happens more often.\n2) water is sticky. It sticks to stuff. More stuff=more stuck= less moving through things.\n\nSource: I study chemistry at uni",
"Diffusion is the random movement of anything away from its origin. This concept can be applied to many things, dye in water is a good visual example.\n\nOsmosis is the movement of water from a heavily concentrated area of other stuff (salts) to a less concentrat area. It will do move until both areas are the same concentration. A way to think about it would be people on a small boat. Not everyone wants to stand on the same side. They want to balance the weight of the boat so some of them go to the other side. Except with water... osmosis is strictly talking about the movement of water."
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} | What is the cause of diffusion and osmosis? How does it work?
I know the general gist of how diffusion/osmosis works, I just don't know *why* it works like it works. | [
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5inrn5 | Is it possible that creatures very similar to those currently extint come to exist again in a very distant future? (through evolution) | askscience | {
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"It depends what you mean by \"very similar\", but I believe you will find the answer you seek in the concept of convergent evolution. This is what happens when different unrelated organisms converge upon the same solution to the set of problems which is a given way of life.\n\nThere are numerous examples, but a classic one is the overall shape and structure of dolphins and Ichthyosaurs. Dolphins are modern and need no introduction. [Ichthyosaurs were swimming reptiles](_URL_1_) which emerged in the Triassic and bit the bullet in the Cretaceous. Both faced the same problem: how to adapt a land-dwelling vertebrate to the ecological niche of a marine predator. And both developed similar features in response to the demands of that life strategy, and converged on the same solution developed by other lineages which shared that lifestyle [swordfish & tuna for instance]: \n\n* a long, hydrodynamically tapered & powerfully muscled body,\n\n* limbs were redesigned as flippers and contributed to maneuverability,\n\n* the mouth became long and narrow on a narrow triangular skull with rows of pointed teeth well suited to gripping slippery fish,\n\n* the tail became finned and a powerful motive organ capable of sustained speed and sprinting,\n\n* Ichthyosaurs became viviparous and capable of delivering their young without leaving the sea to lay eggs on the shore – dolphins started viviparous and were sort of pre-adapted in this regard.\n\nHowever, there are other subsidiary problems on which Ichthyosaurs and Dolphins developed different solutions. The problem of locating prey for instance. Dolphins went the way of sonar and modified their skull and brains accordingly, while Ichthyosaurs located their prey by sight and developed the largest eyes in relation to body size of any vertebrate. Then there was breathing – dolphins migrated their nostril into a fused blowhole on the top of their skull, while Ichthyosaurs migrated their nostrils to the sides of their head in a pre-ocular position.\n\nSo, to come back to your question, convergent evolution has allowed lineages as unrelated as mammals and reptiles to converge on a roughly similar body plan in order to adapt to a similar ecological role. Ichtyosaurs dissapeared 65 Ma ago, while dolphins and other toothed cetaceans didn't really emerge in a form we'd recognize today before [about 34 Ma ago](_URL_2_). If you saw both side by side, you would not confuse one with the other, but you would recognise a series of similar traits. In that sense, you could argue that dolphins are recently evolved creatures similar to an extinct lineage. And there is indeed nothing precluding other lineages from such convergent evolution in the future, say for instance some other lineage of mammals such as rats (for arguments sake).\n\n\nEDIT: Gold? Why thank you! Enjoy this reconstruction of a [pod of Ichtyosaurs](_URL_0_) in return!",
"Yes and no. Convergent evolution is certainly capable of producing similar creatures to extinct ones, however there are several reasons why this is unlikely.\n\nFor one the environment is never likely to be identical to what it was in the past. For another the \"stock\" of creatures that might evolve to fill some niche are also different, so they might evolve differently to fill the same ecological niches. Perhaps most importantly, a \"dinosaur retread\" would face a very different competitive landscape than dinosaurs did historically, likely making it more difficult for them to exist in their \"primitive\" forms.\n\nExclude, for the moment, the impact of humans, let's imagine a world a million years ago for example. Consider a therapod dinosaur or analog trying to exist as a meat eating predator. They would have to subsist on the prey available to them, such as deer, antelope, bison, water buffalo, and such-like. They would have to compete against other predators like big cats, which would not be easy.\n\nIn fact, a sort of dinosaur analog in the form of the [terror birds](_URL_3_) did exist in the Americas roughly from the time of the extinction of the dinosaurs up through only perhaps 2 million years ago. They were large two legged ground dwelling birds that preyed on other animals which would have lived a lifestyle quite similar to many therapod predators. They seem to have died out largely due to being out competed by other predators such as sabre toothed cats.\n\nMany other species have lived in similar ecological niches as certain extinct creatures but being different and having different biologies they often ended up with rather different lives as well. For example, there are many oceanic predators that have some similarities to ichtyosaurs such as orca, dolphins, and sharks. But each of those brings a different biological toolset to the table and they have a different ecological landscape to inhabit (different populations of fish, different oceans, etc.) so they end up being substantially different despite their similarities. Similarly, elephants and sauropods have similarities but due to different biologies and different ecologies they also have substantial differences.",
"It's possible but unlikely, and people have given good reasons why convergence has its limitations.\n\nNevertheless, it does happen sometimes because of convergence. If it occurs soon after a mass extinction the situation even has a name: [\"Elvis taxon\"](_URL_4_).",
"Similar sure through convergent evolution. This is how octopi have camera like eyes just as humans do. Same solution to a similar problem. However, it is quite unlikely that the earth will ever see anything like a stegosaurus again.",
"There's a really cool book called [After Man: A Zoology of the Future](_URL_5_). It deals with this question in an imaginative way, applying general evolutionary principles to create artwork of the sorts of creatures which might evolve long after humans have gone extinct.",
"In evolution, environmental factors can cause populations of organisms to change or adapt to better suit the survivability of the population of those given factors. An example could be seen in aloe vera and cacti species. Typically these populations are found in water limited environments where their physiology is best suited for preserving water, and using given water quickly when present. Surprisingly, there are epiphitic (organisms that grow and live on other organisms, particularly plants that grow on other plants, such as orchids) cacti and aloe vera species found in the jungles of Central America. These species grow twenty or thirty feet above the ground. In this case, the cacti and aloe vera traits that improve water use efficiency allow these plants to survive, despite only receiving water in comparatively small pulses. Aside from growing up on trees, jungle aloe vera and cacti are nearly identical to their ground-bound desert cousins."
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"url": [
"http://img10.deviantart.net/2d80/i/2013/234/b/8/ichthyosaur_group_by_esthervanhulsen-d6j2rge.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyosaur",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2777972/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phorusrhacidae",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_taxon",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/After_Man"
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} | Is it possible that creatures very similar to those currently extint come to exist again in a very distant future? (through evolution)
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22vwdm | What constant driving force is behind Ohm's Law? | I'm coming from a chemistry standpoint and I'm wondering what constant driving force is behind the Ohm's Law model of EMF, resistance, and current (assume DC here, as from a chemical battery). I don't like the analogy that, say, a 9V battery "tries" to provide 9V, but if the load between the terminals is small enough, then it "can't provide" 9V. That personification bugs me.
I know of the power equation (P = V * I), but that doesn't answer my question. I'm wondering what physical forces are behind that equation. The model works, but I'm wondering why. I'm guessing that some kind of chemical reaction "force" (put in quotes because it is not exactly a force, but I don't know a better term) is behind this.
Any ideas? | askscience | {
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"It's due to the mean-field potential that the electrons are subjected to when traveling along a conductor. All that energy takes away from the total possible energy the electrons could have, if there was no resistance in the wire. The electron's total energy would be the energy difference between both electrodes. It's also interesting to note that conductivity is not the same along all directions, there are optimum paths for the electrons to flow, and that has to do with the unit cell structure (specifically cristalline planes) and the types of atoms the material is made from.",
"The physical manifestation of all of these things is an excess number (or dearth) of electrons that exists on one object when compared to another object. When a path is opened up for the electrons to flow from one object to the other, the electrons which are pushing against each other on the object with excess electrons will immediately start moving into the other object. The speed in which the electrons move (the current) depends on how much resistance there is in the conductor that bridges the gap between the objects.\n\nVoltage is simply a measure of how badly the electrons in the first object \"want\" to move to the second object. This depends on the size and geometry of each object and how many extra electrons have been packed onto them (or removed from them).\n\nI know electrons don't \"want\" anything, but the analogy is essentially the same as gas molecules in one pressurized tank \"wanting\" to move into another tank that has lower pressure as soon as a valve is opened between them. The resistance would be analogous to how far you have opened the valve. If you are trying to do work with the air pressure difference (turn a fan or turbine for example), this is similar to putting some electronics between the electrically charged objects.\n\nIf you open the valve between your two pressurized tanks a slight amount, you can probably do a small amount of work for a long time, similar to a battery-powered device that doesn't draw much current. Open the valve more and you can do more work but the pressure difference won't last as long and drops quicker. Open the valve all the way and the pressure will drop extremely quickly and this would be analogous to a 9V battery not being able to provide 9V any more. All the available electrons run out right away and the current drops, voltage drops, and nothing works.\n\nBatteries however store electrons chemically and there is a reaction at work which provides the charge, so simply shorting out a battery doesn't discharge it completely right away. Here the analogy of the two air tanks breaks down, since opening the valve wide on the tank would just drop the pressure difference to zero right away. I guess you could imagine a chemical reaction inside the tank that replenishes the air pressure over time - as long as you don't open the valve to let out any more air than the chemical reaction can replace, you can do work off the air pressure until the chemical reaction runs out.",
"The Electric field is the mover of charges.\n\nThat E-field is created by the distribution of, and on a large scale the imbalance of, charges.\n\nA battery tries to move electrons from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This imbalance of charges ---- more electrons per proton at the negative terminal --- leads to an E-field which points from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal and follows the path laid out by the circuit, if any, placed between the terminals.\n\nThe extent to which the imbalance occurs determines the voltage of the battery, which is basically the integral of the E-field around the circuit loop. If there is a small imbalance, the voltage might only be a millivolt. If there is a large imbalance, it might be mega-volts.\n\nA battery can only move electrons from the positive terminal to the negative terminal just 'so fast'.\n\nSuppose there is nothing to prevent the electrons at the negative terminal from flowing to the positive terminal -- you short the two terminals with a nearly ideal wire. The excess electrons on the negative terminal will immediately say, \"good bye!\" and run off to meet their lover protons at the positive terminal --- and away from other electron rivals --- as fast as they can. The battery tries to move electrons from the positive terminal back to the negative terminal to maintain the right imbalance, but it can't because it just can't move the electrons fast enough to keep up with how fast the electrons return to the positive terminal through the nearly ideal wire.\n\nIt's a little bit like trying to fill a bathtub to eight inches while the drain is open. As soon as the water touch es the bottom of the tub, out it goes again! There's an easy solution, of course: close the drain.\n\nNow add something to oppose the flow of the electrons -- we'll call it a resistor. The electrons now have to work hard to get from the negative terminal back to the positive terminal. It takes time for them to get there. Because it takes time for them to get there, the battery is able to replenish any lost electrons flowing out from the negative terminal sufficiently rapidly to maintain the appropriate imbalance.\n\nIn a real battery, the open circuit voltage -- that is, with no electrons leaving the negative terminal -- is generally higher than it is after you attach a circuit. That's because the battery reaction doesn't go to equilibrium instantly, so it takes some time for those last few electrons to build up before the voltage reaches it's maximum. If you keep taking electrons away, you never get anywhere near equilibrium.\n\nNow, as far as why the relationship happens to be v = i * r and not some other relation, I wish to make a few points. That equation is an real-world approximation and doesn't take into account a large number of \"buts\". It only applies in the absence of changing magnetic fields. KVL is NOT strictly \"correct\" unless you play in the magical world of Electrical Engineers where magnetic fields do not change substantially within the borders of your circuit. It does not include noise, or quantum effects. It does not work for superconductivity. It's a real-world approximation for what happens most of the time.\n\nSecond, where does it come from. You've already been given several excellent answers, so rather than repeat them I will give them some context.\n\nElectron transport is actually very complicated and involves a lot of quantum mechanics.\n\nWe don't generally worry about every detail. Instead we use one of many approximations, depending on how much detail is required for the application at hand, or, more commonly, how much prior education the student has.\n\nThere is the ohms law model, where we treat current and voltage as a mysterious black box. That works for 99.9% of the world's requirements. There's the [Drude model](_URL_2_), where electrons are treated classically like little pinballs, the [Drude-Sommerfeld model](_URL_0_) where a correction to the Drude model is made thanks to Fermi–Dirac statistics, [Bloch waves](_URL_1_) for evaluating electrons in the real-world crystals with different structures... Solid State Physics students spend a lot of time learning about early models, corrections to those models, and corrections to the corrections to those models.\n\nThe point is, don't bang your head against the wall too hard trying to understand why v=i*r. Instead, think about the electrons, know that they are responsible for creating the field which is directly responsible for the voltage, and know that as electrons are pulled away more rapidly, the reaction moves further and further from equilibrium while at the same time the battery's voltage drops since it isn't replacing the electrons fast enough to maintain the previous voltage.",
"How about a newtonian analog:\n\nImagine a great number of balls zipping about in a vacuum. They are so small relative to their denisty that they don't collide with each other at all. They are in a gravitational field, such that they do accelerate 'downward'. With nothing in the way, they accelerate until they all impact with the ground.\n\nNow, we put stuff, say wooden pegs, in the way. These pegs are stationary and are big enough that the balls will collide with them. The pegs are everywhere, in every directioon, and with a more or less even distribution.\n\nThe balls all start with some *high* speed, although, in random directions. With the density of pegs and their sizes fixed, that gives us an averge time before a ball hits a peg. The gravitational force is weak enough that the delta-v it applies to the ball in that average time is small compared to the balls starting velocity. That just means the average time between collisions can be considered independant of the force of gravity.\n\nWhen a collision occurs, the balls bounce off in a new random direction and *lose the extra velocity they gained from gravity*. Their speed is reset to what it was when we started the simulation. That energy gets absorbed by the pegs.\n\nBecause gravity is always pointing downward, each ball experiences a 'drift' velocity downward that is proportional to the acceleration of gravity * the average time between collisions. This drift velocity is a small fraction of the balls' overall velocity, but it *always points downward*, and the rest of the velocity is randomized after each collision.\n\nNow, lets be unconventional and label this drift velocity I, the acceleration due to gravity V, and the mean time t, so that we have:\n\nI = 0.5 * V * t\n\nThe larger t is, the less 'resistance' the ball has to deal with, fewer pegs, fewer collisions. So, lets introduce R = 1/t and call R a measure of this resistance to give us:\n\nI = 0.5 * V * (1/R), or I = 0.5 * V / R\n\nDropping the constant and rearranging:\n\nV = I * R\n\nNow, replace gravity with voltage, the pegs with atomic sites, and the balls with electrons and you have ohm's law.\n\nI did cheat with units though. Current isn't a velocity for example, but that's the mechanics of it, as I understand it. You can derive a more accurate model if you include the size of the container of the balls, measure ball flux instead of velocity, and use 'resistivity' instead of 'resistance'.",
"Physicist here. \n\nFirst, I want to say that you're probably using the term force really wrong. Force is a term used classically to define a change in momentum and in modern Physics to define a transfer energy/momentum/etc. Basically, you would say something acts on another thing with a force and it's experiencing acceleration. \n\nOhm's law is not talking about any forces. It's simply a comment on the obvious. You need that much potential difference in order to achieve that much current against this much resistance. In other words, it more like conservation of energy or momentum (to any physicist this should sound awful, but let's explore the analogy a bit more). \n\nVoltage is electric potential difference. This is speaking about how much energy difference is gonna be between two electrons sitting at both ends of the battery. Current is how many electrons manage to get through the conductors in a unit of time. And resistance is how much the conductor doesn't like letting electrons pass. \n\nSo basically, if you have a voltage then your electrons are starting with a certain potential energy that they want to convert to kinetic energy at the other end of the battery. But the conductor has a resistance and the electrons loose part of that kinetic energy to \"friction\". Thus they can't travel as fast as they could and you get less current if resistance is higher. \n\nThis is not to be mistaken with voltage drop around around a resistor. This voltage drop is just the difference in potential energy of electrons coming into and going out if the resistor, not accounting for the \"free\" paths before and after. So the battery always has the same voltage, but according to different resistors you get different voltage drop across them. \n\nNow the \"friction\" forces that act on the electrons are basically quantum mechanical interactions between electrons and nuclei in the conductor. Electors spend time and energy in these interactions (they might get captured, released, recaptured, phase-changed, reflected, etc) and thus end up with less energy afterwards. Friction approximation is good enough in most cases though.",
"> I don't like the analogy that, say, a 9V battery \"tries\" to provide 9V, but if the load between the terminals is small enough, then it \"can't provide\" 9V. That personification bugs me.\n\nIf you do not like the \"personification\" of a battery as \"trying\" to provide 9V but failing due to the load resistance being too small, then you should switch your thinking of it to a model of a battery as an ideal voltage source plus an [internal resistance](_URL_3_).\n\n > A practical electrical power source which is a linear electric circuit may, according to Thévenin's theorem, be represented as an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance. This resistance is termed the internal resistance of the source. When the power source delivers current, the measured e.m.f. (voltage output) is lower than the no-load voltage; the difference is the voltage (the product of current and resistance) drop caused by the internal resistance. The concept of internal resistance applies to all kinds of electrical sources and is useful for analyzing many types of electrical circuits.\n\nIn [this representation of the internal resistance model](_URL_4_), the ideal voltage source (say 9V) is represented by Vb, the internal Resistance by Ri, the (external) load resistance by Rl and the actual voltage at the terminals of the battery being modelled by Vl. If Rl is so low as to be equal to Ri, then Vl will only be 4.5V. In this model, a \"fresh\" battery has a relatively low internal resistance, but as it approaches becoming discharged the internal resistance becomes higher and higher.\n\nInternal resistance is more than just a useful model, it often represents what is really going on with a non-ideal voltage source such as a real-world battery.",
"The driving force is dependent on the potential difference.\n\nG = -nFE\n\n(n= # of electrons transferred, F= Farday's constant, E = potential difference\n\nThe potential difference of the battery is dependent upon the activities of each electrode, the temperature and the standard potential which is dependent on the electrode components. \n\n E = E_0 + RT ln(K)\n\nTherefore the voltage is an intrinisic property of the system. Its not that it tries to be at 9V, the system **has to be** at 9V. Of course the peak potential will vary with time if efficiency is compromised. \n\nBy attaching a load of varying resistance, you'll get varying currents coming out. If you increase the resistance by such a quantity (say for your 9V battery you stick rubber or something between electrodes that accounts for billions of ohms, heck even air) that the current produced is so ridiculously small then that nothing happens at all in the cell."
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch_wave",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drude_model",
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"http://nuclearpowertraining.tpub.com/h1011v2/img/h1011v2_60_3.jpg"
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} | What constant driving force is behind Ohm's Law?
I'm coming from a chemistry standpoint and I'm wondering what constant driving force is behind the Ohm's Law model of EMF, resistance, and current (assume DC here, as from a chemical battery). I don't like the analogy that, say, a 9V battery "tries" to provide 9V, but if the load between the terminals is small enough, then it "can't provide" 9V. That personification bugs me. I know of the power equation (P = V * I), but that doesn't answer my question. I'm wondering what physical forces are behind that equation. The model works, but I'm wondering why. I'm guessing that some kind of chemical reaction "force" (put in quotes because it is not exactly a force, but I don't know a better term) is behind this. Any ideas? | [
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|
1coxwp | With recent events, I'm curious to how K9 sniff out bombs? | What are the dogs trained to smell, what component produces a distinguishing smell? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9ipxb4",
"c9ir55n",
"c9ixvzz",
"c9itpv5"
],
"text": [
"All of them. Bomb sniffing dogs have to be trained with each type of explosive compound. Their noses are not only more sensitive to stuff we can smell but they can also sense stuff that would be odourless to us.\n\nJust so you get an idea how powerful their noses are, there are dogs that can smell cancer in humans: _URL_0_\n\nEDIT: to clarify, bombs are usually made of a single compound which reacts to shock/pressure/heat/etc or two compounds that react explosively with each other. The type of compounds used determine the type of bomb.",
"Yup. Most explosives contain some form of either nitrate, chlorate, or ammonia compound as an oxidizer. Since explosives can use many common items as a fuel and the oxidizers are more exotic, I would imagine that dogs are trained to sniff for the oxidizers. Dogs are extremely sensitive to ammonia-based compounds such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium perchlorate, urea, and other common explosive oxidizers - so this sounds like their primary method of detection. \n\nA good analogy for this would be cooking with habanero peppers. It doesn't really matter how careful you are or how thoroughly you wash your hands or your workspace, there will always be some residual capsaisin, and you will always be able to taste it on your hands and workspace - because your tongue is so sensitive to the compound. Just like how dogs are so sensitive to ammonia and nitrates.",
"Fun fact, Swiss bomb dogs don't recognize 'Murican gunpowder.",
"Slate magazine had a good article about how they train dogs to sniff bombs.\n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
15,
11,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_cancer_detection",
"http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2013/04/boston_marathon_bombs_how_strong_were_the_bombs.html"
]
} | With recent events, I'm curious to how K9 sniff out bombs?
What are the dogs trained to smell, what component produces a distinguishing smell? | [
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|
73edx6 | if we ever run out of copper, for ecample for cables, what's our best bet in terms of price and availability? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dnpph48",
"dnpwn54",
"dnppihb",
"dnqh53i"
],
"text": [
"Aluminum's always an option; plentiful, lightweight, excellent conductor, easily reused. \n\nThat said, there are drawbacks. Being softer than copper, handling aluminum wires means they're susceptible to breakage. Aluminum also expands more when heated than copper does, and over time this can work wires out of connectors, causing arcs that can start fires. Another issue is that while copper and aluminum both oxidize, copper oxide is conductive, whereas aluminum oxide isn't so much. This can change the properties of the transmission line.",
"The majority of high-voltage transmission lines are already made from aluminium (with a steel core for strength). It does a pretty good job and is cheap.\n\nIn reality, we will never run out of copper for the applications where it's most valuable - the solution would just be to reuse old copper and/or use it more efficiently. The cost of the copper in something like a generator is a very small fraction of the cost of a power station or wind turbine. \n\nOther uses like domestic plumbing and wiring might see alternatives used since the copper is less important - e.g. copper pipes could be replaced with HDPE. Aluminium would do a fine job in plenty of areas - there'd be a slight increase in labour and manufacturing costs along with the lower material price but it wouldn't be a huge problem.\n\nSilver and superconductors are also viable replacements for copper in some niche applications.",
"Aluminum has been used before . its more of a fire hazard for power lines than copper . silver is one of the best conductors of electricity would make more efficient conductor than aluminum or copper but its to expensive to be considered.",
"Any *signal* transmission lines (as opposed to power transmission lines) that used to be copper can be replaced by [fiber](_URL_0_), which can be glass or plastic. This means cables that used to be copper don't have to be, and in fact that copper can be reclaimed (if it hasn't been already)"
],
"score": [
246,
28,
27,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"
]
} | if we ever run out of copper, for ecample for cables, what's our best bet in terms of price and availability?
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1ah1ll | Is it possible to predict the chemical properties (density, phase, etc.) of a substance only from the molecular composition? | A question similar to this was posted a year ago, but there was only one top level comment and it was a bit vague. Hope it's okay that I posted this.
So assuming it is theoretically possible, are we at the level that we can accurately predict the properties (melting and boiling point, specific heat, density, volatility, etc) of a substance just by looking at its constituent atoms?
Is there one method that applies to all substances that can predict their properties?
Can we predict the properties of unknown elements? Like what is the predicted phase of Element 118?
For example, how exactly would someone predict the chemical properties of water just by knowing that it is a product of oxygen and hydroxide? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8xcrem",
"c8xca9o",
"c8xld3v"
],
"text": [
"For your example of water, one can predict the structure of the molecule if one knows the number of oxygen and hydrogen atoms present. Once the molecular geometry is known, one can then think about the electronegativity of oxygen and surmise that the molecule will be polarized, with a partial positive charge on each hydrogen, and a partial negative charge on the oxygen. Knowing this, we can extrapolate that water molecules will have electrostatic affinity for each other, and using molecular dynamics simulations we can probably determine some of the physical properties. This requires knowing things about the elements themselves, molecular geometry, and a lot of physics that pertain to electrostatic interactions. \n\nA simpler example would be found in inorganic complexes - for example, looking at the composition of a metal coordinate compound we can tell the ligand identity, the orbital interactions, and predict the ligand exchange rate (qualitatively). If you consider ligand exchange rates a physical property, then this can be done. \n\nIf we take it further and are allowed to know the structure of complicated molecules in addition to the composition, we can predict a lot of things. For example, plane conjugated ring systems in organic compounds are often good predictors of fluorescence.",
"We can estimate a number of properties with [group contribution methods](_URL_0_). This is not very accurate, but can give a first approximation.\n\nThere is no universal method for predicting properties of all substances, most methods are specialized in giving accurate results for a specific subgroup (hydrocarbon mixtures, polar compounds, etc.) and are not recommended for use outside that subgroup.\n\nPredicting properties of elements is a completely different subject which I know very little about. All I know is that we can predict some things about them.\n\nAn estimation of the chemical properties of water from hydrogen and oxygen alone would fail completely. Water, as a polar compound which forms hydrogen bridges, has very different properties than you would expect from its molecular formula alone. Properties for non-polar compounds like linear hydrocarbon chains are much easier to predict.",
"These days the primary way we attempt to do this is through computer simulations. This happens to be my field of expertise. \n\nIf you can accurately represent the interactions and internal energy you can actually predict very accurately what the properties of a system will be. Things like density, phase transitions, etc. can be determined using simulations."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_contribution_method"
]
} | Is it possible to predict the chemical properties (density, phase, etc.) of a substance only from the molecular composition?
A question similar to this was posted a year ago, but there was only one top level comment and it was a bit vague. Hope it's okay that I posted this. So assuming it is theoretically possible, are we at the level that we can accurately predict the properties (melting and boiling point, specific heat, density, volatility, etc) of a substance just by looking at its constituent atoms? Is there one method that applies to all substances that can predict their properties? Can we predict the properties of unknown elements? Like what is the predicted phase of Element 118? For example, how exactly would someone predict the chemical properties of water just by knowing that it is a product of oxygen and hydroxide? | [
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kinca | If I could travel back to the time of the velociraptor. Would the atmosphere composition and temperature on Earth kill me before the velociraptor did? | askscience | {
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"I think you'd be fine, until you tried to light a cigarette and burned your face off. The atmosphere was nitrogen, oxygen argon, CO2, like now, warm and humid, you'd not be in danger of oxygen toxicity, pO2 would be at most 0.35. In fact, the extra O2 would probably feel great.",
"Velociraptor was roughly chicken sized, AFAIK so... Probably. \n\nNitpicky, I guess, since you very likely meant the Jurassic Park raptor, but I believe that was actually Utahraptor.",
"I'm not sure if you are asking what you think you are asking.\n\nThe velociraptor was a small dinosaur that wouldn't have been much of a threat to a fully grown human. \n\nThe deinonychus is more like those dinosaurs seen in Jurassic Park, and is frequently therefore mistaken for being the velociraptor since that film was one of the major influences in the public's knowledge on dinosaurs.\n\nBut to your question, the velociraptor existed in the (approx) Campanian stage of the Cretaceous era (about 75 million years ago) while the deinonychus existed in the Albian/Aptian stage (about 112 million years ago). Despite the difference in the climate between these two points, I'm going to - due to my limited knowledge of paleantology - say that the two periods would likely have a similar atmosphere.\n\nThe temperature was a little warmer back then, but I suspect that would not have been too much of an issue. The interesting features occur because of the increased oxygen content of the air. The air contained 30% oxygen compared with current climate's approx. 21%.\n\nNow severe oxygen toxicity starts to occur over 50%, and though we can choose to breathe pure oxygen (such as deep-sea divers) it is not recommended for long periods of time.\n\nI am not certain what the effects of the 1.5 times increase would have on a human, but I do not think they would be severe. I suspect one could survive and live for a good amount of time before a goddamned T-rex ends one.",
"Not an expert here on atmosphere composition or anything, but I'll give it a go. \nFirst of all, velociraptors were about the size of a large turkey, there is no evidence that they hunted in packs or preyed on anything larger than pig. You might be asking about the Deinonychus. ~~(Utah Raptor)~~ \n\nNevertheless back to the main question: oxygen levels in the Cretaceous were probably around 35% as shown by bubbles in amber. That being said, oxygen has fluctuated between 15-30% since the Cambrian, in addition to the fact that small mammals along side the dinosaurs, I would say the atmosphere and temperature wouldn't kill you, and neither would the velociraptor. That being said, 2 foot dragonflies might be kind of scary.\n\nTL;DR: Neither would likely kill you.\n\nEdit: The Utrahraptor is not the Deinonychus, I have made an error, thank you dinosaurwithearmuffs",
"Alot of posts talk about the O2 levels, but what about CO2? I believe that that was also higher. What effects would that have?",
"To take a different tack here, I'm not sure a..well, we'll just say small predatory dinosaur...would be an immediate threat. Certainly the sort of single-minded predatory killing machines you see in the movies don't represent actual predatory behavior. Most modern predators do everything they can to avoid humans, but then, a dinosaur wouldn't have fear of humanity drilled into it by generations of hunting the way modern predators do. On the other hand, humans wouldn't look like standard prey and might be avoided just for that reason. Lots of animals avoid anything new. On the other hand, a pack of hungry and attacking..er...small predatory dinosaurs...could probably do a number on an unarmed human inexperienced around them.\n\nTL;DR\nIf the dino attacked you might be dead pretty soon, but might not be attacked for some time.",
"I don't mean to hijack the thread -- and if it is hijacking, I'll repost the question -- but I've always wondered: was the increased O2 concentrations of the distant past responsible (or partially responsible) for the appearance of megafauna like the dinosaurs?",
"I think that I'd be more worried about all kinds of nasty bacteria and viruses floating around at that time to which we were never exposed and thus wouldn't have any immunity against.",
"I'm no scientist, but as far as atmosphere, from what I know, it was more oxygen rich, so I'd think you'd be okay. As far as the temperature goes, we have a pretty broad range that we can survive in, and I'm sure at least a wide portion of the earth was in that survivable range, at least during parts of the year, so I guess it depends... something tells me that velociraptors inhabited areas closer to human limits. So... probably, as far as I know.",
"extra O2 means faster DNK decay, and so a faster aging, so yes it would kill you faster than the velociraptor (that was probably too small to kill you)",
"I thought velociraptors were more like dog-sized, vicious, feathery chickens; rather than the man-eating clever girls in Jurassic Park. Some paleontologist please correct me."
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} | If I could travel back to the time of the velociraptor. Would the atmosphere composition and temperature on Earth kill me before the velociraptor did?
