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mvb8r | What are some of the "mountains of evidence" for evolution? | After escaping my fundie family, I need help. I have just become an agnostic atheist, and I've been watching some of the work of Richard Dawkins and Christopher Hitchens on YouTube. Often, they and others mention that there are "mountains of evidence" for evolution, but don't go into specifics.
Here's the thing: I was brought up in a homeschool environment where the Bible was the supreme authority and evolution was evil, out of the question.
Now, I know that when my family finds out about my agnosticism that they will wonder why I think that way. In particular, they will wonder why I accept the theory of evolution. I know that acceptance of evolution is not absolutely necessary to be an atheist. But, as a person who wants to embrace rational thinking, I want to consider the evidence and be able to defend the theory.
Right now, I don't have the evidence to counter my family's potential arguments. If you can help me understand, in relatively simple terms that they will be able to comprehend, some of the rock-solid evidence for evolution, I would really, really appreciate it.
In particular, I am interested in learning about the genetic evidence, the fossil record, and radioisotope dating, as those are some of the evidences that I have heard "refuted" my entire life.
Also, if there are any good documentaries, books, etc. that you recommend that I purchase so that I can really understand this subject, I would greatly appreciate it.
EDIT: wow, you guys are so awesome! Thank you so much for all of the great ideas. The ones that I'm going to read first are "The Greatest Show on Earth," "Why Evolution is True," and _URL_0_.
I need all the help I can get. Please, let me know what else I should know. | askscience | {
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"I'd strongly recommend Richard Dawkin's book [The Greatest Show on Earth](_URL_1_).\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is an extract from the first chapter.",
"_URL_2_ does a great job for directly addressing creationist arguments",
"My favorite piece of evidence is the domestication of the wolf. Every dog you've ever seen is a direct evolutionary descendent from wolf. We know this for a fact.",
"This wikipedia article might be a good place to start:\n_URL_3_",
"Just to get things the words straight: evolution is an observed fact; the theory part gets involved in explaining how it happened. The current favored model is that natural selection is the driving process behind evolution. The distinction is important or you'll keep tripping on the language.\n\nBesides that: I've got trouble understanding the fundie mindset about this. Even the Vatican has no problem with Darwins model!",
"Remember, if they try to say, \"Well how come apes didn't evolve but we did\"\n\nthen say, \"if europeans moved to america, then why are there still europeans???\"",
"29+ lines of evidence for macroevolution _URL_5_ with my personal favorite being _URL_4_\nMost creationist misconceptions and misrepresentations adressed at: _URL_6_",
"Sidenote: Evolutionary Theory / the theory of evolution is not the same as \"evolution\". It chagrins me much to hear them used so interchangeably. Evolution is an observable process while Evolutionary Theory tells us *how and why* that process happens; evolution is just a change between species, Evolutionary Theory is natural selection, sexual selection, artificial selection, genetic drift, altruistic evolution, multi-level selection, and the however many other explanations there are for the change.\n\nI wrote a lengthy paper on the problems of debating whether or not evolution occurs, on both the non-supporters' and supporters' sides. Long story short, it's not conducive to anything.",
"[This](_URL_7_) is slightly off topic but relevant. Also, if you believe god (or *a god*) created everything, there's no reason to think he didn't create the laws of physics and the system of evolution anyway.",
"This documentary explains Intelligent Design vs Evolution. _URL_8_",
"The technical literature is so overwhelming it literally takes decades to read. I've been reading up on evolutionary evidence since 1980 and am just falling further and further behind, because new evidence is published faster than I can read it. The best place to to start is the lay books that try to summarize it all, like:\n\nCarl Zimmer, \"Evolution: Triumph of an Idea\"\n\nJerry Coyne, \"Why Evolution Is True\"\n\nNeil Shubin, \"Your Inner Fish\"\n\nAnything by Richard Dawkins\n\nAnything by Stephen Jay Gould (some find him wordy, but I like him)\n\n_URL_9_ - best place for rebuttals to specific creationist claims. (disclaimer, I wrote the original, now-badly-outdated, transitional fossils article on t.o. Also the horse evolution article and some other stuff.)\n\nThen if you're really serious, dig into the real stuff. Most people don't get into this in this much depth, but I'm listing it here just so you have an idea where the actual body of evidence resides, and where you would go to examine the raw evidence yourself, if you ever wanted: (1) First pick up some used college textbooks in evolutionary biology, vertebrate paleontology, comparative vertebrate anatomy, evolutionary genetics, evo-devo and sedimentary geology. Those would give you the terminology & concepts needed to.... (2) Go through *all* the back issues of the science journals. For example to study the fossil record you would go look up the journals Evolution, Paleontology, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Paleobiology, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, (list truncated, there are a couple dozen or so others) and also search Science and Nature on the terms \"evolution\" and \"fossil\" to find the hot new fossil finds from each year. (I actually once flipped through every damn issue of all these journals back to the 1800s, just looking for transitional fossils. Took months and I found thousands, TENS of thousands, of transitional fossils, that, as far as I could tell, had never been compiled in one list before. J. Vert Paleo alone took weeks.) If you can't get access to these journals online, go to the nearest state university's science library - you can usually walk right in. You can get a lot on Google Scholar now too but there is something about going to the library and seeing the ENDLESS STACKS of the physical back issues of the old journals that really brings home how much data there really is.\n\nI cannot emphasize enough the HUGE HUGE HUGE body of work that is packed away in the hundreds of thousands of peer-reviewed research articles in the back issues of the science journals. It would take more than a lifetime to read it all. \n\n(3) If you enjoy 19th century writing, do read the Origin of Species. Darwin actually did quite an amazing job with that book and it is cool to see the care he took to try to test every possible aspect of his theory. Plus it's just interesting, from a historical point of view, to read the book that convinced the scientists of the time that evolution is true. \n\ntl;dr - Read all the things!",
"The other posts here have given good ideas on furthering your knowledge on the theory of evolution in the sense of the origin of species (ex: did humans have an ancestor with apes?).\n\nHowever, evolution in general can be interpreted as a consequence of statistics, and the combination of evolution and natural selection is useful in things like [genetic algorithms](_URL_13_). The most basic explanation is that random events tend to move towards a state of least energy, so if you define your fitness function on a population as having the least energy = being the most fit for an environment, then you can do things like make a ball find a low point in a graph, or optimize a windmill by evolving them.\n\nIf you don't know any programming, maybe the youtube vidoes below will help. It's not really evidence, but they are demonstrating that it doesn't matter if the origin of species is true or not, evolution by itself can be demonstrated through simulation (note that you can say the god is the creator of the program. That is another topic entirely, involving things like the origin of the universe or abiogenesis).\n\n[Evolving tree simulation](_URL_11_)\n\n[Evolving building simulation](_URL_12_)\n\n[Evolving clocks](_URL_10_)",
"According to my biology textbook, there are four types of evidence for evolution: direct observations of evolution (e.g. evolution of drug-resistant bacteria), homology (e.g. animals like bats, whales, cats, and humans having the same bones in their limbs), the fossil record, and biogeography (e.g. species living in the mountains of South America resembling other South American species more than species from African mountains).",
"I would also recommend the BBC doco on the Dover vs Kitzmiller case. They dramatized what the scientists gave as evidence for evolution. It was so good that the jury requested more explanations. \n\nIt's a very powerful documentary.",
"[This thread](_URL_14_) most likely won't answer your question, but it *might* be interesting to you."
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"url": [
"http://richarddawkins.net/articles/4217-extract-from-chapter-one-of-the-greatest-show-on-earth",
"http://www.amazon.com/Greatest-Show-Earth-Evidence-Evolution/dp/1416594787",
"talkorigins.org",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/section4.html#retroviruses",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html",
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/the-pope/8009299/Pope-Benedict-XVIs-astronomer-the-Catholic-Church-welcomes-aliens.html",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/intelligent-design-trial.html",
"Talkorigins.org",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcAq9bmCeR0",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZpW_ojpmTWk",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UE9W5BifhtQ&feature=related",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_algorithm",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mmbgf/a_question_from_a_christian_about_evolutionary/"
]
} | What are some of the "mountains of evidence" for evolution?
After escaping my fundie family, I need help. I have just become an agnostic atheist, and I've been watching some of the work of Richard Dawkins and Christopher Hitchens on YouTube. Often, they and others mention that there are "mountains of evidence" for evolution, but don't go into specifics. Here's the thing: I was brought up in a homeschool environment where the Bible was the supreme authority and evolution was evil, out of the question. Now, I know that when my family finds out about my agnosticism that they will wonder why I think that way. In particular, they will wonder why I accept the theory of evolution. I know that acceptance of evolution is not absolutely necessary to be an atheist. But, as a person who wants to embrace rational thinking, I want to consider the evidence and be able to defend the theory. Right now, I don't have the evidence to counter my family's potential arguments. If you can help me understand, in relatively simple terms that they will be able to comprehend, some of the rock-solid evidence for evolution, I would really, really appreciate it. In particular, I am interested in learning about the genetic evidence, the fossil record, and radioisotope dating, as those are some of the evidences that I have heard "refuted" my entire life. Also, if there are any good documentaries, books, etc. that you recommend that I purchase so that I can really understand this subject, I would greatly appreciate it. EDIT: wow, you guys are so awesome! Thank you so much for all of the great ideas. The ones that I'm going to read first are "The Greatest Show on Earth," "Why Evolution is True," and _URL_0_. I need all the help I can get. Please, let me know what else I should know. | [
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3yj330 | Why does a 2 degree temperature change have such dramatic effects on weather (such as superstorms, massive tornadoes, floods ect)? | Ok I'm getting really tired of explaining this over and over.
The system is non linear. Which by definition Means there can be massive fluctuations. The 2 degrees is not a uniform increase but the average. My question is simply: why is the system so volatile? Why is it not only non-linear, but sharply increases in amplitude with such a small change? Why is it rapidly heating and cooling in different areas? Why does the current state of earth have such small fluctuations compared to the forecast? What is a (mostly) inert gas (Or something else) doing that causes such massive fluctuations? I get the answer isn't simple but if your answer is simply "it's a nonlinear system", and you don't know why it is, please don't waste your time by commenting. | askscience | {
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"The system isn't \"finely tuned\". It is in a state of stability whereby the atmospheric state hovers around a mean value known colloquially as the \"climatological mean\", deviating from that mean in some ways that are more predictable (such as the annual cycle) and ways that are less predictable (such as moving through phases of known oscillations like El Nino / La Nina and through day-to-day weather). \n \nWhen you start messing with the system, like is being done with climate change, several things happen. You can start to move the climatological mean state around which the atmosphere hovers, which is represented sometimes by the 2C figure you are quoting. But that's not the only thing that changes. The way in which the atmospheric state hovers around that new climatological mean can also change, which includes larger deviations from the mean (hotter summers, colder winters, more intense storms), more frequent deviations from the mean, and aliasing that energy onto the more unpredictable state-changes the atmosphere may go through. \n \nThe atmosphere isn't finely tuned so much as it is in a state we are familiar with, with familiar deviations from a familiar climatological mean state. When that changes, the atmosphere can be pushed to a new mean state with new deviations from that state that we aren't as familiar with.",
"As a few other people have pointed out, the 2 degrees C marker isn't a hard-and-fast tipping point. That is, no one is claiming that keeping the global average temperature increase under 2 degrees C will guarantee no significant climate changes and that going beyond 2 degrees C will entail widespread catastrophic changes--it's not as if immediately upon reaching that point all hell will break loose.\n\nRather, the 2 degrees C marker is just the most widely agreed upon *conservative* estimate of the edge of climate stability. Virtually all models agree that if warming is kept *below* that point, we're unlikely to see catastrophic (in the technical sense) shifts in global climate patterns. Beyond that point, mainstream models begin to significantly diverge with regard to what we should expect; some models predict few significant changes at 3, 4, or even 5 degrees C, and some models predict *extremely* significant changes at 2.5 degrees C. The limit is just an instance of the application of the precautionary principle--it's the most conservative estimate of a safe-zone.\n\nSo, the most straightforward answer to your question:\n\n > Why does 2 degrees (C) push us over the tipping point\n\nis \"it doesn't necessarily.\" Rather, that's just the point where there starts to be significant uncertainty about what the effects will be.\n\n > why is our climate so [vulnerable] to a relatively small change\n\nThis is a much more general (and much better) question. The answer is that the global climate consists of a large number of coupled non-linear systems, and it's part of the *definition* of a non-linear system that a very small change can have a very big impact; non-linear systems don't respond to changes in a one-to-one (i.e. *linear*) manner, so (very roughly speaking) the size of an input is not always a reliable guide to the magnitude of the impact that input will have.\n\nThe best and most intuitive example of this with respect to the global climate is the proliferation of positive *feedback loops* in the climate system. Positive feedback mechanisms are those in which the action of the mechanism serves to increase the parameter representing the input of the mechanism itself. If the efficacy of the mechanism for producing some compound *A* depends (in part) on the availability of another compound *B* and the mechanism which produces compound *B* also produces compound *A*, then the operation of these two mechanisms can form a positive feedback loop—as more *B* is produced, more *A* is produced, which in turn causes *B* to be produced at a greater rate, and so on. \n\nConsider, for example, two teenage lovers (call them Romeo and Juliet) who are particularly receptive to each other’s affections. As Romeo shows more amorous interest in Juliet, she becomes more smitten with him as well. In response, Romeo—excited by the attention of such a beautiful young woman—becomes still more affectionate. Once the two teenagers are brought into the right sort of contact—once they’re aware of each other’s romantic feelings—their affection for each other will rapidly grow. Positive feedback mechanisms are perhaps best described as “runaway” mechanisms; unless they’re checked (either by other mechanisms that are part of the system itself or by a change in input from the system’s environment), they will tend to increase the value of some parameter of the system without limit. In the case of Romeo and Juliet, it’s easy to see that once the cycle is started, the romantic feelings that each of them has toward the other will, if left unchecked, grow without bound. \n\nThis can, for obvious reasons, lead to serious instability in the overall system—most interesting systems cannot withstand the unbounded increase of any of their parameters without serious negative consequences. \n\nLet's consider two similar important feedbacks in the global climate: albedo and ocean CO2 storage. Albedo is a value representing the reflectivity of a given surface. Albedo ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values representing greater reflectivity. Albedo is associated with one of the most well-documented positive feedback mechanisms in the global climate. As the planet warms, the area of the planet covered by snow and ice tends to decrease. Snow and ice, being white and highly reflective, have a fairly high albedo when compared with either open water or bare land. As more ice melts, then, the planetary (and local) albedo decreases. This results in more radiation being absorbed, leading to increased warming and further melting. It’s easy to see that unchecked, this process could facilitate runaway climate warming, which each small increase in temperature encouraging further, larger increases. \n\nPerhaps the most significant set of positive feedback mechanisms associated with the long-term behavior of the global climate are those that influence the capacity of the oceans to act as a carbon sink. The planetary oceans are the largest carbon sinks and reservoirs in the global climate system, containing 93% of the planet’s exchangeable carbon. The ocean and the atmosphere exchange something on the order of 100 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (mostly as CO2) each year via diffusion (a mechanism known as the “solubility pump”) and the exchange of organic biological matter (a mechanism known as the “biological pump), with a net transfer of approximately 2 Gt of carbon (equivalent to about 7.5 Gt of CO2) to the ocean. Since the industrial revolution, the planet’s oceans have absorbed roughly one-third of all the anthropogenic carbon emissions. Given the its central role in the global carbon cycle, any feedback mechanism that negatively impacts the ocean’s ability to act as a carbon sink is likely to make an appreciable difference to the future of the climate in general. There are three primary positive warming feedbacks associated with a reduction in the oceans’ ability to sequester carbon: \n\n* (1) As anyone who has ever left a bottle of soda in a car on a very hot day (and ended up with an expensive cleaning bill) knows, liquid’s ability to store dissolved carbon dioxide decreases as the liquid’s temperature increases. As increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere lead to increased air temperatures, the oceans too will warm. This will decrease their ability to “scrub” excess CO2 from the atmosphere, leading to still more warming. \n\n* (2) This increased oceanic temperature will also potentially disrupt the action of the Atlantic Thermohaline Circulation. The thermohaline transports a tremendous amount of water--something in the neighborhood of 100 times the amount of water moved by the Amazon river--and is the mechanism by which the cold anoxic water of the deep oceans is circulated to the surface. This renders the thermohaline essential not just for deep ocean life (in virtue of oxygenating the depths), but also an important component in the carbon cycle, as the water carried up from the depths is capable of absorbing more CO2 than the warmer water near the surface. The thermohaline is driven primarily by differences in water density, which in turn is a function of temperature and salinity. The heating and cooling of water as it is carried along by the thermohaline forms a kind of conveyor belt that keeps the oceans well mixed through much the same mechanism responsible for the mesmerizing motion of the liquid in a lava lamp. However, the fact that the thermohaline’s motion is primarily driven by differences in salinity and temperature means that it is extremely vulnerable to disruption by changes in those two factors. As CO2 concentration in the atmosphere increases and ocean temperatures increase accordingly, melting glaciers and other freshwater ice stored along routes that are accessible to the ocean can result in significant influxes of fresh (and cold) water. This alters both temperature and salinity of the oceans, disrupting the thermohaline and inhibiting the ocean’s ability to act as a carbon sink. A similar large-scale influx of cold freshwater (in the form of the destruction of an enormous ice dam at Lake Agassiz) was partially responsible for the massive global temperature instability seen 15,000 years ago during the last major deglaciation. \n\n* (3) Perhaps most simply, increased acidification of the oceans (i.e. increased carbonic acid concentration as a result of CO2 reacting with ocean water) means slower rates of new CO2 absorption, reducing the rate at which excess anthropogenic CO2 can be scrubbed from the atmosphere; that means that the more CO2 we pump out, the more CO2 will stick around in the atmosphere to warm things up.\n\nExamples like these abound in climatology literature, so the more heat energy we put into the climate system, the more likely we are to trigger one or more of these positive feedbacks, resulting in sudden and wide-spread changes to not only temperature itself, but also systems that partially depend on temperature, like the functioning of the thermohaline.\n\nSo, in summary:\n\n* 2 degrees C isn't a definite tipping point at which everything goes to shit immediately. It's just the lower bound for the sensitivity of most of these systems according to most of our models.\n\n* The reason that temperature increases are associated with \"tipping points\" at all is that the global climate consists of a large number of coupled non-linear systems, and the existence of tipping points (among other things) is definitive of non-linear systems.\n\n* The most obvious and salient explanation for why that is (at least in the context of the climate) is the presence of positive feedback mechanisms.\n\nHope that helps.\n\nEdit: Thanks for the gold!",
"Climate change is not solely tied to the average global temperature, that is just one measurement in an incredibly complex system. Climate change also entails changes to the behavior of ocean currents and jet streams, changes to ocean salinity, and numerous other factors of a highly dynamic system. As pieces of this system start to fluctuate outside of \"normal\" behavior, outcomes of their interactions start to change as well.\n\nAlthough the overall average temperature worldwide might only rise a small amount it directly effects the amount of ocean evaporation, this increase can lead to stronger tropical storms. \n\nChanges in localized temperatures, and air and water current can lead to shifts in how and where air masses interact with each other which causes fluctuations in \"normal\" weather activity.",
"It doesn't. the 2 degree target is a political focal point not an actual tipping point. Humans need targets and two degrees is a handy rallying cry that's attainable but still enough to avert the worst potential scenarios of climate change.\n\n_URL_0_"
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} | Why does a 2 degree temperature change have such dramatic effects on weather (such as superstorms, massive tornadoes, floods ect)?
Ok I'm getting really tired of explaining this over and over. The system is non linear. Which by definition Means there can be massive fluctuations. The 2 degrees is not a uniform increase but the average. My question is simply: why is the system so volatile? Why is it not only non-linear, but sharply increases in amplitude with such a small change? Why is it rapidly heating and cooling in different areas? Why does the current state of earth have such small fluctuations compared to the forecast? What is a (mostly) inert gas (Or something else) doing that causes such massive fluctuations? I get the answer isn't simple but if your answer is simply "it's a nonlinear system", and you don't know why it is, please don't waste your time by commenting. | [
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|
4tojfw | If you go back far enough, is my ancestor a dinosaur or trilobite? | Mammals didn't come from nothing, they had to evolve from some ancestor. Since mammals didn't exist until a certain point, does that mean that my ancestor was a species, common at that time? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d5jxj57",
"d5jxps8",
"d5k0feb"
],
"text": [
"Neither. Triobite along with other arthopods are Protosomes. Humans and dinosaurs are Deuterostomes. \n\n\"Dinosaurs\" including birds fall under Sauropsida, while mammals including humans fall under Synapsida when you split Amniota.",
"Mammals and reptiles split before dinosaurs evolved, so none of our ancestors are dinosaurs. Chordates split off before trilobites first appeared, so none of our ancestors are trilobites. But we share common ancestors with both. (Our common ancestor with dinosaurs is of course much more recent than our common ancestor with trilobites.)\n\nBut if you mean, would one of our ancestors have looked kind of like a lizard? Yeah. And was one of our ancestors a worm-like sea creature? Yeah. (Not that trilobites are worm-like, but you have to go back a bit to find our common ancestor with them.)",
"neither, as was aptly said before by /u/pvntr\n\nAlthough it is not exactly peer-reviewed scientific litterature, you might enjoy reading [\"The ancestors tale\"](_URL_0_), by Dawkins. It will provide an in depth answer to your question through a journey into the past where a sequence of \"last common ancestors\" between out own lineage and others will be past in review, with various discussions on implications. It is quite readable and entertaining."
],
"score": [
11,
9,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor%27s_Tale"
]
} | If you go back far enough, is my ancestor a dinosaur or trilobite?
Mammals didn't come from nothing, they had to evolve from some ancestor. Since mammals didn't exist until a certain point, does that mean that my ancestor was a species, common at that time? | [
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|
ss4en | Creationists posting random quotes. I'm not a biologist so I'm asking for some help... | He posted
"Dr. David A. Kaufman of University of Florida:
Evolution lacks a scientifically acceptable explanation of the source of the precisely planned codes within cells, without which there can be no specific proteins and hence, no life.
(http:// atschool. eduweb. co. uk /SBS777/ vital/evolutio.
html)"
Its so vague I can't really make much of it. If anyone is up to the challenge give me your thoughts. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4gidxz",
"c4gi8xa",
"c4gikzy",
"c4gj9qb"
],
"text": [
"This is [begging the question](_URL_1_). Evolution does not plan, and therefore will never be able to explain 'precisely planned codes'. By assuming the codes are planned, you assume evolution is not responsible. So the question is, how do you know the codes are planned?\n\nSo this is basically a reformulation of the [teleological argument](_URL_0_).\n\nThe answer is, they're not planned, they just look like it if you don't know what you're looking at.",
"If he's the same guy I find through google, even if the quote is real it's not relevant. He's apparently a psychologist. Expertise in one field doesn't equate to expertise in others. I won't ask my doctor for help with networking issues :)",
"I wouldn't put any weight on anything found on that page, since he invokes the bible as proof that evolution is false. I didn't bother looking at every quote, but I'd wager they're the same for the majority of them, out of context, from non-experts, or from people who didn't run any experiments to begin with. I stopped at one that looked interesting:\n\n > \"My attempts to demonstrate evolution by an experiment carried on for more than 40 years have completely failed.\"\n(N.H.Nilson, famous botanist and evolutionist)\n\nFrom a brief look at the wiki for Dr. Nilsson:\n\n > Oblivious to continental drift (not a commonly-accepted theory at the time), Heribert-Nilsson invokes tremendous tsunamis for the fact that many fossil floras, such as that of the London Clay, consist of species whose modern relatives live in tropical countries far removed from the site of deposition[5], as G. Ledyard Stebbins writes in an article for The Quarterly Review of Biology in 1955.\n\n > According to Stebbins Heribert-Nilsson's final line of \"evidence\" against evolution consists of an attempt to criticise certain basic principles of genetics, particularly the linear order of the genes on the chromosomes.\n\nSo the \"proof\" here is him being unaware of continental drift and chromosomal rearrangement, and mutation.\n\nScience is always changing, and unlike whoever compiled those quotes, we design experiments specifically to disprove hypotheses, not the other way around. So we're testing evolution, not attempting to prove it.",
"The response I usually provide to this line of reasoning is, \"If your definition of God resides only in the narrow margins of our scientific ignorance, then you are placing God in a position to always lose and you are doing a disservice to your own faith.\""
],
"score": [
9,
5,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleological_argument",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begging_the_question"
]
} | Creationists posting random quotes. I'm not a biologist so I'm asking for some help...
He posted "Dr. David A. Kaufman of University of Florida: Evolution lacks a scientifically acceptable explanation of the source of the precisely planned codes within cells, without which there can be no specific proteins and hence, no life. (http:// atschool. eduweb. co. uk /SBS777/ vital/evolutio. html)" Its so vague I can't really make much of it. If anyone is up to the challenge give me your thoughts. | [
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4h706p | If I were to drop an object, a bowling ball, down an infinitely long vacuum tube, what speed could it reach? | Given that an object can't travel faster than the speed of light and that there is no resistance which of these two overrides the other? | askscience | {
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"Assumptions\n---\n\nWell, if you release a ball from rest in a vacuum, it just remains at rest. There's nothing to fall to. But I assume you meant to ask (by indication of the word \"drop\") what would happen if you released a ball some arbitrarily large distance from Earth and released it, letting it fall to Earth via gravity. (We can also just assume that the only gravitating mass is Earth; so forget about the Sun, the galaxy, everything else, just to keep things simple.) Also, we have to ask \"what speed could it reach relative to what?\" So in this scenario, since the person dropping the ball is at rest with respect to Earth and the ball is also initially at rest with respect to Earth, we mean the maximum speed of the ball relative to Earth.\n\nThe only force acting on the ball is gravity, which falls off like 1/r^(2), but which is always positive toward Earth. So, yes, the ball continues to accelerate the entire time until it hits Earth. ***But that doesn't mean its speed is unbounded!*** I think this is one of your misconceptions. Dropping a ball from a larger and larger height above Earth *does* mean it will hit Earth with a larger and larger speed. But it *does not* mean that you can get an arbitrarily large speed. Why?\n\nSolution in Newtonian gravity\n---\n\nForget about relativity. Not even Newtonian physics tells you that the ball can achieve an arbitrarily large speed. If the ball is released from rest at distance *R* from the center of Earth, then its speed *v* when it is a distance *r* from Earth satisfies the equation:\n\n > -GM*_Earth_*/R = v^(2)/2 - GM*_Earth_*/r\n\nThis is just conservation of energy. So if you want to know the largest possible speed, then let *R* -- > infinity and let *r* -- > *r**_Earth_*. The speed in the equation is then the speed of the ball it has reached when it gets to the surface of Earth, if you release it from rest infinitely far away. You just get\n\n > v*_max_* = √[2GM*_Earth_*/r*_Earth_*] ≈ 11.2 km/s ≈ 25,000 mph\n\nNote that this is just the escape speed of Earth at the surface. Why? Well, escape speed is just the speed necessary to escape to infinity with zero energy (i.e., come to rest at infinity). Think about the equivalent question: \"what speed do I have to throw this ball radially outwards from Earth for it to escape to infinity and end up there at rest?\" The answer is the escape speed. Now since Newtonian mechanics is completely time-reversible, just play that video backwards. Now you are asking \"what is the maximum speed a ball can reach if it falls to Earth under gravity from infinity at rest?\" Well... the escape speed.\n\nClarifications\n---\n\nLet me be very clear since I am a bit confused by the downvotes in some follow-up comments. A strictly positive acceleration in Newtonian physics *does not imply* that the speed must become arbitrarily large. A particle can accelerate forever, but at a slower and slower rate so that its speed never surpasses a certain threshold. There is a great temptation to think otherwise, but I think many people are thinking of cases where you apply a *constant* positive force forever. Yes, in that particular case, the speed in Newtonian physics would become arbitrarily large. But gravity is not a constant force.\n\nIf you want to interpret OP's question as asking about applying a constant force to a particle for as long as you want, then fine. But I would say the word \"drop\" very clearly suggests the OP meant for the bowling ball to fall under gravity. The misconception is thinking that it's only air resistance or something similar that would prevent such a ball from reaching arbitrarily large speeds (again, in Newtonian physics). That is not true. Even without air resistance, there is a speed which the ball *cannot* have surpassed by the time it reaches Earth's surface.\n\nAlso... there seems to be a very large number of people concerned about the gravitational pull of this infinitely long vacuum tube. First of all, part of understanding physical problems, hypothetical or not, is understanding the spirit of the question and recognizing what is a necessary assumption and what is not. The OP inserted a tube in his question only to make sure the ball falls through a vacuum. No such tube is needed in the problem and we do not have to entertain the existence of such a tube at all. There was no intent for the reader to actually imagine releasing a ball infinitely far from Earth inside an infinitely long tube. ***Attempting to include this mysterious tube in the solution is very pedantic and misses the entire point of this exercise.*** Don't lose sight of the forest for the trees.\n\nHowever, if you insist on such pedantry, then it actually doesn't affect the solution at all. The gravitational field inside an infinitely long cylindrical tube of homogeneous matter is exactly **0**, as you can verify via an elementary application of Gauss's Law or elementary considerations of symmetry. \n\nSolution in relativity\n---\n\nSPOILER ALERT: it's the same as the Newtonian case.\n\nSince there seem to be a few people asking about what the solution is in relativity, here it is. Several comments suggest that in relativity, the ball would simply approach speeds arbitrarily close to *c* but never surpass *c*. That's not true. Something very similar happens in relativity as in the Newtonian case.\n\nSpecifically, suppose the only two objects in the universe are Earth (a spherically symmetric, non-rotating, homogeneous ball of mass *M*) and the ball, with negligible mass. Then the exterior of Earth is described by the Schwarzschild metric of general relativity. As observers very far away from Earth, our coordinates are approximately the same as those of the Schwarzschild metric, which are, roughly speaking, the distance *r* from the center of Earth and time *t*. The ball is dropped from rest at distance *R* from the center of Earth, and it then falls to Earth under gravity. What is the speed of the ball when it reaches Earth's surface?\n\nStrictly speaking, this question is ill-defined. Why? The speed is actually coordinate-dependent. This should make sense, because we could always work in a reference frame at rest with respect to the ball, and so the ball would be at rest when it hits the surface of Earth. Also, in general relativity, the fastest speed for a particle is *not* equal to *c*. This is something that is not really well-explained in the popular science. Light rays right next to you always travel at *c*, sure. But because your coordinates are not globally inertial, the speed of light is not *c* everywhere else. *However*, whatever the speed of light happens to be at a certain point (called the local speed of light), that is the maximum speed at that location. That is, no particle can travel faster than the local speed of light.\n\nOkay.... phew. So what is the final answer? Well, if you do the full calculation, you find that the speed of the ball in these coordinates cannot exceed a certain value *and* it is bounded away from the local speed of light! What does that mean? ***That means the ball cannot reach speeds arbitrarily close to the local speed of light, even in relativity!*** *Please carefully note though that this bolded statement is true specifically only for some classes of observers, including the Schwarzschild observers, who are observers at rest infinitely far from Earth. The Schwarzschild observers are the closest relativistic counterpart to the inertial Newtonian observers.*\n\nIn the Schwarzschild coordinates, the local speed of light at distance *r* from the center of Earth is\n\n > v*_light_*(r) = c √(1 - r*_s_*/r)\n\nwhere r*_s_* = 2GM/c^(2) is the Schwarzschild radius of Earth. Note that the local speed of light is greatest at infinity and gets slower as you consider locations closer and closer to the center of Earth. But the value of r*_s_* for Earth is *very tiny*, only slightly less than 1 centimeter. So if we consider only *r* > R*_Earth_*, the correction to the local speed of light is extremely small, about 7 parts in 10^(10). But whatever, let's keep it for the fun of it.\n\nThe coordinate speed of the ball in Schwarzschild coordinates then turns out to be\n\n > v*_ball_* = v*_light_*(R)√(r*_s_*/R) \n\nHmm.... Okay, well that means the maximum possible speed of anything at distance *R* is just v*_light_*(R). What is the expression for v*_ball_* if we factor out the multiplicative factor √(1 - r*_s_*/r) from the local speed of light and consider the speed in units of the local speed of light? We get\n\n > v*_ball_*/(v*_light_*/c) = √(2GM/R) \n\nLook at that! It is formally *exactly* the same number as in Newtonian physics. (Well... almost. Remember that the radial coordinate in relativity is very slightly longer than the Euclidean radial coordinate. But because the Schwarzschild radius of Earth is so small, the max speed in the relativistic problem is negligibly different from the Newtonian value.) So even the relativistic ball cannot achieve speeds arbitrarily close to the local speed of light. There is some threshold well before the local speed of light that the ball's speed cannot pass.\n\nIf you are interested in a full derivation of the relativistic escape speed formula and an explanation of other subtleties in its calculation, then [please see my post here.](_URL_0_) The full relativistic derivation again uses conservation of energy.",
"I think OP is assuming completely hypothetical conditions, not acceleration due to a massive body like earth, so i'll try to rephrase the question.\n\nAssuming uniform acceleration at any rate, for an infinite travel distance through a vacuum, what is the force or mechanism that actually limits the speed of the object? What happens at this limit? What is the predicted outcome of matter achieving or exceeding *c*?",
"It sounds like you're asking how constant acceleration of an object is affected by the universal speed limit. As the ball approaches the speed of light, the acceleration decreases, getting closer and closer to 0. The ball never reaches the speed of light.",
"> what speed could it reach?\n\nRelative to what?",
"Let me answer this simply. If you're \"dropping\" something that implies we are talking about gravity. Gravity happens when massive objects are attracted to each other. So there has to be a massive object that your call is attracted to.\n\nThere are two scenarios. In one scenario, the massive objects intersects the tube. In this case your ball smashes into it and the drop is over.\n\nIn the other scenario, the huge massive object with all the gravity doesn't intersect the tube. The object falls through the tube accelerating until it passes the massive object. Then it slows to a stop and comes back. If there's zero friction it would oscillate forever but there will be friction. So it will oscillate but the distance will get smaller and smaller and eventually it will stop at a point in the tube that is close to the massive object. How close depends on how much friction.",
"My contribution here will be to point out a useful scenario others missed: if we begin with an infinite plane of uniform density, the result should be a uniform, infinite gravitational field of constant strength. A ball falling towards this plane from any distance would accelerate uniformly until it struck the plane; we could start it at an arbitrary distance and it would still experience the same acceleration. Not sure how this operates under relativity, but in this scenario it would be easy to exceed c in Newtonian physics.",
"So, if the question were reworded such that a bowling ball were floating through the infinite vacuum of space with a constantly accelerating force equal to earths acceleration due to gravity at sea level (roughly 9 m/s^2) acting upon it, THEN could it reach arbitrarily large speeds?"
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} | If I were to drop an object, a bowling ball, down an infinitely long vacuum tube, what speed could it reach?
Given that an object can't travel faster than the speed of light and that there is no resistance which of these two overrides the other? | [
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7k3rkt | Why do atomic chain reactions not happen in nature? | 1 in 100 or so Uranium atoms are U-235, which is the type of Uranium necessary to cause an atomic chain reaction. If a random neutron flying through a Uranium deposit hits U-235, wouldn't that risk the start of a fission chain reaction? If so, why prevents such reaction from happening in nature? | askscience | {
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"The probability of a uranium-235 nucleus undergoing neutron-induced fission is much higher if the neutrons are moving at thermal speeds. Neutrons emitted in fission reactions are mostly *fast* neutrons (kinetic energies much higher than thermal). So for a chain reaction to happen in nature, the neutrons should be moderated (slowed down). Water is a pretty good moderator, and there's a lot of water lying around in nature.\n\nHowever the natural fraction of uranium-235 in natural uranium is not high enough to sustain a chain reaction in a water-moderated system.\n\nHowever about 1.7 billion years ago, when the fraction of uranium-235 in natural uranium was higher, [there **was**](_URL_0_) a place on Earth where natural fission chain reactions are thought to have occurred.",
"It has happened in nature actually. [Oklo in the Gabonese Republic](_URL_1_) puzzled French Scientist when the ore recovered from their Uranium mine had much lower concentrations of the U235 isotope than expected. Concentrations that strongly suggest that the area was the site of a naturally occurring Fission reactor two billion years ago.",
"There are a couple of factors here, and the answer depends on somewhat subtle interplay between them.\n\nThere is time. U-233, U-235, Pu-239, and Pu-241 are all \"naturally\" occurring isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction. However, U-233, Pu-239, and Pu-241 all have half-lives much shorter than a million years, so in the many millions of years between their formation in a supernovae or neutron star merger and the formation of our Solar System they will have decayed away to nothing. U-235 has a longer half-life, about 0.7 billion years, but even that is comparatively short relative to astronomical timescales. U-238 has a much longer half-life, of 4.5 billion years, on the other hand. These facts together mean that over billions of years Uranium becomes much much less \"enriched\" in U-235. And lower enrichment makes it harder to form fissile assemblies with Uranium.\n\nThere is the raw difficulty of criticality to start with. If you have too small a mass of fissile material in a given volume then most of the neutrons produced from a fission reaction inside of it will simply escape, and won't hit another U-235 nucleus causing more fission reactions. This is very difficult with unmoderated neutrons because the chance of \"fast\" neutrons causing a fission reaction when they \"hit\" a nucleus is fairly low, so you need pure Uranium metal at high enrichment levels, something that just isn't going to occur in nature. To make things easier it helps to use moderated neutrons which have a higher chance of causing fissions, but this requires the presence of moderating materials intermixed with the fissile material.\n\nThere is geology. The Uranium in the early Solar System wasn't just some giant ingot of material, of course, it was thoroughly dispersed (down to the atomic level) amongst all the other material in the Solar System. Concentrations of elements only occurs through various *processes*. For example, some metals such as Iron, Gold, and Iridium are not soluble with silicate rock material, so if you melt a bulk sample of proto-planetary (chondritic) material you'll separate the Iron and other metals that are soluble in Iron from the silicates and various elements that are soluble in that. The formation of moderately large asteroids (planetessimals) during the early Solar System would have involved releasing enough energy and retaining enough heat for a while to melt the material of the asteroid, leading to the formation of a metallic core and a stony crust.\n\nAll of which is to demonstrate that things like, say, predominantly Iron metal can form early in the history of the Solar System. But the same is not true of all elements. Uranium forms compounds that will dissolve preferentially in silicate rocks, but from there it won't naturally form high concentration ores without other processes. And like most ores what's needed is active vulcanism and/or water. Many ores are formed in hydrothermal conditions, settling out of solution as temperatures cross some boundary condition, concentrating them. In the case of high grade Uranium ore deposits there are many geological steps that have to occur. During the early Earth such ore deposits couldn't form easily due to the lack of Oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere, the Uranium would not have formed oxides enabling concentration into higher grade ores. So it took billions of years for conditions on Earth to enable the formation of high grade ore deposits, and then likely tens to hundreds of millions of years for the unique set of steps to occur to take lower concentration ores and cycle them through steps that increased their concentration.\n\nSo it takes billions of years of geologic and biologic activity for high grade Uranium ores to form, all the while racing against the clock of the decay of U-235. There ends up being a window of time where this can happen, and it's not terribly long on the lifespan of a planet like Earth, at least in terms of unlikely events coming together at the right time.\n\nHowever, such a thing has occurred on Earth in the past at least once. There is a Uranium ore mine in the Oklo region of Gabon which underwent cycles of fission reactions for a period of a few hundred thousand years about 1.7 billion years ago. At the time the natural enrichment level of U-235 in Uranium was about 3-4%, and the particular geology of the area enabled the creation of enormously high grade Uranium ores. When the groundwater level rose above these ore deposits it surrounded them with a moderator that brought them into a state of criticality, the heat generated by the fission reactions vaporized the ground water to steam and the fission reactions stopped when the water left. When the ore deposits cooled off again water would return and the cycle would start over. Eventually the \"reactor\" depleted itself of U-235 and stopped being able to experience criticality (it was discovered because the Uranium in the ore was only 0.6% U-235 instead of 0.7%).\n\nHowever, such phenomena are likely fairly rare due to the unique set of circumstances required to create them. Oxygenation, ore formation and concentration, inundation, all at just the right times.",
"You have the most important part already. 1 in 100 uranium atoms is U-235. Imagine if you had 1 drop of gasoline to 99 drops of water. You could not start a combustion reaction with that combination. The gasoline in the water would need to be heavily refined.\n\nEdit: I've learned that the analogy is incorrect"
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"url": [
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} | Why do atomic chain reactions not happen in nature?
1 in 100 or so Uranium atoms are U-235, which is the type of Uranium necessary to cause an atomic chain reaction. If a random neutron flying through a Uranium deposit hits U-235, wouldn't that risk the start of a fission chain reaction? If so, why prevents such reaction from happening in nature? | [
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|
135lri | What process caused this amazing effect in Pleneau Bay, Antarctica? Photograph by Sander Klaassen. | [imgur link]( _URL_1_) and the
[
Original National Geographic link](_URL_0_) to the photo in question. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c71269n",
"c713rw3",
"c719h4i",
"c7183rr",
"c71l9r6"
],
"text": [
"Antarctic program employee here... They are formed by water runoff from the top of the berg. The runoff forms gullies and streams similar a trellace pattern seen in the headwaters of river systems. As the berg get lees buoyant it rises and the streams incise forming \"nik points\". The berg in the photo must have been a flat sheet that broke off without chunking out. That formed a uniform drainage pattern. I've never seen one a defined as good as that one though...\n\nedit** I have pics I've taken if you guys want em...\n\nedit** I didn't look at the picture clearly enough. It is from different layers in the snow, not a trellace drainage pattern. **smacks forehead\n\nedit** sorry about spelling and errors I was updating from my iPad... I guess what is going on in the picture is something interesting that is likely just the result of a number of different of factors. The best answer is likely \"I don't know\". \n\nIt definitely looks like an ice shelf. and not a berg. I\"ll post some pics I've taken of the Ross ice shelf...\n\nEdit** :\npenguin party on berg: [Imgur](_URL_1_)\nRoss ice shelf: [Imgur](_URL_3_)\nGlacier ice contacting sea ice: [Imgur](_URL_2_)\nShackleton's Hut: [Imgur](_URL_0_)",
"I found [an awesome high resolution image](_URL_4_) of this interesting phenomenon. It might help in someone's analysis of what's going on here.",
"Surprisingly no one mentioned [trapped brine cells](_URL_5_). As ice freezes salt is excluded from the newly formed ice (it's called [freeze fractionation](_URL_6_)). If freezing is quick enough, the salt solution may be trapped within the ice. Because of freezing point depression, that salt solution will freeze only at a lower and lower temperature, as the solution gets more and more concentrated.\n\nThis means that when the ice thaws, it will be this brine cell that becomes liquid first (forming what's called \"thaw holes\"). When the outside eventually thaws out, this cell empties and you have vertical columns of ice left over.\n\nOf course, I don't know how this particular ice formation formed - whether it is sea ice or a piece from land - so this remains, at best, an educated hypothesis based on my experience.\n\nSource: Worked in Canadian Ice Services (part of Environment Canada) studying sea ice formation.",
"Midwestern construction worker here... Could it be that an ice sheet had fractured then filled with a different density ice. If the original ice melts off faster than the newer ice, and the sheet gets more buoyant, it rises up leaving the newer ice like a casting from a mold.",
"It's just water melting the ice. It's a grounded berg and the tide rises and falls melting the ice, the berg doesn't rise as there isn't enough ice in the water to provide the buoyancy to lift it. You can see where the regular high/lows are and the extreme highs. The tide appears at extreme low in the photo. The fluting is probably from regular wave action perpendicular to the face of the ice, or perhaps natural regular variation in ice density."
],
"score": [
150,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/your-antarctica-photos/#/iceberg-pleneau-bay-antarctica_34423_600x450.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/g0qLU"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/2KHq6",
"http://i.imgur.com/OGIEH.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/eaFN5",
"http://i.imgur.com/YSxmK",
"http://apikabu.ru/img_n/2011-08_6/8c84e0.jpg",
"http://www.ec.gc.ca/glaces-ice/default.asp?lang=En&n=2A70F254-1&offset=2&toc=show",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_freezing"
]
} | What process caused this amazing effect in Pleneau Bay, Antarctica? Photograph by Sander Klaassen.
[imgur link]( _URL_1_) and the [ Original National Geographic link](_URL_0_) to the photo in question. | [
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|
46nigx | Why doesn't the immune system kill incoming sperm? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Semen is in fact recognized as foreign not only to the female but to the male immune system. Yes, your own body would attack and destroy your own sperm cells if it were not rigorously kept out of harms way by other specialized cells in the testes. As to why sperm is 'safe' in the vagina, it isn't. Technically outside the body, the vaginal vault would not immediately recognize foreign proteins present in the ejaculate fluid, but there is an immune presence. Seminal fluid which makes up most of the volume of the ejaculate helps buffer the pH of the vagina to be more suitable for the spermatozoa. Also, the fluid helps insulate the sperm (to a degree) from the female immune system. Finally, the sperm don't wait around to be found, but rather work their way toward the ovum with the intent of fertilizing it. Sperm can live in these conditions for days. Following fertilization, the placenta is formed which provides a sort of 'biological airlock' between the mother and embryo to help prevent the mother's immune system from recognizing and destroying the developing fetus. There is a complication in some pregnancies where a previously sensitized Rh negative mother has an Rh positive baby, but that is a specialized case.",
"You should check out Inside the Human Body (BBC). There's an episode that illustrates the sperms journey to the egg. White blood cells do attack the sperm until they reach the Fallopian Tube.\n\nThe show said that from an original 250+ million sperm ejaculated in into a woman, as few as 20 make it to the Fallopian Tube. It's an effective selection process.",
"The acidic vaginal environment is actually pretty inhospitable to sperm. There are immune cells that attack it, but sperm has a few tricks up its sleeve. \n\n1) Before ejculation, men release \"pre-cum\" or pre ejaculatory fluid. This contains a bicarbonate compound to buffer the vaginal pH.\n\n2) When a man ejaculates, there's lots of sperm. It's like firing a shotgun. This can overwhelm the vaginal environment and immune system.\n\n3) Sperm is outfitted with something called a flagella, this makes it very, very fast. They can usually outmanuver the immune cells.\n\nWith these three things, they can get past the host defenses and get to the egg.",
"Good answers here, but also, it is a natural selection issue. Only humans that don't kill all foreign sperm can reproduce / pass on their genes. Characteristics that allow for the passage of an optimal amount of sperm are adaptive."
],
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} | {
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
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} | Why doesn't the immune system kill incoming sperm?
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c8ih4h | How does Newton's 3rd Law apply to an object falling in a vacuum? | For every action there's and equal, opposite reaction. If you were to drop an object, the force of gravity will be fought by air resistance in an atmosphere, but, in a vacuum where there is no air, what is the opposite reaction? | askscience | {
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"Air resistance isn't the reaction force of the gravitational force acting on an object. The reaction force of gravitational force acting on the falling object is the gravitational force the object exerts on the body its falling to.",
"In this case the equal and opposite forces are the gravity created by each object. So if you drop a bowling ball the Earth exerts gravitational force on the bowling bowl pulling it towards the Earth and the bowling ball exerts force on the Earth pulling the Earth towards the bowling ball regardless of whether it is in a vacuum or not. Air resistance occurs because the bowling ball is trying to move through the air and running into particles. The air particles are moving but hit the bowling ball as it falls exerting some force on the ball slowing it down.",
"If you're holding something and let go of it, we normally say that you dropped it and it will fall to the ground. However, a more detailed explanation is that you were holding the ball and the ground apart, and by letting go of the ball, the ball is now falling toward the ground *and* the ground is falling toward the ball so that the two meet somewhere in between where they both started.\n\nFor normal circumstances, we don't worry about the earth falling up when we let go of things because the forces are equal, but what really matters is the acceleration, which is a force divided by mass, and the earth is something like 10^25 more massive than a baseball, so the acceleration experienced by the earth is going to be much much smaller than the acceleration experienced by the ball.",
"I don't really like the \"equal and opposite reaction\" phrasing because it's sort of confusing; what's exactly is an \"action\" and what's a \"reaction\"?\n\nThe more physically fundamental way of stating the third law is that momentum is conserved; i.e. the sum of all the momentum in a system (remembering that momentum is a vector quantity, so has both magnitude and direction) must always stay the same. \n\nIf you drop an object, it gains momentum in the direction it's falling. Because momentum is conserved, it means that the momentum must have changed by an equal amount somewhere else; in the case of a falling object, the Earth's momentum changes. Force is just the rate of change of momentum, so the force on the object and the Earth must be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. The Earth exerts a force on the falling object, but the object also exerts a force on the Earth, which falls towards the object. Of course, the Earth is very very heavy, so it doesn't fall very far towards the object."
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} | How does Newton's 3rd Law apply to an object falling in a vacuum?
For every action there's and equal, opposite reaction. If you were to drop an object, the force of gravity will be fought by air resistance in an atmosphere, but, in a vacuum where there is no air, what is the opposite reaction? | [
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73lt18 | Microstates in statistical mechanics and Pauli's exclusion principle - how do you count "the number of possible positions"? | Space is continuous, right?
**Microstates**
How can you ever arrive at a finite number of "microscopic arrangements of particles" when counting W in Boltzmann's entropy equation?
S = k_B log W
It seems to me that there are infinite ways to arrange 1000 particles in a box while keeping the same volume, pressure, etc.
(I understand that introducing quantum mechanics changes this question a bit, but I'm also interested in the classical answer, since Boltzmann and his contemporaries only knew classical physics...)
**Pauli Exclusion Principle**
The same question goes to filling up phase space with electrons according to Pauli's exclusion principle. You can't have two electrons in the same quantum state, so if you stick to one position you have to stack them in a tower of increasing momentum. But what does "one position" even mean? If you move 10^(-700)m to the left, does that count as a new position where you can start a new tower of momenta? Surely not.
How much space does one "quantum state slot" take up?
If they take up space, does this mean electrons are fat? | askscience | {
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"> It seems to me that there are infinite ways to arrange 1000 particles in a box while keeping the same volume, pressure, etc.\n\nThe \"number of states\" is an integral over phase space. There *is* a continuum of possible configurations for a classical gas.\n\n > The same question goes to filling up phase space with electrons according to Pauli's exclusion principle. You can't have two electrons in the same quantum state, so if you stick to one position you have to stack them in a tower of increasing momentum. But what does \"one position\" even mean? If you move 10-700m to the left, does that count as a new position where you can start a new tower of momenta? Surely not.\n\nIt seems like there are two separate questions here. One of them is just asking how you count states in quantum statistical mechanics. For quantum systems with discrete spectra, the \"integral over phase space\" just becomes a sum over discrete states. I don't see how Pauli exclusion relates to this question.\n\nThe second question is how does Pauli exclusion work for identical particles in \"similar\" states? If you have a free electron in space, its quantum state can be written as a spatial wavefunction and a spinor. If you now consider two electrons, and ignore their spins (or prepare them so that they have the same spin state), antisymmetrization forces the spatial part of their combined state to be antisymmetric.\n\nIn other words, the spatial wavefunction must take the form\n\nΨ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*) = [φ*_1_*(**r***_1_*)φ*_2_*(**r***_2_*) - φ*_1_*(**r***_2_*)φ*_2_*(**r***_1_*)]/sqrt(2).\n\nIt's clear than that this is identically zero if **r***_1_* = **r***_2_*. If they are not exactly equal, then the terms don't exactly cancel, at least not everywhere in space.\n\nWhen you calculate any kind of matrix element of a two-body operator in this state, you'll end up with integrals over all space of some function multiplied by products of these wavefunctions. If **r***_1_* is close to **r***_2_*, the two individual electron wavefunction overlap strongly, and there will be strong exchange effects. If **r***_1_* is far from **r***_2_*, the cross-terms in the integral will be very small, and exchange effects will be negligible.",
"> It seems to me that there are infinite ways to arrange 1000 particles in a box while keeping the same volume, pressure, etc.\n\nBasically you're heading towards a rediscovery of [Gibbs' paradox](_URL_0_) here. There is no correct classical answer, and there is _not_ in fact an infinite number of ways (that _count_, literally), and the entropy of a gas is not infinite. Indeed quantum mechanics comes into this, it lead to one of the earliest quantum-mechanical theories before QM proper (along with e.g. Planck's blackbody curve and Einsteins' work on the photoelectric effect), namely the [Sackur-Tetrode](_URL_1_) equation. Which is the correct (but not classical) entropy of an ideal gas in the classical limit. Basically the key concept here is that because particles are fundamentally indistinguishable, and the quantization of momentum space.\n\nThe Pauli principle isn't involved here -there's still a difference between quantum statistics (whether Bose-Einstein or Fermi-Dirac) and classical Boltzmann stats.",
"> It seems to me that there are infinite ways to arrange 1000 particles in a box while keeping the same volume, pressure, etc.\n\nThere is actually only a finite number of ways for a fixed volume. Look at it this way. Let's say you take a box and randomly insert a particle into it such that no position in the box is favored. What's the probability of any one position being selected? Well it's simply 1 divided by the volume. 1/V\n\nNow put two particles in the box. What's the probability of selecting two positions? It is again 1/V for both particles which gives a (1/V)^2 since the selection of the two positions are independent.\n\nBut for the two particle case we now have to worry about if the particles are degenerate. IE if the two particles are indistinguishable. If they are then you have to multiply by 2 since there are two possible ways to arrive at the same configuration. Likewise when we go up to three we get (1/V)^3 and 3! since you now have 3 positions and 6 possible ways to distribute the particles to those positions. \n\nYou basically end up with the total number of states being equal to N!/V^N\n\nWhen you are dealing with probability on a continuous space (which statistical mechanics is very much a probabilistic theory), you need to stop thinking in discrete terms. You can have an infinite phase space while still only having a finite volume.",
"I'll try to answer the first question. The answers other people gave are good, but I suspect you are looking for a more direct answer to the first question. My answer is not the one you get from textbooks, so keep in mind it is a little outside the mainstream, but it was killing it in the 19th century.\n\nIf you define the state of a system in terms of idealized point masses with a certain number of momentum numbers and a certain number of position numbers, the system would appear at first to have an infinite number of possible states, even for a single particle, even in one dimension, because all of the quantities with which you defined the state of the system would appear to fall on a continuum. So if each of those points is distinguishable, wouldn't the possible states be infinite in number?\n\nAs others said already, phase space is how they count it in such a way that it can be said to be finite, but it doesn't directly answer the question. The answer is that there are multiple implicit assumptions about laws of motion that are hardly ever stated explicitly, but without which, the number of states would indeed be infinite. \n\nThe most basic assumption would be that if something has a certain momentum and a certain position, then those coordinates determine its momentum and position at a earlier and later time. The implicit premise would be that momentum is conserved. When you used momentum for one of the coordinates, you implicitly used time as a coordinate and defined a rate between them. So even though the position could fall on an infinite number of possible points, all those points would be related by a clear law. So the number of possible states the system could be in, is not nearly as large as you might think, and our knowledge of the state, that is, the inverse of the number of states in which it could be, is greater than you might think.\n\nFor example, if a point mass, like an idealized train car, were to go in one dimensional motion between two extremes of a track, with a boundary at each end, you would describe its number of possible states without counting every possible point in the middle as a different state. Because, if you knew the state at one time, you would know the state at all other times, also.\n\nNow, if you added a second train car, of the same kind, and it followed the same rules, (elastic collisions, conserved momentum, et cetera) the conserved quantities allow you to do the same thing with two cars. Whatever momentum is lost by one element of the system would have to be gained by another element of the system. The exchange of momentum is governed by a law. Therefore, the possible states would not be infinite, but rather, they would increase exponentially with the number of elements. \n\nThat is why the \"state variables\" (volume, temperature, pressure...) are essential to the idea that the entropy can be counted. If momentum or energy or other quantities are not conserved, no law of motion can predict the evolution of the system, and so the number of possible states is indeed infinite. In the simplified track with two cars on it, the state variable \"temperature\" would be the average kinetic energy of the cars. So you can see that there would be other states possible, if only the \"temperature\" of the system changed, that is, if they lost energy to something outside the system, of if energy were imparted to them. The state variable \"pressure\" would work the same way. So would \"volume\". If the number of possible states were to be increased in some way, it would have to involve something that changed one of those state variables, which essentially amounts to changing the total energy or momentum.\n\nHope that is of some value to you. Some of the other answers were actually better in a mainstream kind of way.",
"There is a quantity \"density of states\" that describes how many states per unit volume and per unit energy electrons can assume. The Fermi-Dirac distribution describes the probability of an electron or other particle subject to the Pauli exclusion principle occupying a state based on its energy level as compared to the Fermi level, or chemical potential, which is the energy required to place another electron in the volume (and thus raise the Fermi level).\n\nThe way the states are counted is to usually start with a simple shape such as a box, and try to see how many electrons you can fit in the box. Let's take a \"one dimensional box\" where the electron can only assume many states in one dimension, but can only assume one state in the other two dimensions.\n\nIf the electron is confined to the box, its wave function is zero at its boundary, as it can not be found in the wall of the box. Because the electron is a wave, it has a wavelength. The longest wavelength the electron can have with its wavefunction zero at the boundary is half a wave period along the length of the box. Any multiple of half wavelengths can be fit into the box. Each additional half wavelength we add to the wavefunction adds an additional possible state. \n\nThe momentum of the electron is inversely proportional to the wavelength as in $p=h/\\lambda$. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanism tells us that $E=p^2 c^2 / 2m$. Putting these together $E = h^2 c^2 / 2 m \\lambda^2 $. We can solve for wavelength in terms of $E$, $\\lambda = \\sqrt{h^2 c^2 / 2 m E}$. We can then differentiate to find $d\\lambda/dE$ which is the change in wavelength of the electrons as they are added to the box as electrons are added at an energy $E$ up to an energy $E+dE$. This is more easily done in terms of the number of half waves $n = 2 L/\\lambda$ so that $n = (L/2)\\sqrt{2mE/h^2 c^2 } and therefore $dn/dE=(L/2)\\sqrt{2m/h^2 c^2 } 1/2 E^{-1/2} $, so that this is the number of half waves per unit energy. You can do something similar for 3 dimensions.",
"I'm not sure if it's against the rules to only link to wikipedia (I didn't see them saying so) but I found it rather helpful, as a current undergrad. \n\n > In classical statistical mechanics, the number of microstates is actually uncountably infinite, since the properties of classical systems are continuous. For example, a microstate of a classical ideal gas is specified by the positions and momenta of all the atoms, which range continuously over the real numbers. If we want to define Ω, we have to come up with a method of grouping the microstates together to obtain a countable set. This procedure is known as coarse graining. In the case of the ideal gas, we count two states of an atom as the \"same\" state if their positions and momenta are within δx and δp of each other. Since the values of δx and δp can be chosen arbitrarily, the entropy is not uniquely defined. It is defined only up to an additive constant. (As we will see, the thermodynamic definition of entropy is also defined only up to a constant.)\n\n_URL_2_"
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} | Microstates in statistical mechanics and Pauli's exclusion principle - how do you count "the number of possible positions"?
Space is continuous, right? **Microstates** How can you ever arrive at a finite number of "microscopic arrangements of particles" when counting W in Boltzmann's entropy equation? S = k_B log W It seems to me that there are infinite ways to arrange 1000 particles in a box while keeping the same volume, pressure, etc. (I understand that introducing quantum mechanics changes this question a bit, but I'm also interested in the classical answer, since Boltzmann and his contemporaries only knew classical physics...) **Pauli Exclusion Principle** The same question goes to filling up phase space with electrons according to Pauli's exclusion principle. You can't have two electrons in the same quantum state, so if you stick to one position you have to stack them in a tower of increasing momentum. But what does "one position" even mean? If you move 10^(-700)m to the left, does that count as a new position where you can start a new tower of momenta? Surely not. How much space does one "quantum state slot" take up? If they take up space, does this mean electrons are fat? | [
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|
1q1xmn | How do modern CPU's detect their load to determine clock speed? (i.e. turbo) | Is it done at a hardware level or does the OS manage turbo frequency? What about something like Speedstep? I guess it's all one function these days. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cd8e5go",
"cd8edco",
"cd8e9xf"
],
"text": [
"It's managed by the OS. The allowed power states (P-states) of a processor can be enumerated using ACPI (the standard that specified how processors can publish its P-state table). The OS can then select an appropriate governor to control the P-states based on a number of different factors such as the current workload, the system temperature, the battery state etc. In windows, you can change these under Advanced Power Settings and in Linux, you can load a new governor module or even load a module that lets you, as a user, manually set the power states. For example: _URL_0_",
"I am not too familiar with AMD's CPUs, but for Intel's SpeedStep (which can also independently change the core voltage, not just the frequency), there are actually two components.\n\nC1E is absolutely independent of any OS, and is a simple switch with two modes, low and high. When low, it runs the CPU at lower frequency and voltage, when high, it runs at maximum. One might think that it drops into low mode when CPU load is low, but it's not actually CPU load that controls C1E, halt state does. C1E switches to the low setting when the CPU is halted, on x86 meaning that a HLT instruction gets executed.\n\nThe other thing is EIST (Enhanced Intel Speedstep Technology), and this is controlled by the OS, and allows for much finer control. Various OS provided settings for \"power schemes\" or \"power management\" likely work with EIST. It's capable of using several different CPU frequencies, as opposed to C1E which will do the lowest or highest possible. EIST depends on CPU load, and exactly how this works is OS specific. However the OS implementation works, the request to change CPU frequency and voltage is sent through ACPI.",
"The OS requests a Processor Performance State (PO) through the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) standard. I suppose the answer to your question is both: the OS requests high performance when needed, but hardware manages turbo frequency."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/CPU_Frequency_Scaling"
]
} | How do modern CPU's detect their load to determine clock speed? (i.e. turbo)
Is it done at a hardware level or does the OS manage turbo frequency? What about something like Speedstep? I guess it's all one function these days. | [
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|
6fn6hk | How should a layperson decide whether to trust a psychology study? | The question obviously applies to all fields of science, but I was particularly interested in psychology studies after having looked at [this paper](_URL_1_) demonstrating that you can actually become younger after listening to a Beatles song. I was prompted to look at the study because of [this article on Daryl Bem and his ESP studies](_URL_0_).
The idea behind the paper and article is that there are problems with how these kinds of studies are done. As someone outside of the sciences, I have no tools to evaluate whether or not I should take this kind of work as being relevant or trustworthy.
Where should this leave a lay audience, who will see a link to a peer-reviewed journal article and then assume that there's evidence to back up an assertion? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dijq96k",
"dikc53n",
"dijtcve",
"dijweqt"
],
"text": [
"I'd recommend trying to find the original article and checking their reference section to see if they site other papers that seem to come to similar or congruent conclusions. Just reading the article titles can be enough to get a good sense.\n\nI would rarely trust a single brand new article finding something entirely novel that no one has ever seen before, remember that at a .95 confidence interval we expect 5% of published articles to be wrong (at least), and popular media coverage will preferentially draw your attention to the most 'surprising' findings.\n\n\nIf your career doesn't depend on staying up-to-date on the literature, you can afford to wait for someone to replicate before believing it.",
"It is very difficult to adequately assess the quality of statistical analysis of a research paper without a statistical background. With some notable exceptions, the reason for the current \"replication crisis\" in psychology is not because of authors acting in bad faith, but because they themselves, despite extensive graduate training, weren't fully equipped to do their own statistical analyses in the face of the many perverse incentives created by the academic environment. With that in mind, it can be impossible to tell a sexy but ultimately unreplicable paper from a one that will stand the test of *replication*. And the ability for an effect to be replicated by independent researchers is the true test of quality in any science. For that reason I propose that **the best identifier of a high quality psychological paper is that its primary outcome or analysis plan has been *preregistered* with an independent body like clinical _URL_0_, or its results have already been replicated by an independent research group.**\n\nBeyond that, I would strongly encourage people not to engage in the very common and disappointing trend I see on Reddit of criticizing and dismissing studies whose conclusions they do not like for one of these 3 reasons \n\n - \"the sample size looks small to me so you can't even draw any conclusions from this study / the p value doesn't even matter\"\n\n - \"I found a p value that was only .061 somewhere in the results section so the whole study isn't significant\"\n\n - \"this number looks small to me so that means there isn't any effect anyway\" \n\nAll of these are very cheap reasons based on a misunderstanding of statistics that people on reddit use to dismiss studies that they don't like, or to explain away null results in studies they would have like to see be significant. Statisticians do use similar sounding arguments to criticize studies, but I do not see a lot of statisticians on reddit. Instead there are a lot of armchair statisticians on reddit who seem to form judgments of papers without reading them, then using one of those 3 reasons to justify those conclusions without any actual idea of whether the study they are criticizing is a good one. \n\nWhat statisticians typically care about is good study design, which might mean in part adequate power to find a meaningfully sized effect (which could be 5 participants, or 5 million--it depends). We also care about bias --can you measure the effect of an experimental treatment without selection bias? If not, then the experiment doesn't tell you very much. We care about other kinds of bias like experimentor bias introduced when the researcher interacts with his subjects. We care about the actual analysis only to the extent that it was reasonable and unbiased, typically.",
"In general, you should consider something like [this](_URL_2_) when deciding how much weight to put into any study. John Oliver also has a good primer on this problem [(source)](_URL_2_) . Basically, there's a spectrum of rigorous scientific review that tests how reliable a theory might be.",
"The advice here is good. For older studies, two words to add to a google search finding info that's already established is \"replication\" (or \"replication crisis\") and \"p-hacking\". The [replication crisis](_URL_3_) was the failure of many studies, including psychology studies, to be replicated or replicable. [P-hacking](_URL_4_) is incorrectly applying the statistics of your own study to create significance that isn't there. These are key terms in problematic psychology papers, and adding them to your search habits can direct you to relevant information."
],
"score": [
20,
6,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://redux.slate.com/cover-stories/2017/05/daryl-bem-proved-esp-is-real-showed-science-is-broken.html",
"http://neuron4.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/528Readings/SimmonsNelsonSimonsohn2011.pdf"
]
} | {
"url": [
"trials.gov",
"http://imgur.com/a/7Jq7E",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Rnq1NpHdmw",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging"
]
} | How should a layperson decide whether to trust a psychology study?