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4wqaw3 | Why is the critical point in temperature/pressure? | H2O has it's critical point at 647,3°K and 218 bar
What does that mean? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The critical point is the point beyond which the compound is sort of both a gas and a liquid. It's specified with a temp and pressure because in order for a material to be in it's critical region it has to be above BOTH that temperature and that pressure. Take a look at this chart: _URL_0_\n\nA fluid in it's supercritical region has a viscosity like a liquid, but will expand with changing volume like a gas. It also has no gas/liquid interface, so looping through the supercritical regime allows you to turn a liquid into a gas and vice versa without boiling it, forming bubbles, or forming condensation droplets.",
"In thermodynamics, you are free to choose which variables you take to be your independent variables (meaning the \"knobs\" you turn to study your system).\n\nIn practice, it turns out that temperature and pressure are most convenient to control. If you want to hear your system to temperature T, all you have to do is allow it to reach thermal equilibrium with a reservoir of temperature T. For example if you want your system to be at a constant 77 Kelvin, you just drop it into a large vat of boiling liquid nitrogen.\n\nControlling the pressure is even easier, especially if you don't care *what* the pressure is. You can perform simple chemical reactions on a tabletop and be confident that the ambient pressure will remain very close to 101.325 kPa (atmospheric pressure at sea level).\n\nSo we decide that the independent variables for our ensemble will be temperature and pressure.\n\nThe critical point is a single point (so a single value of T and P, our independent variables) where the liquid-gas phase equilibrium curve terminates. At or above the critical point, there is no longer any distinction between gaseous and liquid phases.",
"It might be easiest to think of a super-critical fluid as a different phase of matter.\n\nSolids, liquids, and gases each have different properties. Solids and liquids are compact, gases are expansive. Liquids and gases are fluids. Liquids have viscosity, gases don't. But for a fluid there is a point where when both the temperature and pressure are beyond that point (and thus the density is beyond a certain point, since it is dependent on temperature and pressure together) where the fluid has viscosity (like a liquid) but also has expansiveness (like a gas). We call this state of matter a \"super-critical fluid\". Another important aspect of liquids is that they can dissolve certain materials, and this is a property that super-critical fluids have as well. This is particularly important because that is one of the most common uses of super-critical fluids in industry. For example, de-caffeinated coffee is made by extracting (dissolving) the caffeine in coffee beans using super-critical CO2."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagram#/media/File%3APhase-diag2.svg"
]
} | Why is the critical point in temperature/pressure?
H2O has it's critical point at 647,3°K and 218 bar What does that mean? | [
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|
ke5zv | Are there any cyclopsian animals? | I was thinking about this today. It's probably an easy answer so I'll extend my question as well. But every single animal I can think of that has evolved some form of optical apparatus - well, they all have two eyes. Obviously in a three dimensional space, having depth of vision is a very important and beneficial attribute.
So, on top of my first question, can we trace having two eyes back to a pre-land ancestor? Or is there convergent evolution at work in a lot of species?
I know there are many animals with no eyes that have adapted to low light situations, and things like seahorses that have two eyes but (to my knowledge) don't really use them for depth of vision because they operate independently.
So - where does it all trace back to? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2jjjpw",
"c2jlms4",
"c2jmc1m"
],
"text": [
"> can we trace having two eyes back to a pre-land ancestor?\n\nYes. Double eyes pretty much evolved naturally as a consequence of most animals being [bilaterians](_URL_1_) and thus their development plan naturally allowes two copies of stuff, one per side.\n\nI don't know of any fully naturally cyclopian species, but *[Triops](_URL_0_)* can get close.",
"Related: dwarf elephants have quite a [cyclopean-looking skull](_URL_2_), which has been theorized as the source for legends of cyclopes.",
"Cyclopoid [copepods](_URL_3_) only have one eye. They are metazoans (ie, like all animals and bugs). \n\nIf you are really trying to trace the [evolution of the eye](_URL_4_) back, you probably will end up at [fungal or chromist eyespots](_URL_5_)."
],
"score": [
4,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triops",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateria",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dwarfelephant.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copepod",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsin"
]
} | Are there any cyclopsian animals?
I was thinking about this today. It's probably an easy answer so I'll extend my question as well. But every single animal I can think of that has evolved some form of optical apparatus - well, they all have two eyes. Obviously in a three dimensional space, having depth of vision is a very important and beneficial attribute. So, on top of my first question, can we trace having two eyes back to a pre-land ancestor? Or is there convergent evolution at work in a lot of species? I know there are many animals with no eyes that have adapted to low light situations, and things like seahorses that have two eyes but (to my knowledge) don't really use them for depth of vision because they operate independently. So - where does it all trace back to? | [
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|
1dd5vh | Would it be possible to build a lava boat that is able to carry passengers with current technology? | Engineering Question:
Would it be possible to construct a boat with today's technologies that would be able to carry human passengers across a sea of molten rock without destroying the boat or killing the passengers?
Would the molten rock freeze to the bottom of the boat and progressively make it heavier and heavier until it sank?
What would such a boat look like? Would the design be significantly different from its water counterparts?
Could the ship be powered by a heat-pump between the hull and the surrounding air? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9p8ol4",
"c9pbvgm",
"c9pa5yx",
"c9pfncf"
],
"text": [
"I don't think I can give you a complete answer but I can at least point out why it would be really difficult:\n\n* The first problem with being on lava is that it is really hot, this would induce [creep](_URL_0_) on your hull's metal which mean that it would start deteriorating really quickly. You could probably reduce the creep by using ceramics which would act as a protection by not conduction heat as much as metals.\n\nHowever, the problem with ceramic is that it is very brittle and it would probably break under the tension induced by the lava.\n\n* Second problem would be how do you move in lava ? Lava is not like water and it would be difficult to use propeller (and we come back to the creep problem). \n\n* Third problem is how do you protect the passengers ? Lava temperature usually range from 700 to 1200 degree celsius. There is also different types of lava and they dont flow nor react the same way. \n\nI probably forgot lots of stuff so do not hesistate to point out or correct me if I am wrong on any point",
"Yeah, it is very possible. The Mars rover passed through the atmosphere of Mars reaching temperatures of over 2,500 degrees F. Lava can reach that temp, but it is usually around 1,800 degrees F. The Mars rover stayed near room temp. I suppose you could make a ball of the [heat sheild material](_URL_1_). You could then roll the ball using a motor mounted on the inside and a gyroscopic housing. I don't know if there is any practical application for such a device, but I don't think it would be impossible to do.",
"Heat isn't the only issue to worry about. Lava flows typically produce off-gas that can kill or render unconscious rapidly.",
"I think what you'd want would be closer to either a swamp boat with some sort of extremely non heat conductive material that was perfectly smooth (lava cools and becomes rock on this surface, you are done.), or possibly a hovercraft with a heat resistant skirt/frame. You can't move through the lava, you need to go over."
],
"score": [
14,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep_\\(deformation\\)",
"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/msl_heatshield.html"
]
} | Would it be possible to build a lava boat that is able to carry passengers with current technology?
Engineering Question: Would it be possible to construct a boat with today's technologies that would be able to carry human passengers across a sea of molten rock without destroying the boat or killing the passengers? Would the molten rock freeze to the bottom of the boat and progressively make it heavier and heavier until it sank? What would such a boat look like? Would the design be significantly different from its water counterparts? Could the ship be powered by a heat-pump between the hull and the surrounding air? | [
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1ddut8 | What collapses a wave function? | I attempted to understand the double slit experiment and came across [this video](_URL_0_). In the video the presenter says that when they attempted to observe which slit the photon went in to it collapsed the wave function and the photon acted as a particle. Fine. He says they then turned the observation machine on taking measurements but whatever it records the observation on, such as a magnetic tape deck, is not present and the wave function did not collapse (@ 2:30). He said that a conscious observation was needed to collapse the wave function. Everything I think I know about the universe goes against that line of reasoning.
**Could someone explain what is actually collapsing the wave function and whether that variation of the experiment actually worked in the manner he described. Does it really matter whether the observation is recorded or not since the particle is experiencing the same thing?** I feel like there is a lot of misunderstanding that I run into when I try to find a simple explanation. Thank you. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"> He said that a conscious observation was needed to collapse the wave function.\n\nThis is complete and utter bullshit that is propagated by people who are entirely talking out of their ass. It is simply an interaction between particles that causes the WF to collapse. \n\n > Does it really matter whether the observation is recorded or not since the particle is experiencing the same thing?\n\nI'm not watching the video, but I'm assuming it's the double slit experiment where shooting a laser by one of the slits will collapse the electron into either a \"through this slit\" or \"not through this shit\" shape. It doesn't make any difference whether or not you write that shit down (or if you even know what it is in the first place), the function will collapse if the interaction with the photon occurs. You can leave the room to get a cup of coffee, and so long as the laser is on, the electrons will behave as they do when pass through a single slit.",
"> Then he says that they had the observing machine on, but did not collect any data and the wave function did not collapse (@ 2:30). He said that a conscious observation was needed to collapse the wave function. Everything I think I know about the universe goes against that line of reasoning.\n\nThat's because this line of reasoning is wrong. The video is incorrect; if you don't collect data from an active measuring apparatus, you still don't see an interference pattern.",
"No one actually knows what causes the wavefunction to collapse. There are many theories out there, but it seems many are more the realm of philosophy than physics.",
"Why is the collapse triggered by conscious observation? No one knows. But hopefully I can explain why the claim in the video makes sense in the world of QM .\n\nAs far as I can tell, the video is accurate, but it’s being vague to make things sound more mysterious than they really are. It all comes down to the meaning of measurement or observation. Think of Schroedinger’s Cat. You’ve probably heard that the QM interpretation says that the cat is both alive *and* dead until you open the box, and then it collapses into one state or the other. \n\nBut wait! Who says that you have to open the box to make the measurement? Couldn’t you also just measure the temperature? Or listen with a stethoscope? All of these measurements would collapse the wavefunction as well. But wait! Again! Couldn’t you argue that even before you’ve made a measurement, the state of the cat inside the box has an interaction with particles outside (for example, heating the outside), so the “measurement” has already occurred even if we don’t know it?\n\nThis is exactly the situation in the video, for the double slit experiment. If you run the double slit experiment and observe each slit, the observation of the photon before it passes through the slit collapses the wavefunction so that the whole wavefunction passes only through that slit. You could make a promise that you will never check the data and delete the file, but if the data was recorded then it collapses the wavefunction and you lose the interference.\n\nSo what about the crazy claim that no magnetic tape deck = quantum interference? This would be true if you have NO WAY to read the information from the detector. Without any record from the detector, the detector will have a quantum state that is also entangled to the photon’s quantum state (just like the cat’s state is entangled with a particle’s quantum state). However, neither the wavefunction of the photon state or the detector state will be collapsed if there is no observation of either one.\n\nThis sound crazy, but there is some logic to it, in the QM world. If you are running a detector but not observing the detector, all you’ve done is created a larger entangled quantum system. But you haven’t actually observed anything. Did the detector see a photon pass through that slit? Yes *and* no simultaneously. So the photon can still interfere with itself."
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"url": [
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"url": []
} | What collapses a wave function?
I attempted to understand the double slit experiment and came across [this video](_URL_0_). In the video the presenter says that when they attempted to observe which slit the photon went in to it collapsed the wave function and the photon acted as a particle. Fine. He says they then turned the observation machine on taking measurements but whatever it records the observation on, such as a magnetic tape deck, is not present and the wave function did not collapse (@ 2:30). He said that a conscious observation was needed to collapse the wave function. Everything I think I know about the universe goes against that line of reasoning. **Could someone explain what is actually collapsing the wave function and whether that variation of the experiment actually worked in the manner he described. Does it really matter whether the observation is recorded or not since the particle is experiencing the same thing?** I feel like there is a lot of misunderstanding that I run into when I try to find a simple explanation. Thank you. | [
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|
wzbvb | What is the most ideal human height from a health/longevity point of view? Both Gigantism and Darwarfism patients suffer from various cardiovascular/health problems, what is the most precise ideal height we know of? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There are some things that should be clarified here. Abnormal height, either tall or short, is an *indicator* of adverse health risks, but doesn't necessarily mean a person is unhealthy. Just like high BMI is an indicator of greater health risk, but actually means far less in terms of individual health. \n\nSomeone that happens to be 3' or 8' tall is likely going to suffer greater health risks, but if you try to zone in on a closer range, using population-wide statistics on an individual level loses meaning. Taking into account other variables (like bone structure and fat distribution) would make for better measurements on precise ideal height, but the human body is too varied to definitively say that one height is healthier than another.",
"I'm not an expert so I won't weigh in, but you might be interested in this chart.\n\n \"Age-standardized death rates from all causes, coronary heart disease(CHD), and stroke per 100,000 population (males) for 6 ethnic groups inCalifornia\"\n\n\n_URL_1_\n\nfrom the article:\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt is the most relevant article I could find that came from a seemingly reputable place.\n\nEDIT: Spelling",
"I think you should distinguish between different causes of tallness and shortness. People with common forms of dwarfism and gigantism are suffering from (usually) hormonal or other imbalances which have knock-on effects on other areas of the body, something which can directly cause adverse health impacts. An African (there's a lot of height variation among African groups) of equivalent height who just happens to come from a very tall or very short group wouldn't necessarily share the same health problems.",
"So I looked on Wikipedia to make sure that this might be the case (and it is theorized to be so), but because of Allen's rule (i.e. endotherms near the equator tend to have longer appendages than those near the poles to increase surface area and thus heat exchange, for cooling purposes.) The height of certain populations (e.g. native islander or African tribes,Yupik or Inupiat) vary based on latitude. So one may want to be more specific in this question, as an \"ideal\" height in one area may be poor in another.",
"In a senescence course I took, I recall my professor mentioning a group of Ecuadorian dwarves that were immune to cancer. Much like the naked mole rat they upregulated the FOXO genes. I know this doesn't answer the question but it is a + for some little people.",
"Not the greatest of reviews, but [this review paper](_URL_3_) shows a ~1.5 relative risk of CV disease for 'short people' (here generally defined as < 161cm) as compared to 'tall people' (defined as > 174cm). [Here's the figure showing the aggregated studies.](_URL_2_)",
"Wouldn't BMI be a greater indicator of health problems as opposed to just height? - With unique conditions like dwarfism set aside."
],
"score": [
19,
8,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071721/?tool=pmcentrez",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071721/table/tbl1/",
"http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/14/1802/F3.large.jpg",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20530501"
]
} | What is the most ideal human height from a health/longevity point of view? Both Gigantism and Darwarfism patients suffer from various cardiovascular/health problems, what is the most precise ideal height we know of?
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6h196y | In a documentary about the Manhattan Project I recently viewed (I don't recall the name of it, I apologize), some of the scientists expressed their concern about the "atmosphere exploding" and destroying the Earth during the Trinity test. What scientific basis did they have for this speculation? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Supposedly there's a quote (although I can't find it) about one of the scientists who was asked to check the calculations to verify that the nuclear bomb wouldn't ignite the atmosphere. He expressed his concern to another scientist as to the dreadful burden of his task, and the terrible consequences if he were wrong. The other scientist (Maybe Richard Feynman, it sounds clever enough for him) said something to the effect of \"Don't worry about it, if it does ignite the atmosphere, no one will blame you.\"",
"The idea was that it might ignite Nitrogen-Nitrogen fusion, which (obviously) was incorrect.\n\nHere's a good account of the story: _URL_0_",
"Best I understand it, they were worried about chain-reaction fusion of low-weight atoms, like oxygen or nitrogen.\n\nWe know now it's impossible. Not nearly dense enough, not enough pressure or energy, etc etc. But keep in mind, the Manhattan Project spanned across World War II, and ended before 1945.\n\nFission [of heavy elements] was only discovered in 1938. They were literally discovering and making stuff up as they went. So the idea that the energies necessary weren't there wasn't something they could know until after they ran the numbers.",
"It's also mentioned in passing the Dan Carlin's Hardcore History (concerns that the atomic bomb could ignite the entire atmosphere), might where you heard it! \n\nOtherwise I recommend Countdown to Armageddon and The Destroyer of Worlds, great history podcasts!"
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"url": [
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} | In a documentary about the Manhattan Project I recently viewed (I don't recall the name of it, I apologize), some of the scientists expressed their concern about the "atmosphere exploding" and destroying the Earth during the Trinity test. What scientific basis did they have for this speculation?
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jx2p4 | What are some of the controversies within the field of
evolutionary biology? | I understand the theory of evolution pretty well, however, I received a prompt in my drawing class about drawing something I dislike, but making it look appealing. As such, I decided to go the route of making a drawing about "teaching the controversy" but rather than the evolution vs. creationism thingy (not worthy of being called a debate cause evolution wins by a longshot) I want to make a drawing of some actual controversies within the field being taught.
So would anyone care to enlighten me on these disagreements within the field?
Edit: Thanks for all the input. _URL_0_ That's what I came up with. This is some pretty interesting stuff, I am going to take up the challenge of actually trying to depict the controversial theories soon. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ftnvo",
"c2ftgf4",
"c2ftgu3"
],
"text": [
"The [neutralist-selectionist debate](_URL_2_) is a good example.\n\n[Group selection and multi level selection theory](_URL_0_) are also extremely controversial at the moment. The majority of the field is sticking with the orthodox [kin selection](_URL_1_) as the only method via which apparent altruism may evolve. There's been some pretty heated debate in the journals over this one in just the last year or so.\n\nThat's two. I know there's more, and if they come to mind I'll add them. Also, I know I kind of just dumped a bunch of technical crap on you with very little explanation, but I don't have time to go into it right now. I also am not sure how you'll be able to draw these.\n\nAnyways, if you have questions I can try to give a more in depth explanation at a later time. Just let me know.",
"The cause of the mass extinction of dinosaurs is, despite that you will only hear about a meteor in the media, still not well understood. We know that a meteor caused a catastrophic event by the iridium layer it left, but we do not understand why the specific species that died did so, while others survived.\n\nSo this would be an easily understandable debate with several possible explanations. Multiple can be true at the same time, while some are just ridiculous. Seems like a good excercise to me.\n\nIf you want to get more technical, the cause for the cambrian explosion is a mystery, but I think discussing this without a background in molecular biology might be pointless.\n\nThe rise of cyanobacteria might also be an interesting lesson - it is in debate whether the oxygen produced by them killed off many competing species and if so how important that was. It shows co-evolution and hammers home the point that evolution is not an isolated process in one species, but a process happening in an entire ecosystem.\n\nEdit: Oh, *drawing*; ehm, ok, then go for the dinosaurs.",
"I think one 'controversy' that would be amenable to drawing would be that of speciation under conditions of sympatry. One big question in evolutionary biology is how populations that live in generally the same location or environment (sympatry) can evolve reproductive isolation, distinguishing them as separate species. There are multiple hypotheses including ecological speciation and mutation-order speciation. The details are technical for each, but just Google-ing the concepts should provide you with very accessible descriptions. As with many aspects of science though, this 'controversy' is more or less contrived, in that these mechanisms of speciation are probably acting in different scenarios or perhaps even interacting."
],
"score": [
16,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/z6zDm.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection#Multilevel_selection_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution#The_.22neutralist.E2.80.93selectionist.22_debate"
]
} | What are some of the controversies within the field of evolutionary biology?
I understand the theory of evolution pretty well, however, I received a prompt in my drawing class about drawing something I dislike, but making it look appealing. As such, I decided to go the route of making a drawing about "teaching the controversy" but rather than the evolution vs. creationism thingy (not worthy of being called a debate cause evolution wins by a longshot) I want to make a drawing of some actual controversies within the field being taught. So would anyone care to enlighten me on these disagreements within the field? Edit: Thanks for all the input. _URL_0_ That's what I came up with. This is some pretty interesting stuff, I am going to take up the challenge of actually trying to depict the controversial theories soon. | [
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|
1nderk | Why is space in the Cassini "Pale Blue Dot" picture bluish instead of black? | [The beautiful Cassini "Pale Blue Dot" picture](_URL_0_) is a marvel, but it does leave me with the question: why is the empty space there bluish instead of pitch black? and while we are at it, why is the outermost ring a very bright purple while the rest are varying shades of brown? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cchm87n",
"cchngs6",
"cchlf38",
"cchni9q"
],
"text": [
"Just to avoid confusion: that is not the \"Pale Blue Dot\" picture. [This](_URL_0_) is. Your image is called \"The Day the Earth Smiled\".",
"Have a look here: _URL_2_\n\nThings to note: \n\n- While /u/localhorst is right that many space picture have altered colours, this one here is a natural-color image, according to the image description.\n\n- The blue glow emanates from the bright band at the bottom of the picture, which has been cropped off the image posted on reddit earlier. Outside the glare from this band (e.g., at the very bottom), the sky is indeed black.\n\nMy guess would be that the glow is due to debris or ice crystals that scatter sun light towards the camera (remember that the sun is roughly straight ahead, but occluded by Saturn), similar to a [halo](_URL_2_).",
"Not sure if I'm bullshitting you, but after reading Pale Blue Dot by Carl Sagan I believe he mentions that most of those images are photoshopped. In order to make the pictures look more \"space-like\". They did this in order to compensate for the lack of light.",
"It is the diffuse E-ring. [It appears relatively bright because it is lit from the back.](_URL_4_) The same goes for the F-ring. (The very bright purple one you mentioned.) The denser A, B, and C-rings appear darker, because they block more of the light. [They are much brighter when seen from the other side, while the E and F-rings are invisible.](_URL_3_)"
],
"score": [
23,
18,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2013/07/23/splash.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Pale_Blue_Dot.png",
"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA17171",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_\\(optical_phenomenon\\)",
"http://farm9.staticflickr.com/8483/8285714929_54f4ccfc2d_b.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Saturn_eclipse_exaggerated.jpg/800px-Saturn_eclipse_exaggerated.jpg"
]
} | Why is space in the Cassini "Pale Blue Dot" picture bluish instead of black?
[The beautiful Cassini "Pale Blue Dot" picture](_URL_0_) is a marvel, but it does leave me with the question: why is the empty space there bluish instead of pitch black? and while we are at it, why is the outermost ring a very bright purple while the rest are varying shades of brown? | [
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1wwtp1 | Can people with anorexia identify their anonymised body? | There's the common illustration of someone with anorexia looking at a mirror and seeing themselves as fatter than they actually are.
Does their body dysmorphia only happen to themselves when they know it's their own body?
Or if you anonymise their body and put it amongst other bodies, would they see their body as it actually is? (rather than the distorted view they have of themselves).
EDIT:
I'd just like to thank everyone that is commenting, it definitely seems like an interesting topic that has plenty of room left for research! :D | askscience | {
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"I don't know about their anonymised body in particular, but there is a study that suggests that [they can gauge other people's bodies more accurately than their own.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt would stand to reason that if they couldn't tell it was their body, they might also be able to judge accurately.",
"I looked a little, but failed to find such a study. Unless someone else in this thread manages to do so, you should get an MD/PhD and find out for yourself! \n\nIn the mean time, with little medical background, I'll mention the[ Minnesota Starvation Experiment](_URL_2_) that took place in 1944, to dispel the myth that anorexia is a purely psychological condition.\n\nThe experiment involved putting conscientious objectors on a diet of 1800 calories a day (EDIT: They were also required to burn 3000 calories per day) with limited protein and fats for almost six months. One of the most important findings of the study was that the physical and psychological effects induced by semi-starvation well approximate the conditions of patients suffering from a range of eating disorders like Anorexia. There was significant increase in depression, hysteria, hypochondria and social withdrawal as well as decrease in self-esteem, libido, concentration and motivation. One subject even started self-mutilation. \n\nThis leads to the conclusion that immediate treatment of eating disorders should involve re-nourishment in addition to psychotherapy. In regards to your question, someone suffering from dangerously low body weight does not simply have a distorted body image that could be cured by showing them what they actually look like. Whether or not that would be a helpful exercise in treatment along with renourishment is an open question awaiting research.\n\nEDIT: [Here is a better source](_URL_2_) since Wikipedia cites the 1000+ page treatise.",
"From a scientific perspective, the important distinction in your question is between body image and body schema.\n\nWhereas body image is primarily related to our PERCEPTION of our bodies, body schema is related to ACTION - how we actually move through our world. Body image is about whether we think we're too fat or too tall. Body schema refers to whether we turn to the side to move through a narrow doorway or whether we duck when walking under a low-hanging chandelier. This has actually been studied! Anorexics, unlike healthy individuals, will unnecessarily turn their bodies to fit through a narrow doorway because they believe their body is larger than it is.\n\n(Edited) Source: _URL_3_\n\nSo back to your question.... anorexia affects both body image and body schema. That means, if you ask an anorexic to move through a wide-framed doorway (as they did in the aforementioned study) he/she will turn to the side to fit through, even though she doesn't need to. Because he/she believes his/her OWN body to be larger than it is.\n\n\nUnfortunately, I haven't yet seen quality empirical studies on whether anorexics misperceive OTHER bodies in the same way they do their own. That said, in my experience working with those who struggle with eating disorders (I run a non-profit that works to improve body awareness in this population), anorexia appears to impact PERSONAL body image and body schema. They don't misperceive others' bodies. They believe themselves (and their emotional needs) to be \"too much\" -- often because they got that message growing up -- and it gets sublimated into the body, as a means of creating resolution and a sense of control.",
"Psychologists have shown people suffering from anorexia pictures of themselves with their heads either blurred or cropped out, and they are able to identify the person (who is really themselves) as unhealthily skinny. However, when shown the same exact picture, this time with their heads visible to show it is themselves, they will point out \"that little bit of fat on my hip\". \nSource: Psychology major, I can find the exact study done that I am referencing if anyone wants to see it.",
"ED researcher here. Without getting too in depth (I've had a few cocktails on this snow day)- if the patient is unaware that the image is of their own body then they will likely not suffer from body image distortion in the typical sense. They may respond that the person with that body is much skinnier than they actually are (see inappropriate social comparison- prevalent in residential treatment settings), but they are unlikely to apply their disordered body image to the anonymized body silhouette(typical with these types of studies). In fact, patients may actually unable to recognize their body silouhette or even an actual picture of their body due to the disordered body image. Now that would be an interesting study.",
"I have been taught about an experiment with distorting mirrors that might gives some clues into this.\n\nThe experiments put people in front of a bunch of mirrors that either make them seem a bit fatter, or a bit thinner. The experimenter then asks which one of the mirrors presented is the undistorted one.\nInterestingly, people who suffer from anorexia will pick one that makes them look broader.\n\nSo from that I'd say they would be able to see their body closer to the way it is, but simply not associate with it, and say that in their own mind they are fatter than that.\n\nI'd like to add though, that \"their body as it actually is\" actually means \"their body as we see it\". Observation is always theory-loaded, and a person suffering from anorexia looking at a thin body probably sees something very different from what others see.",
"Some (not all) anorexics suffer from [disossociative disorders](_URL_4_) which limit their ability to 'be present'/mindful essentially in addition to body dysmorphia. Here is a link to [Dissociation and Anorexia in adolescent girls](_URL_5_). The article goes into explaining how adolescent girls with these traits and their anorexia are related. \n \nA subset of those with dissociative features would be likely to not be able to make the connection to their own body EVEN IF they were told it was their own body. Depersonalization (a symptom of dissociation) keeps the person from recognizing themselves. They often report seeing a stranger in the mirror when they are looking in the mirror! \n\nFor anorexia with NO other factors, there may be more success, but I cannot find a study on it. It is common practice to do trace drawings of the body (usually with affirmations on them) as a therapeutic technique in-patient settings. (See the documentary Thin for a brief example).",
"Clinically we teach clients with eating disorders about cognitive magnification. Fixation on body parts will magnify the issue the perceive about that/those body part(s). \n\nWe tend to work under the belief that there are multiple cognitions playing into this: Cognitive distortions, confirmation bias, magnifications/minimizations, etc. \n\nChristopher Fairburn (CBT for eating disorders) or [this](_URL_6_) resource of free articles may be useful to you!",
"As someone with disordered eating for the past 15 years - I would say I can identify my body at all weights.. But I think if she showed me another girl with the same height, weight and measurements as me - I would believe she were skinnier/better looking. I also don't see heavier people as unattractive, the battle is with myself and not really \"the fat\".",
"As a person who had severe anorexia and still has problems with weight and food I can say this, when in look in a mirror I see a fatter version of me, I know I'm not fat etc but there's a constant anxiety building inside you that says you are. Also if I take a picture of myself then 10 times out of 10 ill end up deleting because I look \"fat\" but if someone else took it then nearly all the time I could look at it and think I look alright. Anorexia is horrible and you truly never ever get better but you learn to cope and try and get on in life even though I'm not at that stage yet.",
"Anorexia does not equal body dysmorphia. Just because someone suffers from anorexia does not mean there have to be any signs of unhealthy body. What anorexia is, is an uncontrollable obsession and urge to control and plan everything that will/is eaten. Often it leads to unhealthy body but most people see they have a problem. If they don’t – it’s a sign that there is probably also some other mental issue at stake."
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"http://jn.nutrition.org/content/135/6/1347.full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Starvation_Experiment",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0064602",
"http://www.sidran.org/sub.cfm?contentID=75&sectionid=4",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12436014",
"http://nedic.ca/resources/articlescatalogue.shtml"
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} | Can people with anorexia identify their anonymised body?
There's the common illustration of someone with anorexia looking at a mirror and seeing themselves as fatter than they actually are. Does their body dysmorphia only happen to themselves when they know it's their own body? Or if you anonymise their body and put it amongst other bodies, would they see their body as it actually is? (rather than the distorted view they have of themselves). EDIT: I'd just like to thank everyone that is commenting, it definitely seems like an interesting topic that has plenty of room left for research! :D | [
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|
zco6c | Is there anything in "The Origin of Species that isn't (or is no longer considered) accurate?" | I got a Kindle and was excited to see older publications available for free through Amazon. I picked up Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection, or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" and have begun reading it. First, I'm fascinated by the fact that it reads more like philosophy than science, using logical syllogisms more than scientific fact. Secondly, it amazes me how far they got down the road of natural selection with so little information on how genetics actually worked. As I'm not a scientist by trade, just interested in science, I'd like to know if there is anything in the book that is not accepted as valid anymore. It would be helpful so I don't spread incorrect information to others as I'm reading it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c63ffbt",
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"text": [
"The best thing I can direct you to is 'almost like a whale' by Steve Jones, which basically takes origin and updates I it with modern evolutionary biology",
"Darwin did not know a particulate inheritance (genes), and he hypothesized that the origin of variation had to do with ontogenetic changes during pre-natal development.",
"The main tenets of Darwin's ideas, mainly the idea that evolution occurs because of natural selection on variations, has stayed the core of evolutionary theory. However, the processes and scope of evolutionary theory have expanded dramatically and have done away with some of the assumptions that Darwin held. As Timizle and civilizedanimal have mentioned, Darwin was operating in a world that didn't know about Mendelian inheritance so many of his theories on how variation occurred are often very wrong. Darwin had a brilliant understanding to the What, but he didn't have the evidence to explain the How.\n\nDarwin, and most evolutionary biologists through the 1960s, thought that evolution was only the result of slow, gradual change selected upon by natural selection. However, there are growing bodies of evidence, mostly from [epigenetics](_URL_2_) and [Evo-Devo](_URL_1_) (Evolutionary developmental biology) that evolution can occasionally happen in larger jumps and also take some different paths than gradual genetic change. As is the usual disclaimer, these Wikipedia articles are not definitive science texts, but good introductions to the topics. \n\nA good book that opened my eyes to how much evolutionary theory has advanced beyond the basic concepts of Darwinism was [Evolution: The Extended Synthesis](_URL_0_). It gives a great account of the last 30-40 years of evolutionary biology written by scientists who are active today. It can get a little technical at times, but a decent understanding of the basics of evolution should be enough to understand almost all of it.",
"I can't recall anything that I would say is now inaccurate, but like you said it is more like philosophy. You won't be using that book for any arguments regarding evolution as it is studied today. Darwin wrote it before Mendel's experiments were published, but he didn't publish until much later in life. So you'll find none of the heredity mechanisms mentioned, which are the basis for most genetic and evolutionary study.",
"As other posters have pointed out, Darwin didn't know about genetics. However even had he understood the gene as the unit of inheritance, he clearly was unaware of the phenomena of [horizontal gene transfer](_URL_4_) and would have been hard pressed to explain the [Avery-MacLeod-McCarty](_URL_3_) experiment."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.amazon.com/Evolution-Extended-Synthesis-Massimo-Pigliucci/dp/0262513676/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1346808729&sr=1-1&keywords=evolution+the+extended+synthesis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evo-devo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer"
]
} | Is there anything in "The Origin of Species that isn't (or is no longer considered) accurate?"