The question obviously applies to all fields of science, but I was particularly interested in psychology studies after having looked at [this paper](_URL_1_) demonstrating that you can actually become younger after listening to a Beatles song. I was prompted to look at the study because of [this article on Daryl Bem and his ESP studies](_URL_0_). The idea behind the paper and article is that there are problems with how these kinds of studies are done. As someone outside of the sciences, I have no tools to evaluate whether or not I should take this kind of work as being relevant or trustworthy. Where should this leave a lay audience, who will see a link to a peer-reviewed journal article and then assume that there's evidence to back up an assertion? | [
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5l4jli | In the event where LIGO observed gravitational waves - were we super extremely lucky that it happened in this point of time? Or, more likely, am I missing something? | As I understand it, LIGO observed the gravitational waves originating from the merging of two black holes. We managed to detect a "chirp", the peak of the merge. Now, this peak lasted 20ms. From reading around Wikipedia, the event happened 1.4 billion light years away, which means it happened 1.4 billion years ago.
Detecting a 20ms peak, of something that happened 1.4 billion years ago, seems like an extremely unlikely scenario, so I must be missing something. I've also glossed over the [megathread](_URL_0_) from 10 months ago and found no answer.
- Did we know in advance that this peak was supposed to happen?
- Did we look for binary black hole systems, found one that was supposed to peak near our time, and just configure LIGO to do that?
- If we did, how do we find binary black hole systems? I understand that once we have all of the information we can predict the peak. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You cannot of course predict a single event like this one, but you can estimate the average number of events above a certain amplitude for a given amount of time. There's a lot of black hole mergers happening in the Universe. By listening for a year, you can expect a reasonable number (think something vaguely on the order of 6) of events like that.\n\nIt's absolutely impossible to predict these kind of events and we are very far from even identifying where the corresponding merger happened exactly.",
"While a black hole merger event is very rare, in a sphere of space 1.4 billion light years in radius, a lot of very rare things happen. Once we built an instrument of sufficient sensitivity, it was likely that we would detect a merger fairly quickly (assuming that all our theories on gravitational waves and the like were correct). Indeed, the LIGO team detected another black hole merger about three months after the first one.\n\nThere's a common quote in computer science about very small chances that applies equally well to astrophysics: \"One in a million is next Tuesday.\"",
"LIGO isn't a telescope, it's a big laser interferometer. The only thing it can detect is a shift in how long each of its arms is in relation to the other. It's not pointed at anything because its detection volume isn't a cone like a telescope's is. LIGO detects in a sphere. Also, LIGO doesn't take photographs, it takes what is essentially a sound recording, but instead of air vibration, it's the strength of an incoming laser. It's turned on for months at a time and most of the data it generates is analyzed off-site and thrown away.\n\nLIGO detected its first merger not long after finishing an upgrade that made the system much more sensitive. The team didn't really expect to find any mergers under initial LIGO because, even though the instruments were already extremely sensitive, the amount of space being measured was only supposed to contain one black hole merger every few hundred to thousand years. The new system, advanced LIGO, is sensitive enough to search a space that should contain more than one per year.\n\nSo: We expected something like this would happen. LIGO, and for that matter the rest of our instruments, can't find black hole systems that are expected to merge. It can only detect by how much space has shifted. With enough of this information, we can estimate where and when the merger occurred.",
"First of all the fact that it occurred 1.4 billion years ago has no say in how likely it was to detect.\n\n > Did we know in advance that this peak was supposed to happen?\n\nNo, gravity seems to travel at the speed of light and there was no way we could have any information about this event beforehand.\n\n > Did we look for binary black hole systems, found one that was supposed to peak near our time, and just configure LIGO to do that?\n\nNo, I don't think we have even directly observed black holes before.\n\n\nThey also detected [another](_URL_0_) merge between two supposed black holes only 3 months after the [first one](_URL_1_), it seems that binary black hole systems are far more common than previously thought.",
"As others have pointed out, you expect to get a few of these types of events per year, so they didn't have to know in advance that these two particular black holes were going to merge. \n\nAs a fun fact, though, the first event they registered occurred on the very first day that they went online and was an exceptionally strong signal, so you could still say it was pretty lucky!",
"I don't know if you're asking this because you've seen the talk at 33C3 or if this is pure coincidence, but Simon Barke gave a talk there explain most parts of it ( _URL_2_ ) and I've talked to him after that talk, at which he gave the answer to your first question: After they upgraded LIGO and they turned it on this chirp happend, which was pure luck. He told us too that this came up first as a false positive and after some algorithm changes they found it.\n\nTo answer your second question i've to put up the disclaimer that I know nothing.\n\nBut no, we actually can't really do that, we're currently just looking for gravitational waves and mapping those"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/458vhd/gravitational_wave_megathread/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW151226",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves",
"https://media.ccc.de/v/33c3-8245-eavesdropping_on_the_dark_cosmos"
]
} | In the event where LIGO observed gravitational waves - were we super extremely lucky that it happened in this point of time? Or, more likely, am I missing something?
As I understand it, LIGO observed the gravitational waves originating from the merging of two black holes. We managed to detect a "chirp", the peak of the merge. Now, this peak lasted 20ms. From reading around Wikipedia, the event happened 1.4 billion light years away, which means it happened 1.4 billion years ago. Detecting a 20ms peak, of something that happened 1.4 billion years ago, seems like an extremely unlikely scenario, so I must be missing something. I've also glossed over the [megathread](_URL_0_) from 10 months ago and found no answer. - Did we know in advance that this peak was supposed to happen? - Did we look for binary black hole systems, found one that was supposed to peak near our time, and just configure LIGO to do that? - If we did, how do we find binary black hole systems? I understand that once we have all of the information we can predict the peak. | [
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|
5yv8u6 | In regards to the Quantum Zeno Effect, what defines "observation"? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"detdtnd",
"detdb8s",
"detpyhj"
],
"text": [
"Perturbation. Probing the system in some way so as to derive information about some element of its state, such as its position or momentum. Keep doing it to a system that would normally (for example) decay, and do it so quickly and \"thoroughly\" that you essentially lock down that observable, which is linked to its state. \n\nThe way it's been done in practice to get some atoms very *very* cold, and then you use a laser to precisely define their position. As a result the tunneling required for beta decay is suppressed for as long as you keep the system cold, and constantly ping a laser off it. For details: Perturbation. Probing the system in some way so as to derive information about some element of its state, such as its position or momentum. Keep doing it to a system that would normally (for example) decay, and do it so quickly and \"thoroughly\" that you essentially lock down that observable, which is linked to its state. \n\nThe way it's been done in practice to get some atoms very *very* cold, and then you use a laser to precisely define their position \n\n_URL_0_",
"In general, essentially anything that requires the quantum system to have a well-defined (i.e., classical) state counts as measurement.\n\nMore technically, if the state of a quantum system becomes inseparably mixed with the state of another quantum system that is too complex for us to realistically describe quantum mechanically then it is 'measured'. If we could describe the second system quantum mechanically then we'd see that the two systems actually just become entangled. This is called decoherence, and is also the source of the many worlds interpretation.",
"Essentially: interaction with anything you haven't explicitly included in your quantum mechanical model. This leads to decoherence and incoherent dynamics, which are formally the same as observation. You can think of decoherence as being due to a measurement that you are not told the outcome of, often because the measurer was an inanimate object. \n\nGenerally we cannot consider a quantum mechanical model for a wider environment, so some (weak) measurement effects will always be present. \n\nAs interactions with a wider environment transfer information about correlations within your system of interest, they also affect dynamics within the system. If we could a big \"environment\" strongly to a small system we alter the dynamics in the system. This can lead to the wavefunction of the system being fixed to a particular value and hence the quantum zero effect."
],
"score": [
21,
10,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.140402"
]
} | In regards to the Quantum Zeno Effect, what defines "observation"?
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24bkyy | Will putting the end of the garden hose underwater slow down the rate at which the pool fills? | Is there a difference between letting the water fall into the pool from above the water line? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ch5hu7r",
"ch5qh78",
"ch5t8y8"
],
"text": [
"The discharge pressure will affect the flow rate, yes, assuming a constant-pressure source. Keeping the end of the hose in the air ensures that the discharge pressure is atmospheric; submerging the end adds the hydrostatic pressure of the pool, meaning that the flow rate will decrease. \n\n\nNow, you're not likely to see much of a difference unless you have a very low supply pressure or a very deep pool, but it will make *a* difference.",
"Nope, it might in an insignificant manner increase the flow rate. \n\nLets take the source of the water and assume it is in a tower 15 ft in the air. This 15 feet causes the pressure due to gravity to push the water out the hose. Now, you are trying to fill a pool above ground that is 5 ft tall. If you hold the hose at 10 ft in the air, water flows out. As you raise it, eventually going above 15 ft, the flow rate slows down until it stops at the tank source height. The opposite is true as you lower it into the pool. The flow rate speeds up.\n\nNow, lets say the water level is at 4 ft. As soon as you submerge the end, lowering it farther has no effect, because the height of the pool water cancels the increased height difference from the source. Ex. At 2 feet height, the hose is 13 ft below the tower, and 2 feet below the water. The net water pressure results from 11 ft or 13 ft minus 2 ft. This will stay the same no matter the ending height of the water hose spout if submerged.\n\nTldr: submerge it for slightly faster flow rate.",
"Surprisingly, all the answers are wrong so far. The answer is no, it will increase the rate at which the pool fills. The reason is that the flow rate is a function of the pressure at the outlet of the pipe. This pressure will be at the lowest when the head of the hose is at it's lowest point. The head pressure within the hose dramatically affects the flow rate where as a the difference between water or air on the other side is not significant. Since you're filling a vessel, the lowest point is going to be at any moment the surface of the liquid so by putting the hose in the pool you are always filling against the lowest head pressure."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Will putting the end of the garden hose underwater slow down the rate at which the pool fills?
Is there a difference between letting the water fall into the pool from above the water line? | [
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tlqq3 | Growing up, I remember a huge movement to "Save the Rain Forest". Being that it's about 15+ years later, how did that movement impact the environment and specifically rain forest? What was achieved and/or lost? | When I was growing up, "Save the Rain Forest" was everywhere; on TV, billboards, magazines, etc. Now that I don't hear about it anymore, I was wondering what the impacts were from that huge push for rain forest preservation. Was it successful, semi-successful, not productive at all, or did worse things come from it. | askscience | {
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"Here in Australia, there was quite a big impact. I remember littering being one thing that was really attempted to be stamped out.\n\n[Here](_URL_2_) is the annual report from Bush Heritage, an Australian conservation group who really jumped on the \"Save the rain forest\" band wagon, and gives the following achievements over the past year or so:\n\n* Eleven small native mammal species and 19 reptile species have been recorded at Eurardy Reserve for the first time.\n* A staggering 300% increase in ground-foraging and shrub-dependent bird species has occurred at Boolcoomatta Reserve since 2006.\n* Continued the conservation management of nearly a million hectares of land Australia-wide.\n\nThis is mainly Australia. We have several ongoing campaigns that quite a few people get behind, like [Clean up Australia Day](_URL_0_), [National Tree Day](_URL_1_) and I've noticed that recycled toilet paper is becoming much more popular (and doesn't feel like sand paper... its good stuff).\n\nHope this helps! It is mainly from Australia; you will have to forgive my geographical bias.",
"[Here's a nice table that outlines the deforestation rates (forest cover and primary forest) of tropical forests between 1990-2000 and 2000-2005 by country](_URL_3_). The deforestation rates differ from country to country, but it appears that deforestation hasn't slowed down by observing the total annual difference (0.57% annual reduction in tropical forest cover from 1990-2000 to 0.62% annual reduction in tropical forest cover from 2000-2005).",
"That's a very complicated question. Certainly some progress has been made in some areas, but in others, things continue to deteriorate. My understanding is that deforestation has generally gotten worse in Africa and Southeast Asia, but improved in South America, especially in Brazil.\n\nBrazil has had huge success in cutting their deforestation rate using satellite imagery and strategic enforcement in areas at the highest risk to slow things down, though they still lose more forest area than any other country in the world. However, many scientists think the new forestry code which is about to be passed (or vetoed hopefully?) will sabotage all of this progress.\n\nWhether this is related to the save the rainforest campaigns is harder to say, but I imagine increased interest in the developed world led to increased funding for technology that's now proven critical. Also, high profile campaigns against huge consumers of tropical agricultural products (see mcdonalds, nestle) have forced those companies to make their supply chains more transparent and sustainable. But again, deforestation is a very complicated issue with many factors which may be entirely different across regions and across times.\n\nThis is based on my recollection of many readings on the topic, so I don't have sources, but a great source for coverage on this issue is _URL_4_ so poke around there a bit if you are curious.\n\nEdit: Here is a table of deforestation rates in tropical countries like the one above, but updated for 2010.\n_URL_5_",
"first, that's more of a politics question than an science question but...\n\n[relevant, from a few years ago](_URL_7_)\n\nWe're still working on it. Currently, in Brazil, politicians want to pass a law (the new forrest code) that will make it even easier to fuck up the forrest. There's a popular movement trying to stop this, which seems to have reached President Dilma. The topic is hot and being discussed but a really environmentally adequate solution seems a little bit far from sight.\n\n[enviromentalists on the subject](_URL_8_)\n\n[the guardian on the subject](_URL_9_)\n\n[some brazilian news (in english) about the topic](_URL_6_)",
"Coming late to this discussion, I probably won't be read. But I recently learned (from Brazilian relatives) that the current administration has proposed to get through congress any environmental law that the world thinks is the best for the Amazon, provided that the U.S. and Europe pass identical laws themselves, which strikes me as a very clever way of putting one's finger on the problem.\n\nIn the case of Brazil, by the way, it is not a matter of sovereign debt. At all. As Forbes puts it, \"With over $350 billion in foreign currency reserves, a stable economy and strong leadership on both monetary and fiscal fronts as compared to the U.S. and Europe, Brazil is fast becoming one of the safest government bond markets in the world.\" [source](_URL_10_). Europe has actually called for Brazil, along with China, to buy European sovereign debt in order to bail out Europe, to which the country replied basically [no way](_URL_11_).\n\nSo credit for nature swaps will not work, at this point in time, in the country where 60% of the Amazon rainforest is. What do environmentalists think? Is there a chance that Brazil will be able to push for better environmental laws in the \"developed\" world, or is everybody's interest in the Amazon going to die, once they contemplate having to protect their own environment as well as they want others to do?",
"I think you would really appreciate the movie of Chico Mendes, a man whose life began in the rainforest, and whose family supported him through working as extractors and collectors of sap from rubber trees. \n\nChico Mendes was murdered in 1988 as he was trying to save the rainforest from the government and ranchers of Brazil, who proposed and carried out the construction of a highway through the rainforest, as well as condominium developments.\n\nChico Mendes had his people stand and sit in lines, and refuse to budge as ranchers and those working for them hit them, cut them (in some cases, with chainsaws). In the end, the big honcho rancher and his son were charged in the [murder](_URL_12_) of Mendes.\n\nRaul Julia plays as Chico in [The Burning Season: The Chico Mendes Story](_URL_13_).\n\nHis murder is what helped kickstart the whole movement.",
"Back in the 80s, at the San Diego Zoo, we were told that \"1,000 species a day were going extinct\" (now the number is [\"200 per day\"](_URL_14_) it seems). Most of which was attributed to the destruction of the rainforst.\n\nFastforward 30 years, and if you do the math (30 x 365.25 x 1000 ~= 11 million extinct species), there really [shouldn't be any interesting species left on the planet](_URL_15_). So either the Save the Rainforest campaign was amazingly successful, or these threats were exaggerated somewhat.",
"Switzerland has been so protective about its forests that they've actually grown quite a bit. Very strict zoning laws and the low price of wood means forest guards have lots of work cutting down sick/broken trees to preserve the health of the forests.",
"Related question, I know that here in Australia when you build a house you have to fill out a report regarding the energy use of contruction materials. Would farmed timber count as a positive or a negative in this situation?",
"The Franklin River which in itself feed the entire Tasmanian wilderness of rainforest was saved in the 80s from this kind of movement.\n_URL_16_"
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"url": [
"http://www.cleanupaustraliaday.org.au/?gclid=CMTw2drr_q8CFfBSpgodFXYeDg",
"http://treeday.planetark.org/",
"http://www.bushheritage.org.au/about/annual_reports",
"http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation_alpha.html",
"http://www.news.mongabay.com",
"http://news.mongabay.com/2010/1006-fao_forest_cover.html",
"http://oglobo.globo.com/rio-20-conference-2012/forest-code-text-of-bill-approved-by-senate-may-be-reinstated-4871536",
"http://1drop.wordpress.com/2008/05/07/internationalization-of-the-world-cristovam-buarque/",
"http://amazonwatch.org/news/2012/0426-president-dilma-veto-this-forest-code-hatchet-job",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/may/11/petition-brazil-president-veto-forest-code?newsfeed=true",
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2011/11/17/brazil-government-debt-gets-sp-upgrade/",
"http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/26/us-brazil-economy-mantega-idUSTRE79P03520111026",
"http://articles.latimes.com/1990-12-16/news/mn-9262_1_chico-mendes",
"http://leisaeb.blog.free.fr/index.php?post/2012/04/11/The-Full-The-Burning-Season-%3A-The-Chico-Mendes-Story-Movie",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/aug/16/nature-economic-security",
"http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110823/full/news.2011.498.html",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/Rock_island_bend.jpg"
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} | Growing up, I remember a huge movement to "Save the Rain Forest". Being that it's about 15+ years later, how did that movement impact the environment and specifically rain forest? What was achieved and/or lost?
When I was growing up, "Save the Rain Forest" was everywhere; on TV, billboards, magazines, etc. Now that I don't hear about it anymore, I was wondering what the impacts were from that huge push for rain forest preservation. Was it successful, semi-successful, not productive at all, or did worse things come from it. | [
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jz6d1 | Does the Uncertainty Principle actually govern the way in which particles move? | I did some digging in Askscience and didn't see exactly the question that I had, so sorry if this has already been answered. I was wondering whether the Uncertainty Principle is an actual force (or property) of particles, or if it's a compensation for the fact that we really don't know how to measure the location and momentum of a subatomic particle without altering its motion.
In other words, if we were somehow able to make a microscope so powerful that we could watch electrons move around an atom, would the Uncertainty Principle still govern their motion? Or would the fact that we can now see the electrons move without altering their motion mean that they would follow a much more predictable path?
I don't know too much about the Uncertainty Principle (just going into my freshman year of college), but this is something that's always bugged me. If anything I say is flawed, just point it out. Thanks! | askscience | {
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"Well, I already attempted an [explanation](_URL_1_) of this today. Short answer is: No, it's an inherent property of quantum mechanics, or an \"in-principle\" limit, not an experimental/practical one. \n\nNow, if you were to determine the position of an electron around an atom, by scattering a photon off it, that would require light of such a short wavelength it'd be way up in the X-ray range. If a photon with that much energy scattered off the electron, it'd impart so much momentum that the electron would be 'kicked out of orbit'. The atom would become ionized. (briefly at least) So what use is your measurment? That's one way of illustrating the practical impossibility. \n\nThat's a common way of explaining it in lay terms, but it does give the impression that it's a practical problem; that the electron actually has a defined position and 'orbit' that we just can't measure. But the way quantum mechanics is normally viewed isn't like that. The prevailing view is that the quantum objects like electrons simply _don't have_ definite locations in space corresponding to points in time, i.e trajectories, as with the orbit of the Earth around the sun. The planetary model of the atom is false. ([this is wrong](_URL_0_), forget that)\n\nNow, the electrons surrounding an atom _do_ have definite states. You could say \"stable orbits\", but the term \"orbit\" doesn't work, since an orbit is a trajectory, and as I just said, they don't have definite trajectories. But they _do_ have _other_ definite properties, such as their energy. If you categorize those 'stable' energy states, you have what we call _orbitals_. Unlike an _orbit_, an _orbital_ does not tell you where the electron is at any given moment. It only tells you the probability of finding it at the different points in space. So the orbital describes a 'cloud' of sorts, of the regions where the electron(s) are more or less likely to be. They don't look like planetary orbits at all, but [like this](_URL_2_).\n\nThe fact that electrons move like this around atoms is evident everywhere in chemistry. The orbitals have different energies in different atoms, but the general shape is always essentially the same.\n\nAnyway, so you could definitely say the uncertainty principle governs the way electrons move. But it'd be a better way of looking at it, to recognize that due to the uncertainty principle, the idea of 'motion' that we have from the classical world doesn't apply to the quantum world. Particles do not have definite positions or momenta, and so they don't have trajectories. The orbital, this probability distribution, isn't some 'average location over time' - it doesn't change with time! So in _some_ sense they're not \"moving\" at all. In another sense, they still are, since they have a measurable kinetic energy (and display the special-relativistic effects of motion, and dynamics of motion, and other things).\n\nIn quantum mechanics, the motion of particles and their possible states come from the solutions to the Schrödinger equation. That's what the orbitals are; solutions to the S.E. for the electrons. (or at least approximate ones, it depends on the technical definition of 'orbital' you're using) So you don't _explicitly_ use the uncertainty principle. \n\nIn fact, the uncertainty principle is itself a general result that's derived from the Schrödinger equation. See, historically the Uncertainty Principle was \"discovered\" before the S.E. and is usually taught before you learn the S.E. So while it reflects an underlying property of quantum mechanics, the Uncertainty Principle _itself_ isn't fundamental to QM. You can't start with the famous ΔxΔp > = h and arrive at the Schrödinger equation. (but just about every introductory textbook shows how you do the opposite)",
"Here's the deal though. Imagine your microscope: to resolve the image more precisely, you use smaller-wavelength light. But smaller wavelength light has more momentum so it jostles the electron around more. So with every increase in position accuracy, you lose momentum accuracy, and it appears to just scatter around randomly. \n\nmoreover, *every* experiment you perform where you try to measure position and momentum (in the same direction at least) simultaneously will always have some similar problem. So there's ultimately a rule about reality that says that things *don't* simultaneously have well defined positions and momenta. The product of uncertainty in one and uncertainty in the other must always be greater than or equal to some value.",
"The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is a consequence of the mathematics of Quantum Mechanics, not a consequence of any assumptions about how we measure positions or momentums. So yes, to answer your question, particles do not, at the same time, have a defined position and momentum.",
"The uncertainty principle has very little to do with measurement and operates all the time. It's often presented as if it did have something to do with measurement, because it's easier to see and describe the effects during measurement.\n\nClassically, you can describe a particle's motion by two functions of time that tell its position and momentum at that time.\n\nOn a quantum level this is not fundamentally true. Quantum mechanics in general works by describing systems as a quantum superposition of all the possible classical states a system can be in. This means that all of the possible states (values for a particle's position, for instance) get a little complex number (called the amplitude) attached to them. All of them really are positions that the particle can be said to have in some sense, and all of these amplitudes interact with the ones next to them in the same way. You can define an average (mean) position, which is just treating all of these positions as probable places that the particle can be, weighted by the *absolute square* of the amplitude at that location. And, in fact, a measurement will give us values with these probabilities.\n\nTwo particles will have the same position measurement statistics if they have the same absolute squared wave-function. But this entirely leaves out the *phase* of the complex number at each point. It turns out that this is related to the particle's momentum. How fast the complex phase *changes* at each place is (roughly) the contribution to the average momentum of the particle at that point, again, weighted by the absolute square of the amplitude at that point. We can describe this more formally by saying position and momentum are Fourier transform pairs. It is a fact of the mathematics of Fourier transforms that a narrow function has a spread-out Fourier transform. This means that the distribution for measurements of both position and momentum can't be narrow -- at most one can be, as it will force the other to be wide.\n\nThat's the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It doesn't directly determine particle motions, because at this fundamental level there is no particle motion, only this heaving, slithering cloud of square-roots of probabilities. With the right initial conditions, this can look sort of like particle motion, with a glob moving along and spreading out as it goes, but even in this case, describing it as ballistic motion an approximation, capturing only the averages.\n\nSo, what does measuring position while something is moving do? Phenomenologically, it \"collapses the wavefunction\", replacing the entire wavefunction with one tightly peaked at the position just measured. Because it's tightly peaked (narrow in position), it's spread widely over momentum, and starts expanding. Projective measurements can actually make the evolution *less* predictable. There are such a thing as weak measurements, however which can incompletely reduce the wave-function, and actually keep the uncertainty in both position and momentum relatively small, and get something close to classical trajectories back, but they are still going to obey the Heisenberg uncertainty principle."
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"url": [
"http://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/upload/yuiupload/1602818382.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/jyimo/all_i_need_to_know_about_quantum_theory_i_learned/c2g8gjb",
"http://chemlinks.beloit.edu/Stars/images/orbitals.jpg"
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} | Does the Uncertainty Principle actually govern the way in which particles move?
I did some digging in Askscience and didn't see exactly the question that I had, so sorry if this has already been answered. I was wondering whether the Uncertainty Principle is an actual force (or property) of particles, or if it's a compensation for the fact that we really don't know how to measure the location and momentum of a subatomic particle without altering its motion. In other words, if we were somehow able to make a microscope so powerful that we could watch electrons move around an atom, would the Uncertainty Principle still govern their motion? Or would the fact that we can now see the electrons move without altering their motion mean that they would follow a much more predictable path? I don't know too much about the Uncertainty Principle (just going into my freshman year of college), but this is something that's always bugged me. If anything I say is flawed, just point it out. Thanks! | [
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|
xr3s0 | The Official Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosity Rover Thread | As of 1:31 am, August 6, 2012 (EDT), NASA and Jet Propulsion Lab has successfully landed the [Curiosity Rover](_URL_11_) at the [Gale Crater](_URL_15_) of Mars, as part of the [Mars Science Laboratory](_URL_13_) mission.
This is an exciting moment for all of us and I'm sure many of you are burning with questions. Here is a place for you to submit all your questions regarding the mission, the rover, and Mars!
Update:
[HiRISE camera from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter capturing Curiosity's descent](_URL_22_)
[Thumbnail video of the descent from the Mars Descent Imager](_URL_25_)
[Higher resolution photograph of Curiosity and its shadow, and Mount Sharp in the background](_URL_16_).
----------
FAQs (summarized from [the official press release](_URL_4_)):
**What is the purpose of the mission?**
The four stated objectives are:
1. Assessing the biological potential by examining organic compounds - the "building blocks of life" - and searching for evidence of biologically relevant processes.
2. Uncovering the geological processes that formed the rocks and soil found on Mars, by studying the isotopical and mineralogical content of surface materials.
3. Investigate past and present habitability of Mars and the distribution and cycling of water and carbon dioxide.
4. Characterize the broad spectrum of surface radiation.
**How was the mission site chosen?**
In line with the mission objectives, Gale Crater is located at a low elevation, so past water would likely have pooled inside the crater, leaving behind evidence such as clay and sulfate minerals. The impact that created the crater also revealed many different layers, each of which will give clues on the planetary conditions at the time the material was deposited.
While previous landing sites must be chosen to safeguard the landing of the spacecraft, the new "sky crane" landing system allows for a much more accurate landing, which, combined with the mobility of the rover, meant that the mission site can be some distance from the landing site. The primary mission will focus on the lower elevations of the Gale Crater, with possible exploration in the higher slopes in future extended missions.
For a more detailed explanation see [this thread](_URL_23_).
**Why is the "sky crane maneuver" to land the rover?**
The Curiosity rover is the biggest - and more importantly, the heaviest - rover landed on Mars. It has a mass of 899 kg, compared to Spirit and Opportunity rovers, coming at 170 kg each. Prior strategies include landing the rover on legs, as the [Viking](_URL_27_) and [Phoenix](_URL_14_) landers did, and using airbags, as [Spirit and Opportunity](_URL_26_) did, but the sheer size and weight of Curiosity means those two methods are not practical.
**What happens to the descent stage after it lowers the rover?**
The descent stage of the spacecraft, after releasing the rover, is programmed to crash at least 150 metres (likely twice that distance) away from the lander, towards the North pole of Mars, to avoid contamination of the mission site. Currently there is no telemetry data on it yet.
**How long does it take for data to transmit one way between Earth and Mars?**
On the day of landing, it takes approximately 13.8 minutes for data to be transmitted one way directly from Curiosity to Earth via the Deep Space Network, at a data rate of 160 - 800 bits per second. Much of the data can also be relayed via the Mars orbiters ([Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter](_URL_7_) and [Mars Odessy](_URL_12_)) at 2 megabits per second.
See [this thread](_URL_2_) for more detail.
**What are the differences between this rover and the previous ones landed on Mars?**
For an overview of the scientific payload, see the [Wikipedia page](_URL_5_). This includes such valuable scientific instruments such as a [laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system](_URL_24_), not found in the previous rovers. The [gas chromatography system](_URL_0_), [quadrupole mass spectrometer](_URL_21_) and tuneable laser spectrometer are also part of the payload, not included in the Spirit and Opportunity rovers.
Discussion in comments [here](_URL_10_), and [here](_URL_20_).
**Why were the [first images](_URL_28_) of such low resolution?**
The purpose for the first thumbnail images are to confirm that the Rover has landed and has operational capabilities. These images were taken from the Hazard Avoidance cameras (HazCams), rather than the main cameras. More images will be sent in the next window 15 hours after landing in order to pinpoint the landing site.
The Rover has a Mars Descent Imager capable of 1600 x 1200 video at 4 frames per second. The MastCam (with Bayer filter) is capable of 1600 x 1200 photographs, along with 720p video at 4 - 7 fps. The Hands Lens Imager is capable of the same image resolution for magnified or close-up images. The ChemCam can take 1024 x 1024 monochromatic images with telescopic capabilities. These cameras will be activated as part of the commissioning process with the rest of the scientific payload in the upcoming days/weeks.
Discussion in comments [here](_URL_8_), [here](_URL_6_), [here](_URL_19_), and [here](_URL_3_).
**How is Curiosity powered?**
The Rover contains a [radioisotope thermoelectric power generator](_URL_1_), powered by 4.8 kg of plutonium dioxide. It is designed to provide power for at least 14 years.
[Discussion in comments](_URL_17_).
**When will Curiosity take its first drive? When will experimentation begin?**
The first drive will take place more than one week after landing. It will take several weeks to a month to ensure that all systems are ready for science operations.
Discussion in comments [here](_URL_9_) and [here](_URL_18_). | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Why is this rover seemingly more important than those who landed previously, is it because of the tools it has?",
"That was a nailbiter, congrats to NASA/JPL!\n\nThey seemed very excited (understandabley so) that it landed wheels down. Just out of curiosity (pun intended) - was there a contingency for \"wheels up\"?",
"How does the nuclear cell work and how long is it projected to work/live for?\n\n**EDIT:** \n[Curiosity](_URL_1_) uses a radioisotope thermoelectric generator.\n\nThe official mission is for 23 Earth months, correct me if I'm wrong but it will last much much longer, the power source is rated to last for 13 years\n\nHow big is the crater it landed in (metric if you please :P) and are there any pictures of it from the orbiter?\n\n**Edit:** The [Gale Crater](_URL_0_) is 154 km (96 mi) in diameter and believed to be about 3.5 to 3.8 billion years old. \n\nEdit: Whoops I should have read OP's post with links to the very useful wiki pages, I've updated with links in mine and answers to my specific questions since they got a few upvotes",
"As a Non-American, what besides raising awareness to all those around me, can I do to help fund more of these missions? \n\nWhere can I buy Curiosity Loot, like T-shirts or maybe even a model of the Rover, to better help promote this mission?\n\nDoes it make sense to donate directly to NASA? Or is that money better put into pushing ESA for missions of this type?",
"Did anyone catch the lat/long figures for the landing site during the broadcast from the JPL control room? One of the engineers was reading off the landing figures but the video cut to an interview. I'm wondering how far the Curiosity landed from the planned lat/long.\n\n**From the 3:50pm news briefing: -4.5895, 137.4417**\n\n[Edit: from the conference last night, looks like NASA only has an estimate. and the comments below from different sources haven't converged on a precise figure.\nAnd, near the equator, where Curiosity landed, a degree of lat/long is about 36miles/58km]",
"Asked to post here:\n\n1. What is the reason for the initial images being only black & white and limited to 256x256?\n\n2. When can we expect higher quality images? How high quality will they be, and will they be in color?",
"Why do the JPL scientists read the Mars Science Laboratory data aloud to each other? Is it for the benefit of the public? It seems as though this information could be electronically transmitted to each console much more efficiently. Maybe each scientist is parsing his or her dataset and reporting that analysis? Maybe it's a an homage-of-sorts to the first days of NASA, when the data couldn't be effectively distributed around digitally?",
"Can we make a Curiosity subreddit to let people discuss the mission as it unfolds over the next two years?",
"Is there any way for the rover to detect seismic activity such as underground movement, and is it able to detect underground cavities?",
"A have a \"friend\" says he's skeptical based on the \"grainy black & white images\". I yelled at him. What can he do to verify the landing for himself? Should I punch him?",
"Would the sky crane be a suitable landing method for larger payloads, including manned capsules?",
"what were the cardboard figures depicting during the celebrations?",
"Because of the speed and time of travel of the rover, is there now a difference between Curiosity's realtime clock and Earth's realtime clock, and by how much? I'm sure it is miniscule but just curious.",
"I heard that a satellit orbiting Mars was planned to take pictures of the rovers descent. How did this turn out?",
"From a techs view, how do the specs from Curiosity compare to those of Opportunity or Spirit?",
"How are these images transmitted from mars to earth. How do they communicate with the rover which is millions of km's away from the earth.",
"What are the biggest threats to the stability of the mission?\n\nWill the Martian rovers be interacting in any sort of way either through satellites or monitoring Martian weather systems?\n\nWhat is the future of this mission like?",
"- How does the rover protect itself in sand storms?\n\n- How fast can she go and how far will she travel during the first planned 23 months?\n\n **edit:** Wolfram alpha lists it as 0.09 km/h top speed.\n\n- How far away is she from her cousins, especially Opportunity?\n\n **edit:** ca 8400 km if my math is correct. It would take Curiosity nearly 11 years to reach Opportunity traveling at max speed....",
"Where does the Sky Crane go after it drops off Curiosity? In [this picture](_URL_2_) it just says it flies away. I assume it burns enough of the remaining fuel to fly far enough away from the rover so it doesn't land on it.",
"I wanted to hear this question, but it never came up. Why is there still dust on the actual camera lenses after they removed the dust covers? Could it be possible that they didn't wait long enough to let the dust settle from touchdown before opening the dust covers?\n\nOn a related note while watching the live feed when the last picture 512x512 picture came in during the second Odyssey pass I heard a bro in the background say faintly \"There is still dust on the lenses. WE'VE RUINED EVERYTHING.\" Which made me chuckle.",
"what type of data error rates would there be in transmission? what type of coding scheme would be in use?\n\nwould they be using any propriety image format, or would they be leaving the data reconstruction up to the lower levels?\n\nwhat antennas are Curiosity using? are there more than one? what sort of specifications do they have?",
"Does anyone know if pictures will be taken during the Martian day and given to the public? It'd be great to see color in these, and I'm assuming there's none because it's night there. Higher quality would be amazing too.",
"Curiosity can take HD photos, but what are its video capabilities?",
"What happened to the planned loss of contact? \n\nMy understanding from the \"Seven Minutes of Terror\" video was that during the landing procedure, there would be seven minutes during which the team would not know the lander/rover's status, yet it seemed like at all time, the team at least had a \"tone\" and most of the time had telemetry via Odyssey. Was the teams ability to re-position Odyssey what saved us from that downtime?\n\nRelated, what was the accomplishment with realigning Odyssey?",
"This will probably be deleted, but if I was standing on Mars and watching this thing land, what if anything would I notice as unusual compared to watching the same thing on earth?",
"Did the landing actually take place 13.8 minutes before we saw it ?\n\nSo were the streams and countdowns corrected for this delay ?\n\nI had the impression the landing would take place at 7:31 (GMT+1) and we would get confirmation at 7:45 but when watching the stream the images came trough almost immediatly (around 7:32).\n\nSo did rover actually land at 7:17 my time ?",
"Just a quick correction to the OP: The initial thumbnails were 64 x 64 pixels, and the full-size HazCam images that came later were 256 x 256. I don't have a source to cite, but the lady said those dimensions multiple times during the live broadcast, so I'm 100% sure those are the correct dimensions.",
"I know the tires are made so that they leave imprints of \"JPL\" in Morse code. Are there any other \"Easter eggs\" incorporated into curiosity?",
"During the broadcast, I heard something about \"Tweeto warning\" and everyone got quiet. Anyone know what that meant?",
"I think the 7 Minutes video was one of the best things these guys could have done, along with the real-time simulation program. It upped the excitement a lot.",
"What kind of software is on this thing? Would it be written in a very low-level assembly-type language, or could some of it be written in higher-level languages like C? I'd be very interested to learn anything I could about the AI that was used to land it.",
"Were there any Earth based observatories that watched/took pictures of the landing (if they are even able to)?\n\nDid the Hubble pick any of the landing up?",
"My question is going to be a lot more stupid and general. I was explaining to my gf about the 7 minutes of terror and how it's so difficult to get something to the ground safely.\n\nShe replied: Why not just go very slowly. And I really didn't have a scientific explanation for that. Is it that we don't have rockets that can counter the gravitational force? Is there some opposite of the escape velocity?",
"Can anyone shed some insight into some of the less exciting aspects of the design like hinges and joints, etc.? What are they made of? How do they not break down once over 2 years? I'm mainly thinking about the big \"bendy\" arm with the cameras that looks like a head.",
"When will it start doing science and what type of things are planned for the short term?",
"Will the rover go to where the skycrane crashed?",
"$2.5 billion could only buy 256 MB RAM and 2GB flash memory? We couldn't... you know, stick in a $10 flash drive or something?\n\nThe usual limitations of spacecraft--weight, size, power consumption--don't make any sense. I'm guessing it has something to do with radiation hardening, but still. Once you've got the capacity to manufacture 2GB, why not make more?\n\nNot to say I think NASA's a bunch of fools. They know what they're doing. It's just that I don't.\n\nEdit: The other thing that's occurred to me is that perhaps there's just no need, with data simply relayed then forgotten. But I can't understand that either, because when their communication link back home is so slow, it would seem useful to have deep pockets.",
"At what sort of intervals do we expect to communicate with the rover? There was a large pause in having received the first two thumbnails and the second set. I'm guessing this has to do with the availability of \nsatellites and rotations of both planets, but what sort of channels will there be available at what times?\n\nAlso, what data from the actual descent is available, and when will we be able to view it? Will there be something like the [Huygens probe descent?](_URL_3_) \nIt would be amazing to be able to see the lander doing it's job with the skycrane, but that may be a bit much to ask for.",
"I get that in the beginning its all going to be manual but will they use programming to do some task after a while or is it all going to be manual control? \n\nIs there any information about \"ping\"? How long will it take for the rover to receive the command? are we talking millisecond, seconds or minutes?",
"When sending probes and rovers to other planets, do the NASA engineers use relativity to calculate the path, or is Newtonian physics accurate enough?",
"What communications protocols are used for communicating with the rover? The [press kit](_URL_5_) mentions \"standardized communication protocols\" (p. 44), but I assume they don't mean standard as in TCP/IP? Is this a custom protocol that NASA/ESA have developed?\n\nDuring the landing, one of the scientists said something like \"We have a connection, but no data yet\" – so I guess this is a connection-oriented rather than datagram protocol?\n\nIt was also pretty cool that they're running all this on a pair of PowerPC chips :)\n\nEdit: Hmm, from some other posts in the thread it looks like they don't want to give out details of the communications protocol for security reasons. I'd still love to know some of the higher-level details, though. Presumably they want something connection-oriented, reliable, with mechanisms for scaling the data rate up and down, etc.? Is something like TCP/IP still usable, or do the high latencies involved require a different solution?\n\nI also found this PDF describing the decoding process for the DSN network; are the DSN data feeds themselves available anywhere?\n_URL_4_",
"Question: How does the rover know where it is?\n\nThere is no GPS on Mars, although there are maybe three orbiters, so, my question is how does the rover know where it is in terms of longitude, latitude. Does it need to know where it is is a secondary question.",
"Just how extraordinary was the \"bent pipe\" transmission relay system (I think they called it) to co-ordinate? Was it a simple matter of punching in numbers to get the three crafts to co-operate, or, was it some amazing wizardry that we mortals can barely comprehend?",
"Can somebody explain why the photos are black and white? Is it just a case of image size or do cameras need a filter to work on Mars?",
"Hey guys,\n\nMy question stems from some of the work I did at Uni last year. One of my old lecturers has been very involved in all of this and she actually was involved in the workshops for the landing sites. I remember studying them and deciding which ones were the best (for finding water/signs of life I think). I am not sure which we chose in the end (unfortunately, it was over a year ago and it was just a single lab project) but could someone give us a rundown of the final four candidate landing sites and what their pros and cons were in terms of science that could be done there and the difficulty of landing there?\n\nI seem to remember that I liked either the lake bed or the delta and then the flood channel and that the gale crater was the one I really didn't want.\n\ntl; dr What are the pros and cons of each landing site in terms of science/geology/paleobiology that can be done there and in terms of the difficulty of landing? Oh, and the costs involved.",
"I have a question, forgive me if it has been previously asked. But how exactly do scientists ensure that no micro organisms or bacteria from earth get transported to Mars? Or in short, how do they ensure that the rover is 100% uncontaminated?",
"**\"heartbeat tones\"**\n\nIn the hour before landing I kept hearing the phrase \"heartbeat tones\" in the control room. It seems to indicate something good, but I'm curious what exactly it is.",
"Whatever happened to the HiRISE cameras from the MRO attempt at photographing Curisoity's descent, as stated in [this](_URL_6_) article?",
"What kind of geological information can the rover get from the rocks? Looking at the list of tools it seems there is a hand lens tool, as well as the X-ray spectrometer which should be useful for identifying minerals and such.\n\nHow much detail are we hoping to get? I see the OP mentions isotopical data - would it be possible to radiometrically date some minerals? If we can get isotopic data i imagine we are expecting major and trace element information too? Would it be whole rock analysis or can we expect spot analysis data?",
"Can Curiosity perform Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR)? As a Grad student working in microbiology, it seems like that would be the best way to detect if there is still life on mars. Given the climate, the best bet would be looking for Archaea. Since we are unable to culture the vast majority of Archaea on earth, we use PCR to look for things like 18S (ribosomal RNA). Can curiosity perform these tasks? It would need a thermocycler and a stash of primers, but there are many non-specific primers that should work well.",
"Presumably there is a point once every two [earth] years when the sun is in the way of our \"line of sight\" of Mars. If that's true;\n\n* Does the sun (being the big ball of radio interference that it is) get in the way?\n* Does this mean we cannot communicate with Mars for a few weeks? \n* Or maybe is the inclination of Mars' orbit enough that this is irrelevant?",
"There's been a few questions about how Curiosity will drive and how fast it can go, etc. \n\nI wrote a short report on vision based navigation systems, mainly covering the MERs, as part of my MSc. I thought it might be of interest to some, so here's a link.\n\n_URL_7_\n\nIt's about 12 pages long, and please excuse my poor writing.",
"Maybe a little further explanation to people that the Mars rover itself is called Curiosity, and it's the entire overall mission that is called MSL - Mars Science Laboratory. \nThe media's often incorrect use of the 2 terms as if they were synonymous have confused a lot of people.",
"This is kind of off-topic, but what are the technical details regarding the photo we got? I mean, what format was it in? What protocol was used from Curiosity to Odyssey and from Odyssey to Earth? What frequencies? What did we use to capture it here on Earth?",
"Can someone ELI5 the Seebeck effect and how it's used in the thermoelectric generator that is powering the rover? I kind of understand the Peltier effect, is this just the reverse of that (turning positive heat into electricity rather than electricity into negative heat)?",
"I'm looking for an analogy to describe just how amazing it is that the mission travelled 570 million km, and only missed their target by just over 2km. Any suggestions? Because the scope of this success is beyond what most people can comprehend.",
"How is curiosity or any other NASA space device protected while transmitting information to earth?\n\nI mean, curiosity is pointing signal to earth right? What is stopping any skilled engineer to build own receiver to catch broadcast?\n\nOr even to send own commands.",
"For more on why they chose the landing site, here's a reply in r/askscience 2 weeks ago from a guy on the MSL science team at Nasa, whose research led to the decision where to land:\n_URL_8_",
"Oh, I have a question, actually. How long will it be until the next communication window with Curiosity will open, and how long will it last? After that, when's the next one, and so on?",
"How much would it cost to send an exact duplicate of Curiosity and its mission/experiments (and ground support/scientists), but to a different location, now that the R & D has already been paid for?",
"Can someone give me detailed information about the \"heartbeat tones\" that were used to track status during the EDL? I would be very interested in finding a recording of that data.",
"Why is the design of the rover so strange? Why wasn't it designed similar to a conventional \"off road\" vehicle used on Earth, rather than it's \"spider like\" appearance?",
"After the sky crane dropped off the rover, it seemed to just fly away. Did it attempt to land somewhere else, crash, shoot off into space, or something else?",
"14 years... What is the estimated time frame for a human to mars mission? Is it possible Curiosity will still be mobile to greet us when we land?",
"I've read some sources that said the rover had only a %40 chance to land successfully. Did I misunderstand or were it's odds really that poor?",
"Does the curiosity rover have any fun things on it? A la ... the golden record or CD to future explorers?",
"[Can someone tell me what accounts for the spikes in radiation while the Rover was on the way to Mars?](_URL_9_)",
"Is it at all possible to say that we have now potentially introduced Earth-born viruses on Mars via these expeditions?",
"there was a hi res photo in the live stream. is it available for the public yet?",
"What is broad spectrum radiation and how would knowledge of it at the surface serve us?",
"I'm sure probably no one outside NASA can honestly answer this, but: I wonder what the protocol is (and I feel certain they must have one, however unlikely it is) if they come across something completely unexpected and revealing. Like, what if that first pic last night of the rover's wheels had shown a tiny skeleton of some long-dead mars animal lying there in the dust? I don't really think they're going to find something like that, but I have to imagine at some point there was a meeting and there must be a contingency if they discover something that's going to be truly world-changing. \n\nWould they just tell us and let the world sort it out? Would they hide it? Save it and let the President or someone get the glory of announcing? I just wonder what the procedure would be.",
"I'm already seeing people say things like \"Why did we spend $2.5 billion on this when [fill in the blank] needs to be done on Earth?\" Arguments like \"It's the cost of 3 days of war in the Middle East\" are good for putting it in perspective but the question still remains for some people, \"Why did we do this?\" Thinking of this as a bubble where none of the research applies anywhere else is problematic. I don't want to fight with people over this but it'd be interesting to know in specific ways how the research involved here applies to more than just \"putting a robot on another planet\".",
"Firstly, many thanks for answering these questions guys. It's really appreciated.\n\nDoes anyone know why it takes so long to get things going? I understand that we have a 14 minute delay on communication each way, and presumably that gap will grow during Earth's and Mars' orbits, but I don't understand why these system checks will take over a week before things get going. Is there a resource where we can see an overview or a small description of what the rover is currently processing? Perhaps that would provide some of the answers?\n\nI suppose I'm just anxcous to see it switch on that mastcam!",
"I've gone through a lot of the questions (but not all) so I don't know if this has been answered already: \n\n1. Are there other missions to other planets/moons planned? I know we've been investigating the moons of saturn and jupiter for a while so I was wondering if there was a reason we haven't sent a rover there yet? \n2. Is mars a repeated target because it's temperature is known and relatively similar to ours (within a range, of course) so we therorize that it's hospitable enough to have had life at some point? \n3. Is Venus a target at any point?",
"How automated was the landing? I guess it was almost fully automated, because of the transmission delay. What about the approach? What kind of commands were sent to the probe while it was traveling or approaching? When would've the last command be sent, and any ideas on what kind of a command it would've been?\n\nI'm just wondering about the role of the flight controllers. Were there some possible error situations that they could've corrected, and since what time was the probe on a \"deterministic\" path to Mars. That is, on a path that was only controlled by software?",
"Alright, I thought of a question.\n\nIn [this image](_URL_10_), you can see a little smudge on the horizon. Is it possible that this is perhaps the dust cloud kicked up by the descent stage crashing into the ground?\n\nI realize that the lens covers were still on the hazcams at the point that image was taken and they were covered in dust, but this looks like something further away than the dust on the cover. Futhermore, it doesn't quite look solid like part of the mountain/crater rim. It looks semi transparent. But maybe this is just me.\n\nYour thoughts?",
"Would it be technologically feasible to place a geostationary-synchronous \nsatellite into orbit above Mars, specifically in a spot that would always have line of sight to Curiosity? \n\nI know that there is a fairly high variance in Mars' orbit around the sun which may prove problematic for something of this nature. However, with the potential operational lifespan of the rover being 14+ years wouldn't a satellite of this nature greatly greatly increase the amount of data that could be transmitted and thus increase the operational uptime of the rover by a huge amount?",
"From a budget standpoint, now that we've built and sent one of these, would it be significantly cheaper to make and send more, either to Mars or to other planets? For example, you would no longer have to design the whole rover, test all its parts, etc. - though of course there will be differences depending on what planet you send it to, etc.\n\nBut, for example, could we send another to Mars for something like $1B instead of $2.5B? Or send one to a Jupe moon?",
"Where is curiosity compared to the other rovers we have sent to Mars? Would it be possible for curiosity to go and examine those rovers? Since Opportunity is still active could Curiosity go to rescue it if it was trapped in sand like Spirit was? Or is the distance to vast to travel? I guess I'm asking relatively where on the planet were these rovers landed and is there a planetary map we could look at to see this?",
"I was watching the livestream of the event as well as the computer simulation at _URL_11_, and I noticed a delay of about thirty seconds between when something happened in the simulation, and when they announced it in the control room.\n\nIs this a simple matter of the simulation being a bit off, or was the spacecraft actually thirty seconds behind schedule ?\n\n(Apologies if the question was asked already)",
"What is the transmission speed in terms of our broadband speed? Like is it 1Mbps or 20mbps etc?\n\nHow could humans will be sent in future to mars? Same way as we did for moon? Mars atmosphere is different to moon, so wont that be a hurdle while taking off?\n\nfew days back I saw a article that some preexisting rover will take photograph of Curiosity landing..(_URL_12_) Did it take?",
"In interviews NASA people said that the rover can't find life but can only find the ingredients for life. The rover has quite a collection of scientific equipment, what additional equipment would be needed to positively and certainly identify life existed on Mars? And was it too heavy to be included? Is there any chance it could identify some kind of fossilized microorganism with its current instruments?",
"Considering the fact that a lot of these rover-type vehicles have to stand in place for longer periods of times, wouldn't it be possible to use solar panels to power the engines indefinately or would it still be far too little energy to run the vehicle?\n\n Curiousity is apparently the size of a car so I am guessing it needed to be powered by something far stronger.",
"OP's FAQ mentions that landing on lands and airbags is inpractical for spacecarft this size. How it is so? Lunar landings were done on legs (heavier craft alhtough smaller g) successfuly before. How is that different compared to crane? You have to do gentle touch down as well plus you have all the complications with ropes cutting, thrusting away.",
"How is the landing destination calculated? From the time they have to launch the robot back in late 2011 until now that it will land in the Gale Crater? Are these rovers ever meant to come back to Earth or will they stay on Mars forever? If so, what happens if the power runs out or something malfunctions?",
"How does the lander measure its attitude? Especially during last stage - sky crane? Is the measurement done from the rover as it might obstruct lasers etc on the lander? If so, is there any correction done for possible tilts, shifts etc due to winds which might make the rover not \"vertical\" with respect to the ground-lander?",
"Assuming the rover had missed its target landing spot by enough distance that the sky crane was on top of an area with extremely inclined surface, was the sky crane programmed to check for the horizontal level of the landing site and change its position accordingly to lower the rover at a more stable spot?",
"so as i understood the MRO has recorded the EDL communication and will upload it to earth as soon as it gets a connection, they said it takes hours for them to decode that data, what kind of compression do they use that takes hours for (i assume) a quite low volume of data?",
"Why does it move so slowly? According to Wikipedia it travels up to 90 metres per hour. I understand it would be a disaster if it rolled, but on flat smooth ground, why not at least 1 KM/H? Does it just not have the power to do so?",
"I saw some video of a test of the skycrane platform hovering with its rockets. Would like to see it again but can't find it for the life of me. Anyone have a clue? Or did I see it on the nasa stream? I can't remember...",
"My question is, why that crater? While the pooling water idea makes sense, if the crater came after whatever \"killed\" Mars, it might very well be totally barren, right? Why not investigate one of the poles or one of those dried out river bed formations?",
"It is my understanding that the last sequence of the landing is to avoid the rockets blasting sand everywhere, which could be bad for Curiosity's electronics. The first images show what to me look like sand on the camera - is this expected?",
"I heard NASA was going to try and get a satellite that was already orbiting Mars to take pictures of the Curiosity landing. A) Is that true? B) Did they end up getting the pictures? and C) Where can I find them?",
"What are these scientists and engineers going to do now after they hand the keys to Curiosity over to the ground crew?\n\nDo they get laid off? Join the ground crew? Work on the next project? What is the next project?",
"If we discover that historically (when it was warm and wet) Mars had bacterial life, does that mean that there are likely to be large petroleum deposits buried underground, having formed in the same way that petroleum on earth did?",
"Don't radio waves travel at the speed of light? If light takes 8 minutes to arrive from the sun then how come it takes 13.8 minutes for the data to arrive? Is Mars on the other side of the sun?",
"Curiosity \"sent\" this [tweet](_URL_13_) regarding the landing. Was this in any way sent by the rover, or was it simply pre-programmed or sent by another human? The idea of a robot on the surface of Mars sending tweets delights me.",
"Alright, here's a question: any idea if Nasa will have Curiosity try and find the crashed rocket crane unit? It would be pretty awesome if we could see some photos of that thing as it lies after its crash landing.",
"Will Curiosity ever be able to leave the Gale Crater or would it be too steep? \n\nWould Curiosity be able to detect signs of current life with the tools it has, even though this isn't it's primary purpose?",
"Thing thing can take 1600 x 1200 photographs? 720p video? Some of the pictures from it are going to be incredible! How long until I get to feast my eyes on some of these?",
"Sorry if this has been asked, but why the 13 minute delay in communications? Light from sun to earth is only 8 minutes, radio travels at light speed, so where's the lag comming from?",
"Why wasn't the rover launched faster towards mars?\nIf I'm correct the new horizons probe only took 3 months to pass mars orbit on its way to Pluto.\nSo why the slow trip?",
"So how do they plan to take care of dust problem such as the dust on the lenses?\n\nI know about using the Martian winds, but is that all they have?",
"So I'm reading about all the technical challenges faced by the MSL. One of which is called \"pendulum dynamics\". I kinda understand the principal...but how was this corrected?",
"Will the rocket thrust excavations be of geological interest because previously covered ground has been exposed, or will geologists avoid these areas because they've been contaminated/disturbed?",
"Once all the systems are designated ready etc. how long will operations by the Rover last for? And when will first data be released?",
"I am so excited that I don't know what link to click first. \n\n\nIs there a live feed of Mars we can watch?",
"Is there a dust cover over the whole rover or just the cameras? Anything special as to how they are removed? Thanks, /askscience!",
"Is there a lot of/any overlap in the personnel for the Curiosity team and the other mars projects (Spirit/Opportunity, MRO, Phoenix, etc.)?",
"Where can I find a replay of the 2:30am ET press conference shortly after landing? ...I had to go to sleep!",
"Are public video releases or live streams planned in the future? I would like to see her zapping mars rocks.",
"What happened to the sky crane after it dropped off the rover. Did it land somewhere or just crash?",
"> 2 megabits per second.\n\nSometimes internet to Mars is faster than it is to my house :(",
"If we find evidence of life, how will we know it is genuine and not a clean-room failure?",
"Question: Do we know if the satellite orbiting Mars was able to capture the picture of Curiosity landing?",
"1. Is it going to return to earth?\n2. How does it send information to us?",
"Where can I hear these 'heartbeat tones' NASA was talking about during the Curiosity landing?",
"What happens to the sky crane? Does it land somewhere else? How is that controlled?",
"Can someone explain to me what the \"sky crane\" is and how it works?",
"Are the 74 sample cups in the SAM able to be reused?",
"Is there a protocol to follow if lifeforms are found on Mars?",
"How do they get the color right in the full-color images?",
"What does sound sound like on Mars, given the thin atmosphere?",
"When will I see this data on _URL_14_ ?"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_Chromatograph",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xo5vm/how_does_the_mars_rover_curiosity_send_radio/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ovsn5",
"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/MSLLanding.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27%27Curiosity%27%27_rover#Payload",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ov82h",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ourz4",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ouq1w",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ouzu6",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27%27Curiosity%27%27_rover",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Odyssey",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_lander",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale_crater",
"http://twitpic.com/agc3nk/full",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ouuh8",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ouvfg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5ouz37",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xr3s0/the_official_mars_science_laboratory_and/c5oup1e",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrupole_Mass_Spectrometer",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2012/08/06/curiosity-update-heat-shield-spotted/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/wvqwt/why_was_the_curiosity_rover_not_landed_at_the/c5h97sr",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser-induced_breakdown_spectroscopy",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UcGMDXy-Y1I",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_and_Opportunity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_lander",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/images/first_images_mars.html"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale_crater",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27%27Curiosity%27%27_rover#Specifications",
"http://i.imgur.com/hFoHy.jpg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrnuGAQroXQ",
"http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsndocs/810-005/208/208A.pdf",
"http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/docs/MSLLaunch.pdf",
"http://www.universetoday.com/96576/hirise-camera-to-attempt-imaging-curiositys-descent-to-mars/",
"http://dl.dropbox.com/u/2075369/vision%20based%20navigation%20systems%20report.pdf",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/wvqwt/why_was_the_curiosity_rover_not_landed_at_the/c5h97sr",
"http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/672696main_hassler04a-43_428-321.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/First_picture_sent_by_the_Mars_Curiosity_rover.jpg",
"eyes.nasa.gov",
"http://www.universetoday.com/96576/hirise-camera-to-attempt-imaging-curiositys-descent-to-mars/",
"https://twitter.com/MarsCuriosity/status/232348380431544320",
"http://www.google.com/mars/"
]
} | The Official Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosity Rover Thread
As of 1:31 am, August 6, 2012 (EDT), NASA and Jet Propulsion Lab has successfully landed the [Curiosity Rover](_URL_11_) at the [Gale Crater](_URL_15_) of Mars, as part of the [Mars Science Laboratory](_URL_13_) mission. This is an exciting moment for all of us and I'm sure many of you are burning with questions. Here is a place for you to submit all your questions regarding the mission, the rover, and Mars! Update: [HiRISE camera from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter capturing Curiosity's descent](_URL_22_) [Thumbnail video of the descent from the Mars Descent Imager](_URL_25_) [Higher resolution photograph of Curiosity and its shadow, and Mount Sharp in the background](_URL_16_). ---------- FAQs (summarized from [the official press release](_URL_4_)): **What is the purpose of the mission?** The four stated objectives are: 1. Assessing the biological potential by examining organic compounds - the "building blocks of life" - and searching for evidence of biologically relevant processes. 2. Uncovering the geological processes that formed the rocks and soil found on Mars, by studying the isotopical and mineralogical content of surface materials. 3. Investigate past and present habitability of Mars and the distribution and cycling of water and carbon dioxide. 4. Characterize the broad spectrum of surface radiation. **How was the mission site chosen?** In line with the mission objectives, Gale Crater is located at a low elevation, so past water would likely have pooled inside the crater, leaving behind evidence such as clay and sulfate minerals. The impact that created the crater also revealed many different layers, each of which will give clues on the planetary conditions at the time the material was deposited. While previous landing sites must be chosen to safeguard the landing of the spacecraft, the new "sky crane" landing system allows for a much more accurate landing, which, combined with the mobility of the rover, meant that the mission site can be some distance from the landing site. The primary mission will focus on the lower elevations of the Gale Crater, with possible exploration in the higher slopes in future extended missions. For a more detailed explanation see [this thread](_URL_23_). **Why is the "sky crane maneuver" to land the rover?** The Curiosity rover is the biggest - and more importantly, the heaviest - rover landed on Mars. It has a mass of 899 kg, compared to Spirit and Opportunity rovers, coming at 170 kg each. Prior strategies include landing the rover on legs, as the [Viking](_URL_27_) and [Phoenix](_URL_14_) landers did, and using airbags, as [Spirit and Opportunity](_URL_26_) did, but the sheer size and weight of Curiosity means those two methods are not practical. **What happens to the descent stage after it lowers the rover?** The descent stage of the spacecraft, after releasing the rover, is programmed to crash at least 150 metres (likely twice that distance) away from the lander, towards the North pole of Mars, to avoid contamination of the mission site. Currently there is no telemetry data on it yet. **How long does it take for data to transmit one way between Earth and Mars?** On the day of landing, it takes approximately 13.8 minutes for data to be transmitted one way directly from Curiosity to Earth via the Deep Space Network, at a data rate of 160 - 800 bits per second. Much of the data can also be relayed via the Mars orbiters ([Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter](_URL_7_) and [Mars Odessy](_URL_12_)) at 2 megabits per second. See [this thread](_URL_2_) for more detail. **What are the differences between this rover and the previous ones landed on Mars?** For an overview of the scientific payload, see the [Wikipedia page](_URL_5_). This includes such valuable scientific instruments such as a [laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system](_URL_24_), not found in the previous rovers. The [gas chromatography system](_URL_0_), [quadrupole mass spectrometer](_URL_21_) and tuneable laser spectrometer are also part of the payload, not included in the Spirit and Opportunity rovers. Discussion in comments [here](_URL_10_), and [here](_URL_20_). **Why were the [first images](_URL_28_) of such low resolution?** The purpose for the first thumbnail images are to confirm that the Rover has landed and has operational capabilities. These images were taken from the Hazard Avoidance cameras (HazCams), rather than the main cameras. More images will be sent in the next window 15 hours after landing in order to pinpoint the landing site. The Rover has a Mars Descent Imager capable of 1600 x 1200 video at 4 frames per second. The MastCam (with Bayer filter) is capable of 1600 x 1200 photographs, along with 720p video at 4 - 7 fps. The Hands Lens Imager is capable of the same image resolution for magnified or close-up images. The ChemCam can take 1024 x 1024 monochromatic images with telescopic capabilities. These cameras will be activated as part of the commissioning process with the rest of the scientific payload in the upcoming days/weeks. Discussion in comments [here](_URL_8_), [here](_URL_6_), [here](_URL_19_), and [here](_URL_3_). **How is Curiosity powered?** The Rover contains a [radioisotope thermoelectric power generator](_URL_1_), powered by 4.8 kg of plutonium dioxide. It is designed to provide power for at least 14 years. [Discussion in comments](_URL_17_). **When will Curiosity take its first drive? When will experimentation begin?** The first drive will take place more than one week after landing. It will take several weeks to a month to ensure that all systems are ready for science operations. Discussion in comments [here](_URL_9_) and [here](_URL_18_). | [
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3eb1f9 | Is "the urge to have children" (AKA "the biological clock") partially inherent in people or completely socially constructed? | askscience | {
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"Please see research by [Kristin Park](_URL_0_). Childlessness is deviant from social norms; therefore, there is at least clear social pressure to reproduce. I'm not sure if anyone has done a study on your exact question, but the research shows that having children is a socially constructed activity.",
"I have removed most responses for being speculation. If no one has a study to cite, then perhaps we can conclude for the time being that \"we don't know\" and this discussion can be resumed in /r/asksciencediscussion, our new-ish sister-sub, which is more focused on speculative and open-ended questions.",
"The \"ticking biological clock\" refers to the decline in a healthy and normal pregnancy, which occurs naturally as we age; people who want to have kids, or who *might* want to have kids are essentially racing against that timeframe before things start going wrong.",
"My previous post was deleted due to lack of sources, which is absolutely fair (I'm on mobile so my researching ability is limited at the moment). \n\nHowever! I did manage to track down a twin study on the subject located here: _URL_2_\n\nNotable quote:\n > The authors find that genetic influences on fertility exist, but that their relative magnitude and pattern are contingent on gender and on the socioeconomic environment experienced by cohorts\n\nSo the tldr is, like most things it seems, the desire to have children is caused by a bit of both genetics and environmental (sociocultural) influences. \n\nEdit: Another article on the subject that seems to point more towards genetic factors, but acknowledges environmental influences (for some reason you have to search the title in Google scholar to get the full pdf): _URL_2_\n\n\nEdit: Forgot to mention, you do need a JSTOR account to view the full JSTOR article, which is free in case you're not at a university.",
"> I've been having difficult phrasing this question very well and it's led to some confusions. Here's another attempt: \"When we satisfy everything that would usually lead to reproduction and we do not reproduce, is there an innate desire left unfulfilled? Could we change society to accept this or would there always be a lingering need to have children.\"\n\n\nEvolution is blind. It doesn't have desires or ideas of the future or concepts of passing down genes. It isn't really a thing as much as a concept, a way of explaining a process. People get confused sometimes though, because in animal species, it does control those \"desires\", the preferences that in the wild lead to the *attempt* to procreate. I say \"attempt\", because a big part of evolution is that not all attempts at procreation are successful. Some members of a species may be attracted to traits that are intrinsically (or simply physically) linked to traits that also reduce fertility, or fecundy, or reduces the chance of reaching sexual maturity (say only 1 in 100 offspring with those genes are able to reach it). Evolution has more dead-ends than live ones; some species die out not because of environmental upheaval or geological changes or disease, but through weakened survival due to the most attractive features of that species become so exaggerated through the generations that they become incompatible with life (like a species of animals with large horns on their head and the individuals with the largest horns being the most attractive to mates, eventually the horns becoming so large that the adults cannot lift their heads for the weight of the horns).\n\nEvolution is self-serving, so it makes since that reproduction itself is its driving force, but that doesn't mean animals, including humans, necessarily *want* to spread their genes. It drives the hormones that make sex desirable, but there is not a consideration for the results of that, procreation is either successful and leads to viable offspring that also reproduce, or it is unsuccessful. Since a human who has sex but takes precautions to prevent offspring out of choice is just as successful as an animal that is infertile, or has sex with an infertile animal or any other reason why the coupling is unsuccessful, both are evolutionary dead ends. Individuals in a species are, in an evolutionary sense, irrelevant. *Socially* however, individuals that don't reproduce *but still contribute to the offspring in its family group* are extremely important in many species. In humans, this could be represented by being a productive member of society (having a job, paying taxes, taking care of the children of others even if they don't have their own, doing something that contributes to society as a whole). People who don't have children are still evolutionary dead-ends, but they are still socially important. \n\nNow as for the \"Could we change society to accept this or would there always be a lingering need to have children\" bit, I'm not sure if that's really possible with humans at this point. Humanity knows that children are the by-product of sex, and humanity also has the ability, unlike the vast majority of animals (maybe any animal) to plan ahead and think about what they want in the future. This complicates things a bit as far as evolution is concerned, because now humans are trying to control their own future, instead of things being kind of random. Most humans want our species to survive (or more accurately, they want their own group/society to survive, but that's a whole other can of worms), but humans are not immortal, so to survive we must reproduce. But there will always be individuals that either don't adhere to that belief, or do but do not want children themselves, or want children but can't have them (although medical science has done a lot to change the last point, to the joy of many people). Do we really *want* to rid humanity of the desire to have children? We could employ the concept perhaps to reduce the overall population, but we wouldn't want to rid the desire entirely (unless you really do want to see humanity die out, which is against the wishes of most of the people on the planet), and it would be very hard to implement on a temporary basis.\n\nAnyway, that ended up way longer than I intended it to be, and is probably rife with bad phrasing, but I guess the gist of it is that on a biological level, it isn't necessarily innate to actually be successful at reproduction, but for most humans, there are strong desires to be successful, so their is a mental sense of fulfillment that is lost when reproduction is not achieved (so long as its a goal). And since childbearing is such a huge and permanent part of one's life, those who cannot achieve their desire for it are going to have much stronger feelings towards it than they would if they denied themselves sugar-filled foods."