I got a Kindle and was excited to see older publications available for free through Amazon. I picked up Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection, or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" and have begun reading it. First, I'm fascinated by the fact that it reads more like philosophy than science, using logical syllogisms more than scientific fact. Secondly, it amazes me how far they got down the road of natural selection with so little information on how genetics actually worked. As I'm not a scientist by trade, just interested in science, I'd like to know if there is anything in the book that is not accepted as valid anymore. It would be helpful so I don't spread incorrect information to others as I'm reading it. | [
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|
2iutms | FAQ Friday: Ask your questions about the Ebola epidemic here! | There are many questions surrounding the ongoing Ebola crisis, and at /r/AskScience we would like to do our part to offer accurate information about the many aspects of this outbreak. **Our experts will be here to answer your questions, including:**
- The illness itself
- The public health response
- The active surveillance methods being used in the field
- Caring for an Ebola patient within a modern healthcare system
**Answers to some frequently asked questions:**
- [Could Ebola become airborne?](_URL_2_)
- [How do we know patients are only contagious when they show symptoms?](_URL_1_)
- [What makes Ebola so lethal? How much is it likely to spread?](_URL_3_)
- [Why can't mosquitoes transmit Ebola?](_URL_5_)
---
**Other Resources**
- [Recent AMA in /r/science](_URL_6_)
- [AMA in /r/IAMA from Estrella Lasry, Tropical Medicine Advisor for Doctors Without Borders](_URL_8_)
- Informational pages from the [WHO](_URL_7_) and [CDC](_URL_0_)
---
This thread has been marked with the "Sources Required" flair, which means that answers to questions *must* contain citations. Information on our source policy is [here](_URL_4_).
As always, please do not post any anecdotes or personal medical information. Thank you! | askscience | {
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"For this outbreak the reported fatality rate seems to be around 50-60% meaning that a lot of people actually have survived this nightmare. My question is about what shape these people are in when they are no longer testing positive for the virus? It seems some make a full recovery, but are there irreversible damage done to organs or other things that will effect survivors later in life?\n\n\nOr is it more likely that you either have < something > that makes you get rid of the virus in time, before serious damage are done, or you don't make it at all (and thus creating the image that surviving = full recovery)?\n\n\nI haven't found much written about survivors of the virus, except for some news stories about people that survived and now working with the medical effort (on the assumptions they have (some) immunity now).",
"I'm a flight attendant, and consequently fly to some moderate risk areas. Additionally I come into contact with bodily fluids A LOT more than you'd imagine (people are weird). What can I do to protect myself on flights? Also how could I spot someone with symptoms (apart from a high fever)?",
"How far out is a vaccine? What steps are left in making one available to the public? It seems to me like as soon as a vaccine is generally available then the risk of wide spread panic should go away.",
"How likely is it to spread in a first world country? Could it ever reach epidemic proportions with our level of hygiene?",
"I'm somewhat familiar with the symptoms, but how does Ebola actually kill victims? (I.e. you don't die of Ebola, but of dehydration due to Ebola)",
"I'm going to be traveling to Morocco over the summer. It is at the northwest corner of Africa. Should I be worried? The healthcare system there isn't the best. In a nutshell, what are the chances of the disease spreading to other parts of Africa?",
"I keep hearing that Ebola is not infectious while asymptomatic, but have been unable to find any sources or papers that back this up. Is it truly noninfectious, or does it just have a drastically reduced infectivity than compared to when symptoms emerge?",
"Could ebola cross into other species?\n\nCould bats in the US become carriers? What about ticks? Or farm livestock?",
"Should United States citizens actually be as concerned about the disease as they are? I am aware Ebola is a deadly disease, but to me it seems like the media is playing on our fears, using a lot of \"what-ifs.\" However, whenever I search for info about the disease in the country, I find that we have experienced at most six cases, one death, and tons of negative tests. Everyone who comes into contact with victims are quarantined, but show no symptoms. It really seems like the country is keeping this pretty under control, and we are more scared than we should be.",
"(1) Is the average United States hospital capable of dealing with patients in large quantities? \n(2) Do patients require very specialized care once we get basic protocol down\n(3) With the current projection of infection rates, is it likely we're going to see many more pockets of infected around the world?",
"We have all heard that Ebola is transmitted via bodily fluids, but most of the time this information also comes with people talking about blood, vomit, and feces of the patients. \nMy question is can Ebola be transmitted through sweat? Can someone with Ebola and with sweaty hands open a door and the next person who opens it be possibly contaminated?",
"If you touch something with the ebola virus on it (a dirty tissue), do you automatically get ebola? Or is there some way to get it off your hand? If someone with ebola bled on the floor, is there something that can clean up the blood and the virus? Or will the virus be on the floor for however many days it takes to die off?",
"Every year during the Christmas present buying season, we see a huge rise in flu bugs, colds, the winter vomiting bug etc, purely because of the amount of people out and about. These bugs are all spread by poor personal hygiene. Should we be worried by Ebola at this time of year? Does it have the potential to spread in the same manner? Could it evolve to spread this way? Thank you!",
"How painful is Ebola compared to other terminal illnesses, and do our pain management solutions do a good job of dealing with that pain?",
"This has been bothering me for a bit, but could someone please explain to me the apparent discrepancies between all the statements, FB posts, etc about how there's 0 risk unless you've been directly exposed to their bodily fluids, and the fact that in Africa when someone tests positive they send in a hazmat team to completely and utterly disinfect all of their possessions and burn what they can't?\n\nThere was a post maybe a few weeks ago where a photographer followed a woman around after she got infected, and it seemed like a stark difference between \"bleach her entire house and burn anything that can't be disinfected\" and the statements from the government that seemed to say \"no we're not worried that someone might have gotten infected if he used a public toilet, and you're silly for thinking so.\"\n\nI'm sorry I can't quote specific examples, and most of it is just frustration at stupid condescending facebook posts of a simple flowchart saying \"no you don't have Ebola\" without citing any sources or anything, but I'm in Dallas and while I can understand all the facts and everything, and I go out of my way to ignore the fearmongering, it'd be hard to not have at least *some* small doubts, even if I wasn't worried about the aforementioned discrepancies.",
"Hi everybody! \n\nI just posted this same set of questions in Mark Fielder's AMA, but I'd appreciate getting a wider range of answers (and there's no certainty he'll choose to answer my question - but if he does, I'll share his answer here). \n\nMedia seems to be assuming a high rate of mutation for the Ebola virus, but there seems to be very little difference between this outbreak and previous ones in terms of virulence. Most of the high transmission rate seems to be arising from social practices, rather than a more infectious virus. \n\nSo my questions are: \n\n1. In the current outbreak of the Ebola virus, is the virus actually more virulent than in previous outbreaks?\n\n2. What is known about the rate of mutation of the Ebola virus? \n\n3. There is political movement in the US to stop all flights from the 3 most affected African countries. Do you think this is necessary? Is screening travelers for fever effective, or should all travel be stopped?",
"What are the chances of Ebola becoming a pandemic here in the US? My dad is already really freaked out by the possibility and is preparing for the worst cast scenario.",
"What is the treatment procedure for Ebola patients once admitted to the hospital?",
"The mortality rate for Ebola where it is currently epidemic is around 50%. The dallas patient might have passed away from the disease, but I was wondering what we believe a 1st world health care system could do for mortality rates. \n\nIs there at least an educated guess as far as the survival rate would be for a first world case?",
"The first question on the original post is about Ebola going airborne. My question is related. What's more likely, a deadly virus like Ebola mutating to become airborne or a mostly non deadly virus like influenza becoming as deadly as Ebola?\n\nIf these two things were basically as likely, it would be a good way to reduce the fear. After all most of us survive every year and influenza has not become really deadly in our lifetimes.",
"How much of a 'crisis' is this i.e. how far has this been blown out of proportion by the media? I guess the main point being, to what extent do we have this under control, especially with safeguards being put in place to control the spread to the West?",
"How does an epidemic like this actually start? How come there are no cases for this for years and then all of a sudden it pops up? How does that first case come to arise?",
"At what point is containment essentially impossible? I assume there is a point, where it's just not feasible to stop its spread once a certain number of people have it. Even if you close all airports, public transportation, schools, etc. it will still continue to spread and there won't be enough medical facilities to deal with the number of patients.\n\nWhat is the number of patients where it's considered unstoppable? Maybe depends a bit on how geographically spread those patients are...",
"At what point does the global presence of the disease change it's status from \"epidemic\" to \"pandemic\"?\n\nSeeing as there are cases in at least 3 continents, does it require a finite number of cases, time, geographic dispersion, a combination of all 3 or is it something totally different?",
"Where can we find ongoing comprehensive factual information regarding:\n\n* Where are there ongoing cases of Ebola?\n\n* How many suspected cases are there inside the US?\n\n* How many people are being observed in the US who may have come in contact with an Ebola patient?\n\n* What transmissions vectors exist outside of Africa? Have any international airports closed down, etc.\n\n* A history of Ebola cases leaving Africa or being diagnosed outside of Africa.\n\n* What procedures or steps in place are there with hospitals / healthcare professionals? \n\n* Which airports / international transmission vectors are currently being monitored?\n\nI gave a speech on Ebola yesterday and have another next week and I'd like to ensure I'm both accurate and up to date (and not needing to splice together 50 sources)",
"I know this is extremely unlikely, but I am generally curious about how to handle an outbreak, Ebola or whatever comes along next. Let's say it does end up spreading here. It wouldn't be all at once, first it would probably hit poor regions and works its way from state to state. At what point do I pull the kids out of school, stop going to work and just isolate ourselves from the rest of society? I wouldn't want to jump the gun too early but i also wouldn't want too wait to long. I live in the suburbs of a smaller city if that matters.",
"I live in a major European city with direct flights from North Africa. This isn't really a science question (more of a political question) but why are governments hesitating so much to quarantine flights? Of course it's expensive and logistically complicated, but isn't it safer (and perhaps even cheaper) than the alternative (spread of the infection)? By the same token, why are governments flying aid workers home for treatment? This seems insanely risky to me compared to flying medical equipment down.",
"Can someone explain how the current vaccines are targeting Ebola?\n\nI've been doing research on the structure of the virus and was wondering if any of the current trials are targeting the major proteins integrated in the virus namely VP40 and VP35. Also the mechanism of targeting glycoproteins on the cell surface. I was wondering if there are opinions on which targets are likely to be most successful in creating a vaccine or atleast a treatment.",
"I saw that post yesterday mentioning 55% of Americans want to cancel flights coming into the US from ebola stricken African countries..\n\nDoes the government take note of these polls? If so, do they need or want a 75% agreement? What percentage would it take for the government to actually listen, or do they not really care what US citizens believe regarding this? & thanks in advance.",
"While it seems clear that it would be difficult to imagine a large scale ebola outbreak in the developed world, how hard would it be for the virus to spark epidemics in \"middle class\" nations? I live in Uruguay and while its nice to hear that Europe is prepared, people here are quite nervous about our region's (Southern Cone) risk.",
"Hi, I'm a grad student working on developing point-of-care diagnostics for infectious diseases, and I'm wondering if there are any conserved biomarkers that have been identified in the peripheral fluids of patients that could be targeted by ELISA-like rapid diagnostic tests (like a pregnancy test)?",
"How susceptible are healthy people to the virus? If you're a healthy person, do you have a significantly lower risk of catching it than someone with a poor immune system if both were to come into contact with the virus?",
"I read today about US Marines arriving in Liberia to help build clinics. What can they do to prevent being infected with Ebola?",
"Can the ebola virus eventually mutate into an airborne virus? If so, how long could that take for it to mutate?",
"Viruses mutate. That's why there's always an updated flu vaccine each year, specific to each region, too. Since the Ebola virus is susceptible to mutation just as any other virus is, what are the odds of the virus mutating to the point in which it can be transferred without direct contact with bodily fluids? In other words, what is the probability of Ebola somehow mutating so it can infect others while airborne? This may seem like an irrational fear, but I would like to know if there is any sort of information about this.",
"America is taking steps to \"limit\" incoming travelers by giving them temperature readings at airports upon arrival if their starting location was from a high risk area. Is this really a way to catch this? If it takes 21 days to start showing symptoms and they've gotten on the plane with none of the symptoms, does this really seem like a viable solution? I feel like this is just a way to placate the public into thinking they're taking precautions.",
"The patient who died in Dallas was not given the antiviral serum developed from the surviving MD, due to the hospital stating the patient was out of treatment window.\n\n While I realize other antiviral medications have a time limit of effectiveness, the patient was admitted in hospital for 10 days before finally succumbing. This seems like plenty of time to at least attempt it's use?",
"I'm from Spain, and many of you would know that the virus is spreading here. There are at least 14 who are being investigated, and a woman which is certain that she has the virus (all of them are in the same hospital in Madrid). My question is: how fast the virus spreads? Thank you.",
"I had a guest speaker come in to one of my classes that said that the cdc predicts the total number of cases of Ebola to be 1,000,000 by the first of the year. At the current rate, how many cases until we reach the plateau? Will it continue to expand exponentially?",
"Have we figured out why this outbreak has been so much more widespread than other ebola outbreaks? My understanding is that it is a generally slow spreading disease that burns bright but quick as it kills it's hosts so effectively and noticeably.",
"What policies and procedures are in place for responding to infectious disease outbreaks of these sorts of diseases? Do local Health Departments just all of a sudden have a lot of extra work, is there some organized relief/assistance system in place?",
"Why/how did those two americans taken out of africa to be treated in the US live, and why didn't the first victim diagnosed in america live?",
"Is the virus affected by weather conditions? What I am trying to say is would higher parallels be safe in a hypothetical ebola outbreak?",
"At what point does it become a \"Pandemic\" as opposed to an \"Epidemic\"?",
"How accurate are computer models at predicting the spread of this disease?",
"Can ebola infect dogs and therefore be transmitted via dog-human?",
"Why are people confusing it with the black Plague?"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/index.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2i51u1/cdc_and_health_departments_are_asserting_ebola/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2ic301/with_all_this_fear_mongering_about_ebola_how/cl0uwlg",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2bs08v/why_is_ebola_so_lethal_does_it_have_the_potential/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/sources",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2isud7/what_would_happen_if_a_mosquito_bit_a_person/cl597qd",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/2hy3r9/science_ama_series_ask_your_questions_about_ebola/",
"http://who.int/csr/disease/ebola/en/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/2g79ip/i_work_for_doctors_without_borders_ask_me/"
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} | {
"url": []
} | FAQ Friday: Ask your questions about the Ebola epidemic here!
There are many questions surrounding the ongoing Ebola crisis, and at /r/AskScience we would like to do our part to offer accurate information about the many aspects of this outbreak. **Our experts will be here to answer your questions, including:** - The illness itself - The public health response - The active surveillance methods being used in the field - Caring for an Ebola patient within a modern healthcare system **Answers to some frequently asked questions:** - [Could Ebola become airborne?](_URL_2_) - [How do we know patients are only contagious when they show symptoms?](_URL_1_) - [What makes Ebola so lethal? How much is it likely to spread?](_URL_3_) - [Why can't mosquitoes transmit Ebola?](_URL_5_) --- **Other Resources** - [Recent AMA in /r/science](_URL_6_) - [AMA in /r/IAMA from Estrella Lasry, Tropical Medicine Advisor for Doctors Without Borders](_URL_8_) - Informational pages from the [WHO](_URL_7_) and [CDC](_URL_0_) --- This thread has been marked with the "Sources Required" flair, which means that answers to questions *must* contain citations. Information on our source policy is [here](_URL_4_). As always, please do not post any anecdotes or personal medical information. Thank you! | [
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|
3mpvnc | Why isn't all the water on Earth absorbed into it? | Given the amount of soft materials, holes, cracks, etc of the planet's surface, why do we still have oceans, lakes, etc? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvh2qg5",
"cvh39w9",
"cvh5347"
],
"text": [
"A couple of reasons:\n\nLithostatic pressure is the main reason. The further down you go, the heavier the rock column above a given point. And the heavier the rock column, the greater is the resulting force (lithostatic pressure) pushing against maintaining that porosity open. At depths of 10km and more (and usually way before that point), effective porosity is usually close to nil. The end result is that open and interconnected porosity decreased downward into the crust. This limits the amount of porosity where the water can seep in.\n\nAlso, the relative size of the hydrosphere with respect to the porosity network. The amount of free water at our surface is vastly greater than the amount of available pore space in the subsurface; so once that porosity is full, the remaining water floats above (océans). If there was *a lot* less water, it might all fit in the porosity. But that is just not the case.",
"Because rock is heavier than water and sinks in it. That's why the Earth is basically water on top of rock and not the other way around.\n\nReally, that's basically it. The weight of water isn't enough to force a crack open against the weight of the surrounding rock forcing it closed. (Water freezing into ice is totally different, of course.)\n\nIt takes the strength of the rock to hold the crack open, and the deeper you go, the less the happens.",
"This is a really great question and applies to the earth as well as to Mars. The water is on the surface of the earth because the earth is large enough to be able to retain an atmosphere and because the internal heat of the earth vents the water at the earth's surface through volcanic activity such as eruptions and even sea floor spreading areas. It's thought that every several millions of years much of oceanic water is recycled through the earth's upper crust, too.\n\nBut let's do a thought problem. Because the earth keeps water on its surface, and hasn't cooled off, what has happened on Mars? There is very little surface water there at all. Mars is too small to contain very much of an atmosphere because gravity is too weak. It has only about 1% or less of our earth atmosphere. So, it's been considered that even infrequent cometary impacts and the like would blow off most of its early atmosphere, which would tend to retain water.\n\nBut then has the Martian interior cooled down? Very likely. & then because the water was not being forced out by re-eruptions like it was on the earth, the water simply sank down slowly into the upper crust and froze there. This is essentially what Mars orbiters have found. and LOT of frozen water down 1-3 kms. deep below the surface, likely brine, that is salts and water.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSo we can pretty much tell what might happen to the earth, too, if the interior cooled off. Water would steadily seep into the cooled off crust and disappear from the surface of the earth over many billions of years, very likely.\n\nPlus it's also thought that there are a lot of snowballs of water hitting the earth from outside with the other meteors, and adding a lot of water over millions of years to the atmosphere and surface of the earth. Tunguska was thought to be something of this sort, for that matter, as there were found very little solid meteoritic matter from it, mostly micrometeors, though data from that site are very, very hard to find due to the Siberian climate."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey"
]
} | Why isn't all the water on Earth absorbed into it?
Given the amount of soft materials, holes, cracks, etc of the planet's surface, why do we still have oceans, lakes, etc? | [
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2bomn6 | Why is economical growth necessary in a rich country? | I am an environmental scientist/manager living in a rich country (Germany). There is a strong believe among my peers that we should just stop growing for the sake of the environment and work for subsistence alone because if there continues to be as much as there is now we got enough for everyone.
Would it be possible to switch our national economy into zero growth mode (in a situation where the population is completely in favour of it) in a globalised economy? Or would we actually lose our absolute level of wealth/opportunity if we stopped growing? Economic reasoning (Had some economy classes, so I understand core concepts) or links would be appreciated.
I found a similar topic via the search but there were no convincing answers in there. | askscience | {
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"In the U.S. economic growth is necessary to help offset the debt we have accumulated. The government borrows money with the hope that our economy will grow at a higher rate than the interest rate on the loan. \n\nAs for your peers concern about economic growth affecting the environment, this paper helps cover some key points and states there isn't a strong relationship between the two\n_URL_0_\nThis is most likely due to the fact that growth can come from more efficient means of using raw goods instead of harvesting more goods (better fertilizers or harvesting techniques as opposed to growing more corn)\n\nA 0% growth rate would not be sustainable, at least not with the current system. People would be much less likely to invest money (profitable returns are less likely), social programs would become more of a burden on current generations and there would no longer be a reason to save your money in a bank, meaning less loans and mortgages being lent to the people who need them. This would lead to less people taking risk by starting their own businesses or enterprises, leading to less competition in the market as the current providers of goods go out of business or form cartels to maximize profits.\n\nIf there is anything you would like me to go more depth in, let me know!",
"If I recall correctly there is a certain percentage of growth is necessary because of the following reasons:\npopulation growth, depreciation of capital(the things you built wear down), debt, technological advances might make old capital depreciate faster/make useless(see computers/typewriters), and some more. The most populair long term growth models forecast 0% growth when the economy is in a steady state(equilibrium). At that point, growth per capita can only come from technological advancements. Data shows country's slowly converging to their steady state. Source: followed a semester of macroeconomics(Macroeconomics, Gregory Mankiw).",
"Because of population growth and to ensure that most people can find employment. Also, depending on where you life in the world, economic growth is essential to ensure that pension, health and other social commitments can be paid, because most of those are funded with the idea that future generations should foot the bill.",
"John Maynard Keynes, actually prophesied, a world where everyone will work much less hours, and more time will be dedicated to leisure and the arts, self-actualization, if you like.\n\nI believe there is a general trend that we are now working less hours on average, than we were 100 years ago, and now the average age to start working is also increasing, as more people dedicate their early lives to activities such as education and travelling.\n\nIt is however a balancing act, as people tend towards greed, and improving on their future, growth will follow, as people produce/consume more, and we get more efficient. But the more they achieve and the better their standard of living, the less they are driven to improve it.\n\nSo the idea is that capitalism, and free/open markets in particular, are so powerful that eventually they will lead to their own downfall, once people realise they have enough.\n\nRobert and Edward Skidelsky wrote a book on the topic, these two authors, are definitley 100% behind Keynes, and I believe one actually wrote a multi-volume biography on Keynes. Anyway, the book is called [How much is enough?: Money and the Good Life](_URL_1_)\n\nThe book is guilty of seeming a bit like pop science at times, and definitely caters towards, western middle class ideals in its descriptions, of goals and what it means to have enough. But later editions of the book, actually have a foreword where they address the problems people had with their ideas and style. So I would recommend it as good place to start if you want to read more into the topic.",
"> There is a strong believe among my peers that we should just stop growing for the sake of the environment and work for subsistence alone because if there continues to be as much as there is now we got enough for everyone.\n\nYou are making the assumption that economic growth is at the cost of the environment, which is not a fair one to make. GDP is a measure of all income or spending, as one person's spending is another person's income. You can have GDP growth, or income and spending growth, through means that are not detrimental to the environment. I could hypothetically, holding all else equal, buy a plot of land, plant trees to make a park, and charge people to take walks through it. This is an increase in spending and income, and therefor an increase in GDP, which many would consider beneficial to the environment.",
"When they talk about growth, they talk about change in the value added of the goods and services produced in an economy. Growth does not necessarilly mean more things. You can have growth if more people have access to healthcare, or if educational institutions provide a more valuable service, or if the roads are safer.\nOf course, growth can also be achieved (and would probably be easier and faster) by getting in debt and developing innecessary houses and ridiculous infrastructures (see Dubai), so an important distinction has to be made among types of growth.\nFor references, there is an interesting article on the Financial Times on the matter of using GDP growth as an economic indiator of progress: _URL_2_",
"Although I don't think my understanding of the topic is sufficient to condense the whole thing into a single comment, if you're interested in further reading, I would very much recommend the book \"Deep Economy\" by environmentalist Bill McKibben. \n\nThe first part of the book attempts to answer this exact question, or rather, to prove how the idea of growth-based economy *was* necessary and understandable (considering its effects on the prosperity of societies) starting from the industrial evolution and up to recent decades, but how it's exhausted its purpose and now is actually detrimental to the development of our economies (and our species, on a larger scale).",
"Because it's easier to get rich & move on from the negative consequences of that wealth. Sustainability is difficult, unstudied, and rarely tried.\n\n\nDon't worry! The bill is coming due soon enough! The rich will be able to avoid it, of course. If you're not rich & unsure what to do, embrace the heat, droughts, and fanaticism soon to come.\n\n\nBig hint: the further north you are the better: avoid areas along the equator!"
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"http://www.amazon.com/How-Much-Enough-Money-Good/dp/1590515072",
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} | Why is economical growth necessary in a rich country?
I am an environmental scientist/manager living in a rich country (Germany). There is a strong believe among my peers that we should just stop growing for the sake of the environment and work for subsistence alone because if there continues to be as much as there is now we got enough for everyone. Would it be possible to switch our national economy into zero growth mode (in a situation where the population is completely in favour of it) in a globalised economy? Or would we actually lose our absolute level of wealth/opportunity if we stopped growing? Economic reasoning (Had some economy classes, so I understand core concepts) or links would be appreciated. I found a similar topic via the search but there were no convincing answers in there. | [
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|
3atkgf | AskScience AMA Series: I am tvw and the structure of the Milky Way. Ask Me Anything! | I am a graduate student at the University of Virginia and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory studying the structure of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Specifically, I use some of the largest telescopes in the world (the Green Bank Telescope (WV, USA), the Arecibo Telescope (Puerto Rico), and the Very Large Array (NM, USA)) to study giant clouds of ionized gas surrounding newly-formed stars, known as HII Regions. The locations and physical characteristics of these clouds can probe the morphological structure and variations in the elemental abundances throughout the Galaxy. This research can answer questions like: How many spiral arms does the Milky Way have? Where are the spiral arms? How did the Milky Way form and evolve into what we see today? Is the Sun located in a "special" part of the Galaxy? Is the Milky Way unique in any way?
One of the projects I work on is the HII Region Discovery Survey [(HRDS)](_URL_0_) which used the Green Bank Telescope and Arecibo Telescope to discover hundreds of previous unknown HII Regions in the Milky Way, almost doubling the number of known HII Regions visible in the Northern Hemisphere! This Summer we're going to the Southern Hemisphere to use the Australia Telescope Compact Array to complete our survey by discovering hundreds or thousands more HII Regions in the poorly-explored regions of the Galaxy. Within the next year we may be able to finally produce an complete and accurate map of the Galaxy!
I'll be on around 1 PM EDT (17 UTC) to answer questions.
EDIT: The title should have an "I study"!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"Do we know yet what causes a spiral galaxy to form versus a bar galaxy? Is one part of the other's life cycle? What about elliptical galaxies? \n\nWhat will happen to a galaxy like the Milky Way as it ages, sans collisions?",
"I've read somewhere that some massive extinctions were caused by our solar system's wobbling \"in and out\" of galaxy. Like we were exposed to more cosmic rays and stuff during \"out\" periods... \n\nDoes this hypothesis still hold its ground?",
"Hi everyone! I'm looking forward to answering your questions. I'll be around for the next few hours, but I'll continue to answer questions whenever I have time.\n\nThanks mods for setting up the post! (even if you got the title wrong =P)\n\nEdit: Thanks for the questions guys. I'm heading out now, but I'll continue to answer questions whenever you post them! Also, I'll be doing an AMA in /r/science on 16 July in case you think of more!",
"> Is the Milky Way unique in any way? \n\nWell, is it unique concerning the structure? Is it more like a ordinary barred spiral galaxy or does it belong to a rather rare kind of them? Is the milky way gas-rich or gas-poor compared to the avarage spiral galaxie? Is strong star formation going on or is the milky way a sleepy place? Do tidal forces from other galaxies, especially from Andromeda have a big influence on the milky ways star formation or are they too weak? \n\nThanks for your time.",
"My view of Milky Way structure comes from the skewed view of electron density models used in part in pulsar timing, obviously incomplete since the galaxy is made up of more than electrons. HII regions are useful inputs to such models because these are regions of higher density, and the distance measurements can also be of great use to us. So, my selfish question is: What's your expected fraction of the number of HII regions you're going to find versus the number that are expected? Additionally, will you be able to probe the far side of the Galaxy with your surveys? I have no idea how easy or hard it is to find an HII region. Thanks!",
"Are any HII nebulas possible/observed near the center of galaxies? Or are these regions \"cleaned up\" by high gravity objects?\n\nHow good are current computer models regarding HII nebulas (or nebulas in general)?",
"Similar to the picture you linked [here](_URL_0_) about how long would the collision of Andromeda and the Milky way take from beginning to end? Also about how long was it between each of those pictures?\n\nAlso is there a difference in the time it takes between different types of galaxies (a spiral and elliptical vs. spiral spiral or really any combination) to collide from beginning to end?",
"It's a surprise to me that for such an interesting topic, there haven't been many questions!\n\nHow do we know (or is it guesstimate) the form of our galaxy? Intuitively, I would think this is done by looking at other galaxies to see what forms there are, and perhaps mapping the visible stars according to their distance?",
"Hey, basic and probably obvious question. How come galaxies viewed from millions of light years away seem so vivid through a telescope but from within our own galaxy, it doesn't appear as a big bright smear across the night sky?",
"Will your work be significantly affected when the JWST is launched? Can you comment on Earth-based vs space-based telescopes as it relates to your research?",
"Was there any instances in the history of space that we have received some interesting signals from space?"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://go.nrao.edu/hrds"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/~amr/mergers.jpg"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: I am tvw and the structure of the Milky Way. Ask Me Anything!