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39l67c | How did a wing evolve? | A wing is a specialist body part, and I can't understand how something like this can evolve. If it was a gradual change, then the wing would be useless until it could lift the organism. However throughout this process the limb would be a large evolutionary disadvantage so the organism should die. And because it is so complex it cannot form in one mutation, so I can't understand why organisms have wings. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cs4c3oa",
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"cs4xv4z"
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"text": [
"Wings have evolved independantly in several lineages: pterosaurs, birds, bats, insects,and to a certain extent sugar gliders, certain types of fish and squid. Each one of those lineages used a slightly (sometimes grossly) different pathway to flight, with a different set of intermediates with different functions.\n\nIn the case of insects for instance, it has been suggested that the precursor structures to wings were initially used for thermoregulation and that the adaptation to flight was the result of scaling and allometry in a way perhaps completely unrelated to the selective pressures initially selecting for the thermoregulatory advantages of the incipient nubbins which eventually became wings (see : [Kingsolver & Roelh, 1985]( _URL_0_))\n\nWhat matters is that the processes and intermediate stages (when applicable) matter and are selected for *in the moment* by conferring some immediate advantage which may be unrelated to flight, not in terms of any hypothetical future use. Thus unflightworthy proto-wings might have had uses in sexual or social signaling, or as steering devices, or even thermoregulation before beeing co-opted for flight. Another thing that matters is that flight has evolved repeatedly in a large diversity of lineages through diffecent intermediates and processes. This suggests that the evolution of flight is a relatively easy and recurrent affair.",
"In our environment today there are a bunch of animals with proto-flight abilities: flying squirrels, flying snakes, sugar gliders, flying fish, flying frogs, flying squid, flying geckos, flying possums, colugos, sugar gliders, flying squirrels, and draco lizards.\n\nIt's very easy to imagine that some kind of arboreal animal got progressively better and better at falling out of trees or jumping from tree to tree until it developed true flight ability.",
"Flying evolved independently several times (eg birds, bats), but generally progresses from jumping and gliding (off a tree branch for example), to actively flapping, to full flight. Modern birds have thousands of adaptations which help them fly, but they appeared gradually, each trait helping that generation survive better.\n\nCheck out [this](_URL_2_) and [this](_URL_2_) for starters.",
"* You are making the 'irreducible complexity' argument, which sounds reasonable but is actually overly simplistic.\n\n_URL_3_\n\n* This video actually concerns the eye, but there is a similar vid that explains how the wing evolved. If I can find it I will post it."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/2408648?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents",
"http://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G104/lectures/104aves.html",
"http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/historyoflife/feathersandflight.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jEhzAn1hDc"
]
} | How did a wing evolve?
A wing is a specialist body part, and I can't understand how something like this can evolve. If it was a gradual change, then the wing would be useless until it could lift the organism. However throughout this process the limb would be a large evolutionary disadvantage so the organism should die. And because it is so complex it cannot form in one mutation, so I can't understand why organisms have wings. | [
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3ty0c4 | Why are so many energy equations of the form E=(1/2)xy^2? Kinetic, elastic, heat, capacitor and inductor energy all have this form. Even E=mc^2 is almost there. | So as I've gone further into physics I keep seeing this pattern pop up. Many equations for energy have the form E=(1/2)xy^2. That is half times a variable times another variable squared.
Is there a reason for this pattern or just coincidence? I would have thought different forms of energy would have very different equations for the most part. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"This is because energy is defined as integral of force (dot) dx. ([ ; (\\int F\\cdot dx) ; ] if you have latex).\n\nIf we look at some forces, we can derive the energy equations ourselves. Force due to a spring is F=-kx, k is just a number put there by humans so that our numbers would line up nicely with things we have done before. If we integrate this, we find that our energy equation is (-) 1/2 kx^2. We actually get rid of the negative because we don't have negative energy (negative change of energy or work is different) *EDIT: See the comment left by /u/AsAChemicalEngineer for a correct explanation of why we don't have negative energy in this instance*. And you can see that the 1/2 and the x^2 are actually just resultants of the integration.\n\nTo take an example that doesn't have a 1/2 or x^2, let's look at the simplified form of force due to gravity, F=mg. We integrate this with respect to x and get E=mgx (or U=mgh). Since we didn't have a distance term in our original equation, we don't get the factor of integration.\n\n(Side note, the actual formula for potential energy is -(G * m_1 * m_2) / r, but all of the extra bits that don't change that much are hidden in the \"g\" term.)\n\nHopefully this helps somewhat.\n\nTL;DR: Energy is defined as an integral and the 1/2 and the x^2 are resultants of integration",
"They're almost all approximations. Most forms of energy we talk about are associated to small changes around some energy minimum. E=1/2 cx^(2) is the simplest function that has a stable minimum at x=0, with energy increases to either side. So for small deviations from equilibrium it is convenient to *approximate* the energy like this. This is equivalent to a force law F=-cx, i.e. something like a spring where the force pushes you back to the stable equilibrium. Most of the time this is not an exact expression, and is inappropriate far from equilibrium. The factor of 1/2 is there to make the force law look nice; you could shove it into a redefinition of the constant if you wanted and have F=-2cx instead.\n\nIf you stretch a spring by 1000 times its rest length it doesn't just pull back 1000 times as hard, it breaks. Or at the very least, it permanently deforms. Typical stress/strain curves look like [these](_URL_0_); the 1/2 kx^(2) assumes that the linear part extends forever. Similar reasoning applies to the other scenarios, which are all the small-energy approximations to more complicated forms.\n\nOther times it's a matter of definition. Capacitance is *defined* to be the ratio Q/V, which implies that the energy is automatically of the form 1/2 CV^(2). But the capacitance of a real circuit component may not be constant; it might change with increasing voltage which makes the form of the law a cute packaging of a more complex form (or again, a small voltage approximation) and not a legitimately quadratic relationship.",
"All of physics is approximations, and one of the most useful is taylor approximations. We typically choose the lowest energy state as the reference energy since we only really care about energy changes (so all our energies are nice and positive). So we're approximating the energy as: E = E0 + k1\\*x + 1/2\\*k2\\*x^2 +... with E0 being our reference energy. Might as well set E0 = 0.\n\nWe don't care about higher terms as long as we can keep x small, so we drop those. Because we're expanding around an energy minimum, k1 = 0. So we're left with E = 1/2\\*k2\\*x^2.\n\nNote that taylor approximations only work at small x. All of the formulas you've listed break down when \"x\" gets too big (speed for kinetic energy, spring stretched out too much, etc etc).",
"I like snuggly answer, but for another one:\n\nEnergy is a scalar. It has no dependence on direction. If energy was linear in V, then it would not be invariant with orientation. Similarly v^n where n is odd are also ruled out."
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"url": [
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]
} | Why are so many energy equations of the form E=(1/2)xy^2? Kinetic, elastic, heat, capacitor and inductor energy all have this form. Even E=mc^2 is almost there.
So as I've gone further into physics I keep seeing this pattern pop up. Many equations for energy have the form E=(1/2)xy^2. That is half times a variable times another variable squared. Is there a reason for this pattern or just coincidence? I would have thought different forms of energy would have very different equations for the most part. | [
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|
5kbs35 | Birth rate seems to be inversely related to wealth and resource availability. Does this phenomenon occur in non-human species? Is there a biological(i.e. hormonal) influence behind it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dbn00as",
"dbn1s1v",
"dbn2i4q"
],
"text": [
"It is my understanding that scientists have attributed this to better health care rather than wealth. Specifically, as infant mortality rate decreases the fertility rate (number of children per woman) decreases too.\n\n_URL_0_",
"In humans, much of this is due to education and access to birth control, both of which correlate with wealth and resources. To put it bluntly, people raised in a wealthier and higher socio-economic environment tend to have fewer accidental pregnancies, tend to plan out the budgeting aspects of childcare more deliberately (often leading to the decision to have fewer children), and tend to spend more years in early adulthood exclusively prioritizing their career and professional training (school etc.) instead of having kids.",
"I advise you to look up [Calhoun's rat studies](_URL_1_). He did studies of overpopulation stress in rats and came up with the concept of the \"behavioral sink\", which has been used as a (controversial) model in urban psychology and economics since then. Infant mortality in his overpopulated rat studies was as high as 96%, with cannibalism and changes in maternal behavior.\n\nThe biochemical mechanism has to do with how cortisol (and other stress hormones) feedback on reproductive hormones like estrogen, FSH, and LH.\n\nSo the short answer is mostly no. Most animals will not reproduce less if there are more resources; they will flourish until overpopulation again causes stress and resource limitations (usually death by disease is common when predation is absent). In humans, the self-limiting is due to cultural factors, as the others stated."
],
"score": [
9,
7,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ageing.ox.ac.uk/download/143",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_sink"
]
} | Birth rate seems to be inversely related to wealth and resource availability. Does this phenomenon occur in non-human species? Is there a biological(i.e. hormonal) influence behind it?
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rscvb | How Strong is the evidence in favor of Darwinian evolution? | Also, is there any certifiable evidence/adversary that could or can disprove it?
Edit: Thank you guys for the amazing feed back!! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The evidence is so overwhelming and explains such a broad number of different observations in most fields of biology that is has been elevated to a scientific theory just like the theory of gravity, Cell theory... \n\nYes as with any scientific idea it can be disproven (this is a requirement of scientific hypotheses) but it remains strong in the face 150 years of scientists testing it including myself.",
"So it's important when having this discussion, to define exactly what you mean by Darwinian evolution. As someone who works with viruses, I take it to mean the process by which random genetic mutation leads to a fitness advantage which results in the propagation of that mutation in future generations. \n\nFor instance HIV is always mutating. If you grow it in a cell with low levels of a drug that targets a particular viral protein, that protein will mutate so that it is not affected by the drug. The future generations of virus will carry this mutation. This (in my mind) is evolution. This is also, without a doubt, happening. In my lab we do these kinds of experiments routinely, and even people who don't work with viruses will take advantage of viral evolution techniques to generate reagents. So basically there is zero doubt about this sort of thing happening.\n\nNow some people will readily believe this sort of thing, but jump off the bandwagon when you start talking about different species arising. While it may be intuitively harder to imagine how a fruitfly and a human share common ancestry, the truth is the genetic record is entirely consistent with this mode of action (which I should emphasize we are actively observing on short time scales with rapidly evolving organisms like viruses). The decision to decide that \"species must be different\" is largely arbitrary. Add in the evidence of the fossil record, observations of natural selection in species such as salamanders, butterflies, yeast and bacteria and it's really hard to deny that evolution is happening. \n\nNow there are some things Darwin got wrong (i.e. horizontal gene transfer), but Darwinian evolution is not just widely accepted but is the FOUNDATION of most of modern molecular biology and genetics. So, in answer to your question, yes there is evidence and we are far beyond the point of \"is it happening?\" but are rather now studying the finer points of \"how is it happening?\".",
"Here are a couple of links:\n\n[What is the evidence for evolution?](_URL_0_)\n\n[29+ Evidences for Macroevolution](_URL_2_)\n\nVery few scientists of any kind doubt evolution, and by very few I mean much less than 1%. The informal motto of biology is \"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution\", from [\"a 1973 essay by the evolutionary biologist and Russian Orthodox Christian Theodosius Dobzhansky, criticising anti-evolution creationism and espousing theistic evolution.\"](_URL_1_)",
"Just to add to what others are saying, the evidence for evolution/natural selection is so abundant and diversified that no single piece of evidence could disprove it.",
"There was a pretty exciting paper linked here recently about [fly evolution in an experiment](_URL_3_). The flies developed traits as a direct result of the environment in which they lived, after generations and generations of breeding."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/search/topicbrowse2.php?topic_id=46",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_in_Biology_Makes_Sense_Except_in_the_Light_of_Evolution",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0033288"
]
} | How Strong is the evidence in favor of Darwinian evolution?
Also, is there any certifiable evidence/adversary that could or can disprove it? Edit: Thank you guys for the amazing feed back!! | [
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|
7l6tap | Can sea creatures be invasive? | As we all probably know there are many instances of animals being introduced to a new environment and having no natural predators and become a problem. I know this can also happen with fish too in lakes and rivers. My question is can this happen in the ocean since one way or another all the ocean is connected. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"drk307r",
"drk33i3",
"drk6xwf"
],
"text": [
"Short answer: yes. \n\nBasically, many marine species don't travel well on their own, but they can hitch rides on ships and such, then will invade new marine environments that are not prepared to support the new species. See [this article](_URL_0_) for some examples.",
"Yes, and it's happening right now. More than 300 species of marine organisms from Japanese waters have been found on the west coast of Canada, having hitched a ride over on all the debris that floated across due to the earthquake and tsunami that took out Fukushima. Story [here](_URL_1_)\n\nAn earlier example is the Japanese oysters that are found throughout the Pacific North West. The Japanese oysters are the tasty ones, compared to the local \"Horse Oysters.\" So a long time ago, the oyster farmers imported them in large quantities, then one night all the oysters spawned at once, creating huge blooms. The larva basically spread out and established themselves all up and down the coast, and we've had them ever since. So yeah, technically they're invasive, but they moved into a previously unoccupied ecological niche, so no real damage. They're just a tasty curiosity.",
"Lion fish are originally from the Indian Ocean and are currently plaguing the Caribbean. They feed on juvenile fish specifically and are wrecking the ecosystem. With no natural predators in the area, they basically go unchecked except for the ones humans spear. It’s a bad situation that has a lot of the scuba diving industry worried for their future.\n\nI’ve never heard a consensus on how they spread. Some of the popular theories are that people either released them from salt water aquariums or accidentally brought them across the Panama Canal in ballast tanks."
],
"score": [
18,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-news/5-invasive-species-you-should-know",
"http://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/debris-from-japanese-tsunami-deliver-foreign-species-to-b-c-beaches"
]
} | Can sea creatures be invasive?
As we all probably know there are many instances of animals being introduced to a new environment and having no natural predators and become a problem. I know this can also happen with fish too in lakes and rivers. My question is can this happen in the ocean since one way or another all the ocean is connected. | [
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|
y7biy | Questions about global warming, sea level, and other consequences of global warming. | I've been following global warming since I was a teenager (about the last 12 years), but I got caught up with my life and conveniently forgot about it. Now as I get older I started thinking about it, especially after watching a documentary called "an inconvenient truth" which really got me thinking again.
If/when the sea level does rise the predicted 20-40 feet, where would the best places to live be in the world/america. What impact will it have on the weather around the world, can this be predicted?
From what I read/saw in the documentary it is possible to go into an ice age, when will this happen? In our lifetime? If it does will there be any safe places to live?
I probably sound like a fanatic lol, I'm just curious about most of this honestly. I don't wanna buy property on a coastline and have it under water in the next 20 years.
So if I were to move where would the ideal place be? I'm guessing a colder climate like canada/upper America would be ideal because it would hopefully get normal temperatures when this does happen?
Fwiw I'm not a science guy at all and know I probably sound very ignorant to you guys, just putting that out there. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5szx2q",
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"text": [
"It depends how long you want to look into the future when making real estate decisions. The anticipated sea level rise over the next century is 1-2 meters. In the long-long-term (when, not if, Greenland melts, which will probably be several centuries from now) the water will rise 7-8 meters. In terms of location, you want to not only personally live about that 7-8 meter mark but also live in a town/state which is predominantly above that level - otherwise your house might be safe but you probably end up footing the bill (taxes) to try to save all those lower-lying areas as the water slowly rises. \n\nThe possibility of a triggering an ice age is very remote. The possibility exists because of nonlinearities in the climate system and the potential for 'tipping points' where the ocean suddenly flips into a different circulation pattern. Even if such tipping points exist, it is very unlikely that they result would reverse the trend and plunge us into an ice-age - more likely that the tipping points will only make the situation worse ([melting methane hydrates](_URL_0_) being an example).\n\nMy ideal choice - the Pacific coast of Canada, lots of high elevation and not likely to get too hot nor to dry out.",
"Sea level rise should not be your only consideration, although it is a major one. For instance, [drought](_URL_1_) is a major concern throughout the western United States. The science around hurricanes is still not settled, but there is at least a possibility of more strong hurricanes in the North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Fires in many parts of the US are a distinct possibility, although that is also confounded by how we choose to manage our forests. I agree with Sverdrupian (who's username is quite appropriate for an oceanographer!) that the Pacific Northwest is probably as good a place as any. \n\nIf you're concerned about climate change, though, don't just think about the best places to live. Think about how you can work to make it a better situation! Use less energy, vote based on candidates energy policies, etc.",
"~~The safest place to be might be North Carolina's shoreline, as they've literally outlawed predicting the sea level rise using science..~~\n\nI forgot where I was. Sorry, for the non-scientific reply.",
"Another thing not noted would be [ocean acidification](_URL_2_). The most damaging effect will be harm to marine organism relying on calcification, which will have ramifications for the food chain. Crabs, lobsters, and other crustaceans have exoskeletons composed primarily of calcium carbonate."
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane_clathrate",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/12/opinion/sunday/extreme-weather-and-drought-are-here-to-stay.html?_r=1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification"
]
} | Questions about global warming, sea level, and other consequences of global warming.
I've been following global warming since I was a teenager (about the last 12 years), but I got caught up with my life and conveniently forgot about it. Now as I get older I started thinking about it, especially after watching a documentary called "an inconvenient truth" which really got me thinking again. If/when the sea level does rise the predicted 20-40 feet, where would the best places to live be in the world/america. What impact will it have on the weather around the world, can this be predicted? From what I read/saw in the documentary it is possible to go into an ice age, when will this happen? In our lifetime? If it does will there be any safe places to live? I probably sound like a fanatic lol, I'm just curious about most of this honestly. I don't wanna buy property on a coastline and have it under water in the next 20 years. So if I were to move where would the ideal place be? I'm guessing a colder climate like canada/upper America would be ideal because it would hopefully get normal temperatures when this does happen? Fwiw I'm not a science guy at all and know I probably sound very ignorant to you guys, just putting that out there. | [
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|
1x95zi | How does the human brain keep time? | I understand circadian rhythms, but I want to know how our brains keep time in a more immediate sense. For instance, how can I count the seconds at a fairly consistent pace? How do I *know* a specific interval of time has passed?
Digital computers rely on quartz clocks for timing calculations, so is there a similar feature in our brains? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cf9cdut",
"cf9d7ss",
"cf9iq8e"
],
"text": [
"As far as I can tell from a literature search, I don't think the molecular mechanism underlying the perception of time is known at all. It is linked to different neurotransmitters (.e.g.), since a lot of psychoactive substances have dramatic effects on the perception of time. It is probably even harder to study in other model organisms since we don't know if they perceive time the same way we do, especially since our time perception depends on consciousness. A ultradian cycle that would represent one second for us may be represented by 10 cycles in another organism that is easier to study. Interesting question...",
"There is current research on \"time cells\" in psychology labs, specifically Howard Eichenbaum at Boston University and Gyorgy Buzsaki at NYU. Basically, they found cells in the hippocampus (a major component in memory acquisition and consolidation) in the limbic system. Although their research doesn't specifically demonstrate a \"sense of time\", they show that there is an inherent system in the hippocampus that is able to have a sense of time between two events. Here are two papers that might be helpful:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"According to the striatal beat-frequency model by Professor Meck at Duke, interval timing is processed in the cortico-thalamic-striatal circuit. Cortical neurons which project into the striatum provide oscillating input to medium spiny neurons, which act as coincidence detectors. Dopaminergic neurons from the VTA and substantia nigra project to the cortex and to the striatum, releasing dopamine at the times of stimulus and reward to synchronize the activity of these oscillatory cortical neurons. Over time, these neurons change their structure by long-term potentiation and long-term depression to more accurately encode this time interval, so that the neurons in the striatum will respond to the specific level of input from cortical neurons at the time the interval has elapsed. The model could explain why dopamine agonists cause time intervals to be underestimated, and maybe also explain the effects of psychedelics on time perception, since serotonin has an important role in modulating these oscillating cortical neurons.\n\n\nSource:\n\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
27,
16,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(11)00609-X",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5894/1322",
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n10/full/nrn1764.html"
]
} | How does the human brain keep time?
I understand circadian rhythms, but I want to know how our brains keep time in a more immediate sense. For instance, how can I count the seconds at a fairly consistent pace? How do I *know* a specific interval of time has passed? Digital computers rely on quartz clocks for timing calculations, so is there a similar feature in our brains? | [
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|
irqsc | Possibility of large deepsea monsters | I remember reading that we have explored less then 10% of the sea and it gives me chills to think about what may lurk in the icy depths of the sea, especially concerning giant monsters like the colossal squid. However, due to the very high pressure in these depths would it be possible for such things to exist or would all the creatures down there be minuscule in size? | askscience | {
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"I've read that there have been squid beaks discovered in the stomachs of sperm whales that are much bigger than those found on actual giant and colossal squids.",
"While the first live giant and colossal squids were only sighted in recent years, we've known about their existence for a long time. They're beaks have been found throughout the ocean, inside whale stomachs, and their carcasses have been hauled out of the sea and found on the shorelines.\n\nHowever, we also know from observation that a number of bizarre and monstrous looking creatures exist at the crushing depths in the abyssal zone. We don't normally see them because of their inability to survive at depths even a human would consider deep. In addition to that, they're carcass is usually devoured when they expire because of the complete and utter lack of food at such deep depths, meaning anything easily acquired disappears quickly.\n\nFinally, as was mentioned in a separate response, the biggest factor in determining the size of an animal is its ability to acquire food. As we've seen with blue whales, you don't have to eat big food to be a big animal, but you do have to eat a lot of it or have a significantly lower metabolic rate. This is important because, as I've stated, there is a harsh lack of food near the bottom oceanic layers. The floor is actually more heavily populated than the layers between it and the surface, but the odds of a creature as massive as a colossal squid or larger existing at those depths is unlikely. The average depth of the ocean is about 3700 meters, while adult colossal squids are only known to exist at depths of 2200 meters, at most.\n\nAt odds to this is the existence of \"[Deep-sea gigantism](_URL_0_)\", which provides a number of reasons behind why these deep dwelling creatures are so large. It's worth consideration, but is limited in its existing examples.\n\nTo answer your actual question, it's a mixed bag between both the big and the small. Just like life near the surface, some if it is amazingly large and others of it are quite tiny. Pressure doesn't have a significant role on the maximum allowed size of an organism, as we've seen with a number of whales diving to crushing depths and returning again to the surface with ease.\n\nThere are no doubt more interesting creatures, both big and small, still waiting to be discovered across the entirety of the ocean, but for right now we can only go on what we've seen.",
"Possibly related, but does anyone knowledgeable want to tell us what they think of [The Bloop](_URL_1_)?",
"> due to the very high pressure\n\nlayman here, but I think food/resources available is a bigger limiting factor on animal size.",
"pressure isn't an issue to a creature of the depths, in the same way atmospheric pressure isn't an issue to us, because it will have evolved for that pressure and will be at same pressure inside and outside body so won't actually feel it.\n\nThe only reason pressure becomes an issue is when you try and take something from one extreme to another - e.g. taking us down to those depths will collapse our lungs"
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-sea_gigantism",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloop"
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} | Possibility of large deepsea monsters
I remember reading that we have explored less then 10% of the sea and it gives me chills to think about what may lurk in the icy depths of the sea, especially concerning giant monsters like the colossal squid. However, due to the very high pressure in these depths would it be possible for such things to exist or would all the creatures down there be minuscule in size? | [
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|
9axx5r | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Paul Sutter, astrophysicist, amateur cheese enthusiast, and science advisor for the upcoming film UFO. Ask Me Anything! | Hey reddit!
I'm Paul Sutter, an astrophysicist and science advisor for the film UFO, starring Gillian Anderson, David Strathairn, Alex Sharp, and Ella Purnell. I am not nearly as beautiful as any of those people, which is why I'm here typing to you about science.
The film is about a college kid who is convinced he's recorded an alien signal. I helped writer/director Ryan Eslinger, plus the cast and crew, make sure the science made sense. And considering such topics as the Drake Equation, the fine-structure constant, 21cm radiation, and linear algebra are all (uncredited) costars in the movie, it was a real blast.
I also briefly appear in one scene. I had lines but they didn't make the final cut, which I'm not bitter about at all.
Besides my research at The Ohio State University, I'm also the chief scientist at COSI Science Center here in dazzlingly midwestern Columbus, Ohio. I host the "Ask a Spaceman!" podcast and YouTube series, and I'm the author of the forthcoming Your Place in the Universe (which is like Cosmos but sarcastic and not a TV show). I do a bunch of other livestreams, science+art productions, and TV appearances, too. I also consult for movies, I guess.
I'll be on from 2-4pm ET (19-21 UT), so AMA about the science of UFO, the science of the universe, and/or relationship advice. As I tell my students: my door is always open, except when it's closed.
| askscience | {
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"What has prevented you from taking that step up from amateur cheese enthusiast to professional cheese enthusiast? Is it giving up the glitz and glamor of the astrophysics world or do you secretly think you might not have what it takes to compete in the high stakes world of cheese enthusiasm?",
"Hello, \nI am a mathematics PhD, all I see in the Drake equation is someone who took some guesses and tried to make an equation out of them without any scientific experiment or either a clean hypothesis to test it. So here is my question.\n\n\nIs there anything scientific in the drake equation ?",
"Hi, thanks for doing this AMA! You do a lot of outreach, which is really cool. What sort of approaches do you find are most engaging to the public? \n\nAlso, what’s the process like for being a scientific advisor on a film? Do you offer a strictly scientific option on and let them run with it, or do you try to thread a needle between fantasy and reality? What is your goal when doing this advising in terms of what you want people to take away from a film?",
"Hello,\n\nAs we all know you truly do not know what you want to do with your life when your 11. Regardless my 11 year old nephew wants to be a astrophysicist, which I am ecstatic for. He’s smart, a hard worker and creative. What advise would you give your 11 year old self to prepare you for the work you do?",
"Hi, is there any advice which isn't usually told but is important to an aspiring astrophysics undergraduate who wants to go into research and academia? Thanks in advance!",
"What's the best part of being an Astrophysicist?",
"What's your favourite cheese? And what do you enjoy eating it with?\n\nI am personally very fond of cheese and apples",
"Hello and thank you for doing this AMA! I have 3 questions:\n\nWhat is your advice to someone interested in computational Magnetohydrodynamics? (assume familiarity with numerical methods in general) \nWhat are the mayor shortcomings of the Lambda-CDM model? \nWhat is, in your opinion, the most awe inspiring thing about astrophysics?",
"How did you get started doing scientific advising for movies? Did a company notice that you had relevant research experience and reach out to you, or did you go out and contact people in the industry?",
"I’ve just recently started listening to your radio show on iTunes and I absolutely love it, can’t wait each week for the next episode. I wanted to ask this a few times but I’m in class when your show airs on Thursdays. \n\nWhat would happen if a rapidly spinning neutron star was producing gravitational waves at the resonant frequency of a near by celestial body (star, planet, asteroid, gas cloud)?",
"Hi! Firstly, can I say that it’s so awesome someone like you is doing an AMA! I’m a freshman university student who aspires to be an astrophysicist one day, but without many people around me with similar goals I have no idea what I should prioritize when it comes to classes, like math, physics, and astronomy in particular. \n\nWould you (or anyone in this field I could say) be able to give me insight as to what I should focus on out of the three? And along, is it a difficult career? (Well, you’re part of a movie-making process so it has to be some fun!) thank you ahead of time if you get around to me!",
"Have you read the book Solaris by Stanislaw Lem, and if so what did you think about the books premise that some (all?) alien life we encounter is likely to take a form so foreign to us we may be unable to even find common ground for communication?",
"How and why did you get into cheeses?",
"Why is there a hexagon on the north pole of Saturn?",
"What exactly are you advising for with UFO?",
"How do Neutron stars generate a magnetic field, if they consist wholly of neutrally charged particles?",
"Do you believe we are the only form of life in the known universe?",
"I see in your publication list that one of your more recent papers is on one of Lindley's many Bayesian dabbles across astronomy fields :) Just curious though: what research are you working on now?\n\nOn the film side of things: did you have any encounters with the SETI Breakthrough Listen people or was it all sort of past knowledge used?",
"From one STEM cheese enthusiast to another, I have two questions:\n\n1) Do you make your own cheeses, and if so, have you gone beyond fresh cheeses? I've been meaning to buy a small cheese aging fridge so I can make something more nuanced than my mozzarella or paneer. But then it becomes a whole ordeal and takes up a lot of space, so for now...fresh cheese it is!\n\n2) What methods do you use to keep track of your cheese preferences? I have a list with a few quantities, like hardness, stinkiness, and my personal ranking on a scale of 1 to 10 with definitions of cheeses I know very well at 2 and 9. That said, even with an accompanying set of comments (\"nutty! Grassy! Citrusy!), I find it hard to keep track of each cheese with a few parameters! Do you have any suggestions?\n\nEdit: this question falls under relationship advice with cheese.",
"Hello, Paul, from a fellow C-bus resident... -You're living my dream! \n\nI've always wanted to teach, but life lead me to a career in electronics. But my love for science has only grown with age, and I've nurtured it with self-directed [hobbies](_URL_1_/blog/); I created my own [amateur astronomy website](_URL_1_) and even built an [observatory in my backyard!](_URL_0_) (If you ever want to use it/visit, you're always welcome!)\n\nNot a question; just wanted to say I appreciate and envy what you do, and if you know of any science communication/outreach programs I could help you with, I'd be honored!\n\nClear skies!\n\n(Side note: Lived in Columbus my whole life and love the *idea of COSI, but in my honest opinion, it's slightly too expensive and lacking in depth. Some areas are better than others; some are too much 'playground' and not enough substance. I miss the old COSI, but the new COSI is getting better. Keep fighting the good fight by adding more interesting Science and less splash pad. -No offense intended, just constructive criticism.)",
"Given your work on UFO, what are your thoughts on the Fermi Paradox?",
"Hello! Thanks for the AMA. What I wonder is, why, if there is scientific advisory such as you, are most movies (and from what I've seen UFO, sorry) so completely almost retardedly off-base when it comes to the scientific aspects.\n\nUFO is at least not terribly off (so far, haven't seen it all yet), but even the biggest budget movies like the horrible Infinity War are pretty much a ***total*** joke. Even worse they are misleading.\n\nI think a movie would make more money if it was at least plausible scientifically (see Blade runner 2049 and/or Arrival - good!), because it would receive more positive reviews and acclaim. \n\nIt seems like a no-brainer win for a 200M or even a 20M budget movie to have some real science backing it up.\n\nSo, why? Hmm.\n\np.s. bioengineering/robotics ph.d. here",
"How do we know what we are looking at 10,000 light years away? \n\nWe are looking at an image 10,000 years old so right now there could be life on a planet but we wouldn’t know until thousands of years from now? ( hope this makes sense)",
"Whats the science behind the Great Attractor? Do we know what it is? A massive black hole? Thanks for the AMA!",
"What's the difference between amateur cheese and professional cheese?",
"Fraser Cain was talking about how the Luvoir telescope should give us a very good idea (99%) if planets are habitable and if any life is out there... \n\nWhat do you think would motivate us more to become interplanetary, finding life everywhere or finding no life?",
"How disappointed were you when you found out the moon wasn't made of green cheese? \nWas the moon cheese a factor in your decision to enter the professional field of astrophysics or the amateur field of cheeses?",
"I love COSI! I was sad when Adventure was removed recently, can you tell us anything interesting or surprising about that exhibit now that it's gone? I never made it all the way through the puzzle.",
"What's your thoughts on the \"wow signal\", and do you think we'll ever get anything like it again?",
"What's the latest on gravitational waves? Anything new from LIGO?\n\nDoes the holographic theory point towards non-locality?",
"How does one advise science? And does science take your advice? Thank you",
"What science bullshit did you have to let them get away with?",
"Only in the last decade we discovered that the universe's expansion is accelerating.\n\nWhat is the risk that the sun grows exponentially in a stochastic manner? Are we actively measuring it's size? Accurate measuring has only been around for a few decades, so if we are before the inflection point, it would be incredibly difficult to determine it's rate... Everything else is accelerating in this universe, so it's a pretty obvious hypothesis that the size of the sun is too\n\n\nOn a related note, why is Mars getting warmer when it only receives a tiny fraction of the sun's energy that the earth receives? Are there any celestial bodies with atmospheres in our solar system that are getting cooler?",
"I was talking to a friend of mine who lives in New Zealand and discovered Muenster cheese (IMO the best cheese to use in a grilled cheese sandwich) is unavailable there. Do you agree that this travesty warrants New Zealand going down a level in the world freedom index?",
"Hey everyone, I need to take a break for now, but I'll try to answer more questions tonight. Thanks for all the curiosity and amazing questions! Also, you can send cheese to PO Box 3322, Columbus, OH 43210-3322.",
"Hello Mr. Sutter! This may be a stupid question, but i’m just curious why metal doesn’t melt/disintegrate in space when it is much closer to the sun that it was on earth? Thank you!",
"COSI! Such a cool place. I'm planning on taking my son (7) there soon. It'll be his first time. \n\nWhat is your favorite thing about working at COSI?",
"Thanks for doing an AMA.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nWhat is your favorite book and what boks do you think best represent your field?",
"I'm currently a physics undergrad and am curious what the most difficult course you had to take was? And why?",
"What are the most and least scientifically accurate space movies according to you? Thanks for the AMA!",
"What do you make of the numerous radar anomalies many people use as evidence of UFOs?",
"What type of non-academic careers are there for undergrads with a bachelor of physics degree?",
"What is your personal answer to Fermi's paradox?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Paul Sutter, astrophysicist, amateur cheese enthusiast, and science advisor for the upcoming film UFO. Ask Me Anything!
Hey reddit! I'm Paul Sutter, an astrophysicist and science advisor for the film UFO, starring Gillian Anderson, David Strathairn, Alex Sharp, and Ella Purnell. I am not nearly as beautiful as any of those people, which is why I'm here typing to you about science. The film is about a college kid who is convinced he's recorded an alien signal. I helped writer/director Ryan Eslinger, plus the cast and crew, make sure the science made sense. And considering such topics as the Drake Equation, the fine-structure constant, 21cm radiation, and linear algebra are all (uncredited) costars in the movie, it was a real blast. I also briefly appear in one scene. I had lines but they didn't make the final cut, which I'm not bitter about at all. Besides my research at The Ohio State University, I'm also the chief scientist at COSI Science Center here in dazzlingly midwestern Columbus, Ohio. I host the "Ask a Spaceman!" podcast and YouTube series, and I'm the author of the forthcoming Your Place in the Universe (which is like Cosmos but sarcastic and not a TV show). I do a bunch of other livestreams, science+art productions, and TV appearances, too. I also consult for movies, I guess. I'll be on from 2-4pm ET (19-21 UT), so AMA about the science of UFO, the science of the universe, and/or relationship advice. As I tell my students: my door is always open, except when it's closed. | [
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|
16g0fz | In reality color is 1 dimensional (wavelength) but in computers it's 3 dimensional (R, G, B). What's up with that? | askscience | {
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"Wavelength and colour are two completely different things. Light can consists of an infinite number of different wavelengths. Hardly anything you see in nature ever consists of only a single wavelength.\n\nOur eyes are quite bad at distinguishing between different wavelength compositions of light. The same colour sensation can be produced in many different ways by combining different wavelengths of light. Even though two different lights might look exactly the same colour to us, they might contain completely different wavelengths. \n\nIf you have monochromatic light, that is light consisting only of a single wavelength, or nearly so, then different wavelength produces a different colour sensation. As you go through the wavelengths you get the usual colour spectrum. But not all possible colour sensations are in that spectrum. There are colour sensations which cannot be produced by any light consisting only of a single wavelength.\n\nColour is something we sense, that's why I've been writing colour sensation to emphasise that it's something to do with how our eyes and brain functions. Wavelength, or a mixture of different wavelengths, is a physical quantity which has nothing at all to do with human physiology.",
"Color isn't one-dimensional: the human eye can perceive colors that don't correspond to any single wavelength of light. White, for example, and magenta.",
"The difference here is a mathematical illusion created by using a different basis for light in each of your descriptions. You are correct that we often talk about color as having one dimension of variability (wavelength). However, devices that produce colors often do it by having three separate types of devices that each cannot vary the color of light they produce (R, G, B). So how do you synthesize a color signal with many possible values in one dimension? One way is to have several other elements that each produce one extreme and mix them together to get the desired result. That is what RGB color mixing does. RGB is not unique in this way. There are also CMYK systems, RGBA (amber), and many others etc that have different applications.",
"Technically, color is infinite-dimensional. Objects and light sources emit light at lots of wavelengths at once, so you can think of light intensity as a function of wavelength. If you wanted to capture the properties of a beam of light exactly, you'd need to measure the intensity at an infinite number of points on that curve. [Here are some examples of visible light spectra of some common light sources.](_URL_0_)\n\nSo, how do painters, printing presses, computer screens get away with only a finite number of primary colors? Well, it turns out that [humans only have 3 different kinds of color-sensitive cells in our eyes, and each of them is sensitive to a different range of wavelengths.](_URL_2_) (There's nothing magic about the number 3; some animals have more or less, and different kinds of colorblindness are caused by certain photopigments being defective.) So when photons of a particular wavelength hit your retina, the information your brain gets is limited to how strongly each of those three types of cells was stimulated.\n\nThere are all kinds of interesting implications of this. For one thing, the colors typically used in computer screens don't precisely match the receptors in your eyes ([here's an example of a CRT spectrum](_URL_3_)), so there are colors you can see that can't be produced by a screen. On [this diagram of the CIE color space](_URL_4_), the horseshoe shape represents the colors you can see, while the triangle corresponds to the set of all possible RGB values.\n\nAlso, if you refer back to the diagram of photoreceptor sensitivities, you'll notice that there's a lot of overlap. In particular, any light that stimulates the M cone cells will also affect the S cells, or L cells, or both. So there's no physically possible light spectrum that can stimulate only the M cones. [But by staring at a color for a few minutes, you can temporarily cause some of the cones to get fatigued, allowing you to fool your brain into seeing these impossible colors.](_URL_1_)",
"The same mechanics apply to color on computer screens as well as color \"in reality.\" Both are light and both get there color from their wavelength. The only reason that three colors are used in monitors is because this is the best way to reproduce a wide gamut of colors. The monitor mixes and matches those colors at various quantities to create other colors. It's no different then mixing yellow and red paint to make orange. The physics behind that color is still the same.",
"This is not physics; it's biology. Nature doesn't know about the \"primary colors\" but your eyes do, with their three different kinds of color sensitive cones.",
"RGB are not dimensions, they're wavelengths as well (e.g., red is 4 x 10^14 [[1](_URL_6_)]). \n\nThe colors used by monitors correspond with the three types of [cone cells](_URL_8_) in the retina. The level of activation of these photoreceptors depends on the wavelength of the light it receives (the long wavelength type cone will activate more the more the light frequency corresponds with 'redness') , and the levels of neural firing frequency of the three types of cones together determine the color you see, as interpreted by your [visual cortex](_URL_7_).\n\nFor more information on vision, [this wikipedia article](_URL_5_) gives you a step by step on how visual stimuli are processed (assuming it's a completely unidrectional, linear pathway which is of course up for debate... as is the case with so many neuroscientific quandaries :)).\n\nI hope I answered your question!\n\nEdit: Why am I getting downvoted :(",
"R, G, and B all collapse to that one dimension. I think this is how it works: _URL_9_\n\nAs others have said, it's because of our interface to the world that we divide it up."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/lightandcolor/images/lightsourcesfigure3.jpg",
"http://www.moillusions.com/2006/03/eclipse-of-mars-illusion.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cones_SMJ2_E.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CRT_phosphors.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cie_Chart_with_sRGB_gamut_by_spigget.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency#Physics_of_light",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex#Visual_cortex",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell",
"http://chart.apis.google.com/chart?cht=tx&chl=%5Clambda_%7Bavg%7D%20%3D%20(R%20%5Clambda_%7Bred%7D%20%2B%20G%20%5Clambda_%7Bgreen%7D%20%2B%20B%20%5Clambda_%7Bblue%7D)%20%2F%20(R%20%2B%20G%20%2B%20B)#.png"
]
} | In reality color is 1 dimensional (wavelength) but in computers it's 3 dimensional (R, G, B). What's up with that?
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242fg1 | What are some of the strongest theories as to why Young's double split experiment phenomena occurs? | In Young's Double Split Experiment, a panel with two small slits is placed and electrons are shot at it.
The output is a wave-like phenomena on the wall behind the slit when there is no observer, leading scientists to believe that the electron is in two places at once...
however when an observer is placed (a recording mechanism) to see which slit the matter goes through, the behavior of the experiment changes, and a single band appears instead of multiple bands in a wavelike manner.
How can something as external as adding an observer to the experiment change the outcome of the experiment? That's so crazy. I want to know what are some of the strongest theories as to why this phenomena occurs?
For reference: [here](_URL_0_) is a good explanation of the experiment. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ch2y5bt",
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],
"text": [
"There is no mystery here. To measure which slit the electron goes through, you need to somehow measure it at the slits. To do this, you need to interact with the electron in some way, and this interaction disturbs it, and this alters the outcome. A conscious observer plays no role in this at all, the key thing is that a measurement means some interaction, disturbing the system in some way.",
"It's really not a mystery, it's a basic wave phenomenon that's been known about since 1802. A conscious observer is irrelevant to the experiment, the interference pattern will form either way. There's confusion because sometimes the word observation is used to describe forcing a system into a specific state.",
"While others have addressed the main point, I'd like to point out that video you linked does a horrible job explaining the experiment. It is from a pseudoscientific documentary called What the Bleep do We Know, which is entirely based on the bogus understanding of what \"observation\" is in quantum mechanics, as if it meant a consciousness doing the observation.\n\nAs others have pointed out, this has nothing to do with the term \"observe\", as used in the experiment.",
"The key to understanding why this happens is in realizing what they mean by 'observing'. What's actually happening is they're firing a photon at the electron immediately after it goes through the slit, which collapses the wave function. You bounce a photon off of the electron and the photon goes back into the recording device and tells you were it was when the collision took place. From that moment on the electron behaves like a particle, and carries on to hit the 'wall' like a particle, leaving two solid bands.\n\nFor instance, why do you think that the electrons leave a single, discrete signature on the recorder at the back of the experiment in the first place? Why should they appear quantized at all? It's because they cease to be a wave and begin to be a particle once they're interfered with. If you wait until the 'recorder' at the back of the experiment interferes with them, they will have remained in wave-like behavior right up until the moment they collided, where they become particles and leave individual, particle-like signatures there in a wave-like pattern. If you hit them with a photon before they make the journey to the 'recorder' at the back, they make the journey as a particle. \n\nUnfortunately, it's not very cosmic and mysterious at all. I was disappointed when I learned the truth as well. It actually has nothing to do with human conscious 'observation', like it seems to. It's just that they become quantized particles when they encounter certain other particles.",
"To those saying there's no mystery in this, what about the form of it where individual particles shot at the slits and measured one at a time still build up an interference pattern? What exactly are they interfering with if there are no other particles present?"
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfPeprQ7oGc"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What are some of the strongest theories as to why Young's double split experiment phenomena occurs?
In Young's Double Split Experiment, a panel with two small slits is placed and electrons are shot at it. The output is a wave-like phenomena on the wall behind the slit when there is no observer, leading scientists to believe that the electron is in two places at once... however when an observer is placed (a recording mechanism) to see which slit the matter goes through, the behavior of the experiment changes, and a single band appears instead of multiple bands in a wavelike manner. How can something as external as adding an observer to the experiment change the outcome of the experiment? That's so crazy. I want to know what are some of the strongest theories as to why this phenomena occurs? For reference: [here](_URL_0_) is a good explanation of the experiment. | [
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|
7pf510 | AskScience AMA Series: I am a squid biologist, AMA! | My name is Sarah McAnulty and I'm a squid biologist at The University of Connecticut! I am currently trying to understand how the Hawaiian bobtail squid's immune system is able to tell the difference between the squid's bioluminescent bacterial partner and other kinds of bacteria. I've worked with cuttlefish camouflage in the past, and worked with octopuses before too! I spend most of time raising squid and working with a confocal microscope, taking videos of the squid's immune cells as they interact with bacteria. On the side I organize a program called Skype a Scientist which matches classrooms and scientists around the world to chat about science!
You can read more about my squid science here: _URL_0_
And more about Skype a Scientist here: _URL_1_
I've also been on Science Friday twice, once to talk squid and another to talk about Skype a Scientist! You can check out those interviews here: _URL_2_
I'll be on from 12-2 ET (17-19 UT), ask me anything!
| askscience | {
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"Do cuttlefish see the same range colours that they imitate?",
"Hey there Sarah! Glad you're doing this AMA!\n\nI'd like us to have a look at the historically important but now extinct orthocone nautiloïds. In paleo classes, they are usually presented to us as essentially \"Squids with shells\". How valid is this analogy, from the perspective of someone with a strong familiarity and understanding of actual squids, and if that image is not that great where does the comparison break down?",
"Asking kind of a stupid question here. \nDo the cuttlefish in artificial surroundings have any significant physiological or genetic changes when successive generations are reared in that environment?\nLike will they lose their camouflage ability or will it be less effective?",
"What is raising squid like? What sorts of things do you observe about them as they grow? Do they have different personalities, do you form a connection with them at all?",
"What sort of immune cells make up the squids immune system? Do they have an adaptive side? Or just innate cells? Thanks! Your work sounds really interesting",
"Is raising bioluminescent squids difficult? Is it something an amateur could do in a saltwater aquarium?",
"Hello! Thank you for doing this AMA. What would you say are the main differences you've found in working with different cephalopods? Are there differences in behavior and intelligence? They're really interesting animals that have always fascinated me!",
"Hi Sarah, thanks for doing this AMA and organizing Skype A Scientist. After a successful first year with 2 classrooms, I’ve just signed up for my second year.\n\nQuestion: Have you heard of “squid mixing” in a Physical Oceanography context? Thoughts?\n\n There’s this ongoing puzzle in my field about what’s causing the deep ocean to mix and every once and a while people bring up the idea of biomixing (i.e. mixing due to biomass movements), often jokingly. However, there are some places in the deep ocean where mixing rates are remarkably low (about 100 times molecular diffusion of temperature) and its conceivable that biomixing might be important. I’ve heard rumors of back-of-the-envelope calculations that mixing by giant squid in the deep ocean might actually be significant, because their propulsion mechanism creates turbulent overturns that cause mixing.",
"Hi Sarah. Thanks for doing the AMA. I've been following your experiments since sponsoring a squid (shoutout to Squid Vicious Jr) a while back. I was just wondering how you decided to get into this field and what, specifically, about squid interested you to choose this line of research.",
"Happy coincidence I signed into Skype a Scientist last week. \n\nWhat do the squid use their bioluminescence for? Is it a communication system? Hunting strategy?",
"Wow, you're the person who started Skype a Scientist, that's awesome (so are squid though!). Apologies if you mention these in the interviews but I'm in a bit of an internet rough patch. How did you come up with the idea? How many classes get paired up each week? Any tips for us here trying to do science communication and outreach as well?",
"hi!\nwhat would the results you get from\nthe immune system study be used for? it seems like a very specific study, but i'm sure the findings will be applicable in much larger ways.",
"How are squid populations doing? On a scale of white rice to white rhino, how guilty should I feel about eating unidentified squid in a restaurant?",
"Have you read Kraken by China Mievelle? You may like it.\n\nHow intelligent are squids? I know it's a broad question but from what I understand they are capable of solving puzzles and using tools, like an underwater crow.\n\nAre they a social lot that communicate or do they tend to be solitary?",
"Hi. Do You agree that the best way to prepare a squid is to grill it and serve with just a pinch of salt and few drops of olive oil?",
"Hi Sarah! So excited you're doing this AMA!\n\nWhat is the typical life cycle of squids/cephalopods? When do they reach sexual maturity, how long is their average lifespan?",
"With all the fascinating information you possess on Squid, do you see it as an ethical problem to consume them as food?",
"What do you think of the Cephalopodcast? Do they get their facts straight?",
"I know I'm VERY late for the AMA, but just in case you check back, I had a couple questions: first, what species of squid or octopus is considered the most intelligent? And second, is there any consensus or general opinion among your peers as to the possible sentience of cephalopods?",
"What progress has been made decoding the cuttlefish color-based communication system? To what extent is it a language?\n\nIs there anything that separates giant and colossal squids biologically from their smaller cousins, besides the size? \n\nWhat would giant squid calamari taste like?",
"Do you eat calamari? While some may consider this a silly question, I think it says a lot about people when they choose a profession that's interesting and also delicious... Furthermore, you may have better insights into the culinary perspective.",
"Hiya, thank you for doing this AMA!\n\nIs your research specific to squids only or do you look into all sorts of other cephalopods?\n\nAlso, how and why are squids able to produce ink?",
"Hi! Thanks for being here. Has there been any substantiative research into the color changes in cephalopods and the potential for a type of language as opposed to reactions to external stimuli?",
"I totally missed this, but comparative immunology is super cool. I'm part of a xenopus immunology lab myself, though my research is more on the level of toxicology and environmental toxicants!",
"Hi Sarah! I love cephalopods too!\n\nMy question is have you observed them developing cancer? If so how does it differ from humans or other species developing it the condition?",
"Do you know if cephalopods become parasitised in nature and if they do, what kinds of parasites affect affect them? From a biology undergraduate in the UK.",
"Wait was your research featured in the book „I contain multitudes“? I remember something about how the microbiome influences the bioluminiscence of this kind of squid!",
"Hey! Have you seen the work on using cotton swabs for collecting the DNA of cephalopods, hurting them less in the process? [(Hollenbeck et. al, 2017)](_URL_0_)",
"What is the most interesting squid fact that I could randomly bring up at my next party?",
"what animals can see beyond our colour sectrum that is from 350 nm to around 750nm ?",
"Are cuttlefish immortal in a sense that they die right after the bear their younglings?",
"Do cephalopods have an anterior and posterior, in other words which end is the front?",
"As a squid specialist, do you eat squid? Why or why not?",
"Can we develop camouflage by mimicking the cuddlefish? Hugs ^ ,^",
"Do you ever get a kick out of saying \"octopodes\"?",
"Do you get sick of people asking octopus related stuff?",
"I'm reading Squid Empire right now! Great book!"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://bit.ly/2mj24oC",
"www.skypeascientist.com",
"https://www.sciencefriday.com/person/sarah-mcanulty/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.4003/006.035.0207"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: I am a squid biologist, AMA!
My name is Sarah McAnulty and I'm a squid biologist at The University of Connecticut! I am currently trying to understand how the Hawaiian bobtail squid's immune system is able to tell the difference between the squid's bioluminescent bacterial partner and other kinds of bacteria. I've worked with cuttlefish camouflage in the past, and worked with octopuses before too! I spend most of time raising squid and working with a confocal microscope, taking videos of the squid's immune cells as they interact with bacteria. On the side I organize a program called Skype a Scientist which matches classrooms and scientists around the world to chat about science! You can read more about my squid science here: _URL_0_ And more about Skype a Scientist here: _URL_1_ I've also been on Science Friday twice, once to talk squid and another to talk about Skype a Scientist! You can check out those interviews here: _URL_2_ I'll be on from 12-2 ET (17-19 UT), ask me anything! | [
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|
1bdsta | Why does the US Department of Energy have so many Supercomputers? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c95ye9u",
"c963nm6",
"c96248u"
],
"text": [
"Nuclear research and planning. There are a lot of rules and restrictions regarding physical nuclear research, so most of it has to be modeled by computers. As you can imagine, modeling nuclear reactions is extremely complicated because it requires modeling the interactions of large numbers of subatomic particles. It's a good investment because our nuclear stockpile is rapidly aging, and we need to figure out how to best store and dispose of our nuclear material in a safe manner and also make sure everything will work in the event that we need it. Source: I know a nuclear physicist that used to work on this stuff at Kirtland AFB, NM.",
"I am a physical chemist at Argonne National Lab (and the University of Chicago), which is ran by the DOE. ANL runs a number of super computers. Like others have said these computers are used for all sorts of energy related research (not only nuclear, but all types of research the DOE funds). They are also made available to the computational research community as a whole for deserving research, in a allocation process that is similar to getting money from NIH or NSF but it instead of money they award time on the computers. So you will find many kinds of research supported by the DOE computing resources.",
"With the end of actual nuclear testing in the '90s, the DOE and Congress basically made a bargain that we wouldn't test nuclear weapons any more due to environmental and diplomatic concerns, but in return, the DOE would develop the hardware and software necessary to simulate those weapons. They serve to simulate the effects of aging, radioactive and chemical decay, accidents, and all manner of other issues that would affect the efficacy of the US nuclear stockpile. Those supercomputers are effectively part of strategic deterrence, since they serve as proof that our nuclear stockpile remains potent despite not testing or producing warheads for some years.\n\nIt's actually a problem, since everyone knows that eventually we're going to have to eliminate (unlikely) or replace the warheads in the stockpile with newer, safer designs, and either we end up running new tests on the replacement design (not an easy sell), or we base our deterrence on a weapon that's never been tested."
],
"score": [
19,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why does the US Department of Energy have so many Supercomputers?
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c62aw6 | You have some unknown differentiable function from reals to reals and that all functions are equally likely candidates. If you know the output of the function at two inputs, what is the expected output of the function at an input lying on the line between the two known points? | Keeping in mind that any differentiable function is equally likely, I would guess the answer would be the value found by linear interpolation between the two known points. Is my intuition off? I'm also interested in topics to search to answer questions like this because I have no idea where to start. | askscience | {
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"There is no uniform probability distribution on the set of differentiable function. Thus, to answer your question, one needs to precise a probability distribution for differentiable functions. At this point the answer depends on this probability distribution.",
"If every function is equally likely, think of a sine only. With a combination of a variable amplitude, frequency and starting point (such that sin(0) is not necessarily 0), you can connect it from any point to any other with whatever value in between. If this is true for a subset of all possible functions, it is true that in the whole set, these functions exist that allow all in between values. So if every function is equally likely, you cannot say anything about an inbetween value",
"So, there are a number of problems with your question. The most prominent is\n\n* You have not defined **expected value**, and the common meaning does not apply to the setup given.\n\nThat said, should you come up with a sensible definition, the answer would be \"undefined\" or ½(a+b).\n\nWhy is it not defined? There are uncountable possible functions given your conditions. Even with an idea of \"limiting\" value like in calculus, there are \"too many\" functions to take an average. You need something more powerful such as a \"net\" or \"filter\" to deal with uncountable possibilities. Calculus skirts past this issue by adding a phrase like \"only if all possible choices agree\" to a bunch of definitions. You don't have a scenario where that technique applies,\\* so you can only answer \"DNE, does not exist\" or \"undefined\" or something similar.\n\n\\* or rather, doesn't give you the sort of answer you want, i.e. a number.",
"Are you saying that the only things you know about the function are that it is differentiable and you have two points on the function? That's not enough information to predict the value of the function at any point other than the ones given. If the function is anything other than a line there is an infinite number of equations that could satisfy those conditions."
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} | You have some unknown differentiable function from reals to reals and that all functions are equally likely candidates. If you know the output of the function at two inputs, what is the expected output of the function at an input lying on the line between the two known points?
Keeping in mind that any differentiable function is equally likely, I would guess the answer would be the value found by linear interpolation between the two known points. Is my intuition off? I'm also interested in topics to search to answer questions like this because I have no idea where to start. | [
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|
758l8z | AskScience AMA Series: We are a plant ecology research lab working on the fate of abandoned cranberry bogs. Ask Us Anything! | Hi Reddit!
We are a plant ecology research lab at Monmouth University. We recently conducted a study investigating community succession after abandonment in abandoned cranberry bogs within the New Jersey Pinelands. Since the 1860's, the cultivation of the native American cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, has been a major agricultural practice in the New Jersey pinelands. The pinelands have been well suited for cranberry production due to the sandy, organically rich soil and abundant sources of freshwater. Although cranberry agriculture can represent over a third of wetlands in the pinelands, the industry has been on the decline as it has moved to other regions of the country. As a result, many bogs have been abandoned. The effects of abandonment have not been investigated thoroughly.
In this study, we explored the fate of bogs and examined bog succession after abandonment from time zero (an active cranberry bog) to 60 years abandoned in flooded and unflooded communities. A full inventory of plant and invertebrate species were collected from cranberry bogs of different ages from three locations. Community diversity and structure were determined from the inventories and a chronosequence for bog succession was developed. When a cranberry bog was left to dry, conversion from a wet savanna to either a mesic mixed forest or wooded swamp was observed. A cranberry bog that remained flooded transitioned to a lake, spung, or pond. With this information, recommendations can be made onto how the lands should be managed in the future in order to maintain healthy and native communities.
Ask us your ecological questions and we'll be on around 1pm Eastern Time (17 UT) to start answering! Ask us anything!
EDIT: Our guests have left for the time being. They had a great time and have said they may come back later to answer more of your questions!
| askscience | {
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"> A cranberry bog that remained flooded transitioned to a lake, spung, or pond.\n\nWhat is a spung?",
"Is it know what the lands were like before the cranberry bogs? Assuming of course that they are artificial. Is it an intention of your team's to determine if they should be drained and restored or left to nature to 'work out'?",
"Have you seen the Jersey Devil yet, and is there evidence that he likes cranberries? And also, have you seen any detrimental effects to the pinelands ecosystem from cranberry agriculture? Traditional forms of agriculture cause issues with habitat fragmentation and pesticides entering the environment, so I'm curious if cranberry bogs had similar problems or did their own forms of damage. Thanks for taking the time to do this!",
"How well did the cranberries survive without human cultivation? Does the wild cranberry grow in areas subject to periodic flooding, or is that just a human harvesting technique?",
"Hi! I was wondering what you guys majored in for undergrad? I want to do something like this \"when I grow up\" but not sure what exactly to major in. Sorry my questions a little bit off topic!",
"Which, if any, fish and macroinvertebrates, are especially well suited to exploiting these bogs?",
"Wow, that's a neat system to be working in! Changes from aquatic agriculture isn't something I've thought about before : )\n\nWhat's the typical size of an agricultural cranberry bog?\n\nDo you know of an available map or geo-locations of known bogs?\n\nSince bogs can end up as forests or as wetlands, it sounds like that there are multiple possible trajectories that bog succession could take. Do you know what might determine those trajectories -- just environmental/geomorphological features of the site or do you think there may be some positive-feedbacks involved that reinforce each trajectory once (randomly?) started. Essentially, I'm wondering if you think this might be a good system to investigate Alternative Stable States.",
"Thanks for taking time to answer questions.\n\nWhat regulations currently exit with regard to restoration of lands used for cranberry or other agriculture? I'm only familiar with the mining industry rules for divestment.",
"Which treatment seems to be the best option as far as ecological benefits leaving a bog to dry or to remain a flooded wetland? It seems that the pine lands have less invasive species compared to other local ecosystems. Would either of these treatments encourage greater exotic plant populations compared tot the other?",
"Wouldn't the healthiest manner in which to manage these bogs be to leave them alone?",
"How can I inspire my child to be enthusiastic about a career in abandoned cranberry bog research? I feel a lot of popular children's science media is geared around space and dinosaurs, and on our numerous field trips my son is disinterested at best, and downright disruptive at worst.\n\nSeriously though, what inspired you to become plant ecologists, and what brought you all into the specific area of cranberry bogs? Did any of you live near such places and noticed an interesting ecological niche developing, or was it a case of finding areas of research that were lacking data to work towards a PhD?",
"Has the infiltration of invasive species like loosestrife had any effect on the succession on the abandoned bogs? Or is that considered part of the succession in itself?",
"Does the fact that these habitats were once cranberry bogs have much impact on what sort of wildlife lives there now, or is it largely what you would expect to see in each respective habitat?",
"Thanks for doing this AMA! When considering land management after abandonment, what do your results suggest in terms of restoring landscape function? In other words, abandoned bogs can be transitioned into different ecosystems with different community structures, biogeochemical cycles, and energy flows. The pattern of abandoned bogs also interact with surrounding systems within the landscape. Has your research pointed towards an optimal configuration of bog types for which land managers should aim?\n\nI would love to learn more about your research - do you have links to publications?",
"Can you provide links to your lab's webpage and any relevant research articles or scientific presentations that have come from the research? You don't have any links to research plans, established labs, or articles and it's difficult to find much online about your project.\n\nStewart Pickett has done a fair amount of research into plant succession at the Buell-Small Succession study in the Piedmont region of New Jersey. Have you collaborated with him or any other researchers who have worked on the BSS study?\n\nWhat do you think about the limitations of space for time substitutions like chronosequences?",
"In the UK we use a formal to work out the age of a hedgerow.\n\nSo if you found five woody species within 30m (100ft), then it would tend to suggest that the hedge is about 500 years old. +/- 200 years \n\n\nHow many woody do you have in the the 30m? \n\nHas there been much 'flown' in seed?",
"Are any of these abandoned bogs turned into conservation areas for species that move into the area? If yes, is it more commonly done when they are left dry or left wet?",
"Who's funding your research and what are the deliverables you have to give to the people funding your studies?",
"there are some old bogs that have been abandoned near me and a very large one that may be scheduled for closing. What would help speed along a reclaiming process in an abandoned cranberry bog. What are some long term effects of the usage of a bog, and could the soil be richer than the surrounding area due to the years of fertilization?",
"Cool! Are you studying the Franklin Parker Preserve? I love the Pine Barrens and had a chance to hike a bit there this summer. \n\nAre any of the native / endemic plants (goldencrest?) adapted to cranberry bog habitat in such a way that conversion back to a natural habitat poses a threat to the species?",
"Bogs can be places of harsh soil conditions, pushing plants to their limits of tolerance, and the animals that depend on them to also develop unique ways to adapt.\n\nHow valuable would you say these habitats are as reservoirs of unique phenotypes? \n\nHow can impart on to the public the importance of bog ecosystems?\n\nWhat are some of the charismatic organisms of your system? Things that could really catch the publics' attention?",
"What plants tend to start the succession in cases where the abiotic factors remained mostly the same?\n\nDo you have any data on how diversity compared at the end of the study between the abandoned bogs and surrounding areas or a nearby control-type bog?",
"This may be a little out of your field, but have there been any recent insights on how \"terra preta de indio\" is made and whether it can be used to supplement or rejuvinate modern agriculture/horticulture?",
"What method did you use to collect all the data? E.g. Braun blanquet for the plants?\n\nAnd how did you collect the invertebrates?\n\nAnd do you have any tips on learning plantspecies?",
"Suppose the goal were 'fix carbon'. What would be the best way to manage the bog? Could it be peat, or algae? What kind of labor would be needed.",
"Currently looking at buying a home in Oregon near a number of cranberry bogs. Can you comment on the odors that an active/transitional/abandoned bog can be expected to produce?",
"I'm not sure if cranberry bogs are similar to those bogs and fens found more up north or those in the southern Appalachian Mountains, but these bogs and fens I'm more familiar with are more acidic. Is this the case with these cranberry bogs and if so, how does that play into succession of more acid tolerant species? Thanks.",
"Do you find excessive nutrient loadings in these bogs that you find in other agricultural practices? Do they lead to eutrophic/anoxic zones in the bog or surrounding areas?",
"I live on an abandoned cranberry bog in the NJ Pine Barrens! Send them here next! :) Incredible diversity of plant and animal life, btw.",
"How similar are the succession patterns of an abandoned cranberry bog, and abandoned field of corn or soy, or a forest after a destructive fire?",
"What does the curve of species diversity vs time from abandonment look like? Have these fields reached maximum diversity or gone beyond it?",
"Any advice for biology undergraduates to break into the ecology Field?",
"What vertebrate species benefited the most from the bogs?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: We are a plant ecology research lab working on the fate of abandoned cranberry bogs. Ask Us Anything!