I am a graduate student at the University of Virginia and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory studying the structure of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Specifically, I use some of the largest telescopes in the world (the Green Bank Telescope (WV, USA), the Arecibo Telescope (Puerto Rico), and the Very Large Array (NM, USA)) to study giant clouds of ionized gas surrounding newly-formed stars, known as HII Regions. The locations and physical characteristics of these clouds can probe the morphological structure and variations in the elemental abundances throughout the Galaxy. This research can answer questions like: How many spiral arms does the Milky Way have? Where are the spiral arms? How did the Milky Way form and evolve into what we see today? Is the Sun located in a "special" part of the Galaxy? Is the Milky Way unique in any way? One of the projects I work on is the HII Region Discovery Survey [(HRDS)](_URL_0_) which used the Green Bank Telescope and Arecibo Telescope to discover hundreds of previous unknown HII Regions in the Milky Way, almost doubling the number of known HII Regions visible in the Northern Hemisphere! This Summer we're going to the Southern Hemisphere to use the Australia Telescope Compact Array to complete our survey by discovering hundreds or thousands more HII Regions in the poorly-explored regions of the Galaxy. Within the next year we may be able to finally produce an complete and accurate map of the Galaxy! I'll be on around 1 PM EDT (17 UTC) to answer questions. EDIT: The title should have an "I study"! | [
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|
wlj50 | Why are autistic people drawn to water? Ex1: A hiker was recently rescued because a searcher had heard autistic people are drawn to water. They found him in a river. Ex2:Drowning is a leading cause of death in people with autism. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"1) Drowning is a leading cause of death to everyone. \n[WHO statistics show 7% of deaths due to injury are because of drowning.](_URL_3_)\nDirect WHO [statistics link here](_URL_1_)\n\n2) In boy scouts you are taught to go downhill and stay near and follow water downstream. You can survive for weeks without food but without water you're dead in 3-4 days tops, and downstream you are more likely to find civilization than upstream. \n\nTL;DR: searching for a lost hiker near a river is just common sense. \n\nEDIT: Thanks for the votes. [Here's an eHow article explaining what to do when lost in the woods.](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT: Drowning is the #5 leading cause of death due to injury, according to the [2008 WHO report \"Causes of Death 2008\" Page 14, Annex Table 1](_URL_2_)",
"Honesty I couldn't find any a citation to any reputable source that said this was actually the case, a lot of the myths perpetuated in the media are taken at face value. The best I could find in confirmation of this was this article here _URL_4_ which said when accounting for mental impairments people with autism still had a higher rate of drowning than expected. But even this does not necessarily suggest autistic people are attracted to water.",
"I'm not able to find much evidence of a specific association with water. This is not my area of research, though.\n\nThere's [a 2001 paper (pdf)](_URL_5_) in a reputable journal that analyzed the causes of death of those registered in California's developmental disabilities registry as having autism. Among high-functioning individuals, they did find drowning deaths to be significantly higher than among the general population, but as only one of several such elevated categories:\n > In the no or mild mental retardation group, deaths by seizures, nervous system dysfunction, drowning, and suffocation were all more than three times higher than would be expected in the general population.\n\nThe study concludes by admitting it's not clear why there would be a relationship between autism and those causes of death, or if there's any cross-relationship (e.g., whether some drowning deaths were epilepsy-related but not noticed as such).",
"The \"phenomenon\" is likely a case of confirmation bias. It seems much less remarkable that an autistic person was found near water when you consider how many lost hikers who are not autistic are rescued near water.",
"This thread has been removed. As far as the mods (several of us are in the cognitive/neuro/psych sciences and either well versed or do work in autism research) and several other commenters in this thread can tell and do point out, there is no reputable connection for the base of this question. \n\n[This article](_URL_7_) may clear why there is an incorrect perception regarding the \"attraction\" to water. This article claims it is not an attraction, but a tendency to wander from supervision _while not having the proper skills to swim_. \n\n\nPlease note how only two sources come up in Google Scholar for \"autism attraction to water\": [here](_URL_6_). Just Googling is not a proper way to investigate the scientific nature of something. Google Scholar, PubMed, PsycInfo and other library/journal search mechanisms are. \n\nThe first being what I linked to above, and the second being a book by a private investigator. The latter is hardly a reputable source on scientific research regarding the behavioral and social aspects of individuals with autism.",
"Former para-aide for autistic children, here. To be clear, I have no scientific basis for this opinion. I was an undergrad working in the public school system. When I worked with children who displayed varying degrees of autism I saw many types of \"self-soothing\", whether it be rocking or swaying, humming or repetitive motion. Perhaps the sensation of being in the water has a calming and soothing effect for autistic people? Anyone have any more info on this?"
],
"score": [
167,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ehow.com/how_2032697_survive-woods.html",
"http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs347/en/index.html",
"http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/cod_2008_sources_methods.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drowning",
"http://www.asatonline.org/resources/articles/morality",
"http://www.worl.lifeexpectancy.com/articles/a2.pdf",
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=autism+attracted+to+water",
"http://aasep.org/fileadmin/user_upload/JAASEP/Fall_08/Fall_2010/Rise_to_Challenge_Examining_Relationship_Swimming_ASD.pdf"
]
} | Why are autistic people drawn to water? Ex1: A hiker was recently rescued because a searcher had heard autistic people are drawn to water. They found him in a river. Ex2:Drowning is a leading cause of death in people with autism.
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vdve5 | [Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, do you use the scientific method? | This is the sixth installment of the weekly discussion thread. Today's topic was a suggestion from an AS reader.
Topic (Quoting from suggestion): Hi scientists. This isn't a very targeted question, but I'm told that the contemporary practice of science ("hard" science for the purposes of this question) doesn't utilize the scientific method anymore. That is, the classic model of hypothesis - > experiment - > observation/analysis, etc., in general, isn't followed.
Personally, I find this hard to believe. Scientists don't usually do stuff just for the hell of it, and if they did, it wouldn't really be 'science' in classic terms.
Is there any evidence to support that claim though? Has "hard" science (formal/physical/applied sciences) moved beyond the scientific method?
Please have a nice discussion and follow our rules
If you want to become a panelist: _URL_1_
Last weeks thread: _URL_0_ | askscience | {
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"Speaking from the biological and medical sciences, I can say I use the scientific method every day. It's more of an automatic process going on in a scientist's thinking than any kind of formal breakdown into steps. Practically speaking, the scientific method is a cycle that can be entered at any point, as an observation commonly precedes a hypothesis or sometimes a surprise within an experiment can lead to a new hypothesis, etc. \n\nThe only near exceptions I can think of is scientists involved in search and discovery or large screens such as high-throughput drug screening or genomics screening. In this case, there is often no clear hypothesis and it is more of a \"see what we get\" approach. This is also the case with SETI or things like that. But it isn't really fair to call it an exception because the results usually lead to interesting science and a considerable amount of science goes into the setup. \n\nEdit for broadening of second paragraph",
"Probably this won't surprise anyone, but mathematicians certainly don't use the scientific method in a recognizable form (although there's more observation → hypothesis → experiment than you'd expect in the craft of mathematical research).",
"In geology, we absolutely use the scientific method. As much as people don't really realize it, geology takes from a lot of natural sciences, namely chemistry, physics, biology, and yes, even a lot of math. \n\nWhen confronted with a question like \" Why is this mountain here\" or \"What kind of influences does this mountain have on the rest of the surrounding areas\" you start with a hypothesis. We can take from Airy and Pratt isostacy models and say \" well, it should depress here, and elevate here\" but that only happens in a physically ideal world. Next, you need to have some experiments:\n\nWe do a lot of sandbox experiments (in the past) that have now been replaced by numerical models. This gives us a good place to start on what we *should* see. But, the natural world being as chaotic as it is, it's almost never the case. This calls for direct data!\n\nWe are able to see within the Earth by use of seismic waves which give us a picture of what the Earth below us looks like. We can look at the structures in these seismic profiles, look at the numerical model, see how they match, how they don't match, and come up with a better defined hypothesis on how an area is influenced by a mountain (or any other geologic feature that has come into creation). \n\nAfter we might have an idea of the structure of an area, we compare it to other known areas that have basically the same tectonic motif, looking for similarities and differences. Once we compare these differences, we are able to come up with mechanisms; mechanisms that allow us to better predict the behaviors of geologic structures everywhere in the world. \n\nSo, tl;dr, geologists use the scientific method every day.",
"Materials Science (oxide ceramics) here, and I have to admit that in my field, a lot of work is done not heeding the rules of the scientific method. A huge part of articles in journals consists of \"we have that material, just throw in another element in the material and then use standard techniques to see how it behaves\". Though finding and characterizing new compounds is very important, I beleive it is mostly done in the wrong way, as there is no hypothesis in the beginning, e. g. \"as element X has properties differing from element Y (which is already used in the material), a substitution of Y with X should lead to property Z changing in a certain way\". It's more like a try and error. Fortunately, these kind of works are mostly received and cited poorly by the community and quickly forgotten.\n\nFrom what I heard (this is just hearsay from from friends working in that field), it is similar in organic chemisty: synthesize compound (or lots of compunds) and see what they do. \n\nOne could check this observation by taking a well established compound and look through the literature what derivates of these compunds have been investigated, and how (and why!). For one specific compund (which I worked on a lot), I can testify that this is the case: The majority of new articles published deals with \"hey, we put that in, look what it does!\" with no hypothesis in the beginning. Sadly, some of these even made it to Science and Nature...",
"Robotics here: I sort of follow it. Robotics isn't exactly a hard science, usually more engineering or many fields of computer science so there's a difference from the standard scientific method in that our goal is usually not to understand an existing system, but to create something new that serves a certain purpose.\n\nThe actual process is similar, though. Decide what we're trying to do (similar to the initial observation stage), design a system that we think might be able to do it (hypothesis), test the system as rigorously as possible to determine its ability to do that thing as rigorously as possible (experiment), and then evaluate the results to determine how well it actually worked, why, what could be improved, etc (analysis).\n\nIn general, I think any form of science has to follow the core structure of ask a question - > design an experiment that may be able to answer that question - > analyze the results, which is essentially what the scientific method comes down to, although the question/hypothesis stage in particular doesn't always look quite how it's described in examples in classes that teach the scientific method (sometimes the hypothesis is skipped over entirely and the question is just \"what will happen if I do this?\").",
"There are two main types of physics researcher: experimental and theoretical. Experimental physicists try to test what is predicted from theory and put known systems in unknown circumstances, and theoretical physicists try to come up with explanations for poorly-understood results from experiments, and to come up with new predictions for experimental physicists to test. This is a simplification, of course. There are also computational physicists, who take systems that are understood theoretically but are too complex to figure out what they imply, and do computer simulations to figure out the implications.\n\nA basic example would be the spectrum of an atom in a magnetic field (the Zeeman effect). An experimental physicist would take a neon light and put it in a magnetic field and look at the light through an interferometer, and see spectral lines splitting. A theoretical physicist would take the known wavefunction for an atom and use perturbation theory to figure out what effect a small magnetic field has on the spectrum. Then, the two would compare notes to see if they agree. You use statistics (the simplest way is just comparing the standard errors and means) to see if there is an agreement or disagreement.",
"Usually I follow the scientific method, but sometimes I set up an experiment just to find out what happens.",
"The problem is mostly that the \"classic model\" that you describe doesn't really pertain to actual science so much as it does to high school/undergrad lab notebook formatting. What's important about the scientific method is that it incorporates experimentation and empirical testing of ideas. Beyond this, however, the scientific method (particularly as it's taught in high school and undergrad science courses, ie, \"science IS the application scientific method and vice versa\") has some serious drawbacks. \n\nNamely, it gives the impression that science is about verifying ideas instead of falsifying them (or being potentially able to falsify them), and also that the history of science has been a linear progression of developing ideas, building on each other step-wise to form the body of knowledge that we currently possess today. We do \"lab experiments\" (ie, glorified demos) to \"verify\" the truth of this body of knowledge to ourselves, and then we marvel at the technological prowess of our age, and are thus fully indoctrinated into the Myth of Scientism, one of the most pernicious perversions of reason to ever command the faith of the masses on this planet.",
"Yes.\nTo summarize my thesis:\n-\"This is what's been done.\"\n-\"This is what I am going to do, and this is what I hope happens.\"\n-\"So this is what I did.\"\n-\"These are my results.\"\n-\"This is what my results tell me.\"\n-\"This is why my results matter/are important.\"",
"My own field is more exploratory - often I'm working on species that have not been studied much before. This means I usually start off doing what's called \"descriptive science\" (or \"observational science\") rather than formal hypothesis testing. What people tend to refer to as \"the\" scientific method is only for experimental studies, but usually there's a large preceding phase consisting of descriptive studies that are not experiments.\n\nFor instance, right now I'm starting a new project on beaked whales and we are just don't know enough about them yet to frame any hypotheses. Typically we start off with the dirt basic question \"How many of them are there\" - answering that alone can take years. (Just getting an accurate population count is actually an entire subfield of ecology, and there's wildlife biologists that specialize in just that. There's an entire career path of \"marine mammal observers\" that just do pop'n counts.) Then, you get into: what's the sex ratio, where do they live, what do they eat, what's the mortality rate, what's the reproductive rate, etc. This is old-fashioned 19th century natural history. I've found that high-tech lab scientists tend to look down on it but it's actually critically important and difficult to do, and I love this phase of a study. In marine mammalogy it's still major because we still don't know very basic stuff about a lot of the cetaceans.\n\nWhile doing the descriptive studies typically you notice something odd that leads you to s hypothesis, and then you go into the formal hypothesis-testing studies. With the beaked whales we are almost certainly going to get into testing the hypothesis \"does military sonar cause increases in stress hormones\". That's still a few years off though - becausr first we have to find out normal ranges of stress hormones in unstressed whales, and that requires descriptive studies first. (and I've spent an entire year so far just getting the hormone assays to work.) It's a slow process.",
"Perhaps a more important question, what is the actual utility of the \"scientific method\" of the Popperian or grade school variety to scientists or towards explaining historical developments in science and technology. In my view the \"scientific method\" is a vague formulaic description of any number of epistemic techniques. The \"scientific method\" gives a brief definition of science that is suitable for a dictionary but is not typically helpful to people who do science or study the history of science.\n\nIt seems bizarre to me when people talk about \"using the scientific method\" as if this short formulaic constraint on how knowledge about the world should be gathered is actually a powerful tool which allows them to make scientific progress and which brought European civilization out of the dark ages and we are all very lucky that such a principle was discovered.\n\nI would say that most of my scientific endeavors fit the constraints of the \"scientific method\" in a broad sense but I would not say that I \"use the scientific method\" because I associate that phrase with what I feel is a set of extremely simplistic beliefs about science and the history of science. The \"scientific method\" has some utility as a definition and I feel it is widely and mistakenly revered as a powerful tool.",
"I'm a lab assistant lacking formal collegiate education regarding the subject, but the chemist that I work under uses the scientific method constantly. He may wind up having to go on educated guesses from time to time to try to tease more data out of the samples we analyze, but even when he attempts to do something new with the samples, he adheres to the basic scientific model. I am wondering if this question is resultant from the rise of more theoretical sciences in the past several decades, being that they seem to use more educated guesses than any other field.\n\nI honestly don't know man, that's just my two cents. Even as a lowly lab assistant, you wind up using the scientific method to trouble shoot procedures and figure out problems with the implementation of procedures. That's all I can say for certain.",
"Nobody I work with uses the scientific method in a fashion similar to what is taught in high school (at least in the US). But the idea scientists make observations to support/disprove a hypothesis accurately sums up what scientists do.\n\nPublications often display the results in a manner more consistent with the scientific method that is taught. But the actual research is done in a far more nonlinear manner."
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} | [Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, do you use the scientific method?
This is the sixth installment of the weekly discussion thread. Today's topic was a suggestion from an AS reader. Topic (Quoting from suggestion): Hi scientists. This isn't a very targeted question, but I'm told that the contemporary practice of science ("hard" science for the purposes of this question) doesn't utilize the scientific method anymore. That is, the classic model of hypothesis - > experiment - > observation/analysis, etc., in general, isn't followed. Personally, I find this hard to believe. Scientists don't usually do stuff just for the hell of it, and if they did, it wouldn't really be 'science' in classic terms. Is there any evidence to support that claim though? Has "hard" science (formal/physical/applied sciences) moved beyond the scientific method? Please have a nice discussion and follow our rules If you want to become a panelist: _URL_1_ Last weeks thread: _URL_0_ | [
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|
8mwjt0 | Why is forming a chemical bond described as exothermic, whilst it appears to be endothermic? | Little bit of background info: Currently I study UK A-Level Chemistry and physics, so please don't expect too much.
Recently, when studying energetics (enthalpy changes, bonding, etc.) I noticed what appeared to be contradicting statements.
For chemical bonding, in terms of energetics, we are taught exclusively that bond breaking is endothermic, and bond forming is exothermic (in all cases).
This however contradicts other information that I have read in terms of bonding within carbon; that is that when carbon forms four covalent bonds, the electrons in the 2s sub-shell move to the (higher energy) 2p sub-shell making a hybrid orbital with four electrons.
If electrons move to a higher energy level to allow bonds to form, such an interaction would require energy to be taken in by electrons to be in an excited state, and therefore be endothermic.
It is taught in our syllabus however, that bond forming is exothermic.
I have no doubt that my syllabus is correct, but could someone offer an explanation as to why this is the case?
I asked both of my chemistry teachers, yet couldn't get an explanation, and searching the web fails to find specific enough results.
Footnote: Sorry about the formatting, and any grammatical errors, this was posted on mobile. and for the unrelated title, I really didn't know what to put considering the question mark was compulsory.
EDIT: Thank you all for all of the excellent quality, understandable answers, and I look forward to reading into this concept a little more after the school break as it does seem quite interesting. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"For stable compounds, the molecular orbitals that form are lower energy than the s and p orbitals of the atoms alone. It's possible to think of these orbitals as hybridizations of the atomic orbitals or the two atoms in the bond in terms or where the wave function of the electron is localized, but the energy of the orbital will depend on the specific situation (as will the exact amount of hybridization).\n\nTo really know the energy you have to use methods of quantum chemistry. One of the things you find is that for covalent compounds there is a \"bonding\" orbital that has lower energy than the atomic orbitals. This orbital is occupied by the two shard electrons (they have opposite spin). There is also the \"antibonding\" orbital (_URL_0_) which has higher energy, but is not normally occupied in a covalent bond.",
"There have already been some good answers here, but I thought I would try to explain the specific example of carbon you mention.\n\nIn order to form four single bonds carbon needs four partially occupied atomic orbitals. In order to achieve this one electron is promoted from the 2s to the 2p orbital and hybridisation gives four sp3 hybridised atomic orbitals. As your textbook says, this is a higher energy state than we started with.\n\nHowever, these hybrid atomic orbitals can overlap with the atomic orbitals on other atoms to form molecular orbitals (i.e. chemical bonds). The occupied molecular orbitals are lower in energy than the atomic orbitals, and as a result the whole process lowers the energy overall.\n\nBear in mind this is only an approximate description of what actually happens, and I've left out some details to try and keep it simple.",
"It's because you're thinking about it wrong. This is primarily a Quantum Mechanics problem, I assume much of it would be covered in something like Quantum Chemistry class. I don't know how high is \"A-Level\" Chemistry goes so I'll give my best to get to the point as fast as possible but not leave too much out - ask if stuff isn't clear enough. \n\nTake a hydrogen atom - it has a proton and an electron. The object of interest in this case is the electron - because over electrons we achieve chemical bonds. You can not say with certainty where that electron is with respect to the proton. You can at best give a probability distribution of finding that electron in some volume around the proton. For hydrogen this probability distribution is \"simple enough\" - it's essentially a a sphere with the proton in its center. You've likely seen this before in images like these: _URL_4_. \nThis is what an orbital - or a shell - is. I hate the word shell as it implies it's empty on the inside, but it isn't. The s shell, or |100 > orbital, highest probability is in its center - where the nucleus is. Particles generally aren't billiard balls moving in circles on pieces of paper, but before I get off track...\n\nWhen you take an atom of Hydrogen and an atom of Hydrogen to make H2 the electrons stop circling around their atomic orbitals and instead a new orbital is formed. These are called molecular orbitals. There are several procedures how you can derive what these new orbitals might look like from simple linear combination of atomic orbitals to more complex mathematical tools involving a bit of group theory and symmetries. But before I get off track.... \nIn the Hydrogen and other pure 1-to-1 cases of element covalent bonds you would get what are knows as [sigma bonds](_URL_4_). For more complex elements, f.e. Helium, you would get [pi bonds](_URL_4_). Your example is an example of a still more trickier type of bond called hybrid orbitals. I'll stop here because I don't really remember much about details of hybridization but mainly because it's not really important to find how they look like to continue the answer. \n\nWhat is important is that these molecular orbitals, made by combinations of atomic orbitals in special ways, essentially behave exactly the same as atomic orbitals. They are nothing more than a probability distribution that tells you how likely you are to find an electron in any volume of space you want and they, like the atomic orbitals, also have a quantized certain energy associated with them. And the important thing is to realize that that energy level is usually lower than the energy levels of initial atomic orbitals because if it were not - why would atoms ever even \"feel the need\" to bond. To illustrate that point, here's an energy diagram for a simple sigma and pi molecular orbitals: _URL_4_",
"One step up from your A-level, i.e first year of undergraduate chemistry, you will come across something called a molecular orbital energy level diagram. What these show is, essentially, that while electrons do move from their original subshells, it is never to a higher energy state, but a lower energy state (so long as the bond being formed is stable, e.g the majority of carbon bonds you'll see). The new orbital that is formed is called a molecular orbital. In the case of a C-C bond, two sp3 hybridised atomic orbitals bond to form a lower energy sigma bonding orbital, and energy is released as heat. To gain some insight on the matter definitely do some reading on molecular orbitals, and maybe try drawing some for some systems yourself. If you'd like a book on the subject, Why Chemical Reactions Happen by James Keeler and Peter Wothers is a fantastic introduction."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibonding_molecular_orbital",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_bond",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_bond",
"https://i.pinimg.com/originals/3a/3c/db/3a3cdbeaf252baafd2ae5e282659953f.jpg"
]
} | Why is forming a chemical bond described as exothermic, whilst it appears to be endothermic?
Little bit of background info: Currently I study UK A-Level Chemistry and physics, so please don't expect too much. Recently, when studying energetics (enthalpy changes, bonding, etc.) I noticed what appeared to be contradicting statements. For chemical bonding, in terms of energetics, we are taught exclusively that bond breaking is endothermic, and bond forming is exothermic (in all cases). This however contradicts other information that I have read in terms of bonding within carbon; that is that when carbon forms four covalent bonds, the electrons in the 2s sub-shell move to the (higher energy) 2p sub-shell making a hybrid orbital with four electrons. If electrons move to a higher energy level to allow bonds to form, such an interaction would require energy to be taken in by electrons to be in an excited state, and therefore be endothermic. It is taught in our syllabus however, that bond forming is exothermic. I have no doubt that my syllabus is correct, but could someone offer an explanation as to why this is the case? I asked both of my chemistry teachers, yet couldn't get an explanation, and searching the web fails to find specific enough results. Footnote: Sorry about the formatting, and any grammatical errors, this was posted on mobile. and for the unrelated title, I really didn't know what to put considering the question mark was compulsory. EDIT: Thank you all for all of the excellent quality, understandable answers, and I look forward to reading into this concept a little more after the school break as it does seem quite interesting. | [
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|
1cikgl | Is it possible to stop or divert a lava flow? | I was on the island of Hawaii recently and heard that a lava flow was heading toward a town and may destroy it in several years if it does not change its course. If it does not flow elsewhere, could barriers or other impediments be constructed to block or divert it, or would they simply be melted or burned? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9gv9be",
"c9gvnfn",
"c9h1616",
"c9gv7hk"
],
"text": [
"There have been plenty of attempts to slow or divert lava flows. The Japanese have had significant success at Sakurajima using culverts - big concrete channels which funnel the flow through safe to pass areas _URL_0_\n\nSimilarly, attempts have been made to use earthworks to divert flows in places such as Etna in Italy and Hawaii, with varying success. The biggest problem is that lava is 4-5 times more dense than water, so the momentum behind it once it is moving is incredible. When you have several million tonnes of incredibly hot material that just wants to move downhill there's not a huge amount you can do.",
"An eruption in Vestmannaeyar in Iceland in 1973 was about to close off the harbour area, but was fought off by the locals. article [here](_URL_1_)",
"The scene with k rails and the fire trucks in volcano? With tommy Lee Jones. Is that possible then?",
"Theoretically, earthworks should be able to divert a lava flow, but realistically in most cases I wouldn't expect there to be nearly enough time to construct them when and where they're needed.\n\nIn the situation that you mentioned, where there's a long-term expectation of such a thing, then thick, solid earthen and/or concrete walls should do the job as long as they're high enough to contain the volume of lava. An underground channel under the village could also work and require less space, but would be more expensive to build and the situation could be bad if it's not broad enough to channel the entirety of the flow.\n\nIn any case, the *weight* of the lava would be just as much concern, if not moreso, than the temperature."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://cruises.about.com/od/southeastasiacruise1/ig/Kagoshima-Japan/Sakurajima-Lava-Culvert.htm",
"http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/vestmannaeyjar-town-fought-volcano-won/"
]
} | Is it possible to stop or divert a lava flow?
I was on the island of Hawaii recently and heard that a lava flow was heading toward a town and may destroy it in several years if it does not change its course. If it does not flow elsewhere, could barriers or other impediments be constructed to block or divert it, or would they simply be melted or burned? | [
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2qa5cf | Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_).
Ask away!
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"Which method of transmission would be faster, when dealing with any signal that can be transmitted through the air, fiber optics or copper?\n\nIn other words, if I were to send a signal from my laptop here in Buriram, Thailand to my friend in Corpus Christi, Texas, would it be faster if it was relayed via a satellite transmission, through a fiber optic line (if one existed), or some other method?\n\nAlso, what is the fastest possible transmission speed given the distance is 14,779km or 9,183mi?\n\nI would like to know since the delay seems minimal and even the few times I have spoken on the phone there seems to be no perceptible delay.",
"I'm currently a freshman in college, aiming for a major in computer science. Starting in the spring semester, I'll be taking my first Computer Science class, where I'll be learning C++. I haven't declared my major yet, and I'm still not 100% sure this is the path I want to take. The questions I have are for the long run. What kind of internship opportunities should I look for? What can I expect from my first real job? How competitive is the market, and would it be important to look into grad school? \nThanks!",
"Are PCs innately more prone to viruses than Macs, or is it just due to their overwhelming numbers that make virus writers target PCs more?",
"If you swing a baseball bat, horizontally (like you would to hit a baseball) as fast as you can (for arguments sake lets assume everyone on earth can swing it the same speed) Is the tip of the bat traveling faster then the say the middle or near where your hands are? \n\nSorry if this has been asked before.",
"This is more of an ELI5-esque question, but how does 'virtual memory' work? Like how can multiple programs run, including the operating system, if all of the programs 'think' they have access to all of the memory in the system?",
"A question in mathematics. Probably silly, but it has been bugging me for a long time. Let us take two random numbers. X and Y. I am going to create a series of numbers using the following steps. \n1. X + y = z 1(resultant number 1)\n2.x + (z1 inverse) = z2\n3.x + (z2 inverse) = z3\n....\n n. X + (Zn inverse) =z n-1 ( I.e value of Zn and prev iteration are same).\n\nI have derived a formula or equation which will give the value of zn directly without going through these iterations.Only the values of x and y are needed\n\nMy question is whether this kind of progression of numbers used currently in any field?. If not, should I forget about my little equation or record it somewhere?.",
"As the smart phones have taken our need to remember some stuff away from us, we now just remember where to look for the information we need: contacts, google etc. How soon would it be socially viable to have a memory module inplant for storage of information. I am have recently been thinking about the natural evolution of us humans and the rapid evolution of our tech. There is just so much to know and sometimes it feels like information is getting lost or misscategorised. Content consumption and all. This type of idea reminds me of that startreck episode where a race of beings had some sort of memory module also connected to their brains.",
"Is Femto-Photography an engineering marvel or a mathematical manipulation?\n\nI have trouble wrapping my mind around ANYTHING built by man that is capable of doing anything a trillion times per second, but MIT claims in a TedTalk they have done just that and even show video of the event being preformed.\n\nHOWEVER...\n\nGiven that I can't imagine a trillion times per second aperture, I can imagine that we know certain laws like the speed of light and can probably use math to \"predict\" what would appear in each individual trillionth of a frame and then just CGI or otherwise simulate the results.\n\nPlease help if you can... the headaches are getting worse :-/",
"Recent studies in mammals have shown that fears can be passed down from one generation to the next, genetically. This would suggest a profound trauma could have a genetic impact. \n\nMy son often speaks of my grandfather (who raised me as my father) like he new him and was deeply affected by his death, as I was. Is it conceivable that I passed this on to him genetically, or more likely I unintentionally influenced him psychologically?",
"> Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here \n\nInstead of search results, can not the AskAnythingWednesday posts be archived in a separate sub like /r/AskAnythingWednesday or /r/AskScienceWednesday ? Like what we have with _URL_0_ ? Because the first AskAnythingWednesday post coming up on that search is one which was submitted 6 months ago. And I think there have been ones which were quite recent.",
"Is it realistic for North American electrical infrastructure to switch to all-dc? This way we don't need any more DC adapters. No PSU's AC- > DC, no laptop adapters, etc.\n\nAnd I mean, considering all aspects, fiscal aspects, human resources aspects, etc. Can we do it? Is it worth it?",
"How does Google Now and Siri perform voice recognition? (Lots of details/links/books/papers would be awesome.)\n\nIf it helps, I'd like to figure out how to have my own voice recognition engine running on a server/cluster in my basement. :) I'm a software engineer and would only value something that I can hook into programatically. Ideally, though, I'd like to UNDERSTAND what's going on behind the scenes as well, just because I'm curious like that.",
"Hola! Hello! I'm on my freshman year of mechanical engineering and I'm really interested in learning how to design on a computer before I start taking the class my school offers. That way I'll have an idea of what I'm going to be studying. Do you guys know of any websites or books I could read to learn how to design in Solid works? Any tips you could offer?",
"[Comp Sci / Physics / Engineering question combined...]\nThis is optical networking related...how can you defeat optical beat interference (OBI) phenomenon in a shared optical domain return path transmission?\n\nI have seen that at least one vendor claims to have entirely eliminated it by the use of some smart optical switches, but no clarity on the mechanisms used or the impact on network performance.",
"[Engineering Question] what are issues with \"scaling up\" engines, for ex. I used to have an RC car that was 15cc that could rev to something ridiculous like 15,000RPM. What issues would arise if you simply scaled the entire engine up by a factor of 10?",
"What (if anyone has experience here) is a major difficulty when applying to a different yet similar field in engineering (e.g. mechanical but aerospace job or vice versa)?\nThe concentration being design.\nThank you."
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} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_). Ask away! | [
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1rhpdk | Has anyone done a study on droplet splash height? | What I mean is, when a droplet, or an object, hits a liquid surface perpendicularly, often a smaller droplet is formed and rebounds. Has anyone done a study, even or perhaps better, an empirical one, on the various parameters that contribute to how large the secondary droplet is, and it's velocity? How does varying the fluid viscosity affect the secondary droplet mass and velocity? What about incident droplet/object size and velocity? Can a spherical or other shape object (of high or low density) produce a larger or higher velocity secondary droplet? Is there an upper bound or optimum mass and velocity for the incident object to optimise the rebound effect?
I don't know why I care, I just do. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There are universities who have reasearch groups on droplet dynamics, its still an indepent field in thermodynamics and important for jet engines, motors etc. They are detailed simulations on drop behaviour as you have mentioned it. Below is a link to University of Stuttgart in Germany who has a section for droplet dynamics. Surface tension has an impact on the drops via the weber number, im sure if you dig a bit further you can find some info on viscosity as well.\n\nIm just here to tell you droplet dynamics is its own research field. So your interest is not too weird :) People dedicate their scientific life to these questions!\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"I did a decent amount of research into this field, and the most useful piece of information I found was this article.\n\n\"Drop Impact Dynamics: Splashing, Spreading, Receding, Bouncing...\" (A.L. Yarin 2006) in the Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 38:159-92\n\nThis gives a nice overview of research into droplet dynamics. To answer one of your questions, droplet impact response is largely a function of the Weber Number as mentioned in another response. I would recommend reading pieces of this if you would like to know more.",
"Droplet splash height studies are important for archaeology as a means of relative dating for structures vis a vis drop line patterns that appear in the soil.",
"What you are probably thinking of is a kind of classic setup [like this](_URL_4_) with one or two rebound droplets. This setup with all the implied constraints (small droplet, same liquid in pool and droplet, most likely water, medium velocity) is complicated and chaotic enough, and even then it's hard to delimit the cases. A very low velocity droplet of water would rest on the surface and \"rebound\" without creating a real secondary droplet, like [this](_URL_3_). A very high velocity droplet would cause outward splash like an impact crater that could go higher than what you call the secondary droplet (which might instead be a disorderly spray). Not to mention that even at medium velocity, there can be more than one secondary droplet.\n\nKeeping this in mind, consider that your condition \"a droplet or an object\" does not place constraints on the objects, so it's even harder to make a useful statement. What about the shape of the objects for example? A brick will impact differently than a marble, and you could probably optimize the shape to increase splashback as well. \n\nIn the picturebook case the viscosity of the liquid and the speed and size of the droplet ( = total kinetic energy transmitted) should be the decisive factors for the rebound behavior (see [Weber number](_URL_4_)). Extremely high surface tension could inhibit droplet formation, but realistically its impact would be small outside of borderline cases I imagine.\n\nIf *any* object can be chosen, I doubt that you can find an optimum mass and velocity, and I would conjecture that, given an infinite pool, the rebound can grow more or less indefinitely with the size of the object. Bigger rocks make bigger splashes, after all (unless you're talking meteorites that will boil away your liquid, but you're getting more non-linear by the minute here, yo).",
"Here's some [related work](_URL_6_) on how the shape of the impact surface changes the geometry of the secondary droplets. The experiment involved capturing some [really beautiful video](_URL_5_) as well."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber_number",
"http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/itlr/forschung/tropfen/fs3d/index.php?lang=en&open=t&amp;lang=en",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber_number",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ynk4vJa-VaQ",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQ37RLXNAgc",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QaxX6nNTZeY",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1111.3630"
]
} | Has anyone done a study on droplet splash height?
What I mean is, when a droplet, or an object, hits a liquid surface perpendicularly, often a smaller droplet is formed and rebounds. Has anyone done a study, even or perhaps better, an empirical one, on the various parameters that contribute to how large the secondary droplet is, and it's velocity? How does varying the fluid viscosity affect the secondary droplet mass and velocity? What about incident droplet/object size and velocity? Can a spherical or other shape object (of high or low density) produce a larger or higher velocity secondary droplet? Is there an upper bound or optimum mass and velocity for the incident object to optimise the rebound effect? I don't know why I care, I just do. | [
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pqbue | I need askscience's help to respond to a creationist's inquiries. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3rese4",
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"c3re6oq",
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"text": [
"Wowzers. There's a lot of wrong here. (and EDIT - I'd love to know what the downvotes are for)\n > If you would like to continue, then how about we work on the age of the Earth first. Carbon dating can only effectively date something up to approximately 90,000 years. With this fact in thought, why has every single fossil that has been found have carbon in it still? Coal has carbon in it and is produced more rapidly than is taught.\n\nCarbon dating is based on measuring the ratio between the stable isotope Carbon 12, and the radiogenic isotope Carbon 14. The amount of these present int he atmosphere is constant as new Carbon 14 is produced by cosmic ray bombardment. When a plant or animal dies it stops repleneshing the Carbon 14 in its structure. Over time the amount of Carbon 14 decays, so the ratio between the two gives you an indication of age. The amount of Carbon 12 (which makes up 98.89% of all Carbon) and Carbon 13 (another stable isotope making up about 1.1% of all the Carbon) remain unchanged. Other radiogenic dating systems work in a similar way.\n\n > Why is the ocean floor younger than land above sea level? \n\nOcean floor is continuously created at mid ocean ridges. It is formed by plate tectonic motions - as plates pull apart the underlying upper mantle is decompressed and partially melts, producing large amounts of basaltic magma. If you date the ocean floor you find it young at the ridges, and old at the edge, where they may then subduct back into the mantle and recycle. We can observe active basalt injection at mid ocean ridges, and measure the rate at which they move apart. [We can also measure the age of the oceans across their basins](_URL_1_).\n\nContinental crust, by comparison, is made up of granitic composition materials. These have a lot more silica in them than the basaltic ocean plates, and can basically be seen as the scum floating on the surface. Continental crust is not dense enough to be recycled into the mantle, so it hangs about on the surface. Many of the continental rocks have hung around for many hundreds (or event thousands) of millions of years, whereas dense oceanic crust recycles after about 180 million years.\n\n > Why do fossils found in the Grand Canyon penetrate more than one layer that supposedly took millions of years to form?\n\nBecause many fossil species existed for tens or even hundreds of millions of years. in fact there are some fossil species (or at least genera) which existed back in the mesozoic and even palaeozoic which you can find existing today.\n\n > Why have human fossils been found with dinosaur fossils? \n\nThey haven't. This is just outright wrong.\n\n > If the Earth is truly billions of years old, then why are there not enough layers in the Grand Canyon to represent this?\n\nBecause the Grand Canyon represents one tiny slice of geological history. It has not been constantly deposited in - as should be obvious by the fact it's got a bloody great big canyon carved through it. Sediment is not deposited everywhere all the time; in some places it is deposited (depositional basins, lakes, etc), and in others it's eroded. The Grand Canyon rocks are millions of years old. Even in the Grand canyon there's [several unconformity surfaces](_URL_0_) caused by erosion which separate numerous layers by tens or hundreds of millions of years. \n\n > Fact: There are perfect folds in the layers that are not cracked. Evolutionists claim that they did not break because of time and heat. Problem, if their beliefs are true then why doesn't the lower layers with the folds show that heat caused them to fold without cracking? \n\nOK, firstly geologists have demonstrated it through an array of experiments and models - \"evolutionists\" had nothing to do with it. To return to the main point, however, this shows a complete misunderstanding of rock mechanics. The folds observed now at the surface were not formed at the surface; they were formed at depth, and have since been exhumed by erosion. As you remove material from above the continental plates basically buoy up like an iceberg you chop the top off, bringing rocks which may have previously been several kilometers below ground to the surface. At these depths tectonic stresses can easily fold rocks over periods of millions of years. There isn't a direct heat source under a particular formation - the whole rock package was heated to perhaps hundreds of degrees C. This can be demonstrated often in the mineral assemblages present, which can only form under certain pressure and temperature conditions. Under these conditions rocks behave plastically, and when you observe a fold you can see that individual layers have had to thin or thicken in order to accommodate the length changes. Get layers of Plasticine, put them on top of each other and fold them - you'll see exactly the same thing. If the folding ahs happened particularly quickly, or without enough heat to allow fully plastic deformation, you often see brittle deformation alongside, such as cracks or faults.\n\n > The base layers are known as metamorphic rocks. If you know what metamorphic rocks do when heat is applied to them, they change into another type of rock. The limestone and sand are still...limestone and sand. This shows that the layers were all laid down at once, possible global wide flood only a few thousand years ago? I believe so. The eruption at Mount St. Helens proved this theory in the way the layers there were so quickly laid down. But even Mount St. Helens shows that when a catastrophic even happens, the layers put down form thin incomplete layers...the Grand Canyon's layers point toward something much more catastrophic.\n\nreally not sure where to start with this one. There is a lot of wrong, and a lot of badly phrased sentences that do not make the meaning clear. I will try and answer it as best I can.\n\nWhen rocks are buried, they are subjected to heat and pressure. This causes minerals and grains within the rocks to re-crystallise into something else. For example - if a sedimentary mudstone is buried and subjected to pressure the clay minerals become unstable and recrystallise to form micas. This changes the rock from a mudstone to a phyllite or perhaps a schist. A limestone when buried and subjected to sufficient temperature wiull have its calcium carbonate recrystallise into a high-temperature stable form, and become marble. Layers were very much NOT all laid down at once. If everything were laid down at once, [this would be impossible](_URL_2_). What's more - we can observe deposition in sedimentary basins today, forming exactly the kind of sedimentary packages we see in the geological record. Perhaps more importantly, there are many rocks int eh geological record which simply CANNOT be laid down in a global flood; a flood causes very large particles to be transported first, then as the water inundation receded, the finer particles are able to settle out of suspension. That can take days or weeks. If this were the cause of the entire sedimentary sequence on Earth, you would have to have all the course stuff at the bottom, and all the fine stuff on top. It also raises the question of where did all this material deposited during a supposed flood come from? Furthermore - how is it that sedimentary sequences in different parts of the world show completely different stratigraphies? Why are some heavily folded and others not?\n\nThe Mount St Helens point is completely irrelevant, as the sediments produced by Mt St helens are completely different to those laid down in major sedimentary basins. The St Helens eruption - like any other explosive volcanic event - laid down layers of volcanic ash, which are easily identifiable in the field; they are incredibly well sorted, and the grains are easily identified as volcanic ash under a microscope. Large sedimentary basin sequences such as those seen in the Grand Canyon are marine deposits made up of sand and mud particles which have been eroded and transported from pre-existing rocks. The look completely different when you look at them both by eye and under a microscope. Chemically they are completely different, and sedimentologically the layers take completely different forms. The questioner already points out that they allow sediments to form much more quickly than geologists claim for the whole sedimentary record, then states that they don't cover as much ground either. So the simple fact is that volcanic deposition is not a good model for the creationist case either.\n\n > Fun Fact: Scientists have been able to measure and determine how much mud is entering the ocean floor every year. It is estimated that 24 million tons of mud is entering from the rivers. At this rate, the ocean would have been completely full in only 12 million years. \n\nThis is just plain wrong. Assuming the numbers are correct (and to be honest they seem terrifyingly small) - 24 million tonnes of rock, given an average silica rock density of about 2400 kg m3 will fill about 10,000 cubic meters. I study submarine debris avalanches which transport tens or even hundreds of cubic *kilometers* of material. The total volume of the ocean basins is about 1.35 billion cubic kilometers. The other thing to bare in mind is that any material you dump into the oceans simply displaces water. You put in a million cubic kilometers of sediment, and you displace that much water. As ocean basins recycle at subduction zones that sediment load (often kilometers thick by this point) can either be subducted down with the rest of the slab, or scraped off by the plate against which the ocean is subducting, and obducted up to form an [accretionary wedge](_URL_3_) at the front of the plate.\n\n > If the \"Big Bang theory\" is true, then why doesn't the temperature of the Universe prove it? If our universe was truly billions of years old, then why does the spirals of the galaxies not reflect this? They shouldn't be spiraling perfectly, they should be spiraling out of control.\"\n\nGoing to leave this one for an astronomer or physicist to deal with, but again - it is based on a misunderstanding of the science. I have no idea why he thinks a) they *are* spiralling perfectly, or b) why he thinks they *should be* spiralling out of control.",
"This is an enormous amount of crazy... I'll pick one:\n\n24 million tons of mud - I have no idea if that is an accepted value or not - but if you assume the mud is 2x water density that that is only 12 million cubic meters, and only 0.012 cubic km. Ocean volume is about 10^9 cubic km, so that's about 10^11 years to fill the ocean with mud.",
"The ocean floor is younger because it's the [mid ocean ridges](_URL_4_) that are creating new crust. The crust is formed as molten rock from the mantle pushes up at the centre of ridge and cools. The movement of molten rock is apparently caused by convection currents and I remember reading somewhere that the new crust replaces old crust as it pushed under another plate on the far side of the plate to the oceanic ridge.\n\nAny geologists wish to fix my stupid errors and possibly confirm this? I am but a lowly 3rd year biology student!",
"You can use more than just carbon 14 to date fossils, [here](_URL_5_) is a link that explains some methods.",
"Every creationist claim (and why its wrong) is listed here: _URL_6_"
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stratigraphy_of_the_Grand_Canyon.png",
"http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/ocean_age/data/2008/ngdc-generated_images/whole_world/2008_age_of_oceans_p1024.jpg",
"http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/scholle/graphics/Unconf.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretionary_wedge",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge",
"http://australianmuseum.net.au/Dating-dinosaurs-and-other-fossils#fission-track",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html"
]
} | I need askscience's help to respond to a creationist's inquiries.
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45r51k | In the 19th century, the concept of ether was disproven, but the Higgs field sounds a lot like ether to me. How are they different? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The main feature of the ether is that it created a universal reference frame as the medium in which light traveled. In order for it to work it had to be possible to tell how fast you were moving with respect to the ether, for example by comparing the speed of light rays traveling in different directions with respect to yourself.\n\nThe fact that it was a field that permeates the universe was not the fact that was disproven, and indeed all of modern particle physics is based on the idea that fields permeate the universe. None of these fields, however, have the property that they create a preferred reference frame. It is never possible to do an experiment that tells you how fast you are moving with respect to the Higgs field, for example.",
"The classical physics concept of an aether was that is was a transmission medium for light/gravity. We now know that light does not require a transmission medium and we know gravity is a curving of space and again not reliant on a transmission medium in the sense of the aether. Also the Higgs field does not interact with light (which is why light has no mass).",
"The ether concept was supposed to explain the propagation of light (it didn't). The Higgs field does not relate to light.",
"The Aether* proposed to fill the Universe then was an attempt to explain the apparent wave properties of light. Since all other known waves known then were propagation of energy through a medium, and light was observed to behave like a wave, they logically concluded that there must be some invisible \"medium\" that light propagated through. \n \nThe Higgs field is a quantum field that permeates the Universe. When particles interact with it, they acquire mass. This is unlike luminiferous aether, which is a medium of... something. A quantum field is not compromised of a medium. You can think of the Higgs field as a indicator of how \"Higgy\" that point in the Universe is.",
"They are different concepts that do different things? Higgs has nothing to do with transmission of light. Disproving ether wasn't some big thing where we disproved the idea of fields in some general sense where any sort of field means a theory is stupid and wrong."
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} | In the 19th century, the concept of ether was disproven, but the Higgs field sounds a lot like ether to me. How are they different?
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6gv7xg | How would you measure the speed of light using typical household appliances and materials? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ditkl0h",
"div1c1u",
"diul39b"
],
"text": [
"There are some DIY experiments you can do at home, like [this one](_URL_0_), which will allow you to measure the speed of light.",
"The Fizeau-Foucault apparatus used a mirror to reflect light through gear teeth. The light would pass through the gaps, reflect and then pass through the gaps again. By spinning the gear and measuring the speed of the gear when the light was blocked and the distance to the mirror he was able to determine the speed of light.\n\n_URL_1_",
"You take a chocolate bar and a microwave and microwave the bar for a short time period.\nYou will see 2 points where the chocolate is melted.\nThe distance between them is a half of the wavelength.\nIn the manual of the microwave you will find the frequency which is about 2.45 GHz.\n\nWith the formula [; c = \\lambda \\times f ;]\nYou can calculate the speed of light since microwaves are electromagnetic wave, so something like low energy light."
],
"score": [
36,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/uiwcv",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%E2%80%93Foucault_apparatus"
]
} | How would you measure the speed of light using typical household appliances and materials?
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2yhbie | When I stand in the same room where I was born on my birthday, am I in the exact same place in the universe then the moment I was born? | Birthday today, I was just wondering. | askscience | {
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"**Short answer:** Sorta. There is no real such thing as a *position in the universe*, just positions *with respect to the positions of other things.*\n\n**Long answer:** This is a great question that really gets at the fundamentals of what motion is- it's a question that Einstein probably asked himself at some point when he was developing his theory.\n\nEver heard of \"Einstein's Theory of Relativity?\" Of course you have, but what does it mean? That stuff is relative? Meh, we can do better. Let's go on an adventure. \n\nImagine a big black empty universe, and you're floating in it. No stars off in the distance to gauge distance or orientation. Just you, and blackness. Are you moving? Could you tell if you were moving? In this situation, it doesn't *matter* because you have no way to tell. Like when you're on a really big airplane- barring the noise of the engines, can you tell if you're going 100 mph, 500 mph, or at rest on the runway? You actually can't- close your eyes the next time you're on a plane and you'll realize the feeling isn't too different from sitting in a chair at home.\n\nHere's a better question, suppose you took your cell phone (still in the big black empty universe), and you chucked it. Let's say you're an MLB pitcher who can throw at 100 mph. Now are you moving? It depends who you ask, doesn't it? You, still floating in space, if you closed your eyes, would feel very still. If you open your eyes, you see your phone moving away at 100 mph. But your phone has a camera- what would your phone see? Your phone would see *you* moving the opposite direction at 100 mph. Now let's get crazy, suppose you see an alien approaching you from behind at 125 mph, it comes and passes you in a flash, and slowly begins to catch up to your phone. So what does the alien see? He sees you wizz past him at 125 mph, but the phone moves towards him slower, at 25 mph.\n\nThis is what we mean by motion being *relative.* There's no cosmic stage underneath you that you can plant a flag on or paint some stage directions to gauge your distances against *space*. You can only measures velocities and distances relative to other *objects*. On the earth, we're lucky that we have a big ball of solid rock under our feet that we can define our motion against (mile markers on the highway, and the tiles on the floors of the hospital room where we're born, for example), but that's just how we're moving *relative to the earth.* And why should the earth have a better reference frame than you, or your phone, or an alien?\n\nAfter all, the earth is also moving relative to the sun, which is going around the galaxy, which is screaming towards Andromeda... *nothing is really at rest relative to everything, but things are always at rest relative to themselves.*\n\nBasically, the big long essay with your phone and the alien is a lesson in *reference frames.* Admittedly, this is a concept from Galileo and Newton, so my reference to Einstein at the beginning was a bit unfair, so I'll just have to say that Einstein's theory of relativity goes a bit deeper and incorporates gravity and time into all this mess, but that's probably more technical than we need to worry about to answer the question.\n\nIn some sense, if you go to the hospital and stand on the floor tile where the bed was, you're in the same spot- at least relative to the floor tile, and the hospital, and most of the things that have stayed stationary with respect to the other on the surface of the earth. But in another, much more profound way, the position you were born at doesn't exist any more, because everything else in the universe has been moving in the mean time, even if you didn't feel it.\n\n\nHappy birthday.",
"No, you're billions of kilometers away. Possibly trillions, depending on how old you are.\n\nThere isn't really any such thing as a specific, constant position in space. Position is relative to other objects, and changes depending on speed.\n\nHowever, insofar as we can use the Cosmic Microwave Background as an objective 'frame of reference', the Milky Way is moving at about 600km/s. As I recall, the Sun's motion within the Milky Way (about 200km/s) partially cancels this out, leaving something like 500km/s total. Other factors, such as the orbit and rotation of the Earth, are small enough to be dominated by these two figures. That means, if you're 30 years old, you're something like 470 billion kilometers from your starting point. The longest-lived recorded person in history, Jeanne Calment, traveled about 1.9 trillion kilometers (0.2 light years) during her lifetime, by this measure.",
"No, as others say, everything has moved on, the Sun has moved, Earth has moved, Earth has rotated, Galaxy has rotated etc. That thought killed all my ideas of time travel: go 10 years back in time and wind up somewhere random in outer space?",
"Monty python said it best:\n\nJust remember that you're standing on a planet that's evolving\nAnd revolving at nine hundred miles an hour\nThat's orbiting at nineteen miles a second, so it's reckoned\nA sun that is the source of all our power\n\nThe sun and you and me and all the stars that we can see\nAre moving at a million miles a day\nIn an outer spiral arm, at forty thousand miles an hour\nOf the galaxy we call the 'milky way'\n\nOur galaxy itself contains a hundred billion stars\nIt's a hundred thousand light years side to side\nIt bulges in the middle, sixteen thousand light years thick\nBut out by us, it's just three thousand light years wide\n\nWe're thirty thousand light years from galactic central point\nWe go 'round every two hundred million years\nAnd our galaxy is only one of millions of billions\nIn this amazing and expanding universe\n\nThe universe itself keeps on expanding and expanding\nIn all of the directions it can whizz\nAs fast as it can go, the speed of light, you know\nTwelve million miles a minute and that's the fastest speed there is.\n_URL_0_\n\nJust sitting in a chair you are not in the same place from moment to moment. Actually that's my biggest hang up with time travel movies. Just an hour or so in time would put you in space off the surface of the earth.",
"This would be close to true if the center of the universe were the sun. Even then, the length of a year is not 365 days. So you would be there every 4th year (not really, since a year is approximated at 365.26 days, not 365.25). And even then you would be there only if you were there at the time of your birth. And of course there are fluctuations with clocks, etc. \n\nbut more importantly, we're orbiting the sun. but the sun is in an arm of the milky way galaxy. That arm is moving about the center of the galaxy. The milky way's arms rotate around the center of the galaxy at an estimated 250km/second at the position of the earth. We're on an orbit that is approximately 27,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. That means if our solar system's orbit were perfectly circular, we would be on a track that is 2*pi*r light years, or 169645.86 light years, which is 1.604934659E+18 kilometers. That's a really big distance. It will take the earth approximately 203,568,576 years to rotate around the center of the galaxy. And not everything rotates in exactly the same orbital speed. So things will get spaced out. \n\nSo if you lived to be 203 million years old, you would come close to being in the same spot relative to coordinate (0,0,0) of the galaxy. \n\nBut you're not even close to accounting for the rotation of the milky way around the center of The Local Group, which is a cluster of galaxies of which we are one part, along with other A-list galaxies like The Andromeda Galaxy. you can read about the Local Group here: _URL_1_ \n\nAnd THEN... that doesn't account for further groupings of galaxies and THEIR movement. \n\nNot to mention, the universe is expanding. So what's the true (0,0,0) of the universe? Well I suppose a crude estimate would be the site of the big bang. But we've been moving away from that point since the creation of our universe. \n\ntl;dr you will never be at the same point in the universe in your lifetime. you're always somewhere new, even when you're standing still or when you return to the same spot at the same time every year."
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"url": [
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} | When I stand in the same room where I was born on my birthday, am I in the exact same place in the universe then the moment I was born?
Birthday today, I was just wondering. | [
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|
u9dt2 | Why have we not revisited the idea of nuclear aircraft? | I was thinking about this because I recently found out how much carbon emissions are released by [air travel](_URL_1_).
It seems to me that the biggest problem with nuclear aircraft was radiation shielding, but newer technologies like [Demron](_URL_0_) could compensate for that, right?
Add to that the size of proposed [new aircraft](_URL_3_) and the compactness with which we have created modern [nuclear reactors](_URL_2_), it just seems more feasible than in the past.
Is there something I am overlooking, or is the airline industry missing out on a huge new market? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4tfg8k",
"c4tf6hb",
"c4tflw6",
"c4toybq"
],
"text": [
"Power plant for aircraft require an extremely high power-to-weight ratio [[1](_URL_5_)]. The Boeing 747-300 requires ~1400 W/kg (ibid.)\n\nA nuclear power unit would require a thermodynamic cycle to extract thermal energy from the reactor and convert it either directly to motive force or (less efficiently) to electrical energy used to produce motive force. While there are examples of research programmes into nuclear aircraft for the purposes of strategic bombing ([[2](_URL_2_)], [[3](_URL_3_)]), these projects were aimed at developing extremely high endurance aircraft, in the same manner as nuclear surface vessels, and both projects failed on the grounds of safety and economy.\n\nIn comparison, a high bypass ratio turbofan [[4](_URL_0_)] is extremely efficient because it combines the production of thrust with the release of chemical energy from its fuel. New fuels for aviation, third generation biofuels and other hydrogen carriers, even hydrogen itself, present the possibility of low-emission and carbon-neutral aviation fuel. While current government efforts aim towards reducing dependence on imported oil, the same chemical techniques apply to biofuel feedstocks [[5](_URL_4_)].\n\nP.S. [[6](_URL_1_)]",
"Demron doesn't provide enough to shield against high energy neutrons or high energy gamma, which are the two main things that come out of a nuclear reactor. You need the equivalent of 4-6 feet of water to deal w/those, and thats extremely heavy to have on an aircraft.",
"Even aside from the shielding problems, planes crash, explode, get hijacked etc., all of which is made worse with nuclear materials involved.",
"Its very simple: The idea of a nuclear powered aircraft was only interesting when you wanted to keep planes with nuclear weapons circling routes for weeks at a time. With the invention of ICBM's, all of this didn't matter anymore.\n\nOtherwise, the safety and shielding risk was terrible. Pilots used to get large radiation doses just from the reflection of radiation off the ground as they were about to land the one of the Aircraft Reactor Experiments."
],
"score": [
17,
5,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demron",
"http://www.wired.com/autopia/2008/05/airline-emissio/",
"http://phys.org/news145561984.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Pluto",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NB-36H",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-119",
"http://www.defense.gov/transformation/articles/2006-11/ta111006b.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio#Sports_vehicles_and_aircraft"
]
} | Why have we not revisited the idea of nuclear aircraft?
I was thinking about this because I recently found out how much carbon emissions are released by [air travel](_URL_1_). It seems to me that the biggest problem with nuclear aircraft was radiation shielding, but newer technologies like [Demron](_URL_0_) could compensate for that, right? Add to that the size of proposed [new aircraft](_URL_3_) and the compactness with which we have created modern [nuclear reactors](_URL_2_), it just seems more feasible than in the past. Is there something I am overlooking, or is the airline industry missing out on a huge new market? | [
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|
ptqj6 | Are we all afloat? | A tennis ball floats in water, but a marble will sink. On the atomic level, are we "floating" on the floor since its atoms have a higher density than us? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3s5r3b",
"c3s5qwt",
"c3s5pyt",
"c3s6qde"
],
"text": [
"I'm not exactly a master on the subject, but I don't see why I would need to be to field this question, almost anyone could answer it. \n\nThe difference between the floor and water, is that water is not tightly bound, and separates to accommodate our volume if we try to walk on it, because it is a liquid, and not a solid. In a floor-person system, both objects are solids, and their interactions are governed only by gravity and electron repulsion, whereas in a water-person system, your relative densities come in to play, and you float, rather than just being on top of it.\n\ntl;dr, no, afloat assumes that our density factors into our interaction, when it doesn't.",
"The reason two solids don't move through each other is because the electrons in our atoms and the electrons in the floor's atoms repel each other at a distance of one angstrom, density doesn't apply. We don't \"float\" so much as levitate, in the same way that magnets can levitate above a surface:\n_URL_0_",
"No. Example: [Aerogel](_URL_1_): Incredibly light (so, less dense) yet still solid. \n\nIn a solid substance the molecules are arranged into a rigid structure, which means they can't rearrange themselves and let stuff \"fall through\", like what happens in a liquid.",
"Floating is a matter of buoyancy and displacement. Standing on the floor is atomic repulsion."
],
"score": [
7,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ru.nl/hfml/research/levitation/diamagnetically/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"
]
} | Are we all afloat?
A tennis ball floats in water, but a marble will sink. On the atomic level, are we "floating" on the floor since its atoms have a higher density than us? | [
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3ql6wd | Why are acoustically guided weapons an option in the ocean but not in the air? | For example, most modern stealth warplanes take great care to minimize their infrared and radar signatures, but are still quite loud. Would it be possible to track these planes acoustically? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Ships are extremely slow (say 15 m/s / 30 knots) compared to the speed of sound in water (1500 m/s). What that means is that acoustic detection is practically instantaneous -- when the sound waves hit you, the target hasn't moved far.\n\nWarplanes travel a significant fraction of the speed of sound (or well above it) so acoustic tracking isn't ever going to be very good. In fact for an approaching supersonic aircraft, you literally cannot hear it at all, so it's physically impossible to track it acoustically. There's also a lot of attenuation of acoustic waves in air -- you certainly can't hear an airliner cruising overhead at 30,000 feet.\n\nI'll add that there is significant effort put into reducing the acoustic noise generated by aircraft for stealth reasons. It's especially a big deal with helicopters which are loud as hell, typically fly very close to the ground, and are desirable for clandestine use.",
"There were plans to detect airplanes with networks of acoustic sensors when nap of the earth, below the radar flying was thought to be the way for aircraft to penetrate air defense zones. Some of them were built for test purposes. In Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia the US also dropped acoustic sensor into the jungle canopies to listen for trucks driving down the Ho Chi Min trail bring supplies to the VC in the south. Underwater there really isn't a choice. Electromagnetic radiation doesn't propagate underwater. At one point it was thought a frequency of bluegreen laser might allow submarine detection from the air or satellites. In the 1980's you would see articles talking about the potential of bluegreen lasers \"turning the oceans transparent\". That research didn't work out. Sources - I've worked on submarine sonar systems. The same processor used in the US Navy submarine and acoustic sonobouy processing systems were used in Vietnam for the jungle microphone systems. Some of the old guys on the team had worked on the jungle microphone systems in the listening posts or in the labs. Also members of my family served in the Vietnam air war, dropping those microphone listening systems into the jungle.",
"Because in the air, radio guidance is a better choice. \n\nUnder water, the only radio waves that will penetrate sea water are long wave(Below AM band) where there is not much bandwidth. It will only penetrate so deep, and that's it! \n\nAs a result, it is much harder to communicate with objects under water, and the communication you do have withe them is more limited. \n\nAcoustic is really the ONLY choice under water. Radio is a better choice in the air!"
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} | Why are acoustically guided weapons an option in the ocean but not in the air?
For example, most modern stealth warplanes take great care to minimize their infrared and radar signatures, but are still quite loud. Would it be possible to track these planes acoustically? | [
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|
bi9ikz | Why do we use speed *bumps* rather than furrows? | Furrows as in digging out the road like an *anti-bump* .
Is this more dangerous and if so how? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"em0xs2p",
"em0y6xg",
"em1026u"
],
"text": [
"A furrow or trench would likely collect all sorts of crap. Leaves, trash, dirt. In rain it would be more likely to flood, making it harder to see. In snow, it would fill up and become useless (or a traction hazard). It would be harder to see from a distance, making it more likely that people would miss it and slam across it. \n\nI'd also imagine the edges would get damaged more easily as well, especially the far lip, which would take the brunt of the tires of fast-moving vehicles.",
"A bump can be added anywhere, even years after the surface was made, with a little extra material. You can bolt them down, form them from a bit of extra asphalt, etc., and it doesn't collect water which can lead to everything from mosquitoes to ice damage. \n\nA furrow would require much more work to install (cutting down into the road), it requires engineering both to ensure it doesn't create a weak point in the roadway but also that it drains properly, etc..",
"The furrows would need to be wider to accommodate tires. Narrow furrows wouldn’t have as much of an effect on cars compared to the same size (width and height/depth) bumps. The portion of a circle created by the furrow that would work best would vary by tire size which is a problem."
],
"score": [
26,
9,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why do we use speed *bumps* rather than furrows?
Furrows as in digging out the road like an *anti-bump* . Is this more dangerous and if so how? | [
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5yeopq | Does electricity need a high voltage or a high current to continue through a gap in a wire? | Say with a 0.5 mm gap would it be possible for me to get electricity consistently jumping across without dealing with a deadly current? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You need high voltage. Air is a very poor conductor, but by providing the electrons with a high voltage, they have sufficient energy to ionize the air between the two ends of the wire and create a conductive channel.\n\nAt standard temperature and pressure, you'd need 3 kV per mm of distance, so in your case, you would need to apply at least 1500 V in order for the gap to be bridged.",
"Voltage is the force that pushes electrons. Current is just the measurement of how many electrons are passing through a cross sectional area per second. Voltage is required to force electrons across a resistive air gap. Current is entirely dependent on resistance and voltage, Ohm's law, V = IR. Current just follows what V and R are, and if R is relatively constant, it depends entirely on V.",
"I know the answer is voltage but how does current (or lack of resistance?) play a role in sustaining the arc or ionized air? If I pull a 16KV switch with 1 amp of current nothing happen and the line is de energized on the load side. If I do it with 100 amps you'll wish you hadn't.",
"You need voltage. It's a bit like potential energy. The difference in voltage measured when moving from point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against the electric field to move the charge from A to B. You will have your electrons happily jumping over to the other side, the higher your voltage is.\n\nThe dielectric strength of air is something like 3 MV/m, if I remember well. You need 1500 V to jump that little gap. \n\nElectrical resistance of a human body is ~ 100000 ohm. \n\n1500 V /100.000 Ohm = 0.015 A.\n\nThat can kill you.",
"Yes, the other answers are correct, you need high voltage. This is governed by Paschens Law. The high voltage will ionize air and you'll see a big bright flash (this is sometimes known as arc flash).\n_URL_0_\n\nIf your asking about transmitting electricity across a gap, however, there are much more clever ways to do this. Assuming you're using AC current (or possibly a square wave D.C.), you can use inductive or capacitive coupling. This is how wireless charging works. It's not always super efficient, but it doesn't involve big balls of plasma.",
"Voltage is the difference in potential between two points. Tasers for instance are something like 30,000 volts to jump the gap between electrodes. Current is how much is flowing. Current is also what kills. So voltage is needed to jump air gaps or through the more resistive matirial.",
"When comparing electricity to water pressure...you can think of voltage as the water pressure, and amperage as the diameter of the pipe. \n\nIf you need that to cross a gap in a wire (or any air gap) you need high voltage."