Hi Reddit! We are a plant ecology research lab at Monmouth University. We recently conducted a study investigating community succession after abandonment in abandoned cranberry bogs within the New Jersey Pinelands. Since the 1860's, the cultivation of the native American cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, has been a major agricultural practice in the New Jersey pinelands. The pinelands have been well suited for cranberry production due to the sandy, organically rich soil and abundant sources of freshwater. Although cranberry agriculture can represent over a third of wetlands in the pinelands, the industry has been on the decline as it has moved to other regions of the country. As a result, many bogs have been abandoned. The effects of abandonment have not been investigated thoroughly. In this study, we explored the fate of bogs and examined bog succession after abandonment from time zero (an active cranberry bog) to 60 years abandoned in flooded and unflooded communities. A full inventory of plant and invertebrate species were collected from cranberry bogs of different ages from three locations. Community diversity and structure were determined from the inventories and a chronosequence for bog succession was developed. When a cranberry bog was left to dry, conversion from a wet savanna to either a mesic mixed forest or wooded swamp was observed. A cranberry bog that remained flooded transitioned to a lake, spung, or pond. With this information, recommendations can be made onto how the lands should be managed in the future in order to maintain healthy and native communities. Ask us your ecological questions and we'll be on around 1pm Eastern Time (17 UT) to start answering! Ask us anything! EDIT: Our guests have left for the time being. They had a great time and have said they may come back later to answer more of your questions! | [
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|
oqetn | AskScience Fair results are (finally) in! | Hey everybody,
First, let me sincerely apologize for the very long delay. I underestimated the effect of holidays, conferences, and delays from doing science. Not just on me, but on the judges. So there were delays, but I present to you the results of the AskScience Fair! We have a lot of new readers, so maybe people missed it. To summarize: We ran a science fair where people had about a month to put an experiment together, run it, and write it up. They were posted, and then the panelists judged the projects.
Here's how the judging worked: Each project was judged by multiple judges (all of whom were AskScience panelists, who are professional scientists) on the system described in the fair rules. The scores were averaged, and summed to provide a final score. "Special" prizes were decided by the input of the various fair judges.
Without further ado, here are the winners!
**1st Place**: [The Chalk Spectre](_URL_4_)
**2nd Place**: [Electrifying Soil - Testing the Effects of Electricity on Plants](_URL_3_)
**3rd Place**: [The Warm Milk Hypothesis](_URL_2_)
**Best Research Question (including $100, donated by kind redditor shaver)**: [The Tralfamadorian Hypothesis: Evolutionary
Consequences of Multiple Sexes](_URL_1_)
**Judges' Choice**: The Warm Milk Hypothesis
**DIY Spirit**: [20 minutes to create, experiment, and document a science experiment](_URL_5_)
**Inventive Methods**: ["Experiment" based off of AskScience anecdotal evidence.](_URL_0_) (The guy tortured himself for science.)
**Rigorous**: "Experiment" based off of AskScience anecdotal evidence
**Analysis**: The Tralfamadorian Hypothesis: Evolutionary
Consequences of Multiple Sexes
**Presentation**: The Chalk Spectre
Fortunately, given the small number of entrants ( & #3232;\_ & #3232;), the numbers happened to work out that everyone won something! Hooray! We'll be getting in touch (or you can get in touch with me) so we can get your prizes to you!
Lots has been learned from this go-around, so maybe we'll do it again. Hopefully everyone had fun! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3jdl77",
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"text": [
"This is all...? \"The Chalk Spectre\" is first place and it didn't even have any findings at all and it only showed 1 run, when the whole point of it was comparison? I didn't even read \"Electrifying Soil\" because after reading \"The Warm Milk Hypothesis,\" I realized that I remember better and more original science projects when I was in 4th grade. Not to mention the amount of variables that weren't controlled. I honestly feel like I'm being trolled? If I am, this is an epic troll.",
"I like the warm milk hypothesis,\nBut why not just se a thermometer as appose to introducing a human element.",
"As far as the milk experiment, it appears that refrigerated milk(~5C) was mixed with room-temperature tap water(~20C). Once this mixed cup reached thermal equilibrium, it was at a higher starting temperature than the cup of just milk and thus would have a higher final temperature.",
"The link to the electrification of soil is dead. Is there a way to see the results of the experiment? This sounds fascinating.",
"Does this mean that 2% will heat up faster than whole milk?",
"Congratulations ultimatekiwi ! And, well done to the rest.",
"Anyone know what happened to [this guy](_URL_0_)? The experiment was awesome according to votes and he wasn't a panelist, but he made it unofficial anyway. Now he's deleted the account and is gone forever.\n\nHolding that to higher standards than the rest, as in being much tougher as a judge, what did the panelists think?\n\nI'd also like to know what the panelists think as far as improvements are concerned for the current entries. What went right? What went wrong?",
"Awesome! I liked the warm milk hypothesis. Though I did laugh at \n > The glass with water added was significantly hotter, supporting my *hypnotises*",
"The warm milk hypothesis sounds interesting and I may have to have a go at reproducing it tomorrow. Given that milk is 90% water I guess replacing 1/3 with water would make it 93% water. I'm suprised that this difference is so noticeable by touch. If I use powdered milk will adding the milk powder before or after heating be similarly noticeable? So many questions ...",
"Awesome! i wish i remembered that this was being held, i would have loved to participate. Turnout may have been low but i hope yall decide to run another, ive got an idea or two :)!\n\nCongrats to the winners and thanks to the judges!",
"I'm not sure I believe the warm milk hypothesis. Milk is something like 98% water anyway and should still vibrate. I wanna see the same experiment done with a thermometer. Humans can't be trusted, especially without double blind testing.",
"Could someone throw the Electrifying Soil one up on rapidshare or something, the download is dreadfully slow, I think it got up to 7kbps at one point!",
"just put a glass of milk in a larger cup of water? as to not dilute the milk...",
"When will the next one be? I want to join :p"
],
"score": [
49,
36,
11,
10,
5,
5,
4,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/asksciencefair/comments/mt63h/experiment_based_off_of_askscience_anecdotal/",
"http://www.socsci.umn.edu/~shinn024/papers/tralfamadorian-2011-11-26.pdf",
"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1En0xNSAWqCFFaqe9f50h-4aoMX-TC6weLuyXoD6f9AQ/edit",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/asksciencefair/comments/mrluz/electrifying_soil_testing_the_effects_of/",
"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1osgLP-BLpPSOsh4MpOv7EPnBYiPaFeWHleafiO2KNMU/edit?pli=1",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/asksciencefair/comments/mt0qs/20_minutes_to_create_experiment_and_document_a/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/asksciencefair/comments/mllvg/qualitative_analysis_of_the_edge_characteristics/"
]
} | AskScience Fair results are (finally) in!
Hey everybody, First, let me sincerely apologize for the very long delay. I underestimated the effect of holidays, conferences, and delays from doing science. Not just on me, but on the judges. So there were delays, but I present to you the results of the AskScience Fair! We have a lot of new readers, so maybe people missed it. To summarize: We ran a science fair where people had about a month to put an experiment together, run it, and write it up. They were posted, and then the panelists judged the projects. Here's how the judging worked: Each project was judged by multiple judges (all of whom were AskScience panelists, who are professional scientists) on the system described in the fair rules. The scores were averaged, and summed to provide a final score. "Special" prizes were decided by the input of the various fair judges. Without further ado, here are the winners! **1st Place**: [The Chalk Spectre](_URL_4_) **2nd Place**: [Electrifying Soil - Testing the Effects of Electricity on Plants](_URL_3_) **3rd Place**: [The Warm Milk Hypothesis](_URL_2_) **Best Research Question (including $100, donated by kind redditor shaver)**: [The Tralfamadorian Hypothesis: Evolutionary Consequences of Multiple Sexes](_URL_1_) **Judges' Choice**: The Warm Milk Hypothesis **DIY Spirit**: [20 minutes to create, experiment, and document a science experiment](_URL_5_) **Inventive Methods**: ["Experiment" based off of AskScience anecdotal evidence.](_URL_0_) (The guy tortured himself for science.) **Rigorous**: "Experiment" based off of AskScience anecdotal evidence **Analysis**: The Tralfamadorian Hypothesis: Evolutionary Consequences of Multiple Sexes **Presentation**: The Chalk Spectre Fortunately, given the small number of entrants ( & #3232;\_ & #3232;), the numbers happened to work out that everyone won something! Hooray! We'll be getting in touch (or you can get in touch with me) so we can get your prizes to you! Lots has been learned from this go-around, so maybe we'll do it again. Hopefully everyone had fun! | [
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|
igq66 | What would be needed in a bomb shelter to keep me alive for the rest of my life. | Lets say for whatever reason the surface of the earth is about to become uninhabitable. If I wanted to build a hypothetical bomb shelter that could sustain me for the rest of my life (I'm 27, so lets say another 70 years), what would be needed. Would it be more efficient to store non-perishable foods or grow my own? What would I do for power/air? For arguments sake lets say I can only use things commercially available in the United States but money is not a limiting factor. How does the facility scale up to sustain, say, 10 people? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"To live for the rest of your life? Technically you wouldn't need anything.",
"[Non-perishable food](_URL_0_) can have a pretty long shelf life (~30 years) I suspect if you vacuum seal them, or have canned food, they can last even longer.\n\nWater and air will be a problem, because theoretically you may want a fully enclosed or carefully filtered system to prevent contamination (or else why bother staying inside for 70 years). That will require a considerable and constant supply of electricity.\n\nWith enough electricity, you can even grow your own crops without ever seeing the sun again. The question then is finding very reliable methods of generating electricity. \n\nSince we're indulging in hypothetical here, I say a good combination would be using an array of [atomic batteries](_URL_2_) for the first 10 years while waiting for the the fallout to settle, and then activate an array of solar power panels. There should be a mechanism to prevent dust build up on the panels (if you choose a sunny dry environment). If it's possible to get an external water supply, the electricity can be used to generate hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen can be stored to generate electricity through [hydrogen fuel cells](_URL_1_).\n\nIt would be quite a feat of engineering to make these things low-maintenance/maintenance-free for 70 years.",
"Let's ignore all possibility of food generation and power consumption and the like for a second and just look at food and water. So, you need about 2000 Cal/day to live, and you need about 2 L/day to live.\n\nLet's just say you want to survive for an additional 30 years. So, [Wolfram Alpha](_URL_5_) says you need 2 L/day * 30 years = 1.2 1D freight containers. Why don't you grab two to be safe.\n\nAs for food. Fun fact, a bag of potato chips is [apparently](_URL_3_) you're daily intake of calories, if I estimate a bag of chips to be 6 inches x 1 ft x 2 inches, you would need [0.24 1D freight containers](_URL_4_) of potato chips. Call it 1 to be safe.\n\nSo, rough numbers seem to indicate that for 30 years worth of survival and to be a little safe you need 2 freight containers of water and 1 freight container packed with energy rich long shelf life food, per person.\n\nShould scale linearly.",
"I'm not a psychologist, but maybe there is one here who can explain how a person could keep sane if he were isolated for 70 years. OP's last question about maintaining 10 additional people might be vital to his survival.",
"How uninhabitable do you mean? Unbreatheabale air? Undrinkable rain? If thats the case, sanitation and waste disposal would be a bigger concern than how many cans of beans you need.",
"You will always be kept alive for the rest of your life, because that's how the rest of your life is determined."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.costco.com/Browse/Product.aspx?Prodid=11487214&cm_mmc=BCEmail_Sept2010Mailer-_-Banner_-1-_-Thrive",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_battery",
"http://www.dashofhealth.com/Dash_of_Health/Food_Labels_files/potato%20chip%20label.jpg",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=30+years+%2F+1+day+*+%28+inches+*+1+ft+*+2+inches+%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=2+L%2Fday+*+30+years"
]
} | What would be needed in a bomb shelter to keep me alive for the rest of my life.
Lets say for whatever reason the surface of the earth is about to become uninhabitable. If I wanted to build a hypothetical bomb shelter that could sustain me for the rest of my life (I'm 27, so lets say another 70 years), what would be needed. Would it be more efficient to store non-perishable foods or grow my own? What would I do for power/air? For arguments sake lets say I can only use things commercially available in the United States but money is not a limiting factor. How does the facility scale up to sustain, say, 10 people? | [
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nm5ia | What are some examples of human traits that developed which were key to our survival at the time, but now are hindrances in modern society? | askscience | {
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"How our body reacts to psychological stress. If you are worried about an upcoming deadline for a project due next week your body reacts the same way it would if a lion jumped into your cubicle and tried to eat you. Increasing your blood pressure and heart rate and shutting down digestion will definitely help you in fight or flight situations, but leads too all kinds of diseases if done chronically in response to psychological stress.",
"Our bodies store huge quantities of fat. In our modern time this has led to a bunch of obese people when early in our history it would have been beneficial when food supplies were very low.",
"Xenophobia.\n\nAlso, the tendency to see patterns in random noise and find nonexistent meaning in the merely coincidental. \n\nBoth have caused a lot of grief...",
"Tribalism. When there are few people, with limited resources, it makes sense to stick tightly with your immediate group and fear/fight outsiders. Now it just leads to war, racism, religious persecution, etc.",
"I would argue that aggression fits the mold of your question. \n\n**Key for survival**: There are three main theories whose purpose is to describe the mechanisms through which aggression emerges. If we take a look at the frustration-agression theory, we can find evolutionary benefits. Humans are exceptional problem solvers and goal setters. We have developed the psychological mechanism of frustration as a response to any type of blockage in our goal-achieving streams. Frustration then acts as a catalyst for aggressive behaviour (genetic dispositions, perceived past, fatigue, social norms and other variables also have an influence on the manifesting of aggressive thought through behaviour). A few seconds of reasoning brings us to the conclusion that if a human being is blocked in his attempt to achieve a predetermined goal, he/she will get frustrated and his/her frustration may serve as a catalyst for aggressive behaviour. How is this an *adaptive* mechanism? One million years ago (this is a ball park figure for approximate magnitude reference), arousal and aggressive behaviour often served as invaluable tools for human ancestors who were faced with frustrating challenges. Want an example? Think of two male *homo erectus* competing for mating rights with a particularly fertile female. \n\n\n**Modern society hindrance**: \n\nIf you start behaving aggressively every time that you get frustrated, I think that it's safe to say that you are hindering society. Thus, aggression is a hindrance in and *to* modern society. In one of the most important steps leading to civilization, humans developed a way to manage the mechanisms leading to aggressive behaviour, without eliminating them completely. \n\nQuick task: Note down the last time that you remember feeling frustrated. Now note down the last time that you remember behaving aggressively. Try and be as honest as you possibly can. \n\nIf you're like most people, then you've more recently felt frustrated than behaved aggressively. The correlation coefficient has plummeted. A psychological rift has formed between feeling frustrated and behaving aggressively. How? Most human cultures have developed a [social norm](_URL_1_), which successfully inhibits in-group aggression. Many people harbour aggressive thoughts and fantasies but very few manifest through behaviour. \n\nSo if this *social norm* is so mighty and powerful, then why can we still observe the occasional aggressive behaviour? I say occasional here because without this norm, the relative aggressiveness of your behaviour would sky-rocket in modern society. Practically everything you do is goal-based. Here's a relatable example: you got your university degree and were forced to take an entry level job in a large corporation to pay off your student loans. Fast-forward 5 years and you're competing for an important promotion. You do not get the promotion. Bob gets the promotion instead of you and celebrates. Your psyche adapts to this goal-blocking with the frustration mechanism (see above). You don't like Bob that much anymore. In modern society you will develop further feelings for Bob such as resentment or loathing. If he really rubs it in your face, you may even punch Bob in his face.Remove the socially imposed *aggression norm* from the equation, and you kill Bob. \n\nAlthough the aggression norm does a good job at keeping most of us alive and cooperative, aggressive behaviour still does manifest. If the circumstances are particularly arousing and frustrating, or the human is [deindividuated](_URL_0_) (ex: in a riot), the norm may be overpowered or overlooked. There are also genetic dispositions for aggressive behaviour, furthering the argument that it is a naturally selected behaviour. \n\n**TL;DR \nAggression used to help the strongest and fittest males pass on their genes through mating competition. Nowadays, our aggression is mostly controlled by the social norm regulating aggressive behaviour, but still manifests under certain conditions. Without the social norm, modern society would collapse under the competitive pressures that naturally lead to aggressive behaviour.**",
"The urge to constantly mate and reproduce. The world is already overpopulated.",
"Periods of depression that were necessary for surviving times of hardship. Our bodies would shut down and go into energy-saving mode and we'd be like 'meh, why even leave the cave today?'\n\nEspecially during winter. Also see: Seasonal Affective Disorder.",
"A liking for salty food, which is no longer useful now that salt is overabundant in our diets and can cause health problems.",
"Blushing. Apparently blushing evolved as an 'appeasement response' to apologise to people who we have wronged, or who could conceivably kick our asses, in a preverbal society. The more submissive males who would blush and look down when involved in a confrontation would probably let the other males feel validated, give up whatever they were fighting over, and be left alone. The agressive males wouldn't, and would more likely die in a confrontation (or be hunters, etc). Thus the blushing males would be more likely to procreate, as they were alive or in the civilization when the other males weren't.\nAlso, hay fever was originally caused by an overactive immune system in a time when there was probably some sort of poisonous pathogens in the air. Some people developed an antibody which counteracted the pathogen via expulsion, while some people did not. The people who had this reaction lived, the people who didn't have it died, the rest is evolutionary history.",
"Sections of your prefrontal cortex (the part of your brain responsible for intelligent planning behaviour) show patterns of deactivation in response to sexual arousal. In an animal, this makes them focus on nothing but breeding for the period of arousal, which is obviously beneficial in terms of one's ability to successfully reproduce.\n\nAs for why it's not the best thing to still have as a human, has anyone else here ever found themselves overwhelmingly thinking \"Risk it?\" when you discover that you don't have a condom?",
"Not to be glib, but look around the world today and most of our problems are caused by traits that once enabled us to survive but are now a hindrance. From our tendency to marginalise the problems of others whilst blowing our own all out of proportion, to our natural response to exploiting the weak to our personal advantage. Even something so basic as empathy is more of a social construct than an inbuilt tendency. The irony of evolution in general is that it's useful for increasing a species' population, but once that population reaches a certain level it can actually have the opposite effect.",
"Not entirely useless for everyone, but sickle cell anemia helps protect against malaria. For those that live in modern societies, the trade off is not worth it.",
"I am definitely not an expert on this anthropology, but I read this article a while back that said one of the main reasons homo sapiens survived was the classification of labor between the sexes. Each gender focused on what their comparative advantage was and traded for the services that the other had an advantage in. And as always there was a benefit to trade for both parties. Men could go and hunt in the wild as women made clothes and took care of the babies and protected them and nourished them. Other races that did not follow this classification of labor, even though very homo sapiens like in their features, became extinct",
"Human beings prefer the taste of foods with carbohydrates and fats. Before our modern time when food was not as plentiful, human beings were drawn to foods that would provide them with the most energy. However, now that we have plenty of food available, its a hinderance. Our intense cravings for carbs and fats is fueling the obesity epidemic.",
"Our taste preferences for fatty foods. This used to be key for our survival, fats hold lots of energy. But now since fatty foods are in abundunce, this trait is a hinderance.",
"The human tendency toward false positives. We see intention in random events that is simply not there."
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} | What are some examples of human traits that developed which were key to our survival at the time, but now are hindrances in modern society?
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1u4ij5 | Can you demonstrate why cycling through a one-time-pad encryption key that's shorter than the message is not secure? | I wrote a [simple implementation of one-time-pad encryption](_URL_0_) in python, to try to better understand one-time pad encryption. (Warning: Does not work with python 2.x, use Python 3).
The program works as follows:
* It takes the byte representation of every character in the string that will be encrypted.
* For each byte in the array, it combines it with the next available byte in the encryption key ("the pad").
* If it has reached the end of the encryption key, it continues from the start.
Though it's obvious in the first example why cycling through an encryption key shorter than the message to be encrypted is not secure, it's not so obvious in the second example. Could you explain what would be the approach to decipher the message in the second example?
**Example one:**
* key: 'ab'
* message: 'aaaaaa'
* resulting bytes: [194, 195, 194, 195, 194, 195, 194, 195]
**Example two:**
* key: 'short key'
* message: 'This is a longer message and should be somehow decipherable'
* resulting bytes: [199, 208, 216, 229, 148, 137, 222, 133, 218, 147, 212, 222, 224, 219, 133, 221, 133, 230, 216, 219, 226, 211, 219, 133, 139, 198, 231, 215, 136, 226, 218, 227, 149, 215, 201, 153, 213, 205, 143, 229, 227, 141, 208, 205, 232, 234, 136, 211, 215, 215, 137, 219, 205, 222, 229, 201, 209, 222, 217]
**Edit**: Updated sample code to work with unicode. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ceemzw1",
"ceevpu5",
"ceeyn26",
"ceepuip"
],
"text": [
"The reason the standard one-time pad is perfectly secure is that regardless of the message, the distribution over ciphertexts is always identical. Once you recycle your key, this is no longer true. For example, (working over a binary alphabet of 0 and 1), if your key is 3 bits long, then no matter what, if your message is 3 bits long, each of the 8 different 3-bit strings is the ciphertext with probability 1/8.\n\nOn the other hand, suppose your message is 6 bits long. Then the distribution of ciphertexts for the message 000000 is different from the distribution of ciphertexts for the message 000111. In the first case, your ciphertext is the same 3-bit string repeateed twice. In the second, the second 3-bit string is the bitwise negation of the first 3-bit string. *This is true no matter what the key was.* You have in fact pretty much realized this I think, based on your first example.\n\nThis is the theoretical background. \"Security\" in the cryptographic sense is generally defined along these lines -- you should not be able to distinguish between the encryptions of two different strings of equal length. You should check for yourself that if you don't know the key, you can never tell the difference between these encryptions in the one-time pad.\n\nNaturally, you might ask \"this is a bit contrived, what about in real world terms?\" Well, if your message is much longer than your key (as it will be in some applications -- keys may be 2048 bits long, 256 8-bit ASCII characters), then you are vulnerable to statistical analysis on the ciphertext. It is well-known that letters do not occur with equal probability in English or any common language. You simply need a key length (or a few guesses at it) and now you can separate the ciphertext into the letters encrypted by the first letter of the key, the second letter, and so on. Now you can basically use some average distribution of letters in english to figure out not only the original message but the encryption key.\n\nSo in fact this pretty broad requirement in cryptography that security is taken to be the indistinguishability of ciphertexts is not that contrived after all.\n\nIn fact, most cryptography is under a definition of security where algorithms have to be efficient (that is, they run in polynomial time). The one-time pad in fact has information-theoretic security -- no algorithm, regardless of its running time, can defeat the one-time pad.",
"Let's assume the attacker knows the length of your secret key and aligns your message like so\n\n short key\n ---------\n This a lo\n ng messag\n e and sho\n uld be so\n mehow dec\n ipherable\n\nHe knows \"s\" combined with first column (\"T\",\"n\",\"e\",\"u\",\"m\",\"i\"), \"h\" combined with second column etc. This is too little, but if your message was slightly longer, the most common combination in any column would probably be combination of whatever the letter in your code is (here \"s\") with space or a common English letter (\"e\", \"a\" etc.). So you look at frequencies of encoded characters in any particular column and make a guess that those correspond to space. Once you get the guess right, you know the character in the secret key and you get the whole column for free. Once you have several columns, it snowballs: if you see \"Th_s\" you can guess _ is \"i\" and then the whole third column collapses.\n\nBut there's no need of breaking it completely. It's enough to know this schema allows to extract nontrivial information about the plaintext to reject it.",
"By repeating a shorter key, it becomes a Vigenère cipher rather than a one-time pad. The Vigenère cipher is vulnerable to frequency analysis. Assuming the plaintext is in a natural language, then the frequency of letters for writing in each language is well known. For English, we expect an index of coincidence of about 1.47. For your plaintext the value is about 1.5, which is right on target.\n\nBy encrypting the text, you somewhat hide the expected frequency of letters in the message. However, if a repeating key is used, we can use trial and error to guess the key size, break the message up into chunks of text of the guessed key size, and then perform frequency analysis of the chunks.\n\nSince the cipher is simple, it will not hide the underlying letter frequency, as long as the chunks of text correspond to the key size.\n\nWhen we try a key size that gives an index of coincidence close to the expected language, e.g 1.47 for English, then we have likely guessed the key size or a multiple of the key size.\n\nOnce the key size is determined, then a brute force attack can be used on the chunks of text of the given key size to determine the key.\n\nReferences:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nNote that your longer example is too short to illustrate these techniques, but for that short of a message you might as well use a one-time pad anyway.\n\nEDIT: For the curious, the cipher text must be arranged as a matrix where the row length is the guessed key size, and the number of rows depends on the length of the key and the length of the text. Short plaintext won't give us many rows if the key size is close to the text size. The index of coincidence must be calculated for each COLUMN, because we have to assume that each letter of the key is different, and therefore each column of the matrix is encoded using the same letter of the key. And so we need enough rows in the matrix to get a good index of coincidence for each column.",
"Let's say I'm sending my gf Alice a 1000 bit msg and you want to know what I wrote her. You can just guess, but there's 2^1000 different possible messages so your chances are slim. Now let's say you capture my message that's encrypted with a otp. You're still at a loss because there's still 2^1000 messages and the same number of keys. If the key is only 100 bits and just repeated, then without actually considering attacks you can tell it's no longer perfectly secure because you can \"just\" guess the 100 bit key which is much less than the message. If the key is shorter than the message you provably cannot have perfect security\n\nOther people have addressed actual attacks"
],
"score": [
12,
7,
6,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://dpaste.com/1531572/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigen%C3%A8re_cipher",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_analysis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_coincidence"
]
} | Can you demonstrate why cycling through a one-time-pad encryption key that's shorter than the message is not secure?
I wrote a [simple implementation of one-time-pad encryption](_URL_0_) in python, to try to better understand one-time pad encryption. (Warning: Does not work with python 2.x, use Python 3). The program works as follows: * It takes the byte representation of every character in the string that will be encrypted. * For each byte in the array, it combines it with the next available byte in the encryption key ("the pad"). * If it has reached the end of the encryption key, it continues from the start. Though it's obvious in the first example why cycling through an encryption key shorter than the message to be encrypted is not secure, it's not so obvious in the second example. Could you explain what would be the approach to decipher the message in the second example? **Example one:** * key: 'ab' * message: 'aaaaaa' * resulting bytes: [194, 195, 194, 195, 194, 195, 194, 195] **Example two:** * key: 'short key' * message: 'This is a longer message and should be somehow decipherable' * resulting bytes: [199, 208, 216, 229, 148, 137, 222, 133, 218, 147, 212, 222, 224, 219, 133, 221, 133, 230, 216, 219, 226, 211, 219, 133, 139, 198, 231, 215, 136, 226, 218, 227, 149, 215, 201, 153, 213, 205, 143, 229, 227, 141, 208, 205, 232, 234, 136, 211, 215, 215, 137, 219, 205, 222, 229, 201, 209, 222, 217] **Edit**: Updated sample code to work with unicode. | [
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|
lj7om | How true is this statement?: Evolution has been proven as much as anything can be proven. | EDIT: I have come to realize that this is what's wrong with the popular discourse. Actual answers, it seems, are rarely concise and entertaining. Pseudoscience, on the other hand, always fits into neat little quotations and sound bites. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2t4xb8",
"c2t4ecj",
"c2t4bcc",
"c2t5gbm"
],
"text": [
"Evolution from a common ancestry through a process called natural selection is one of the strongest theories we have in biology. It has resisted several generations of critics who ardently wish to disprove it.\n\nAs yet we have not found anything to disprove the theory as it is currently understood. Perhaps surprisingly, a serious monkey wrench in our understanding of evolution could be fairly simple to find: [a fossil rabbit in the Precambrian strata is the go-to example.](_URL_0_)\n\nOf course, the theory has many parts, all of which are being molded as more and more evidence is found. Facets of the theory have been improved, revised or discarded, and several posts in this thread give great examples of this.\n\nIt is a healthy attitude to be skeptical, but even skepticism has limits. Without being pedantic, I believe it is reasonable to say that the core tenets of evolution are \"proven as much as anything can be proven.\"",
"What part of evolution? Common ancestry is as solid as anything in biology. The role of natural selection is more controversial these days. Some people (e.g., Dawkins) think natural selection is absolutely central; the only way you can get complexity in the natural world. Others (e.g., Stuart Kauffman, Mary Jane West-Eberhard) think the role of natural selection has been overstated. They emphasize things like development, self-organization, etc.\n\nEDIT: Just to make it clear if it wasn't, when I say the role of natural selection in evolutionary theory is becoming more disputed, I am not talking at all about Intelligent Design. Kauffman, West-Eberhard, and the rest are thoroughly committed to a naturalistic, scientific understanding of complexity in the natural world. If you'd like to learn more, check out [Stuart Newman's page](_URL_5_) for his articles, [Mary Jane West-Eberhard's page](_URL_5_) for her articles, [Stuart Kauffman on PubMed](_URL_5_), [Gerd Müller's page](_URL_5_) for his articles, and the collection of articles in [*Evolution: The Extended Synthesis*](_URL_5_).",
"\"Proven\" is a logic/mathematic term and does not apply to empirical theories such as evolution. The best we can say is that available evidence seems to support the theory of evolution. But it only takes one counter-example to invalidate the theory. And that counter-example may not show up for hundreds of years, so it seems to me that it is prudent to retain at least a small amount of skepticism.",
"> Actual answers, it seems, are rarely concise and entertaining. Pseudoscience, on the other hand, always fits into neat little quotations and sound bites.\n\nYeah, unfortunately the popular discourse doesn't really appreciate nuance, which is pretty much necessary if you want to be correct in a technical sense about anything in this field."
],
"score": [
18,
11,
5,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrian_rabbit",
"http://homepage.univie.ac.at/gerhard.mueller/publications-papers.html",
"http://www.stri.si.edu/sites/publications/results.php?scientist=Mary+Jane+West-Eberhard",
"http://www.nymc.edu/sanewman/",
"http://www.amazon.com/Evolution-Extended-Synthesis-Massimo-Pigliucci/dp/0262513676",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Kauffman%2C%20Stuart%5BAuthor%5D"
]
} | How true is this statement?: Evolution has been proven as much as anything can be proven.
EDIT: I have come to realize that this is what's wrong with the popular discourse. Actual answers, it seems, are rarely concise and entertaining. Pseudoscience, on the other hand, always fits into neat little quotations and sound bites. | [
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|
7w4r95 | How does a remote island get grass and vegetation when it first forms? Or soil for that matter? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dtxt2ug",
"dtxtrw4",
"dty0vtf"
],
"text": [
"Currents in wind and water as well as birds carry all kinds of seeds over 100s and 1000s of km. Remote islands might be way stations on further flights of birds. What they carry in their feathers or stomaches can seed. This is no different from land based vegetation, that often also has its seeds carried by animals to further away places.\n\nSoil is also carried with wind and water and as soon as any vegetation can hold root (means stuff starts to grow and die), for examble in fertile volcanic ash, you can have more diverse soil form over a longer time.",
"There are three basic ways that life gets to remote islands.\n\n**By air** -- stuff just blows in the wind to the island. All sorts of bacteria, protists, fungi, etc. have spores that can blow in the wind, as well as a insects, birds, and some plant seeds.\n\n**By sea** -- stuff from one island can wash into the sea, get carried by ocean currents, and wash up on a new island. This works for many plant seeds and stems, and a few small animals, provided they can tolerate seawater.\n\n**By hitchhiking** -- A bird might eat some seeds on one island, fly to a new island, and poop them out. A frog or worm might live in a rotten log that gets washed out to sea and washes up on a new island. Etcetera.\n\nThis definitely puts a limit on the kinds of different life forms that can inhabit new islands. For instance, I grew up on Hawaii: before humans showed up, the islands had no mammals on land except seals and bats. But small plant and animal seeds and soil bacteria had no problem making the journey.",
"Rocks break down into sand.\nSand breaks down into silt.\nSilt breaks down into clay.\nOrganic matter comes from dead plants and animals.\nThe process is continual. Soil forming at the base of a mountain talus slope is essentially \"new\" and many soils are 10,000 - 100,000-500,000 years old."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does a remote island get grass and vegetation when it first forms? Or soil for that matter?