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} | Does electricity need a high voltage or a high current to continue through a gap in a wire?
Say with a 0.5 mm gap would it be possible for me to get electricity consistently jumping across without dealing with a deadly current? | [
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|
22dyb5 | AskScience Cosmos Q & A thread. Episode 5: Hiding in the Light | Welcome to AskScience! **This thread is for asking and answering questions about the science in *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey*.**
If you are outside of the US or Canada, you may only now be seeing the fourth episode aired on television. If so, [please take a look at last week's thread instead.](_URL_0_)
This week is the fifth episode, "Hiding in the Light". The show is airing in the US and Canada on Fox at Sunday 9pm ET, and Monday at 10pm ET on National Geographic. [Click here for more viewing information in your country.](_URL_3_)
**[The usual AskScience rules](_URL_1_) still apply in this thread!** Anyone can ask a question, but **please do not provide answers unless you are a scientist in a relevant field.** Popular science shows, books, and news articles are a great way to causally learn about your universe, but they often contain a lot of simplifications and approximations, so don't assume that because you've heard an answer before that it is the right one.
If you are interested in general discussion please visit one of the threads elsewhere on reddit that are more appropriate for that, such as [in /r/Cosmos here](_URL_4_) and [in /r/Space here](_URL_2_).
Please **upvote good questions and answers** and **downvote off-topic content**. We'll be removing comments that break our rules and some questions that have been answered elsewhere in the thread so that we can answer as many questions as possible! | askscience | {
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"Why is red light hotter than blue light if blue light has more energy?",
"How did scientists discover that the \"black lines\" in the light were actually the shadows of atoms? Is there a good page to read as follow-up?",
"NdT said that when an electron drops to a lower energy shell, it releases energy in the form of light. Wouldn't that be at the same energy of the light it absorbs, thus filling in the black lines of the spectra?",
"How/why does light \"slow down\" when it moves through a prism? I thought it was utterly important that light always moves at c, no matter what.",
"I have a question about atomic orbitals. In the program NdGT mentions that at the atomic levels things get crazy. Electrons move closer and further apart from the proton. In the animation it's depicted as teleporting from one spot to another. Was this just shown to illustrate how crazy the electrons move or does this really happen?",
"On the camera obscura\n\nI understand why an image would be inverted as it moves through a small hole. But how is a shadow retaining the color of the outside scene?",
"How come the image was upside down when they were talking about the worlds first video?",
"Regarding absorption lines: do they have a \"width\" (e.g. 589.591 - 589.592 nm)? I assume yes; if so, why/how does that work?\n\nHere's how I'm thinking. AFAIK the Sun emits a continuum of wavelengths/colors, except for \"a few\" absorption lines. However, since energy is not quantized, there should be an infinite amount of different wavelengths, right? \nSo if only the **exact** energy required for an orbital bump can be absorbed by an atom, as is commonly said, shouldn't the absorption line be infinitesimally thin and therefore pretty much impossible to notice?\n\nI assume that they *do* have a certain width, but if so I'm not sure why that would be. \nBTW, is this related to the uncertainty principle in some way?",
"How do we know how many protons/electrons an atom of an element has? I tried Googling this but all the top results just said to look at the periodic table of elements. But how did they get in that order on the table. How, when, and who discovered that hydrogen (for example) only has 1 proton and 1 electron?",
"I've never fully understood the precise mechanism by which light slows down as it passes through a prism (or water, or really any other substance). Could someone clarify what specifically slows the light down?",
"Why does the prism separate the light but air doesn't? In the episode they explained that the prism will break the light up because the different frequencies travel at different speeds in the prism, but why doesn't air do the same thing?",
"Hi, \n\nAre the Hubble Deep Field images shown on Cosmos the actual images, or cg recreations?",
"OK, this isn't directly related to cosmos as I haven't watched yet but I was watching an NDG netflix thing, and my question relates to light.\n\nThey compared to light to sound waves and sound waves don't travel in a vacuum so originally science thought light couldn't either. But it turns out the 'ether' isn't a thing so light CAN travel through a vacuum I guess. \n\nI also understand that since relativity exists a photon comes from it's point of emission and from its point of reference it travels instantly to any solid object it hits.\n\nSo is it a wave or a particle? Do we just *observe* it as a wave because it's travelling relative to us? Can it travel through a vacuum precisely because it is both a particle and a wave and not just a wave like sound? Do my queries even make any sense?? I find physics extremely confusing.",
"If I had an enormous prism and a large room with an opening on the top of the room, such that only part of the spectrum could enter the room, could I warm myself in the sun without getting skin cancer or tanning? Could I even tan without burning? Could I allow only a section of the visible spectrum where I would neither feel significant heat nor suffer skin damage?",
"How can we see the materials stars, planets and other objects are made of in the \"shadows\" of atoms (The irregular spreading of light coming in and going out in a different way)? Doesn't it get jammed and messed up if it hits the atoms in our air and atmosphere?",
"Is there anything in this episode that was interpreted wrong and differed from a realistic depiction?",
"In the episode it was mentioned that \"time stops at the speed of light.\" Hypothetically if one had the ability to suddenly travel at the speed of light would they appear to have teleported the spot they dropped from light speed?\n\nWhat I mean is, if you were to suddenly be traveling at the speed of light, your own perspective would be \"frozen\" for the duration of travel until you were no longer traveling at the speed of light? And if that's true wouldn't it almost be like teleporting for you?",
"If time stops at the speed of light, why can physicists use distances between us and other galaxies as proof that the earth is more than 6500 years old. I don't believe it is 6500 years old, I just can't grasp the idea that time stops at the speed of light and would like a better understanding.",
"How does the light spectroscopy described in the episode relate to radio-frequency spectroscopy? Did the latter evolve from the former?\n\nMy late father did research on many of the bodies in our solar-system using radio-frequency spectroscopy, and after last night this was a question my brother and I were left wondering.",
"Is it possible to heat something without light (including light not in the visible spectrum)? \n\nIs it possible that heat is generated by light having a gravitational effect of its own that interacts with the molecules in a substance, causing it to heat?",
"If color is the result of absorbed/reflected wavelengths, why can you still see an image if a projector is used on say, a red wall? Wouldn't the wall absorb all the wavelengths that aren't red? Thanks!",
"[Stupid question] I've always wondered this. Since the proton is positively charged, and the electron negatively, what prevents the electron from being sucked up by the proton?"
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} | AskScience Cosmos Q & A thread. Episode 5: Hiding in the Light
Welcome to AskScience! **This thread is for asking and answering questions about the science in *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey*.** If you are outside of the US or Canada, you may only now be seeing the fourth episode aired on television. If so, [please take a look at last week's thread instead.](_URL_0_) This week is the fifth episode, "Hiding in the Light". The show is airing in the US and Canada on Fox at Sunday 9pm ET, and Monday at 10pm ET on National Geographic. [Click here for more viewing information in your country.](_URL_3_) **[The usual AskScience rules](_URL_1_) still apply in this thread!** Anyone can ask a question, but **please do not provide answers unless you are a scientist in a relevant field.** Popular science shows, books, and news articles are a great way to causally learn about your universe, but they often contain a lot of simplifications and approximations, so don't assume that because you've heard an answer before that it is the right one. If you are interested in general discussion please visit one of the threads elsewhere on reddit that are more appropriate for that, such as [in /r/Cosmos here](_URL_4_) and [in /r/Space here](_URL_2_). Please **upvote good questions and answers** and **downvote off-topic content**. We'll be removing comments that break our rules and some questions that have been answered elsewhere in the thread so that we can answer as many questions as possible! | [
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|
nina2 | What is the importance of "sigma" mainly in particle physics, how is it calculated, and is it possible to somehow visualize it as a layman? | I have tried googling "sigma importance" and several other contexts, and I noticed several askers with the same question (for example [here](_URL_0_)). There is also a ton of webpages with the keywords of "six sigma", and I can't find a single tree for all the forest. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c39e24k",
"c39e5f2",
"c39e1n7",
"c39e2xr",
"c39e5oe"
],
"text": [
"Sigma is a symbol used to represent a [standard deviation](_URL_0_).\n\nIn the context of particle physics, it's used to distinguish how likely something is to be a result of random chance.\n\nE.g., suppose you're coin flipping (to use a common example.) You might expect a coin to flip half heads, half tails. But if you do a test, you don't actually find that. Maybe you do 100 flips, find 53 heads, 47 tails. Then you ask \"How likely is this to be chance?\" because you wonder whether you should suspect the coin is weighted. With 100 coin flips, your standard deviation is ~5, and so being off by \"half a sigma\" is probably just chance. If you found you got 75 heads (a 5 sigma result), you might reasonably suspect the coin was weighted. (5 sigma is a pretty common standard for 'signal' in particle physics. The chance of a 5 sigma outlier is less than one in a million.)",
"I posted [this comment](_URL_1_) in ELI5 yesterday, \"sigma\" = \"sd\" in that comment.\n\nThe percentages I gave there were \"one-tailed\" going from the center of the bell curve out in one direction (so 50% is infinity instead of 100%). If you're going both directions in an experiment you're measuring the probability that your result (your experiment is a \"single die roll\" or data point) would fall outside the range of x's in your control experiment (your \"null hypothesis\").\n\n 1 sigma ~ 32% chance you could get the positive result from \"noise\" alone.\n 2 sigma ~ 4.5% chance (or just outside the fabled \"95% confidence limit\", or 1.96sigma, of much of science)\n 3 sigma ~ 0.26% chance\n 4 sigma ~ 0.0063% chance\n 5 sigma ~ 0.000057% chance\n 6 sigma ~ 0.00000020% chance\n\nFor one experiment, 6 sigma is really, really sure that your results aren't just noise in the instruments! Now, this is for one experiment, if you do multiple experiments the chances of getting a result due to noise add up (more or less) so you need to go to more sigmas to be \"reasonably sure\" you've seen the event you're trying to measure and not just noise.",
"How familiar are you with measurement error, uncertainty, and standard deviation? In other words, are you asking what sigma is? Or are you asking what sources of uncertainty exist in particle physics?",
"Sigma is used to represent the standard deviation of a value. Sigma is not just constrained to physics. It is used in all the science fields as well as mathematics. It is used to measure how far from the average result a measured value is. \n\nIf you want to know more about standard deviation: \n_URL_2_",
"To add to the answers already given, if you have a 1 sigma result, it means your result is one standard deviation away from what you'd expect by purely random chance. There's a 32% chance of getting such a result at random, so that there's a 68% chance you've made a real detection, rather than just noise (say, from random fluctuations in the background). A 2 sigma result is at the 95% confidence level, 3 sigma is 99% confidence, and so on. The gold standard for a particle physics detection is usually about 5 sigma or so, which means there's about a one in 2 million chance your detection is due to random noise."
],
"score": [
14,
8,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/8752/standard-deviation-in-particle-physics"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/ni4ht/eli5_how_a_bell_curve_works/c39b1jl",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation"
]
} | What is the importance of "sigma" mainly in particle physics, how is it calculated, and is it possible to somehow visualize it as a layman?
I have tried googling "sigma importance" and several other contexts, and I noticed several askers with the same question (for example [here](_URL_0_)). There is also a ton of webpages with the keywords of "six sigma", and I can't find a single tree for all the forest. | [
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|
2jfgnv | Is the atom considered stateless? | I understand the interaction between between atoms (distance, composition) determines whether a mixture or compound is a solid liquid or gas. does this mean the individual atoms themselves don't fall into these categories? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"clbahkw",
"clba6rk",
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],
"text": [
"In terms of gas, liquid, solid, etc. states. Yes a single particle doesn't really have a definite state. \n\nIf you have thousands of molecules that fly about not really caring about each other, you have a gas.\n\nIf you have thousands of molecules that can move, but are really close to each other, you have a liquid.\n\nIf you have thousands of molecules that are pretty much frozen in place in a compact space, you have a solid.\n\nThere is of course other states with variable definitions, but those three are the most common of course.",
"The electrons can occupy can occupy a large number of possible states as can the nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus. The sum of all these substates of its components would define the total state of an atom.\n\nExample:\nAn atom with an excited electron would be in a different state than a an unexcited one.",
"Just as you said, the states of matter refer to ensembles of particles. You can't define the state of a single atom."
],
"score": [
19,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is the atom considered stateless?
I understand the interaction between between atoms (distance, composition) determines whether a mixture or compound is a solid liquid or gas. does this mean the individual atoms themselves don't fall into these categories? | [
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10ar6h | If I lose a leg, how much less will I need to eat? | If I had a leg amputated or ripped off or whatever. Obviously my body would need to supply less energy because those muscles, etc. aren't using up energy anymore. But how much energy? What about if I lost an arm? | askscience | {
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"I think the question could also be phrased as roughly how many calories does a normal leg burn in a day?",
"> Obviously my body would need to supply less energy because those muscles, etc. aren't using up energy anymore.\n\nI wouldn't be so sure about that. Your remaining muscles might need to work harder to make up for the missing limb. Assuming you don't sit in a wheelchair all day.",
"You walk less efficiently with an artificial leg, so if your level of activity stayed the same, you might actually have to eat more.",
"From [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) I can find this statement:\n\n > At rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 kJ/kg (13.0 kcal/kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 kJ/kg (4.5 kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6 kJ/kg (2.3 kcal/kg)\n\nThis is in the end a very small difference in energy usage. The Harris-Benedict equation gives a BMR (basal metabolic rate) of roughly 1800 kcal a day for a 25 year old male 180 cm tall weighing 75 kg. The loss of this leg would reduce the BMR by around 200 kcal per day.\n\nA much greater difference would come from how this affects your overall physical activity. Missing a leg would surely impact walking, running and going stairs among other things which would decrease your overall caloric need, while physical therapy would increase the caloric need.\n\nEdit:\n\nIf the question instead is how much energy does a normal leg use per day we could approximate it with the following formula:\n\n S = Af*m*(c1*mp + c2*fp + c3*bp)\n\nWhere Af is the Harris-Benedict activity factor, m is the mass of the leg, c1, c2, c3 the constants given in my first paragraph, m the mass of the leg and mp, fp, bp the muscle, fat and bone mass percentage respectively.\n\nPutting in some reasonable values which are mostly guesstimates from my side we get a value of around 250 kcal per day.",
"Here's an illustration we use in pharmacy to to determine the change in ideal body weight in cases of amputation\n\n_URL_1_\n\nWe use IBW to determine kinetics of certain drugs and compounds."
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"url": [
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"http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.washington.edu%2Fpharm309%2Fcalculations%2FLesson4.pdf&ei=RFleUKzHFIn88QS-84GAAw&usg=AFQjCNEUdlqdu4palHHePaPrYUs38DY-lg"
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} | If I lose a leg, how much less will I need to eat?
If I had a leg amputated or ripped off or whatever. Obviously my body would need to supply less energy because those muscles, etc. aren't using up energy anymore. But how much energy? What about if I lost an arm? | [
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zc31l | How long would services like tap water, electricity, internet etc stay on in the event of something like an aggressive infectious disease began killing enough people for the world to become sparsely populated. | askscience | {
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"Im a network engineer.\nThe internet would ramp down. Not sure how long it would take (my GUESS is you would notice it within a week but it would take many months or years for the majority to be off the grid. Provided electricity isnt cut and AC is still running for the larger data centers. They run darn hot!\n) but you would see traffic being blackholed (information being sent to devices that have stopped responding).\nThe internet is built on very old protocols designed for much smaller deployments, the only thing that makes it so reliable is redundancy ( multiple paths to the same locations/resources) so even though MUCH of the internet is automated (when a device dies an Alternative is automagically used) without people maintaining it it would run out of redundancy then begin to disappear. \n\nEdit. Using a phone to post == ugly single paragraph reply. Sorry",
"electrical power is probably the limiter - [here's](_URL_0_) a pretty good summary from the straight dope of how the electric power would fall apart\n\nsummary:\n\ncoal plants offline in ~1 day \nnatural gas plants offline in ~1-3 days \nnuclear plants offline in ~1 week \nhydroelectric plants offline much later\n\nonce electric power is out, internet is gone, water is gone most places, gas distribution is also probably out",
"and more worryingly...what happens to an unattended nuclear reactor?",
"I can not personally answer your question, but there was a television program on The History Channel that sought to answer these very questions. The program cited many well respected scientists and engineers.\n\n_URL_1_",
"Check out The World Without Us. Excellent, detailed read about how a wide range of human systems and structures, etc. would fare. Very good book. I believe they based the History Channel series off it.",
"Treating water for drinking requires electricity. Even if you get your water to the plant only by gravity and the only treatment you apply is chlorination, you need electricity to distribute the water, make the bleach, etc. Clean drinking water from municipalities would only last as long as their standby power generators had fuel. Electric power plants and service to the power grid would drop off fast once shipments of coal or oil start to become inconsistant and the workforce is no longer there to manage the plant, mantain the equipment, etc. \n\nI have done a lot of work with water treatment plants. If you cut the workforce down to say 25% and cut the power, it would be days before your faucet ran dry. MAYBE a couple weeks until the operators say \"f it\" and go live off the land.",
"Also curious about this, to what extent are utilities automated? \nFrom person experience, living in a town in outback Australia where the power comes from combined solar + diesel generators it would last as long as the diesel does which, without resuppy and with rationing enforced use could be as long as six months. \nThe water there came from bores using electric pumps to draw it so it would last as long as the power did, although I'm not sure about the stocks of chemicals used to treat it.",
"Rural tap water would run into trouble because you need individual wells that run on electricity now. The pressure is provided by pressurized well tanks that would be difficult to fill without electricity.\n\nCity tap water that is stored in water towers could be retrofitted with non-electrical pumps to get the water to the top. Water in these systems is pressurized by gravity.",
"I have been told that society would break down after about 20% of people died.",
"I would say that the internet would begin to break down relatively rapidly if there were a catastrophe that caused people to stop going to work in the morning. The infrastructure is one thing, but machines fail and require humans to replace them as well as a complex supply chain to deliver replacement equipment. The same issue would happen with power plants and fuel stations without the supply chain. \n\nMost power generation is not 'automated' with the exception of certain renewables like wind and solar. Even power generation such as hydro-electric involves a certain amount of complex monitoring and redirecting water reservoirs constantly to adjust to demand (for large scale installations). Nuclear power stations can't operate automatically, they have [safety requirements](_URL_4_) and they don't produce the power that they require in order to operate. Without incoming power, nuclear power plants shut down for safety reasons, and they are built that way. \n\nCoal and Gas fired plants require constant fuel, and manual labour can't be avoided in such a scenario. Fuel is delivered either by truck, train, or ship for most, none of which can operate with full automation. [see fossil-fuel power station](_URL_4_) These are giant boilers that power turbines and there's a lot of risk involved with letting them operate indefinitely without maintenance.\n\nWithout electrical power, financial organizations can't operate very efficiently, and this would halt the supply chain at various parts, making fuel and food transportation quite difficult if power outages are widespread and last for a long time. This would obviously be a problem for the internet, even if the infrastructure is still online during a protracted power outage, most would have no access since most people don't have backup power for either their computers or their modem and/or router. Mobile networks have a battery backup which would become exhausted after some time. I worked at AT & T just after hurricane Katrina, and many people in Louisiana and Mississippi didn't get cell phone service back for months while the power outages continued, even though they could see the towers. \nThe US government also has the ability to restrict access to the private wireless networks in an emergency (such as a terrorist attack) to emergency personnel only to prevent the excess traffic during the panic from congesting the network and preventing emergency responders from using it. Such a worldwide mega-disaster would surely warrant drastic action like this in many areas.\n\nWe don't live in a world that can exist without electricity for very long, since most financial transactions take place using electrical and telecommunications devices. Many businesses can't operate, and those that can will have difficulty taking payment. There also aren't enough diesel generators available, nor is there enough diesel available to maintain any semblance of modern civilization through backup power alone. For a grid to be maintained, large power stations are required to provide [base load](_URL_3_) power, and smaller generators can add to it, but aren't enough to maintain the system's voltage and transmission efficiency.",
"The big limiting factor would be power. Most big data centers have at most a week of backup power. That would wipe out the Internet.\n\nGas generators are pretty portable, and the gas should be usable for a year or two. You'd have to find a way to pump it up from a gas station tank or just poke holes in car gas tanks as you find them.\n\nWater would be easy as you can just boil water from lakes.",
"Although power plants may be capable of running individually for weeks, the loss of \"the grid\" would cause large outages in days at the most. In North America the grid is already on the verge. The loss of a few large power stations would cause a cascade that could take out the better part of the continent in minutes. \n\nedit: [fun reading](_URL_5_)",
"Electrical control panels for electrical distribution and large pumphouses often use switches that, when tripped, have to be reset by hand. This is usually so a technician can make sure everything else seems to be working okay before resetting it. Without anyone to reset them, the power won't flow, nor will the water if it requires pumps.",
"From what I understand, the water and sewer systems in San Francisco would function as expected indefinitely. They are both gravity fed. I doubt that the sewer would continue to treat the water, but I believe it would continue to move the waste away from the city.",
"Bump this one. If the reservoir is above the city even after the pumps stop water could flow, albeit slowly..."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2165/when-the-zombies-take-over-how-long-till-the-electricity-fails",
"http://www.history.com/shows/life-after-people",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_station",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission#Bulk_power_transmission",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_safety_systems#Emergency_electrical_systems",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_blackout_of_2003"
]
} | How long would services like tap water, electricity, internet etc stay on in the event of something like an aggressive infectious disease began killing enough people for the world to become sparsely populated.
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||
10oecd | Am I shoving tiny shards of metal into my skin every day? | After I use a razor for a large enough number of shaves, it becomes dull, and I throw it away. But, something just occurred to me: what's happening to the sharp edge of the razor? There was metal there at one point, and now there's not.
So, when I'm shaving, is any metal from the razor going into my skin? If so, what sort of biological/physiological consequences are there? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6f7w54",
"c6f87fo",
"c6fats1"
],
"text": [
"The edge is not disappearing, it is being bent out of shape. Its why people who use a straight razor use a [strop](_URL_1_). It is the same with knives. If you do not use a strop or steel you can damage the edge enough to need sharpening. With a disposable razor, you are not driving metal into your skin, you are bending the blade and probably letting it corrode, which is why it eventually sucks. [Try the jeans method](_URL_2_) to extend your blade.\n\nedit [Found a pic](_URL_0_)",
"Not really, however, you *are* constantly cutting pieces of skin off. Source: I worked at a company that did a lot of research on shavers.",
"I'm not the authority at all, but last year I had fun with a silly project for the AskScience Fair that looked at razor blades. This was one simple experiment, extremely informal, and the results are not definitive. Still, you might find it interesting.\n\n_URL_3_\n\nAs I mentioned elsewhere, when you click on the PDF link inside that post, you might want to save the file to your computer and then view it, or else the images will look horrible."
],
"score": [
58,
8,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://hotchefknives.com/chef-knife-sharpening-101-honing-vs-sharpening",
"http://www.emsplace.com/straight_razors_strop_use.htm",
"http://lifehacker.com/5356529/extend-your-razors-life-with-a-pair-of-jeans",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/asksciencefair/comments/mllvg/qualitative_analysis_of_the_edge_characteristics/"
]
} | Am I shoving tiny shards of metal into my skin every day?
After I use a razor for a large enough number of shaves, it becomes dull, and I throw it away. But, something just occurred to me: what's happening to the sharp edge of the razor? There was metal there at one point, and now there's not. So, when I'm shaving, is any metal from the razor going into my skin? If so, what sort of biological/physiological consequences are there? | [
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5dc92y | Is there a way to create a 'sound bubble' where the sound is only audible within a controllable radius? | Without changing the medium, and with either a discrete edge or a rapidly decreasing signal past the 'radius' of the bubble. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I am not sure about a specific radius, but i know it is possible to isolate sounds in specific areas using geometry and different types of mediums. For example there is a circular shaped, fountain for lack of a better descriptor, that seems to isolate sounds inside of the circle from sounds outside of the circle, I have no idea how it works but I have read about it in the past.",
"A varient of ultrasound is probably what you are looking for. Bit of a layman, and I know there a couple of ways to do it, but it basically works by projecting ultrasound waves in a narrow pathway akin to a spotlight. The sound can only be heard by things in the focus of the beam or nearly where it terminates. \n\nNewer variants of the same idea actually work by having opposing ultrasound waves the collide in a specific space in such a way as to appear as though sound is coming from thin air. A couple years back some horror film did a publicity stunt by setting a couple emitters up on a highrise and freaking out pedestrians by 'whispering' into their ears. \n\nCool tech. Expensive, but very cool. \n\nEdit: turns out it was A & E using 'holosound' which is a varient of the same thing. I believe it is also branded as hypersonic. \n\n_URL_0_",
"If you could disturb the medium through which the sound is traveling, the sound wouldn't be audible. As in direct a jamming signal/sound at the desired radius. Standing on a platform of outwardly directed speakers would work. Basically you want the sound waves to be unable to pass undisturbed through the jamming waves.\n\n A good example of this is an air curtain. This is the blower above a doorway that blows air down to the threshold. Try talking to someone on the other side (besides the noise from the motor) and the sound will be distorted or quieter than it should be.",
"Neat question! Seems like \"active cancellation\" techniques could work. I'm not an expert in any way on those so I can't give you any technical help.\n\nIf you control all or most of the boundary conditions you ought to be able to get good destructive interference in some region, and you can take advantage of 1/r^2 falloff far away from that region. This would require that you have a sound source with special geometry.\n\nIf you are really interested in micro scale drug delivery, the wavelength of the sound will be a problem. You would have to go very far into the ultrasound in order to get the feature sharpness that you need.",
"35 years ago I went to a science expo in Tskuba, Japan. They had a speaker in some sort of focusing housing mounted about 10 feet above the floor, with a 2 ft diameter circle on the ground below. Stand in the center, you could hear it like it was right next to you, lean a foot out, nothing. It was pretty damn cool. Might have been the Panasonic pavilion, not sure it was so long ago."
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"url": [
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} | Is there a way to create a 'sound bubble' where the sound is only audible within a controllable radius?
Without changing the medium, and with either a discrete edge or a rapidly decreasing signal past the 'radius' of the bubble. | [
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|
2yj4e8 | How did predatory packs evolve? Why didn't the jerks in the group who just took advantage of the others gain evolutionary advantage over the ones who were willing to sacrifice and give things up to the group? | If coyotes (a primarily loner predator) and wolves (a pack predator) had a common ancestor, then there was a point where they branched apart. At that branch, some went off to be loner douches and the others went off to make the hippy communes of the canine world. How did those early canines in the population who wanted to care for the others survive in such a selfish environment? Did there have to be multiple of them at a time? How long did it take to catch on?
EDIT: Let's choose foxes and wolves rather than coyotes because coyotes can have small family groups. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cpandu7",
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"cpa90ly"
],
"text": [
"I can't speak specifically to pack animals, but I can speak to the general concept of \"Why don't cheaters ruin cooperation?\"\n\nThis concept is often referred to as \"The Tragedy of the Commons\", and is pretty much the same thing as the economic principle of the same name. \n\nI used to study biofilms; a certain kind of bacterial community. Basically, a whole bunch of bacteria get together and build a nasty glob of slimy crap to live in. Scrape your fingernail over your teeth first thing in the morning. That's a biofilm.\n\nIn a biofilm, every bacterium contributes a bit to the manufacture of that slimy crap that protects them all. But bacteria evolve *fast*...so what happens when one guy accidentally (*I promise guys, it was an accident*) mutates and inactivates a gene that makes that goop? He's still living in the goop that everyone else is making...but he's not contributing (Cue Scumbag Steve meme). Now, he can dedicate the resources to other pursuits, like making copies of himself.\n\nAnd now you have *more* guys not contributing, and they grow. And so on...evolution in action, baby. But then at some point, there will be too many \"cheaters\" to support the \"cooperators\", and the biofilm will collapse.\n\nBut that isn't what we see. \n\nBiofilms are, in fact, *very* hard to get rid of. You could get a lot of money writing grants to figure out ways to kill these things that logically should be pretty unstable. \n\nOne big reason is something called \"[Simpson's Paradox](_URL_0_).\"\n\nIt's complicated, but the end result is that if you just take one biofilm, the cooperators are at a disadvantage and usually outnumbered. But there is variability in the ratio of cooperator:cheater, and the communities with more cooperators will be healthier because they are supporting fewer Scumbag Steves per capita. \n\nSo if you look at a dozen communities, the communities with more cooperators *grow faster*. If the community grows faster, its components grow faster. And because \"grow faster\" is the bottom line of evolution, any bacterium's fitness is not just judged by its own genetics, but also by the genetics of the bacteria around it. This is distinct from kin selection; the same concept applies to multispecies biofilms. This is proximity selection. \n\nYou have to look at it as a group of groups, with the more-cooperating groups growing significantly faster than the more-noncooperating groups. Therefore, overall, you end up with more cooperators than cheaters. \n\nBut as any one group ages, the number of cooperators will dwindle. As a result, the fitness of everyone in that group drops. So it becomes a dynamic situation; as new groups bud off, the ones that have fewer cheaters grow faster, and take over the ranges abandoned by older groups that have more cheaters.",
"First of all, coyotes are not loners. They often live in small family groups consisting of a pair and their recent offspring. Dispersing individuals are alone until they can established their own territory and find a mate (ditto with wolves). The main social difference between coyotes and wolves is that the rate of dispersal in wolves is lower so that individuals stick around longer. They are still most often a mated pair and extended family. Both coyotes and wolves have group sizes that vary with ecological conditions. Some coyote family groups are bigger than some wolf packs. \n\nSo social cooperation in wolves and coyotes is mostly family cooperation. Selection acts to maximize inclusive fitness rather than plain individual fitness. Inclusive fitness is roughly due to alleles that propagate into next generations through offspring and other relatives at the expense of competing alleles in the population. Selection for increasing inclusive fitness by aiding relatives (which have a high probability of carrying alleles that are identical by descent) is called kin selection. So a young wolf can increase its fitness by helping its parents raise it's younger siblings compared to striking off on its own when new territories are less available and when pack hunting is more efficient than individual hunting (as it tends to be in wolves which hunt deer, moose, elk, or bison etc). Staying longer to raise siblings is not as advantageous when prey is small and individual hunting is more efficient (as for coyotes that hunt rabbits, rodents, and birds).\n\nEDIT: Changing from foxes to coyotes is a (slight) change of degree but the reasoning stays the same.",
"You get what is referred to as an evolutionary stable solution. It's kind of like the equilibrium point. \n\n**First, why do animals sometimes hunt in packs.**\nWorking in groups allows predators to take down much larger prey than they would be able to take down single-handedly. It also increases the success rate of a hunt drastically when there is more than one individual. It also presents less danger to each individual when in a pack, because there is less chance of a retaliation from the prey being directed at that individual alone. \n\n**Second, why isn't everyone selfish**\nIn an environment where pack hunting is going on, it immediately becomes obvious that someone could benefit more if they invested less into the hunts and still take the rewards for the other individuals hard work. But would they really benefit? Hunting packs generally are somewhat related to each other, or at least to part of the pack. This means that a successful hunt not only feeds you and helps your genes survive, it also helps your genes in your relatives survive because you are aiding them to feed. Remember, you share 50% of your genes with a brother, Quarter with a nephew, and so on. If everyone in the pack was lazy, everyone would go hungry and eventually start starving. Therefore evolutionary the frequency of lazy individuals is kept low by natural selection, because if it was higher then it would hurt the reproductive success of the group.",
"This is a good question. Food resources tend to drive the behavior in animals, and there is always tradeoffs for species whether they form groups, or not. There are multiple benefits to social groups, including enhanced access to mates, less energy spent defending a territory per individual, and relatively less individual energy expense to gain energy from prey. The common ancestor of wolves and coyotes had a choice between eating lots of small animals, or fewer, larger ones. The jerks are often weeded out of groups, hence the \"lone wolf\" character. Sometimes these are individuals finding a new breeding group, however. \n\nIt's not so much that each early canid felt some moral need to help the other, they just knew that in order to eat big prey, you need to cooperate. The dominance hierarchy in wolves establishes a balance between selfishness and the need to maintain a strong social order. \n\nCoyotes are often seen in small packs, but these can be temporary during certain parts of the year. They are evolved to be sneakier and take advantage of small prey better than wolves, so for the most part, staying in a group hurts their chances of being successful."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson's_paradox"
]
} | How did predatory packs evolve? Why didn't the jerks in the group who just took advantage of the others gain evolutionary advantage over the ones who were willing to sacrifice and give things up to the group?
If coyotes (a primarily loner predator) and wolves (a pack predator) had a common ancestor, then there was a point where they branched apart. At that branch, some went off to be loner douches and the others went off to make the hippy communes of the canine world. How did those early canines in the population who wanted to care for the others survive in such a selfish environment? Did there have to be multiple of them at a time? How long did it take to catch on? EDIT: Let's choose foxes and wolves rather than coyotes because coyotes can have small family groups. | [
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|
50mt9d | AskScience AMA Series: I am the co-founder of iNaturalist, an online social network for sharing biodiversity information. Ask Me Anything! | [iNaturalist](_URL_0_) is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users. If you have any questions about iNaturalist or the state of natural history on the Internet, iNat co-founder Ken-ichi Ueda will be fielding questions around noon EDT (17 UT). AMA!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"Love the app! I think there's a lot of potential to overlap with a PokemonGo type game. It'd be great to have people excited to find urban wildlife. Any plans to add activities to the app?",
"As a high school science teacher (freshman biology and upper level marine science), how can I get my students involved?",
"What sort of research has been performed using data from iNaturalist?",
"How do you deal with changes in taxonomy? Is there a process for going back to old ID's and updating them with the most current classification?\n\nAlso, is it possible to incorporate genetic data into such a system to assist with the ID of cryptic species?",
"What is it that you hope to achieve from iNaturalist ?",
"Did the National Park Service Centennial which utilized your app during their Bioblitz events show a significant increase in data and downloads? (I'm a park ranger who used it)",
"Why did you call it iNaturalist? What does the \"I\" stand for?",
"What's your favorite story of an observation/project/etc. that's come from iNat?",
"I'm a computer science student that is interested in ecological modelling and ecological risk assessment. What kind of research (if any) are you currently doing with the data being obtained by it? \n\nAlso, I'm a huge user of eBird. Do you know of any simple way to transfer eBird data to iNaturalist and/or have them sync?",
"Do you find yourself with the 'big data' problem of having more information than you have current plans to use? If so, how do you determine what to keep and what data you can let go?",
"Has iNaturalist ever been asked to not publish sightings or observations of sensitive species for their own protection? I've heard of agencies making such requests to popular birding groups.",
"How do you filter reports or trolls that just want to report organisms in places that don't exist?",
"What kind of potential do you see for iNaturalist to be used with the social sciences? As someone mentioned further down the thread, it was used for the NPS Centennial, but what other ways do you foresee this app being used for things like that?",
"Hi! I'm a translator for the government of Canada and we talk about your app quite often in relation to Parks Canada. Is there any plans to offer a French (or any other langage) translation of the app/Website someday?",
"Hey I just discovered this app and took 4 pictures, 2 of them were mushrooms and people identified them for me within an hour. Love it so far!",
"Nothing to ask, just want to say how much I enjoy using it!",
"Love the app and use it all the time, but I am surprised about how quickly some of my observations go to \"research grade\", and it makes me wonder how good some of the IDs are, especially for insects and cryptic taxa. Have you done any ground truthing by, for example, submitting observations of cryptic taxa and seeing what it gets IDd as to check the quality of the observations? Has there been any attempt to quantify a bias toward conspicuous and large (I.e., easy to photograph) observations of IDs?",
"Will there be any changes to iNaturalist or its user interfaces in the coming three months? I'm part of a competition that spans the whole year of 2016, and if there are changes to say the requirements for Research Grade observations or in button placement, etc., I'd love a heads up.",
"What challenges come with managing so many observations from different users and places? How do you deal with a dataset this size? \n\nAlso, how have you seen use of iNaturalist spread throughout the US and internationally?",
"Sorry not a user of the app so this could already be in it. Have you considered using your vast collection of images along with machine vision to create ways to automatically identify creatures?",
"Can your network be used to track and record invasive species, possibly with the goal of preventing/combating it?",
"What are your future plans and goals for iNaturalist?",
"I totally love the idea of making science more accessible through social media! As a grad student in the earth sciences, I will definitely start using this.\n\nCan you tell us more about what it says on your site, to \"Create Useful Data\"? What types of observations/data points do you collect and report (species id, geospatial, metadata, etc?). One of my other interests is how scientific data is stored and organized. As I am sure you are aware, one of the issues that scientific entities face is how to effectively share data that has been stored in databases with differing architectures. I see that you share the data with GBIF; did you model your database off their recommendations/requirements? Do you follow [DwC](_URL_0_)? While I do emphatically agree that science should be made more accessable to the public, and that the public should be more empowered to engage in scientific observations and discovery, there is also the question of how to maintain data quality when it has been collected by people with no professional training. How do you deal with the error in data that may exist because of inexperienced \"layman scientists\", does your system have a way to compensate for this?\n\nThank you for this AMA!",
"Hi Ken! I took a class with Scott Loarie at UC Berkeley three(?) years ago where we used iNat. Just wanted to say I still love it, use it and my friends still send me photos to post for them. It got me really interested in mycology and it is a new hobby I still pursue. Thanks for creating such a neat tool!",
"Hey! thank you for this app! I used it in conjunction with Herpmapper for my California Naturalist Certification capstone project. It really is phenomenal to document species in the wild, and I love the \"hidden\" feature to prevent locations being seen by collectors/poachers.",
"I really enjoy the app! Are you ever going to stop people from posting pictures of ...well...people? You can tell when people are new to using iNat, usually kids, when one of their observations is a human. 😄",
"Dude! I coordinate a Master Naturalist program, and we work with your app and a retired biologist to log native plants in a nearby natural area. We love it! No question. Just \"good work!\" And \"thanks!\"",
"Hi! I'm just curious about what parts of the platform have you been involved in developing specifically? It seems like a huge undertaking; what's been your favorite part of that development?",
"I have ~50 nocturnal gelatinous plankton photos that others have helped me identify! That site is great for us bio nerds! Where is this database headed in the future?",
"I noticed that the French version of the app and the confirmation email are not a 100% in French. Is this a known problem?",
"How long did it take to get it started? How much funding did you need?",
"Finally scientists are getting together and strutting past academia! This is VERY exciting!"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I am the co-founder of iNaturalist, an online social network for sharing biodiversity information. Ask Me Anything!
[iNaturalist](_URL_0_) is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users. If you have any questions about iNaturalist or the state of natural history on the Internet, iNat co-founder Ken-ichi Ueda will be fielding questions around noon EDT (17 UT). AMA! | [
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|
2emlfa | How do research satellites measure ice? | Meteorological satellites are used to measure the progression and regression of ice at the polar caps. My question is, how do they do this? I can easily envision the answer being something like "infrared imaging," or "visible reflections" or maybe a radar system of some sort.
Is there a preferred method? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ck0yfeu",
"ck0yqlu",
"ck1dn1c",
"ck16aq8"
],
"text": [
"It is done with by looking at the intensity of multiple bands in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum in order to distinguish between ice/snow and water. [CryoSat](_URL_0_) is one example but there are others. This type of measurement is also good for Sea Surface Temperatures and cloud properties so the satellites are often tasked for multiple missions. \n\nSatellite are good for measuring extent of sea ice and fraction of open water but they don't yield good information about thickness of sea ice - for that you need *in situ* measurements.",
"There are a few ways. Aside from seeing the presence/abscence of sea ice, geoscientists can use [InSAR](_URL_3_), [LIDAR](_URL_3_), gravimetry, and infrared imaging among other techniques. I don't believe there's one single preferred method since the best method will depend on the sort of data you are trying to measure (e.g. do you want to know how thick the ice sheet is or how fast it's moving or what). On top of this there are a whole host of ground based measurement methods that augment those collected via remote sensing. Videos like [this](_URL_3_) are the result of years of data collected from space and the ground.",
"We don't always get access to the preferred method, so sometimes it's done with what is available.\n\neg. Icebridge (when the satellite did not make it): _URL_4_ and _URL_5_",
"At least in Canada, ice measurement it done mostly through SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) imagery. Experts then classify the result into ice and non-ice regions or sort by various types of ice. The classification can also be performed by computer vision algorithms. \n\nHere's a couple relevant links. \n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_7_"
],
"score": [
15,
9,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryosat-2",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidar",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kteMXaUNvlc",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_IceBridge",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/icebridge/mission/index.html",
"http://vip.uwaterloo.ca/demos/satellite-sar-sea-ice-classification",
"http://www.ec.gc.ca/glaces-ice/?lang=En"
]
} | How do research satellites measure ice?
Meteorological satellites are used to measure the progression and regression of ice at the polar caps. My question is, how do they do this? I can easily envision the answer being something like "infrared imaging," or "visible reflections" or maybe a radar system of some sort. Is there a preferred method? | [
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9d5id2 | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Michael Abramoff, a physician/scientist, and Principal Investigator of the study that led the FDA to approve the first ever autonomous diagnostic AI, which makes a clinical decision without a human expert. AMA. | [Nature Digital Medicine published our study last week, and it is open access](_URL_0_). This publication had some delay after the [FDA approved the AI-system, called IDx-DR, on April 11 of this year](_URL_4_).
After the approval, many physicians, scientists, and patients had questions about the safety of the AI system, its design, the design of the clinical trial, the trial results, as well as what the results mean for people with diabetes, for the healthcare system, and the future of AI in healthcare. Now, we are finally able to discuss these questions, and I thought a reddit AMA is the most appropriate place to do so. While this is a true AMA, I want to focus on the paper and the study. Questions about cost, pricing, market strategy, investing, and the like I consider to not be about the science, and are also under the highest regulatory scrutiny, so those will have to wait until a later AMA.
I am a retinal specialist - a physician who specialized in ophthalmology and then did a fellowship in vitreoretinal surgery - who treats patients with retinal diseases and teaches medical students, residents, and fellows. I am also a machine learning and image analysis expert, with a MS in Computer Science focused on Artificial Intelligence, and a PhD in image analysis - Jan Koenderink was one of my advisors. 1989-1990 I was postdoc in Tokyo, Japan, at the RIKEN neural networks research lab. I was one of the original contributors of ImageJ, a widely used open source image analysis app. I have published over 250 peer reviewed journal papers (h-index 53) on AI, image analysis, and retina, am past Editor of the journals IEEE TMI and IOVS, and editor of Nature Scientific Reports, and have 17 patents and 5 patent applications in this area. I am the Watzke Professor of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Electrical and Computer Engineering and Biomedical Engineering at the University of Iowa, and I am proud to say that my former graduate students are successful in AI all over the world. [More info on me on my faculty page](_URL_3_).
I also am Founder and President of [IDx](_URL_1_), the company that sponsored the study we will be discussing and that markets the AI system, and thus have a conflict of interest. FDA and other regulatory agencies - depending on where you are located - regulate what I can and cannot say about the AI system performance, and I will indicate when that is the case. [More info on the AI system, called labelling, here](_URL_2_).
I'll be in and out for a good part of the day, AMA!
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"Considering the need for human interaction (caregiver - patient) in medicine, what are your thoughts going forward? Restrict these AI to assist medical professionals in the diagnostic process (read: allow them more patient contact time - a major hurdle most medical tech development is focused on currently) or replace much of the function of a human in healthcare?\n\nIf the latter, do you think that’s a viable goal, again considering the imperative for human contact in the healthcare sector? Medicine is still in dire need of functional technology assistance (particularly in diagnoses), but how far do you feel we can take it before there is significant diminishing returns/potential backlash? Say, 20 years down the road, the requirements for an M.D are reduced to fill the existing void, because some major part of their training has now been replaced by AI. So we get more medical professional, but they’re less trained, potentially less capable/more reliant on AI.\n\nAlso congratulations to you and your team, this FDA approval is no small matter!",
"So how does it work in practice? You feed the software a bunch of medical data and it spits out a probability of a positive diagnostic?",
"What safety criteria (standard or otherwise) have been defined that autonomous diagnostic systems must conform to?",
"Is this providing an official diagnosis or does an eye doctor still need to verify?",
"Do you have any thoughts on how to make these diagnostic systems available to places that could really use them (e.g. low income countries which lack qualified diagnosticians)? This is a problem we see in neuroimaging, where there are some very capable AI based image analysis tools, however, often the only places which can afford them are places which already have excellent clinicians.",
"What other possible areas in healthcare could benefit form similar systems?",
"Hello Dr. Abramoff!\n\nI'm a software developer that has worked with medical big data and predictive analytics. My questions are mostly on your AI.\n\nI'm just curious, how did you get your training data for the AI? In my experience I've needed a hospital network of patients to fully train a network.\n\nAnd does your network analyze images or just text data? By images I mean retinal scans and optical coherence tomography and the like.\n\nLast question I swear! How exact of a diagnosis do you get? For (a non-opthamology) example, if I had J67 would it be able to get me down to J67.6?\n\nOkay I lied, one more question. Does your network consider comorbidities separately from the rest of the chart? Such as a patient with diabetes? \n\nThanks for taking time to answer questions!",
"If an erroneous decision is made, who's to blame?",
"Reading from the FDA website, the description looks like this is an image recognition program. The diagnosis comes from review of multiple images of the eye. \n\n1. Does this suggest this application and future applications of the technology are limited to visual interpretations of images? \n\n2. Are the other-than-visual or image-based methods in the pipeline? Chemical analysis for example?\n\n > A doctor uploads the digital images of the patient’s retinas to a cloud server on which IDx-DR software is installed. If the images are of sufficient quality, the software provides the doctor with one of two results: (1) “more than mild diabetic retinopathy detected: refer to an eye care professional” or (2) “negative for more than mild diabetic retinopathy; rescreen in 12 months.” If a positive result is detected, patients should see an eye care provider for further diagnostic evaluation and possible treatment as soon as possible.",
"I recall reading a couple decades ago about an early attempt at a diagnostic expert system. In testing it, the system asked if the patient was pregnant; the patient was definitely male, but it revealed an assumption that hadn't been coded in the system.\n\nWhat sorts of surprises or assumptions did you discover in developing your system?",
"How does this system compare to teaching ophthalmoscopy (and the recognition of diabetic retinopathy) directly to primary care doctors?",
"Was there any severe case in the false negatives that needed immediate care from a specialist?",
"Can the AI take into account possible artefacts and human error in the gathering of data?",
"Do you think it is possible to diagnose Alzheimer's with this AI",
"What parts of this system are proprietary patentable and what parts are open source or unpatentable? \n\nMy understanding is that anyone in the world could theoretically build a diabetes detection algorithm if they have the labeled data. So as a scientist how did you protect your work and get FDA approval, I assume that would involve turning over your data?",
"Given that medicine is an evolving science, do you worry that AI datasets ‘fix’ medical practices? \n\nSuppose a new procedure is introduced and therefore underrepresented in a dataset. What stops the AI defaulting to the older, more common procedure? Over time, isn’t this is regressive?",
"Two questions:\n\n1. What algorithms are you using —Bayesian networks, GBMs, heuristics, etc.?\n\n2. Human data is inherently noisy and dirty data. How are you accounting for label noise, feature noise, and missing data?\n\nThanks in advance! This is super interesting and exciting!! 😁",
"How do think the General public is going to react to AI diagnosing them ,instead of an actual human?",
"What do you charge for using this autonomous diagnostic AI? Is it cost efficient compared to referring a patient to a specialist? Or to letting the GP make a (possibly erroneous) decicion themself?",
"How is the sensitivity and specificity of AI compared to an experienced ophthalmologist?",
"How do you feel about the statement, \"It isn't AI, it is just a bunch of if statements\"?",
"A group within my company had developed software for diagnosing medical images across a number of modalities and anatomical specialties. In tests, the software had been given and passed radiology board exams several times. The software performed consistently better than the passing human diagnosticians. Despite this capability, we struggled with how to go to market with the capability which would be medical approved. \n\nHaving worked in the field for multiple years, Computer Aided Diagnosis was always controversial in the clinical setting. The medical assiociations clearly defined a red line where they would not accept a computer performing diagnosis in liue of a human physician. In at least one medical meeting I attended a member of the medical association indicated they had learned from the experience of the pathoogy profession when automated pap smear devices were introduced. He cited the huge job and revenue losses among pathologists after that development. Since the medical associations play such a critical role in what is acceptable medical practice, I wonder if you can discuss how you overcame that clear culture against no human in the loop diagnosis for this technology.",
"In your opinion, what will be the impact of AI in the medical field? Are we looking at a scenario where AI might make physicians redundant. I've been closely following the rise of AI and deep learning technology, especially in diagnostic radiology. In most medical forums, you'll find that the general consensus is that AI technology is being hyped up and is nowhere near as revolutionary as it is claimed and it will be thousands of years before AI can replace a human doctor.\n\nThis is definitely an issue that causes some stress amongst medical students like myself, who might fear that their work could get simplified or streamlined with the help of AI, hence diminshing compensation and making all that hardwork needed to get through med school for nothing. I'd like to think of AI as an augmentation and enhancement to the physician, but not as a replacement. It doesn't help that an AI pioneer proudly anounced that medical schools should \"stop training radiologists\", since the computers are coming.\n\nWhat is your opinion on this matter?",
"I don't have any questions, but I did come by to say thank you for your hard work. Although my uncle and grandfather are and were (respectively) doctors, I think this can only help them and the public at large as it helps relieve stress off of doctors and give the public better access to expert help. I know how hard a job it is from talking with my uncle and seeing how tired he is all the time. I know I'm going on a tangent here, but ultimately I just want to say thank you for all your hard work.",
"I am leading efforts to design web-based, EHR-integrated pharmacokinetic decision support tools. An end goal is to receive FDA approval as a medical device. Can you describe some of the challenges you experienced on the road to approval? What would you have done differently. \n\nThanks so much for your input and for your work!",
"as someone trained extensively in both computer science and medicine do you see a disconnect between those with training in only one aspect? is it relatively unique to have a physician / AI expert on a project or team of researchers who can cross the aisle in discussion?",
"What would you consider an acceptable rate of type I/II errors (false positives or negatives) for current retinal applications? To what extent will that vary with the condition being diagnosed?",
"How wrong has it been in the past?\n\n“I want a second opinion”, “WebMD”, “Papercut = Alzheimer’s”, or worse?",
"Based on the experience of low-dose CT lung cancer screening in the US, it appears surprisingly difficult to establish a new diagnostic test as a standard of care. Even with a proven overall survival benefit, FDA approval and NCCN endorsement, real-world adoption rates of lung cancer screening have been [less than 5%](_URL_0_).\n\nOne of the counterarguments to screening has been the rate of false positives, overdiagnosis, and the secondary harms of diagnosis and treatment. Overdiagnosis is notoriously difficult to measure, making it an ever-popular subject for debate.\n\nIn addition, when performing initial-screening exams that require subspecialists for further workup, there is a very real concern over practicality. It has been said that if every patient eligible for lung cancer screening was actually screened, the world would not have enough pulmonologists to see everyone with a positive screen.\n\nSo with that said:\n1) Has anyone done an analysis of overdiagnosis in diabetic retinopathy?\n\n2) How common are secondary harms for diagnosis and treatment of diabetic retinopathy?\n\n3) If autonomous diagnostic AI was widely adopted by primary care providers, how many ophthalmology referrals would be generated by screening, and is this a realistic workload?",
"In opthamology for your answer, but in larger medical context, and after your experience with HMO medical decision-making and State insurance coverage limitations, and seeing inevitable 'Medicare For All' lumpen proletariat care surge to 100sMs on the event horizon:\n\n¿Do you think Medical AI is up to the task of determining who shall receive care and to what extent, both from triage and testing, treatability and survivabilty -or- do you think AI process could so easily be 'gamed', that AI will become the straw dog that the State-Big Medical establishment pins their evils on?\n\nOr worse, can the 'invisible thumb on the scales' turn an otherwise benign, accurate and fair AI decision into a form of deliberate automated ethnic- or class-ist genocide?\n\nI know that's a big bite off. Medical Diebold?",
"Very nice work! Q: Would multiple cameras increase your AI decision sensitivity? For example; if you added one extra camera, such that your 'robotic camera' has stereo vision, then I think that would be an easy and affordable way to increase overall system performance. Double (or more) the data, but these days that's fine. You would have then 2 perspectives. If that does make statistically significant improvement (as I suspect...) then how about four :)\n\nDisclaimer/coi note: I am CEO of Abemis llc (_URL_1_) where we make robotic microscopes, imaging/testing systems, and related meta-structures. We're developing a 4 camera semi-hemispheric, robotic imager (and micro-imager) that we call QDcam. Also I have a Ph.D. in Bioengineering from U.Pgh.",
"Your system seem to be very advanced.\n\nDo you think there is a space for less advanced medical electronics?\n\nI.e. a real clinical ECG machine is very expensive. Hacking together a passable Homebrew one is cheap.\nWith some funky software, this might also detect interesting things at home, but obviously with probably less confidence and specifity.\n\nI come from an IT background, sonic thing more data is almost always better, as long as they are trusted only to the extent that they are trustworthy.\n\nSo, do you see a less-than-almost-perfect healthcare tools ecosystem coming up? With less regulations and safety criteria?",
"Do you have an opinion on the potential impact of AI in Radiology? \n\nMy mostly lay opinion:\nAs a completely computerised discipline I feel AI potentially has the ability to completely remove the human intervention from interpreting diagnostic images. If centralised the AI could have a database of millions of images and could if connected to lab systems it could cross reference blood results etc to give differentials in a way that a human would never have time to. Obviously this is probably going to be 30+ years away.",
"How would you describe the process of going from the inception of the idea, the pursuit of funding and the business aspects of transitioning from university researcher to company founder? What would you do differently? What tools or systems would you like to see in place?\n\nAdditionally, could you describe your experience in interacting with the FDA and other regulatory bodies as it pertains to champions, roadblocks and unnecessary red tape? Again, what would you do differently? What tools or systems would you like to see in place?",
"Hi, very cool work that you're undertaking! I'm about to start work on a CNN for autonomous diagnostic of MRI images for my masters prohect so was wondering about the details of your training dataset. How large was the dataset that was used and how was your network trained? IE. Number of layers in your network, activation function used and epochs in training. If there is a paper detailing this information I would be happy with a link to that!\nThanks!",
"As a clinical trial monitor, I just want to thank you for your time, your hard work and cooperation with your site teams and study teams. But most of all, thank for your signatures on all of the documents required (as a PI, it's A LOT!). The public doesnt understand the man hours it takes to get something FDA approved. For being the leader of the team, THANK YOU!!",
"I'm pursuing a computer engineering degree and wish to dabble in AI and ML, I participated in a recent workshop on the topic and was taught some cool stuff like Linear Regression, Clustering, some Computer Vision stuff and so on. Could you tell me what you used for the program/how it works? Did you employ neural networks or not?",
"This is a really interesting topic. I am an MD that is really intrigued with this idea. I’m planning to do my residency in Medical Genetics, and I’m interested in everything that has to do with Computer Science! How did you get in that field? What advice do you have for me?",
"How close is to replacing actual doctors? Is it more along the lines of WebMD where it can be faulty in various cases or does it learn from different types of cases. If so, how does it deal with unique cases or skin diseases where physical contact or testing is necessary?",
"First off, much respect for developing this sweet medical AI. Look forward to when more diseases are covered like mac degen and glaucoma. Was wondering your opinion on the market need of AI driven refractions given that technically the number one cause of reduced vision is simply uncorrected refractive error.",
"Is this programed to list a differential diagnosis vs. the most-likely diagnosis? Does it make recommendations for labs and other diagnostic studies? Are there decision-making algorithms based on the patient's health-care coverage, socio-economic status? This sounds like it could be a very useful assistant to the clinician.",
"This will one day put all med-level providers and most doctors out of business. One day, there won't be near enough jobs to sustain our growth and prosperity. \nDo you think these types of innovations are really for the greater good, and why?",
"Winding down here. Very exciting and intense experience, thank you everyone for your interest. Will be checking in over the next hour, so if you have a remaining question ask it quickly!",
"In getting the approval, did you take advantage of the FDA's new Software as a Medical Device (SamD) process? If so, how were your impressions compared to a traditional 510(k)?",
"Do human doctors catch things the machine misses and vice versa? Or does the AI catch everything a doctor does and then some?",
"So how does your AI stack up to Essure and the FDA's approval of that?",
"How will medical AI affect the role of the physician?"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-018-0040-6",
"https://www.eyediagnosis.net/",
"https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/ea14f7_410f793af1504f46a9bf76d20a3b4d02.pdf",
"https://medicine.uiowa.edu/eye/abramoff",
"https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm604357.htm"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ascopost.com/issues/may-25-2017/the-ongoing-challenges-of-lung-cancer-screening/",
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Michael Abramoff, a physician/scientist, and Principal Investigator of the study that led the FDA to approve the first ever autonomous diagnostic AI, which makes a clinical decision without a human expert. AMA.
[Nature Digital Medicine published our study last week, and it is open access](_URL_0_). This publication had some delay after the [FDA approved the AI-system, called IDx-DR, on April 11 of this year](_URL_4_). After the approval, many physicians, scientists, and patients had questions about the safety of the AI system, its design, the design of the clinical trial, the trial results, as well as what the results mean for people with diabetes, for the healthcare system, and the future of AI in healthcare. Now, we are finally able to discuss these questions, and I thought a reddit AMA is the most appropriate place to do so. While this is a true AMA, I want to focus on the paper and the study. Questions about cost, pricing, market strategy, investing, and the like I consider to not be about the science, and are also under the highest regulatory scrutiny, so those will have to wait until a later AMA. I am a retinal specialist - a physician who specialized in ophthalmology and then did a fellowship in vitreoretinal surgery - who treats patients with retinal diseases and teaches medical students, residents, and fellows. I am also a machine learning and image analysis expert, with a MS in Computer Science focused on Artificial Intelligence, and a PhD in image analysis - Jan Koenderink was one of my advisors. 1989-1990 I was postdoc in Tokyo, Japan, at the RIKEN neural networks research lab. I was one of the original contributors of ImageJ, a widely used open source image analysis app. I have published over 250 peer reviewed journal papers (h-index 53) on AI, image analysis, and retina, am past Editor of the journals IEEE TMI and IOVS, and editor of Nature Scientific Reports, and have 17 patents and 5 patent applications in this area. I am the Watzke Professor of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Electrical and Computer Engineering and Biomedical Engineering at the University of Iowa, and I am proud to say that my former graduate students are successful in AI all over the world. [More info on me on my faculty page](_URL_3_). I also am Founder and President of [IDx](_URL_1_), the company that sponsored the study we will be discussing and that markets the AI system, and thus have a conflict of interest. FDA and other regulatory agencies - depending on where you are located - regulate what I can and cannot say about the AI system performance, and I will indicate when that is the case. [More info on the AI system, called labelling, here](_URL_2_). I'll be in and out for a good part of the day, AMA! | [
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|
12qtgf | Might there be frozen seeds under antarcticas ice? Could they be dug out and planted again? | Hi Askscience!
I wondered what happened to all the seeds in antarctica. I'm aware than old seeds have been found/dug out in ancient graves that were still fertile.
Could it be that there are fertile seeds under the kilometers of ice above the antarctican mainland?
Thank you! | askscience | {
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"If there are seeds there they could possibly be coaxed into growing a plant. There was recently a group in Siberia that found a cache of seeds and plant mater frozen in the permafrost and was able to grow a 32000 year old flower from the placenta of the flower and that flower was able to reproduce. This essentially resurrected the species. They were unable to get any of the seeds to sprout however and the article points to other studies that after 160 years only 2 percent of seeds stored at -7c will be able to sprout. The current record holder is a seed that was roughly 2000 years old. \n\nSo if it was under the ice for more than 160 years the answer is maybe if you want it to germinate on it's own. If science is allowed to help it along the answer is probably.\n\n_URL_0_",
"[palaeogeneticists say](_URL_2_) anything more that 1.5million years is highly unlikely.\n\n[Scientists say](_URL_2_) Antarctica was warm 20 million years ago... I can't find a resource for when it froze over.",
"Russian Scientist [bore](_URL_4_) into an Ancient Arctic lake, but inital samples are ['lifeless'](_URL_3_)",
"Is there any original land surface left from when it was last ice free?\n\nOr would glaciation have scraped that off down to bedrock millions of years ago.",
"_URL_5_\n\n > The intermediate portion of the record is dominated by large fluctuations in the mass of the Antarctic ice sheet, which first nucleates approximately 34 million years ago, then partially dissipates around 25 million years ago, before re-expanding towards its present state 13 million years ago.\n\n[DNA would be completely destroyed](\n_URL_7_) after 13 million years, so the answer is no.\n\n > The team predicts that even in a bone at an ideal preservation temperature of −5 ºC, effectively every bond would be destroyed after a maximum of 6.8 million years. The DNA would cease to be readable much earlier — perhaps after roughly 1.5 million years, when the remaining strands would be too short to give meaningful information.\n\nedit: On the other hand, there's [this article](_URL_6_) from 1986 that claims a temperate forest might have existed 3 million years ago. That still doesn't sound too hopeful for DNA recovery, but it's getting closer. Is it known when Antarctica became 100% frozen for good?\n\nedit2: Not sure why I didn't consider it, but the ice sheets are in motion even at the bottom. Anything on the surface of Antarctica was certainly pulverized by glaciation a very long time ago.",
"Recent news: [32,000 year old seed germinated.] (_URL_8_)",
"I don't think there'd be much chance of growing seeds that had been buried in ice for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, but I think people answering this question should consider that the ocean is a source of seeds too. Numerous species are spread by floating seeds. There could be places where floating seeds became embedded in the ice in the last few tens of thousand years and maybe those could contain viable tissue, like [this plant](_URL_9_) grown from tissue from a 32,000 year old seed in Siberian permafrost.",
"This question has two parts:\n\n1. Biology: can seeds be viable after being frozen for long time periods?\n\n2. Glaciology: Are there environments underneath the Antarctic ice sheets that would be conducive to the preservation of seeds, and how long would the seeds have to last?\n\nThis thread has had many answers from the Biology side of this question, but not that many from the Glaciology side. I am a graduate student in the earth sciences, but I am specifically studying Glaciology, and I am even more specifically studying subglacial water, so I am going to give this question a go.\n\nFirst of all, there is no one date when Antarctica became ice covered. Even today there are still exposed areas (1-2% of the continent). In addition, glaciation has been cyclical. The size and extent of the ice sheets is driven rhythmically by periodic changes in Earth's orbit ([Milankovitch cycles](_URL_17_): approximately 20 ka, 40 ka, and 100 ka). The size and extent of the ice sheets also changes on longer timescales. [East Antarctica](_URL_16_) first became widely glaciated ~34 mya. East Antarctic glaciation was widespread but not total, and the extent of the ice sheet fluctuated. There is evidence for several paleo ice margins buried underneath the present ice sheet [(Young and others, 2011)](_URL_12_). This means that large portions of East Antarctica alternated between ice-covered and exposed for tens of millions of years. East Antarctica become fully ice covered at around 14 mya, but [West Antarctica](_URL_13_) was still only intermittently glaciated. Ice expanded in the cold orbital cycles and retreated in the warm ones. Over time glaciation increased. By ~3 mya West Antarctica was more glaciated than not [(Pollard and DeConto, 2009)](_URL_19_), but even in the last few hundred thousand years there have been times when the West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapsed. \n\nHowever, this is not just a matter of a tough little seed putting on a show of endurance and waiting out the long winter in a pristine frozen cocoon. The underside of the Antarctic ice sheet is a dynamic environment. The surface may be bitterly cold, but the underside of the ice sheet is warmed by both geothermal heat and the frictional heat of the ice sheet itself. Subglacial meltwater is quite common. In places it collects in large lakes (like [Lake Vostok](_URL_10_), which may have microbial life). It also travels great distances [(Fricker and others, 2007)](_URL_11_), sometimes via catastrophic floods [(Wingham and others, 2006)](_URL_18_). It causes the ice sheet to slide faster by lubrication [(Stearns and others, 2008)](_URL_15_), and in places refreezes back onto the base of the ice sheet [(Bell and others, 2011)](_URL_14_). A seed that is prematurely thawed, taken for a hundred kilometer ride down a turbulent high-pressure water channel, ground to a fine powder by three kilometers of slowly but inexorably sliding ice, refrozen and sheared, and finally dropped off in the open ocean by an iceberg is unlikely to be viable. There are a few places where the subglacial environment is likely to have remained frozen and immobile throughout glaciation, but they are the exception rather than the rule.\n\n**TL;DR** Antarctic glaciation is dynamic. There is no one time in the past when glaciation \"turned on\", and the subglacial environment is really mean to seeds.\n\nEdit: formatting.",
"Could there be an entire civilization buried under the ice sheet that pre-dates the last ice-age? Just curious if actually possible, not suggesting it is real.",
"I dare say yes:\nThis has been quite successfully done by a Russian group who found caches of prehistoric seeds secreted by foraging forest-animals. They were found in Permafrost. If you read there are many conditions that have to be perfect to get good DNA capabale of bringing back a whole plant, but I have no doubt there would be enough material hidden somewhere.\n\n_URL_22_\n\n_URL_21_\n\n_URL_20_"
],
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/21/science/new-life-from-an-arctic-flower-that-died-32000-years-ago.html",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2161105/NASA-discovers-Antarctica-pretty-warm-7C-20million-years-ago--did-rain-lot.html",
"http://www.nature.com/news/dna-has-a-521-year-half-life-1.11555",
"http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/10/19/first-lake-vostok-samples-lifeless-but-american-scientist-says-thats-not-conclusive",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/09/world/europe/russian-scientists-bore-into-ancient-antarctic-lake.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:65_Myr_Climate_Change.png",
"http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-4164401.html",
"http://www.nature.com/news/dna-has-a-521-year-half-life-1.11555",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/02/120221-oldest-seeds-regenerated-plants-science/",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/02/120221-oldest-seeds-regenerated-plants-science/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Vostok",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/315/5818/1544",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v474/n7349/full/nature10114.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6024/1592",
"http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v1/n12/full/ngeo356.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7087/full/nature04660.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v458/n7236/full/nature07809.html",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/109/10/4008",
"http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/02/22/3436826.htm",
"http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/21/life-resurrected-from-prehistoric-seeds/"
]
} | Might there be frozen seeds under antarcticas ice? Could they be dug out and planted again?
Hi Askscience! I wondered what happened to all the seeds in antarctica. I'm aware than old seeds have been found/dug out in ancient graves that were still fertile. Could it be that there are fertile seeds under the kilometers of ice above the antarctican mainland? Thank you! | [
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|
ohorf | Is there anything a person can do to increase their reasoning ability? | I'm not talking about getting an education or learning how to make logical arguments. I'm talking about the pure mental ability to reason and draw connections etc. Do those brain age games really exercise your noggin and produce any gains? Are there vitamins or "brain foods" that stimulate more neural growth? Do certain activities like recreational reading, playing chess, or lucid dreaming improve mental performance when done consistently? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3hd8c7",
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],
"text": [
"You have to be careful when you say \"reasoning ability\" as a general encompassing function.\n\nFor example, let's talk about \"draw[ing] connections\". Suppose I ask you to give me a word that goes with \"crab\", \"pine\", and \"sauce\". The answer is \"apple\". You can solve that problem by inserting a bunch of random words, but sometimes you'll solve it via \"insight\" - it will just come to you. That's one type of connection-making, and there are certain ways you can improve your ability to do that, such as attempting the problems at particular times of day, or when you're particularly relaxed. (this example comes from the article \"The Eureka Hunt\", by Jonah Lehrer...fascinating read if you're interested in insight)\n\nOn the other hand, when you say \"draw[ing] connections\" you could mean noticing patterns in data, rather than drawing from memory. Raven's Progressive Matricies is an example of that, and ElChupacabras666's answer talks about some techniques that seem to improve that (difficult working memory tasks). Note though that the same authors of the original n-back training study (from 2008) did a follow-up (_URL_0_) that shows that not everyone seems to benefit.\n\n\nFrom a more practical standpoint remember that scientists that publish these studies are demonstrating *statistically significant* gains in scores on a standardized test of fluid intelligence. This might, but does not necessarily, translate into a *practically significant* increase in what you or others perceive as \"your intelligence\". Working as a neuroscientist, I feel that taking an hour of time to read more of the literature makes me more \"intelligent\" than taking an hour of time to do n-back problems. Directly, I learn more about my field. Indirectly, I add to the database of methods and experiments my unconscious can drag up and connect to come up with a new idea. So it might be worth improving your crystalized intelligence instead :)",
"Yes. Dual N Back _URL_2_\nAlso, your brain requires adequate nutrition. \n_URL_2_ has a vast amount of information on the subject. It would do you some good to read and try to understand it yourself. Use it or lose it. Literally.",
"Ben Goldacre's excellent book 'bad science' goes in to some detail about data on brain training games showing that they only help you get better at the specific game task and that fish-oil supplements are still on trial as far as the science goes. (Studies showing positive effects had a lot of potential for placebo effect as kids were told that the fish oil would make them clever) read more at his site _URL_3_ \n\nLearning a foreign language and learning a musical instrument are often cited as ways to improve brain function. And there does seem to be concrete evidence that they work which so far has stood up to scrutiny. \n\n_URL_5_\n_URL_4_\n\nThese aren't quick fixes, they require a lot of mental effort and time, but there seems to be an effect above and beyond the mere increased attention span required. \n\nThere's a lot of complexity to this question which makes judging one technique over another something of a minefield. Even whether you need to urinate can have an impact (see the recent ignoble prizes)"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/06/03/1103228108.abstract",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/intelligence/",
"http://brainworkshop.sourceforge.net/",
"http://www.badscience.net/",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=bilingual-brains",
"http://www.livescience.com/1388-playing-music-smart.html"
]
} | Is there anything a person can do to increase their reasoning ability?
I'm not talking about getting an education or learning how to make logical arguments. I'm talking about the pure mental ability to reason and draw connections etc. Do those brain age games really exercise your noggin and produce any gains? Are there vitamins or "brain foods" that stimulate more neural growth? Do certain activities like recreational reading, playing chess, or lucid dreaming improve mental performance when done consistently? | [
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|
x0whd | Is there any scientific/statistical validity to the phenomenon of "beginner's luck"? | I think we'd all agree that there isn't some fairy who makes you better or more successful at something when you are new at it, so why does this saying exist? Is it merely that everything seems more successful with lower expectations for being new? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5i7z77",
"c5i9men",
"c72fxds"
],
"text": [
"There is definitely one explanation I can think of, which is that when someone is just starting a game they won't necessarily play the \"conventional\" moves their opponent expects, so the opponent has to deviate from their normal play style to accommodate this change, which gives them an opportunity to screw up. In short, beginners are unpredictable, and that unpredictability can help them win even against opponents who objectively have more skill.\n\nLooking online to check this explanation I found [this](_URL_0_) - number 3 is more or less what I was describing. The other explanations also seem reasonable.",
"While there is no such thing as \"luck\", as trickyben2 pointed out, sometimes someone who lacks experience can turn in rather amazing performances by \"doing it wrong.\"\n\nI do not have the reference at hand, but I recall reading some years ago of the discovery of a previously unknown facial muscle by a medical student who performed a cadaver dissection \"incorrectly.\"\n\nSomewhat less cerebral but nonetheless illustrative: A few years ago a first-time turkey hunter named Sandy Oskamp harvested what at the time was a world record Rio Grande turkey. Oskamp did not know you were supposed to hide, call, and ambush turkey, so when he heard one gobble, he went looking for it, found it, and shot it after a brief chase.\n\nI prefer the term \"inexperience paradox\" over \"beginner's luck.\"",
"Well, this is 3 months late, I know, but someone just linked this in /r/poker and at least for poker (and gambling games generally), the perception of beginner's luck isn't accidental.\n\nGambling games are designed quite specifically to be high variance, especially for beginners where possible. Basically, you want new players to win big early on if at all possible, because this gets them hooked, and a game that does this well is going to be more popular and successful than a game that doesn't. A large fraction of people with gambling problems had a big win early in their careers. If the casinos could guarantee an early win to all players without risking that they take the cash and never come back, they'd do it.\n\nAn accidental result of this is that by increasing the number of opportunities for a beginning player to win big, you provide more data points subject to confirmation bias in favor of the \"beginner's luck\" theory.\n\nIn poker in particular new players tend call far too often with weak hands (almost without fail). The result is that hands that would end early between expert players, reducing variance, play out to the end, and provide many opportunities for the new player to get lucky. So in poker, and many other games that mix skill and chance, a beginner is actually *more* likely to get \"lucky\" and win big than an expert (and of course more likely to get unlucky and lose big too)."
],
"score": [
9,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beginner's_luck"
]
} | Is there any scientific/statistical validity to the phenomenon of "beginner's luck"?
I think we'd all agree that there isn't some fairy who makes you better or more successful at something when you are new at it, so why does this saying exist? Is it merely that everything seems more successful with lower expectations for being new? | [
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1m6euh | About that large aquifer discovered in Kenya recently - could similar undiscovered aquifers exist anywhere in the world? If not, what areas remain unexplored? | The aquifer in question:
_URL_0_
Does anyone know how the aquifer was discovered? Were they looking for underground water or was this from petroleum exploration? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Aquifers can exist almost anywhere. Have you ever wondered why Nebraska is such a huge farming state?\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThey pull the water up from beneath ground using a pump and use the water to sustain the crops. What's happening right now is farmers in Nebraska and in other places are unwittingly heavily salting their soil they plant their crops in.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThe water pulled up from aquifers is ancient and has been wearing away at the rocks that contain it. Therefore the water contains a high level of minerals. Water slowly drains into them over thousands of years. Once you drain an aquifer, the water is gone.",
"Could artificial aquifers be created by pumping saltwater on to desert? Or would it take too long to filter?",
"tldr; The earth is cool.\n\nUndiscovered aquifers undoubtedly exist everywhere. Especially depending on your definition of an aquifer. I think most laymen picture an aquifer as a cave containing a giant underwater ocean. This is actually very rare. An aquifer is a bunch of rocks or sediment saturated with liquid water.\n\nThere are several problems with finding aquifers. The one in Kenya is reported as being only 300 meters under ground. Most aquifers most likely remain undetected because they are so deep. The techniques described in the article only really work at shallow depths. Radar technologies are one of the principle methods of finding anything below kilometers of rock, but at extremely depths the returning signals are so weak that they are indistinguishable from earthquakes (microquakes which are happening at all times that is).\n\nAnother issue with detection is that many aquifers are contained, which just means they are surrounded fully or on top with impermeable or very weakly permeable material. The easiest way to find an aquifer is someone wakes up one morning to a fountain in their back yard. This can't happen with contained aquifers. \n\n\nNow a general comment about this aquifer and aquifers in general.\n\nThe majority of aquifers in the world currently being exploited are very small in capacity. Purely statistically, large aquifers are rarer and are less likely to be convenient. A large aquifer will cost tens of billions to trillions of dollars, and decades, to develop. This is a big commitment for any government, while a small aquifer can be payed for by the county or state.\n\nThe aquifer in Kenya is not a big a deal as I feel they make it out to be. It contains 9x more water than all of Kenya has in reserve. The problem is you don't get this water out overnight, and you don't get it out for free. And people need water now. Kenya is a developing country with few professionals that could be hired to do the required labour, and no megalo-corporations with the capital to make this sort of investment. With all the billions the west sends to Africa, this aquifer would probably be a very good target.\n\nThere is no lack of water in Kenya; there is a lack of clean water. However, water from the aquifer is not clean. The aquifer is hardly a \"game changer\" as the article put it. Aquifers are a huge deal in certain situations. This is not one of them. There are cheaper and more readily available ways of purifying water. For example, Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water lake in the world, and the Kilimanjaro mountain ranges providing millions of litres of runoff every season.\n\nAlready been mentioned is the Ogallala aquifer. It seems to be fairly well known, most likely because of the huge impact it had on American farming. During the dust bowl of the 30s, water was a huge scarcity. There was no rain for months at a time, unlike in Kenya, which mostly sees a tropical climate. The tech to exploit the aquifer did not exist at that time, but around the 50s, farming became a lot more secure and profitable when people finally did figure out how to get water out of there (remember, your crops don't really give a shit about the minerals in the water, at least not as much as people do). These days it is used to supply the majority of the middle of the US with drinking water, due to cheap and simple filtration techniques.\n\nWhat about the biggest arid wasteland in the world: inland Australia? Where do they get their water? Turns out there is an aquifer there: the Great Artesian Basin. This thing is actually great. It contains an estimated 64900 km^3 of water, compared to Ogallala, which contains and estimated 3,608 km^3 (just around 5%), and it is being depleted alarmingly fast (3-5% per year, based on most recent data), and also compared to the Kenya aquifer, which contains a measly 200 km^3. If the entire volume of the Kenya aquifer were added to Ogallala, it would be gone in a year.\n\nBack to the Aussies. There is no water to be seen in the middle of Australia. The coastal areas are at least not as arid, but not much cooler, so drinking and irrigation water is much more important than in, say Kenya, to the survival of the average human being. Some of the continent is protected by mountains (something like 90% of the population lives in these areas - what a surprise). Australia is habitable largely due to the GAB. There is literally no other reliable source of water on the continent. Rain is dictated mostly by ocean currents which are very fickle and so precipitation varies massively from year to year. \n\nAs a side note, the most recent data indicates that the GAB is depleted by about 0.6 km^3 per year, compared to the 3-400 of the Ogallala.\n\n\nSources: wikipedia, duh. I also have a degree in earth/enviro sciences.",
"I had a professor tell me siberia is one of the most minerally abundant places in the world, but it is to difficult to extract them. Can anyone with more expertise elaborate on this?",
"I have always wondered this same question..as well as if aquifers have to exist just under dry land. Are there any aquifers under the oceans?",
"These ones appear to be found as a part of a concerted effort to map groundwater, which exist almost everywhere as it happens! These aquifers were found via satellite. I daresay more will be found, but it is a matter of money. In some countries all they can do is sink bores and hope.\n\n_URL_2_"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.itv.com/news/2013-09-10/kenya-water-aquifer-found-in-lotikipi/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinity",
"http://www.sabc.co.za/news/a/4ecf3900410ecd98bc48bcd93e1dcbd3/Huge-water-reservoirs-discovered-in-dry-Northern-Kenya-20131109"
]
} | About that large aquifer discovered in Kenya recently - could similar undiscovered aquifers exist anywhere in the world? If not, what areas remain unexplored?
The aquifer in question: _URL_0_ Does anyone know how the aquifer was discovered? Were they looking for underground water or was this from petroleum exploration? | [
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|
6tgg95 | Did dinosaurs urinate like mammals or poo uric acid like birds? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I believe they urinated as if you look at [coprolite](_URL_0_) (fossilised feces) of dinosaurs it looks like solid lumps which would suggest it's feces was solid and wasn't uric acid like birds.",
"Most animals with shelled eggs produce uric acid. The developing embryo produces nitrogen waste; if it excretes as urea the egg will contain increasingly large concentrations, whereas uric acid can precipitate and sit at the bottom of the shell harmlessly.\n\nBased on that, I would conjecture that most dinosaurs excreted uric acid. But given the wide variability amongst modern reptiles, there were probably also some species that excreted urea... And possibly even some species that could do both.",
"Birds are modern-day dinosaurs, phylogenetically. Their closest modern-day relatives are crocodiles.\n\nBirds are uricotelic (excreting nitrogen via uric acid), while crocodiles are ammono-uricotelic (excreting nitrogen via uric acid and ammonia). Most likely, dinosaurs would be in that same range, relying primarily on uric acid.\n\nIt's entirely possible there were variations in this between species. Just like it's been postulated that some birds can partially switch to ammonotely in situations where that's more efficient (making uric acid costs energy, so if you're calorie-restricted but ingesting lots of nitrogen and water, excreting ammonia would be preferable).",
"\"Dinosaurs\" is a huge amount of animals spanning 232 million years filling every conceivable ecological niche. \n \nBirds are dinosaurs. So their close relatives, the Theropods would have very similar digestive systems. \n\nKeep going back and you end up with crocodiles and their relatives that branched out to be mammals and their other relatives that became dinosaurs. \n\nEvolution is just a few gene tweaks that can cause a Great Dane or a Chihuahua. But the basic things that make every vertebrate function don't really change much across the millenia. \nModern birds still have the tiny urinary bladder (originally evolved in fish) that doesn't really do a whole lot. They need to lose weight to run fast and fly and carrying a bag of waste water is just slowing you down.",
"It's called mute, not poo :-) and it's not all uric acid.\n\nTaken from the modern apprentice:\nThere are three parts to a mute:\n\nFecal - the semi-solid mass, frequently this is colored\n\nUrate - white, chalky material - the crystalline uric acid that is the result of protein metabolism\n\nUrine - clear water that flushes the waste from the system",
"Birds are optimized for being very light for their size and strength. Pterodactyls most likely had similar optimization. Heavier dinosaurs might not be optimized differently. This could affect their digestive system and how they got rid of waste."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprolite"
]
} | Did dinosaurs urinate like mammals or poo uric acid like birds?
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||
50exnw | Why can't an A/C unit also double as a heating unit? | [deleted] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d73qz6a",
"d73tajy",
"d73ub39"
],
"text": [
"In principle it **can**.\nAn air conditioner is in principle a heat pump, pumping heat e.g. from your room to the outside (just like a refrigerator). So in principle (depending on how the A/C unit is build) it can also pump heat from the outside into your room to heat.\n\nSo the reason why **your** A/C unit cannot double as a heating unit is, because it is constructed this way (it cannot be reversed).\n\nIf you want to know more about how this works and why people might chose to not build an A/C as a heating unit (e.g.: not so efficient if its water freezing temperature outside), you can read [here](_URL_0_).",
"Do you mean as an efficient design or in principle? In principle of course it could easily be used as a heating unit. Just stick the part that outputs cold air outside and the heat exhaust vent on the inside. For a window unit this means just flipping it, for a portable unit it means putting the unit outside and putting the exhaust pipe piping in.",
"There are heat pumps used for heating houses. They are built differently from a window unit, though: They take the heat from the ground.\n\nThe big problem with heat pumps is condensation. So when you run your window unit in reverse the outside would catch a lot of condensation and you would have to defrost them on a regular basis."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning#Heat_pump_unit"
]
} | Why can't an A/C unit also double as a heating unit?
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2lkqah | Could science ever truly bring back an extinct species, such as the Tasmanian tiger or similar? If so, why hasn't it been done yet? | askscience | {
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"It has already been done on an extinct species of goat: _URL_0_\n\nGranted, the last of this species only died in 2000 and cellular samples had been gathered and carefully preserved. \n\nIf I am not mistaken, the biggest hurdle in such an endeavour is obtaining complete and undamaged genetic material from which to clone. The second significant problem (in mammals, at least) is finding a host mother biologically close enough to the extinct species to be able to accept and carry the embryo/fetus to term.",
"One of the major problems with bringing back a species via cloning is that you'll have zero genetic diversity. Unless you have tens or hundreds of sources to clone from, there's no way to establish a viable breeding population. No matter how many Tasmanian tigers/dodo birds/velociraptors you clone, inbreeding will wipe them out in a few generations.",
"_URL_1_\n\nWe're getting pretty close, one of the problems is who's gonna teach the new-born whatever how to be a whatever",
"The behavior of an advanced animal like a Tasmanian tiger is partially learned behavior. Is a tiger that doesn't know how to hunt a tiger? We may be able to create a genetic replica of a Tasmanian tiger, but we'll only see the behaviors that are manifest through instinct. \n\nThis is not purely a semantic distinction. A human being growing up without human interaction does not develop the same way as you or I; his/her brain will not mature the way a normal human brain will. [1] We would still call such a person a human, but he/she would hardly be representative of the human species. \n\n1 [Corfas et al. \"A Critical Period for Social Experience–Dependent Oligodendrocyte Maturation and Myelination.\" *Science* September, 2012.](_URL_2_)",
"Another thing to mention is what would be the function of bringing back an extinct species?\n\nLet's say you are able to jump all the hurdles in regards to having enough DNA, a biologically fit carrier to reproduce the extinct species, and enough genetic diversity to have a viable breeding population... then what?\n\nBringing back a species to be able to say we did it is cool and all, but there should be a functioning reason for doing so.\n\nA big issue is whether we should try to bring back the megafauna of North America (giant sloths, deer, etc) to return it to it's natural state. Sloths were keystone species that would knock over trees and either create or destroy habitat. \n\nBUT a lot of the habitat that the sloth occupied is either no longer their or changed from it's original condition. So while it is a unique idea to \"revert\" north america back to it's original condition before many megafauna went extinct, it's not really practical because the habitat for said megafauna is no longer intact. We would be reintroducing species into a world that is no longer fit for them.\n\nI do believe that there are opportunities for this to work though. Just off the top of my head I remember reading about the idea of reintroducing the dodo bird to an island. Supposedly a certain tree from this island would germinate after the bird ate it. This tree has been almost wiped out, but could come back barring the introduction of the species it relied on (the dodo bird) and could help revert the island back to a more ecologically balanced state.",
"I'm always stunned that people never think of what would likely be the real problem with bringing back an extinct species - environmental dependence. \n\nSure, maybe you could bring an organism to term but would it survive without the same gut flora and fauna its ancestors had? Without the immunities that have been created since then?\n\nLife is a system and the boundary between organism and environment may be largely illusory.",
"Tasmanian here. There was actually a discussion about whether to do this a couple of years ago. Since the Thylacine died out pretty recently there are some pretty well preserved specimens, which have been used to sequence the species genome. This means it is maybe possible to essentially clone a Thylacine from these samples. There was also talk of having a dog act as the surrogate mother.\n\nMany would love to bring the iconic animal back into existence, but the issue is that the ecosystem here has been without a predator like the Tassie Tiger for decades now and reintroducing it could cause issues for the extant wildlife.",
"If we just wanted zoo creatures, I believe this is possible \n\nHowever, watch this Nature episode on [saving a baby Sea Otter](_URL_3_). The zoo workers had to cover their faces so the baby wouldn't bond to them and they had to introduce a foster sea otter mom to teach the young sea otter pup important things like \"what to eat\" and how to eat it. So there is learned behavior from the extinct animals that will be forever lost.",
"These creatures went extinct for a reason. It's unlikely the situation has improved. \n\nWe already have plenty of trouble keeping all these threatened-but-extant species from going extinct, once we've identified a problem.\n\nTake the dodo bird. Before man arrived on Mauritius, it had no natural predators. It makes ground nests. Man brought rats, pigs, and monkeys that pillaged the nests. Even if you managed to exterminate wild pigs and monkeys, you will never eradicate all rats from this island- or anywhere, really. Even if you suddenly created a genetically diverse colony of 500 dodo birds, there is virtually no place on Earth they could live outside of captivity.\n\nNow lots of bird species make ground nests. But it's a matter of how they live and what predators they've evolved strategies to defend against. Most seek to hide their nests. They'll aggressively defend the nest, and may do so collectively. If the species doesn't have the instinct, editing in such an instinct genetically seems unlikely. They won't survive without intervention, like a zoo with rat control.\n\nMany species went extinct because they had very specific habitats that no longer exist, or don't exist widely enough with the proper distribution for this animal to survive.",
"A common misconception is to think that all the information you need is in the DNA, that it is a universal language to describe an animal. Actually if you want to make a computer analogy, DNA would be like a program but running on a different machine for every species. Supposing you manage to make a viable egg from your DNA (which in itself already supposes you have an ovule of the correct species) you need a \"compatible\" uterus that can allow the DNA instructions to express themselves as the intended embryonic development. But put a goat egg in a cow uterus, despite all the DNA information being present, the embryo will be unable to develop correctly.\n\nThe fun thing is, we do have all the information to describe the uterus in the DNA but would be unable to interpret it without the uterus. That is, pretty much literally, the chicken and egg problem.",
"It hasn't been done yet because it is at least extremely difficult, if not impossible.\n\nThere are a number of attempts that are ongoing, one example is the aurochs, which is the wild animal from which cows were domesticated. The idea is that by splicing together DNA from different types of cows that all descended from the original species but were separated out at different times and different places, a breeding population that closely resembles the original can be created.\n\nThe issue is that it won't exactly be the same, so you have to decide how close it has to get to count as being back.\n\nThere are other species that people want to revive too, including the passenger pigeon and the woolly mammoth.",
"Another hurdle that people are overlooking are the complexities that proteomics and epigenetics add to the mix. DNA is actively being edited, suppressed, silenced, and upregulated by these other molecules. \n\nTo bring back a viable extinct species, we would also need to understand more about these regulatory mechanisms and how important they are in determining genetic makeup. \n\nThere are also plenty of animals that learn critical behaviors from their parents or are born into a community that aids in their survival. I'm not sure how you could replicate that in the lab.",
"Most people here are focusing on Jurassic Park-style cloning, but there is also the potential (sort of) to bring back extinct species through human-directed evolution. For example, check out this article:\n \n_URL_4_\n\nTo follow your example, by breeding Tasmanian devils and selecting for the characteristics of their extinct relatives, you could eventually get to something that looked like a Tasmanian tiger. Note that this would probably take a prohibitively long time, and taxonomists would argue that all you've done is create a new species, not revive the old one.",
"Well, I came here hoping for some more encouraging news concerning a possible Kickstarter on pet dinosaurs ... but alas, not so much. Perhaps if cloning dinosaurs is out of the question, could we just begin bio-engineering from a current species to at least make something look like a dinosaur. I'd be happy with that in the mean time while we're sorting out the cloning issues.",
"I dunno jack, but this is a great episode of the Joe rogan experience with Trevor Valle host of *mammoth unearthed* and they go on in a conversation about how its possible but not yet. PEACE! \n\n_URL_5_",
"I wrote a feature about doing this with passenger pigeons for the Washington Post and I have another one running next week about the 'chickenosaurus.' These are part of a series I'm writing on de-extinction for the Post that will also include woolly mammoths, extinct plants, neanderthals, etc.\n\nWhat I've found interviewing some of the world's foremost experts in these various fields is that there is lot a lot of bullshit being bandied about. Some of these species will very likely be brought back while others are never going to happen. Most of the reporting on these projects has been way too optimistic and the journalists did not bother to read the scientific papers or talk to other people in the field. In some cases, we will be able to make a living cell line but won't have a way of developing those cells or blastocysts into the complete, mature organism. Plants are going very well and there is great hope for recently extinct species that have closely related relatives still alive.\n\nLong story short, the process is very expensive and most scientists don't want to stray outside of the conventional grant-writing process into the world of Kickstarter. Jack Horner told me in an interview (running next Tuesday in the Post) that George Lucas has personally funded most of the work for Chickenosaurus so far but they need another $5M or so to get it done in the next 5 years.\n\n_URL_6_",
"I saw a program on lions that cataloged descriptions of big, North African lions with blackish manes of hair from the height of the Roman Empire. I guess these lions were trapped, hunted and killed to near extinction by humans - they were likely the lions featured and were killed in the Colosseum. They survived by interbreeding with other lions from other parts of Africa - they were large, after all. So in pure-bred form they no longer exist.\nSo this long walk leads to the possibility that, through genetic testing and selective breeding, this genetic line could be resurrected over a period of generation. This theory could be applied to other species I suspect. It's not very Jurrasic-Parkey, but we have the technology now.",
"In theory we could at some point if we are able to perfect growing creatures in a lab rather than a womb. Then through careful enough manipulation of DNA and trial and error we could. But that technology is very distant from now, probably slightly unethical, and almost certainly not valuable enough for people to invest in.",
"It depends on the species as well. One species will evolve into other species by the presence of certain environmental conditions. If the environmental niche is destroyed, a species that is not robust enough to survive in alternative conditions will pass right back out of existence unless they can be artificially sustained.",
"There is also backbreeding. This [New Yorker article](_URL_7_) has always stuck with me because of the amazing way the scene is described. Although this isn't a genetic copy, it (sort of?) suffices."
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"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093691X08007784",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140831-passenger-pigeon-martha-deextinction-dna-animals-species/",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/337/6100/1357.abstract",
"http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/saving-otter-501/video-sea-otter-pup-lessons/8472/",
"http://www.wired.com/2011/09/ff_chickensaurus/all/",
"http://www.stitcher.com/podcast/the-joe-rogan-experience/e/565-trevor-valle-35772071",
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/scientists-look-to-revive-the-long-extinct-passenger-pigeon/2013/07/08/3d1323d4-b9a1-11e2-aa9e-a02b765ff0ea_story.html",
"http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/24/recall-of-the-wild"
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} | Could science ever truly bring back an extinct species, such as the Tasmanian tiger or similar? If so, why hasn't it been done yet?
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