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1q6usv | Can someone please explain to me how a bunch of transistors do operations, more specifically like addition, subtraction...etc. | i know they use "logic gates" but can someone explain the process as simply as possible; and what are "logic circuits", just logic gates mashed together to make a process? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You mentioned addition, so I will try to break down an addition circuit into transistors for you. First, you need to know that to add two numbers, they are converted to binary and each digit is compared by a circuit called a full adder. This takes 2 input bits and a carry in, and decides what is the output and what is the carry out. You chain these together to add larger numbers.\n\nAn [full adder](_URL_0_ consists of 2 half adders and an XOR gate. A half adder consists of an AND gate and an XOR gate. These [AND](_URL_2_) and [XOR](_URL_1_) gates are made using transistors. The transistors are arranged in such a way that they output a high voltage only when the two input voltages are in the correct arrangement. For AND gate, output is HIGH when both inputs are HIGH, and otherwise outputs LOW. For XOR, the output is HIGH when one input is LOW and the other is HIGH, and outputs LOW when inputs are both HIGH or both LOW.\n\nYou can abstract each of these transistor configurations into gates, and then abstract gate configurations into modules like adders. This is how adders work on the transistor level. Almost everything done in computing is with transistors doing the logic, but you generally abstract this and work with higher level concepts like gates, modules, and chips.",
"Transistors in digital logic circuits are used mostly as switches. You want the transistors to be either all the way OFF (no current flow) or all the way ON (lots of current flow). And you can use the output of one transistor to control the input of other transistors, so you can construct a complicated circuit by wiring them up in certain ways. \n\nUsing just a few transistors, you can build very simple logic circuits to implement binary digital logic (called \"Boolean\" logic after the guy who invented it). \n \nFor example, imagine a light bulb hooked up to a battery through a switch. Switch on, light on; switch off, light off. Now imagine that there are two switches in a row, A and B. The light is only on if A and B are both in the on position. This is what a digital logic AND gate does. If you hook the switches up differently, you can just as easily make an OR gate (A OR B turns on the light). Label a switch backwards and you have a NOT gate. \n \nIt turns out that you can build any digital logic function with a combination of just a few simple circuit types, such as AND/OR/NOT (you can actually do everything with just one, but no one really does that). By combining those simple circuits, more complicated circuits can be made (such as an adder, a multiplexer, etc.). You can use those circuits to make even more complicated ones. Like a CPU. \n\nIt's like if you had a bunch of little Lego blocks, and you could use those to make larger Lego blocks, and you could then use those to make even larger Lego blocks, and so on. Today's integrated circuits use more than a billion transistors to make something that is very complex, but it is built up out of very simple things. Transistors are great for building these things because they are small, fast, reliable, cheap, and don't use a lot of power. These are all important properties when you are trying to make something that uses a billion or more devices.",
"Well gates are made up of transistors, [This takes a look using bipolar transistors](_URL_5_) They act like current controlled diodes. For the past 25 or more years actual logic is made of mos transistors which act like voltage controlled resistors. \n\nYou mentioned addition, take a look at the [simple case of the half adder](_URL_4_) \n\nIn practice a functional block uses combinational logic like the gates described above along with registers and a clock to do something useful. Modern chip and ASIC/FPGA designed using software tools that will take a program written in a Hardware Description Language (VHDL, [Verilog](_URL_3_), ect) and will compile the source code into gates.",
"A bunch of people have already explained how you can build adders using logic gates, so I'll explain a slightly higher level view.\n\nAll the math happens in something called an ALU, or 'arithmetic logic unit'. This is a subset of the CPU, which controls when to read/write from the ALU, RAM, storage, etc. The ALU takes instructions to add or subtract or whatever from two sources, and then feeds the result out to the system bus after a variable amount of time.\n\nIts variable because not all operations take the same amount of time. A simple addition might take a single processor cycle, but multiplication will probably take several cycles. A multiplication might loop through the adder B times (Multiplying A*B is just adding A to itself B times, after all); Or it might use a cascading adder or some optimized multiplication structure that only takes log(B) cycles.\n\nThe ALU will have several cores to handle different types of instructions; It will have a set of circuits designed for addition, subtraction, division, etc. Until an operation is finished, that set of circuits will not accept any more input, but you can have several different types of operation being computed in the ALU at the same time. At any point in time the CPU will have several instructions being completed simultaneously- Several in the ALU (the execution portion of the cpu), and one in each of the fetch, decode and store portions of the CPU.\n\nHowever, the timing variability introduces some complexity to machine code; Just because you submitted a division to the ALU before a subtraction doesn't mean that the division is going to be the operation that comes out of the ALU first- set register A to A divided by C then set register A to A plus D might end up looking like A = A/C, because the addition was decoded and executed before the division could finish; The addition gets overwritten. \n\nModern CPU's have to have meta-timing algorithms to prevent stuff like that (that gets handled in the decode stage)"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XOR_gate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AND_gate",
"http://www.asic-world.com/verilog/verilog_one_day.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_%28electronics%29",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/trangate.html#c1"
]
} | Can someone please explain to me how a bunch of transistors do operations, more specifically like addition, subtraction...etc.
i know they use "logic gates" but can someone explain the process as simply as possible; and what are "logic circuits", just logic gates mashed together to make a process? | [
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|
mr2n9 | Will the human population ever stabilize at a certain size? | if so, what size? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c336atd",
"c338an9",
"c3387gn",
"c33622k"
],
"text": [
"Various different models estimate the carrying capacity of the planet to be anything from from 1 to 10 billion.",
"It will likely stabilize at zero in the extreme long run...",
"The concept of demographic transition is relevant here. In the developed world, death rates have fallen sharply in the last one hundred years followed by a commensurate drop in birthrates, such that the population growth in countries like Sweden, Italy, and Germany hovers around 0 %. In the developing world, death rates have fallen but birthrates are still high. China, with its one child policy, has taken an active, top-down approach to reducing birthrates, but countries like India are still growing unmitigatedly. Reducing birthrate is a function of maternal education and status. The most respected models have world population leveling off between 9 and 12 billion people. These models take into account various confounding variables like wars and natural disasters. The problem of applying the carrying capacity argument to human population growth is technological innovation. No one would have predicted that the world population could reach the size it is today (7 billion) before the advent of the green revolution. The following articles should provide more in-depth reading:\n\n1. _URL_3_\n\n2. _URL_0_\n\n3._URL_2_\n\n4._URL_1_",
"It will stabilize at the carrying capacity (commonly represented by the variable K). [The size at which a theoretical population would stabilize, indicated as \"K\" on the graph in the previous section, is referred to as the carrying capacity. The carrying capacity is the theoretical equilibrium population size at which a particular population in a particular environment will stabilize when its supply of resources remains constant. It can also be thought of as the maximum sustainable population size; the maximum size that can be supported indefinitely into the future without degrading the environment for future generations.](_URL_4_)"
],
"score": [
5,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution",
"http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/english/beyond/beyondco/beg_03.pdf",
"http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/longrange2/WorldPop2300final.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_transition",
"http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/carcapac.htm"
]
} | Will the human population ever stabilize at a certain size?
if so, what size? | [
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|
32ahia | Can 3-Dimensional Holograms produce 4-D objects similar to how 2-Dimension screens can represent 3-D objects? | Could we create a 4-D world the same way we create 3-D? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I'd say yes and no.\n\nYes for the reasons /u/phaseoptics mentioned. 4D space can be projected onto 3D space the same way 3D can be projected onto 2D.\n\nNo, because even though that is the case, it will not readily allow us to *see* the fourth dimension the way we can *see* three dimensions on a flat surface (tv, monitor etc).\n\nMy reasoning for that is that we ourselves are inherently 3D. We exist in a three-dimensional world. Our brains *expect* everything to be in 3D. It can understand lower cardinality, but higher ones are out of our realm of concepts. Our eyes may see two 2-dimensional images, but our brain stitches them together to find depth, the third dimension. We have a lot of automatic tricks built into our brain to infer the 3-dimensional shape of an object we really only see in two dimensions. It is these tricks we make use of when we make pictures on our monitors, tvs, paintings etc seem like they are not just flat planes with pretty colors on them. We don't just accurately project 3d onto 2d. We use distance fog, depth blur, focus hints and more to trick the brain into *seeing* depth that isn't actually there.\n\nThis will not work for the 3D - > 4D scenario. Not only does our brain not have any such tricks. The very notion of a 4D-object and how it would look is so alien to us, that I suspect even if we did see a 4D-object our brains would try to descale it to 3D to make sense of it (so the opposite direction of what we wanted).\n\nIn fact, that is precisely what current representations of 4D does. They project 4D to 3D, but then rather than using trick queues to make us *see* the fourth dimension, it uses animations etc to make it more sensible, more understandable as a (albeit physics breaking) 3D object.\n\nSince I got the impression from your question that you were wondering if we could ever actually see in four dimensions this way, the answer would be No. If you just wanted to know if 4D can be projected down to 3D, then Yes (again, see phaseoptics reply).",
"Yes. 4D space representations are simplified in 3D space. For example a [4D hypercube representation](_URL_2_) is more cleanly presented, that is with fewer intersecting lines in 3D space. A [3D printed tesseract](_URL_0_) is a lot less convoluted than the [2D projection of the tesseract](_URL_1_). Again, where less convoluted means fewer intersecting lines.",
"You could represent a 4d object with a 3d image, but you'd have to be 4d with true 3d vision to be able to see and understand it. We can see 3d in a 2d image because we have 2d vision. We can see all of the image at once. The problem is that we can't see inside a 3d image. Our vision of the interior parts is blocked by the exterior.\n\nMore simply: 4d people with 3d vision could look at a metal cube and see every atom at once (the best way to imagine this is like a CAT scan.) You could have a cube of pixels and they would be able to see pictures of 4d objects in it.\n\nA brain teaser now, what aspect ratio would cuboid monitors use in a 4d world?",
"Yes, we can. When we look at a 2d screen representing 3d stuff, we use a number of tricks to understand the 3d structure of it, importantly, we use memory and movement, as well as lighting, relative size, and a few other things. We also use the fact that we have two eyes looking from two different places at once. From that, we construct a mental model of the area. We are really good at going from 2d to 3d because the light receptors in our eyes are arranged on a 2d surface, so we've evolved to extrapolate from the 2d image on the retina to the 3d world we interact with physically.\n\nFor 4d, you can do similar things, but it is much harder. One way to represent objects is by showing slices in 3d over time. So showing a point that grows into a circle, then shrinks back to a point is a representation of a circle using 2d images, while a point, growing into a sphere, then shrinking back to a point is a 4d hypersphere shown in three dimensions.\n\nIf you move a camera around a virtual 4d space, effects like parallax come into play, which can be interpreted by your brain. Also, having objects rotate can be effective. For instance, if you see the intersection of a plain and a rotating cube over time, it lets you see the structure, though it isn't entirely intuitive.",
"Some theories state that our world is actually 4 dimensional, or more, and the 3D world we see is *already* a projection of 4 dimensional reality. We are limited in our perception of time, and can only perceive one moment at a time, much like the 2d screen can only show one perspective on something at a time. I really recommend Tertium Organum by PD Ouspensky if you're interested in such things. It's considered one of the greatest works of Russian philosophy. The world we see *is* the screen!",
"I got it, we take some kids and render them in a 4D holographic room and bombard them with 4D problems attuned to survival, and watch how they react and study their brain. Then when they turn into 4D grandmaster survivors, we communicate with them to explain what they know to us."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcnR1jZtetw",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesseract",
"http://www.magic-squares.net/c-t-htm/t_represent-2.htm"
]
} | Can 3-Dimensional Holograms produce 4-D objects similar to how 2-Dimension screens can represent 3-D objects?
Could we create a 4-D world the same way we create 3-D? | [
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2wav8q | If a feather and a truck were dropped from exact opposite sides of the Moon from 1000m, which would really hit first? | Assuming universal gravitation; each object affects the moon with it's own gravity.
Edit: Anyone have any idea how to actually do the equation? My interest has been interested | askscience | {
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"The truck. The moon would accelerate toward the truck overall because the truck exerts a stronger gravitational pull on the moon.",
"I made an excel file to analyze the problem, feel free to play around with it\nI went down to a time-step of .01 and there was no difference\nso excel can't handle numbers this small and/or its essentially the same\nhave fun\n\n_URL_0_",
"Both would hit at the same time.\n\nIn theory the gravity of the attraction of the moon toward the truck would cause the moon to move slightly in the direction of the truck. In practice this effect wouldn't even be measurable.\n\nLet's say you have a 5 tonne truck. The moon is 7.35e22 kg with a radius of 1737 km. That creates a force of 8120 Newtons that the truck experiences from the moon and the moon from the truck. The truck accelerates at 1.624 m/s^2, falling for a period of 35.1 seconds before impacting the moon. Meanwhile, the moon accelerates at 1.10e-19 m/s^2 for 35.1 seconds, moving a total of 6.8e-17 meters (0.068 femtometers). This is less than 1/10th of the diameter of a single proton.",
"In response to how to do the actual equation. [Here](_URL_1_) is a start. \n\nI've simplified the math a bit (ignore G, we can put it back later if we like) and reduced the equation to have two free coordinates; x, the distance between truck and moon, and y, the distance between feather and moon. \n\nUnfortunately, without making some assumptions, there is no analytical equation that solves this differential equation. But we can start crossing out terms that are \"negligible\" due to the nature of the problem.",
"Others having noted the small atmosphere (about 1 trillionth of earths atmosphere caused mostly by rock outgassing) on the moon and the greater mass of the truck. Both these effects would be too negligible to make any difference. The biggest factor would be the density of rock under the drop points and the relative elevation as local variations in gravity would exist.",
"Let's not forget that the earth would exert some pull against one of the items, pulling it away from the moon, and the other item would be pulled toward the moon by the earth's gravity, only slightly less due to the distance equal to the moon's diameter.",
"The same time. The change in distance between the moon/truck, moon/feather is neglagable. Both objects would experience acceleration due to the gravitational attraction of the moon equally and arrive at the same time."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B-jTLqw8S-mGTWM5enEzMHA2SFE/view?usp=sharing",
"http://imgur.com/0QOI8wM"
]
} | If a feather and a truck were dropped from exact opposite sides of the Moon from 1000m, which would really hit first?
Assuming universal gravitation; each object affects the moon with it's own gravity. Edit: Anyone have any idea how to actually do the equation? My interest has been interested | [
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|
pm0km | Evolution and Libido | Dear AskScience,
I've done a reddit and google search but I'm unsure as to what the evolutionary significance is behind women's libidos apparently peaking at 30 or 40 and men at a significantly younger age? Is this information actually correct? I seem to recall in sex education classes when I was back in school, that some researchers proposed that men and women on average didn't have a significantly different libido. However, during my google search and after checking wikipedias sources ( which I found to be fairly sexist and without substantial evidence) I'm unsure as to whether it's true.
Consequently if males do simply have such a significantly larger libido than women, does this suggest that domination /rape was the primitive insurance for survival?
Sincerely,
Gaunt101 | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I have also heard the claim that the female libido peaks at 30-40, but is that claim supported by studies?\n\nedit: Seriously, asking for sources in AskScience results in downvotes?",
"> women's libidos apparently peaking at 30 or 40 and men at a significantly younger age? Is this information actually correct?\n\nI've heard this claim many times but never seen a single solid peer-reviewed study to back this up.\n\nI think it's as false as the societal expectation that men always want sex without strings attached and women never want sex unless they can get a committed relationship out of it.",
"The easiest evolutionary reason for males having a larger libido in general, is that it's best for men to impregnate as many women as possible, because the biological cost to produce a teaspoon of sperm & semen is very low.\n\nWomen should have a lower libido in general because they should wait around for a high-quality mate, rather than jumping into the sack with the first male with a working penis that they find. This is because the biological cost of carrying an infant to term is relatively high. \n\nThat being said, I haven't heard about women's libidos peaking that late in life. I also suspect that even if it is true it would be relatively irrelevant, because few women in our past survived into their 40's to be having children at that age, and there would probably not really be much of a selective force driving high libidos at that age. Not every behavior or aspect of our bodies is a product of evolutionary pressure, some of it really is just random shit thrown together - as long as it doesn't make a negative impact, it won't necessarily be weeded out.",
"[Wikipedia has some research on the decline of testosterone in both men and women due to age](_URL_3_)\n\n[Unofficial study but recent and related supporting wikipedia's data](_URL_1_)\n\n[This article on wiki](_URL_2_) also supports decreased libido and testosterone as men age.\n\n[Decreased libido in women is a sign of menopause](_URL_0_)\n\nI can't find anything definitive that strings it all together saying that men peak at 18 and women at 35. However, there is very little in the literature that seems to contradict this either.",
"Random thought here, but let's say it is true that female libido's spike later on in their life, could it be the bodies response before menopause (where they stop becoming fertile) almost like a last \"huzzah!\" before they became unable to reproduce? It's like a the last ditch effort by the brain to reproduce. Is there a study that could suggest this?",
"\"Old age,\" living past 30-40 or so, is a relatively recent evolutionary trait.[1] It makes no sense to have women focus on having children when they are already on the edge of death. \n\n[1]_URL_4_",
"A few issues with the premise of this question:\n\n1) Assuming that reproduction is the only motivating factor driving human sexual activity. This limited concept fails to address things like non-reproductive coupled sex acts, conscious use of contraception, masturbation, female sexual desire during non-fertile times, etc. If reproduction is the only purpose of sex, why have men not developed highly tuned senses that tells them EXACTLY when a woman is fertile and only mating? Knowing this would lead to higher rates of reproductive success as a man wouldn't waste time mating with a female he wouldn't impregnante. There is evidence of some amount of signaling but it is far from deterministic in human sexual behavior. Remember that we are not simply organisms; we are *socialized* organisms. Understanding any human behavior means taking the social context into account.\n\n[Some people will probably bring up studies that have been done concerning female signaling and attraction to males during the menstrual cycle, but keep in mind that these studies looked at reactions to pictures of faces and how women dressed themselves during ovulation, not actual mate choice.]\n\n2) Assuming sperm to be cheaper than eggs. One of my mentors pointed out the fallacy of this apples to oranges assumption: we are not simply comparing one gamete to another. Ejaculate contains, on average, 1.8 million sperm. After menstruation begins, a woman has about 400,000 eggs at her disposal, more than she could reasonably use during a 50-60 year window of fertility, assuming menstruation every 28 days. She also never has to expend more energy to create new eggs. I'm not aware of any research on sperm production and immunity in humans, but a recent study found that in crickets it led to [compromised immunity](_URL_5_). Saying that sperm are cheap and eggs are expensive is, IMO, an incorrect reading. (Seriously, if sperm are so cheap, why do so many men pass out after ejaculation? Why is there a refractory period? Does not compute.)\n\n3) Assuming that an individual's sex drive has a linear trajectory that peaks at a certain point. I've never come across a study investigating this, likely because sex drive is subjective and can be difficult to measure. (Ex: a young female in a culture denying female sexual desire might have a hard time identifying what she felt as sexual). Furthermore, many non-biological factors can influence how a person experiences desire: stress, drugs (including prescription medication), depression, self-doubts, rejection, anxiety, social prohibitions, etc. \n\nI think what people may be noticing when they point out the horny young men/old women paradigm is that older women may feel less restrained about expressing their sexual desires. Younger persons are raised in a culture that denies female sexual desire (often framing it in terms of relational desire) and promotes male sexual desire. Think of how a person might scoff at a young man's admission that he simply isn't interested in sex and doesn't like masturbating. \n\n**TL;DR Human sexuality cannot be explained by biology alone, one must consider cultural contexts.**",
"Maybe relevant: research on reproductive survival, and a new hypothesis to the question why women live another 20-30 years after their ability to reproduce has stopped.\n\nAccording to [Dr. D. van Bodegom](_URL_7_):\n\n*In 2011 he defended his PhD thesis [‘Post-reproductive survival in a polygamous society in rural Africa’](_URL_6_). In this thesis he studied an evolutionary explanation of our long post-reproductive lifespan. He investigated the grandmother hypothesis, which states that our post-reproductive lifespan evolved to take care of the grandchildren. He found that in Northern Ghana, grandmothers have no effect on offspring survival. Instead, from an evolutionary perspective, the longevity of men, which remain reproductively active in this polygamous society, was much more important than the longevity of women.*",
"[OK Cupid's take on the subject](_URL_8_) (look at charts 7 & 8). Unlikely source but, hey, data is data... \n\nEDIT: Just to clarify, this doesn't have anything to say about the evolutionary part of the question, merely the factual claim about when (or if) a woman's sex drive peaks.",
"Categorize this one under the \"once we're past prime reproductive age, many things are no longer dictated by evolution\" heading."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimenopause#Indications_and_signs",
"http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Testosterone-Man-hits-sexual-peak-at-22-says-study/336380/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libido#Sexual_desire_disorders",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_replacement_therapy",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/101/30/10895.long",
"http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-01/mu-shn012912.php",
"https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/18014",
"http://www.lumc.nl/con/2095/100715/90210112401185",
"http://blog.okcupid.com/index.php/10-charts-about-sex/"
]
} | Evolution and Libido
Dear AskScience, I've done a reddit and google search but I'm unsure as to what the evolutionary significance is behind women's libidos apparently peaking at 30 or 40 and men at a significantly younger age? Is this information actually correct? I seem to recall in sex education classes when I was back in school, that some researchers proposed that men and women on average didn't have a significantly different libido. However, during my google search and after checking wikipedias sources ( which I found to be fairly sexist and without substantial evidence) I'm unsure as to whether it's true. Consequently if males do simply have such a significantly larger libido than women, does this suggest that domination /rape was the primitive insurance for survival? Sincerely, Gaunt101 | [
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xg677 | [META] AskScience AMA Series: ALL THE SCIENTISTS! | One of the primary, and most important, goals of /r/AskScience is outreach. Outreach can happen in a number of ways. Typically, in /r/AskScience we do it in the question/answer format, where the panelists (experts) respond to any scientific questions that come up. Another way is through the AMA series. With the AMA series, we've lined up 1, or several, of the panelists to discuss—in depth and with grueling detail—what they do as scientists.
Well, today, we're doing something like that. Today, all of our panelists are "on call" and the AMA will be led by an aspiring grade school scientist: /u/science-bookworm!
Recently, /r/AskScience was approached by a 9 year old and their parents who wanted to learn about what a few real scientists do. We thought it might be better to let her ask her questions directly to _lots of scientists_. And with this, we'd like this AMA to be an opportunity for the entire /r/AskScience community to join in -- a one-off mass-AMA to ask not just about the science, but the process of science, the realities of being a scientist, and everything else our work entails.
Here's how today's AMA will work:
* Only panelists make top-level comments (i.e., direct response to the submission); the top-level comments will be brief (2 or so sentences) descriptions, from the panelists, about their scientific work.
* Everyone else responds to the top-level comments.
We encourage everyone to ask about panelists' research, work environment, current theories in the field, how and why they chose the life of a scientists, favorite foods, how they keep themselves sane, or whatever else comes to mind!
Cheers,
-/r/AskScience Moderators | askscience | {
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"text": [
"hi! I am Dakota, I am 9 and I have loved science ever since I was 3. I just got a microscope this year and have been looking at anything I can find from hair to blood. My mom's blood, she cut her finger in the name of science. Thank you, everyone for letting me ask you questions. EDITED to add picture!\nTHis is me: _URL_0_",
"What most scientists do most of the time is reading. Staying up to date on what everyone else in the world is doing. Science is communicated in short papers (4-15 pages) that describe what experiment was done or what idea they're trying to communicate. Usually, only people who do the same kind of science as the authors can read and understand the papers. That is unfortunate.\n\nBesides that, I do experiments where I look at DNA in small tubes under a microscope to see how it squishes into small spaces. I record the DNA's movement with a digital camera attached to the microscope, and then analyze it to see how the DNA behaves. I spend a lot more time analyzing it, and interpreting what I've analyzed (what does what I see teach me about DNA?) than doing the actual experiments.",
"We know that almost all the galaxies in the Universe are flying apart, but we don't know why they do so faster and faster instead of slowing down. We believe that something invisible called Dark Energy is responsible for this, and that most of the Universe consists of it, but we want to find out what exactly it is. I write some computer programs that will hopefully help with that.",
"Hi /u/science-bookworm (and the rest of AskScience)!\n\nI'm a geologist, working at a university in the UK. I study volcanoes and underwater landslides. Basically I research how things like [pyroclastic flows](_URL_1_) happen, and how they behave using lots of experiments, as well as computer programmes, and measuring the deposits they form out in the field on real volcanoes.\n\nI also teach university students about earthquakes, the structure of the earth, and how volcanoes work.",
"Hi, science-bookworm!\n\nI'm an archaeologist. I specialize in shipwrecks, but like many people in my field, I wear a lot of hats. More generally, what I do is called *historical archaeology*. That's archaeology that studies the same time period that we have written records for. But if we have books and diaries and stuff, why do we need archaeology?\n\nThink about the last time you wrote something down, like a diary or something. Now think about someone reading that three hundred years from now. Would they be able to learn everything about your life? They'd certainly be able to figure out what's important to you (which is valuable information), but what if they wanted to know, say, what your bed looked like? Or how big your kitchen was, and where the stove went? That stuff is rarely written down, because it's not usually too important to people at the time. It's just a stove, everybody knows about stoves! But they change, and that sort of daily life information can be really important, because it's such a huge part of our daily existence.\n\nAside from digging or diving (which I don't do all that often in comparison to other stuff), I do a lot of artifact curation, science experiments (chemistry and physics are the big ones, sometimes with other scientists), writing, editing, reading, and public outreach. And fundraising/grantwriting, because we are not a well-funded science.",
"Good to see a young person with an interest in science.\n\nI am an astronomer who spends a lot of time studying the sun, I study the motion of stuff on the surface of the sun (the whole surface is always moving, it isn't calm like it looks) and also more exciting events like flares.\n\nThe other half of my research is in plasma physics, this is the study of the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquid and gas. It is where normal matter has been split into it's electrically charged components, electrons and protons. You can see plasma in action if you have flourescent lights, a plasma tv or in a naked flame. I run computer simulations and such in this field.",
"Hi! I'm a chemist, but not in the way most people imagine. Most people think of someone who makes molecules (beakers, flasks, colors, bunsen burners, reactions). Instead, I'm a physical chemist! I specialize in understanding the way that molecules behave and interact with each other. My particular area deals with materials that look just like liquids, but behave like solids, materials called \"glasses.\" While \"glass\" as you might think of it (windows, for example) is one of these materials, there are so many others!",
"Hello Dakota, I'm very glad you're interested in science!\n\nI'm a plasma physicist, meaning I study the stuff that the sun made of (I see you're already talking to Robo-Connery about this). I work on a machine called a *tokamak*, which is a doughnut-shaped chamber lined with magnets that I can make a miniature star inside of. This means the inside of my machine is almost a hundred million degrees - one of the hottest things in the entire solar system! The goal is to be able to generate power using this miniature sun - we could make electricity without making any pollution or running out of fuel.\n\n*edit:* for anyone that's interested, we ran an AMA with a few of the researchers from my lab [here](_URL_2_) a little while back as well",
"I am a computer scientist working at a university in California. I try to find problems in programs that people write that would let bad people do things like steal people's personal information. \n\nYou could just look really hard at programs to find problems, but we actually write programs that do it for us! What makes this really interesting is that it is actually impossible to do this right 100% of the time. Also, there are new types of programs being made every day and we need to be able to analyze these new types of programs effectively, which often requires totally new approaches that we haven't tried before.",
"As an Emergency Room physician, I've worked in a number of clinical areas over the years, and cover some of our ICU. I've participated in a lot of studies, particularly the applications of liquid ventilation.",
"Hi, I am a epidemiologist. That means I study diseases in big groups of people. Currently, I am trying to figure out how we can get people with kidney diseases to stay healthy longer. To do so, I predict their chance of losing kidney function, so we know who to treat. Also, I look at the long term side effects of drugs that we give.",
"Hi Dakota,\n\nI'm a neuroscientist who mostly studies how the brain puts together our world from our senses. I've studied hearing and balance in humans and many animals (and all normally-developed vertebrate animals have both hearing and balance as senses). My latest work was figuring out how bats see with their ears, building 3 dimensional worlds through sound. These days I'm also using 3D printing to teach sciences to the blind so they can feel what the surface of Mars or the Moon are like as well as let people hold model asteroids and comets in their hands.",
"I am a neruoscientist working at the Miami Project to Cure Paralysis. We focus on helping to re-grow nerves in a paralyzed person's spinal cord. We just had a [major press conference](_URL_3_) (as in 10 am today) to announce that we will begin a phase 1 (to test the safety) FDA trial in human patients.\n\nWhat we hope to do is take Schwann cells (repairing cells from the nerves in a patient's leg) from the paralyzed patient, grow them in a lab, and then harvest them and inject them into that same patient's spinal cord. This will help with re-myelination (re-insulation) of that person's nerves, which is the leading cause of paralysis (not cut nerves).\n\n[Here is a simple animation of what I just described.](_URL_4_)",
"I am a geochemist and I study some of the oldest samples we have from Earth. Using these samples we have learned a lot about what the early Earth probably looked like. For example we can say there was liquid water present which is very different from earlier ideas which thought there was a very hot and molten Earth for a very long time.",
"I am going to take a break for a while and thank you all for answering my questions I will be back.",
"I am a neuropsychiatrist. In addition to my clinical work as a medical doctor, my research mainly focuses on mild brain injury/concussions and trying to understand what happens to the brain as it recovers. To do this I use scans of the brain (MRI's), tests of brain abilities, and genetic tests.",
"Hi!\n\nI am a physical chemist working in the field of photophysics, which is the study of how materials respond after they absorb light. \n\nEven more specifically, I use giant computers to design and model special molecules to see if they have the correct properties for absorbing light and storing the energy. If the computed results are promising, I try to make the molecule in the lab and then see if it reacts with light as I predicted by using powerful lasers!",
"Hi Science-bookworm! I'm a chemist who studies the behaviour of atoms on metal surfaces with molecular beams. My experiments are done at very low pressures and low temperatures inside ultra-high vacuum chambers.",
"Howdy! It's wonderful that you're so interested in science, [/u/science-bookworm](_URL_5_)!\n\nI'm a mathematician and college professor. I spend a lot of time teaching and a lot of time reading other people's research. My own research is about mathematical objects called \"graphs\", which represent networks like your friends on Facebook or the computers on the internet. Specifically, I try to take some particular kind of graph which other mathematicians might be interested in, then figure out enough about them to count how many there are. To do this, I spend a lot of time drawing pictures on a chalkboard and writing computer programs.",
"Hey everyone, hey /u/science-bookworm :)\n\nI'm a theoretical physicist and I study the fundamental interactions of nature. More specifically, I try to understand what are the forces and fundamental particles that make the universe we live in. It might seem very surprising to you, but in order to understand why the universe is the way it is, filled with planets, stars and galaxies, we need to understand the very small things, much much smaller than what you can see in your microscope. \n\nI don't really work in a Lab, I actually sit in front of the computer all day reading papers and writing equations, and when it's sunny outside we have discussions sitting on the grass and playing frisbee. My specific problem right now is trying to understand black-holes and how Gravity behaves at very very short distances.",
"I'm a chemist and I work for a large chemical company making things that are used in a lot of different products. \n\nRecently, I've starting working in Personal Care, which is all of the sun screens, lotions, shampoos, and other products you might have in the bathroom. Previously I've worked with plastics, rubbers, and paint.",
"I'm a college science teacher (like a real-life Mrs. Frizzle) who helps figure out the best way to teach kids about how the process of science really works. We teach science in school very differently from how most scientists do their daily work, and this causes problems because what people think science is like in school is usually not what being a scientist is really like. I also want to see scientists working together who have different backgrounds (men/women, persons of color, persons with disabilities) because they all add unique perspectives to our science. So I do a lot of science activities with people from different cultures to help them understand how they can do science (and might already be doing science in their daily life).",
"Hi Dakota! I am a scientist who studies psychology and I try to understand how our minds work. In my field we think of the mind separately from the brain, so the mind is the thoughts you have in your head while the brain is the physical cells that create these thoughts. The two are connected, but it is much easier to discover how certain aspects of the mind works and then apply our findings to the physical brain.\n\nDuring the school year we have students come into our lab and fill out surveys or complete certain tasks so we can see how they respond and try to understand what their mind was doing during the task. During the summer I spend most of my time reading and writing papers and preparing new experiments for when the school year starts.",
"Hi Dakota,\n\nI got a microscope when I was about your age, too, but I found myself interested in things that were so small, you couldn't see them with a microscope. I'm a scientist who studies particle physics -- what are the smallest things that make up the universe, and what are the rules they follow that tell them how to move. The things I study are even tiny compared to atoms! \n\nUnlike many of the people posting here, I don't work in a laboratory. Instead, I work with pen and paper, and try to figure out principles that will tell us how these very basic particles behave. I also spend time talking to other scientists, getting feedback on my ideas, hearing what they are working on, and sometimes working together on a problem.",
"I'm an astrophysicist. I do computer simulations of black holes and neutron stars spiraling into each other and colliding. These systems emit tiny ripples on space-time called gravitational waves which we hope to soon detect here on Earth.",
"I am an aerospace engineer, who studied physics in college. Currently, I work on [this system](_URL_7_), a wonderful gun and radar system which can detect, intercept and give warning about incoming rockets and mortars. Sometimes I worked on satellites, the most famous of them being [the James Webb Space Telescope](_URL_6_).",
"Hey Dakota! I was just like you when I was a kid: I was **super** into science and wanted to learn about it all the time. You're *so* lucky to have the internet now. I remember when I used to have to go to a library to read about atoms, DNA, and space missions... now you have Wikipedia and have all of this info whenever you want!\n\nAnyway, I'm at the intersection of science and medicine- instead of having one \"doctor\" title, I'll actually write two: M.D., Ph.D. My research is translational, which means I study human diseases using both volunteer patients from the hospital and animals that are sort of close to humans in certain diseases. The patients are often very happy to help research that might one day save many lives.\n\nSpecifically, I study heart disease. It turns out heart attacks are caused by the same sort of processes that cause your skin to get red and painful around a scrape or a cut. Your blood vessels even form scars where they are damaged, just like skin. Using some neat chemistry, I can make damaged blood vessels glow in the dark like a firefly. My work is kind of \"fringe\" because not many people are doing it yet, so I spend a **lot** of my time trouble shooting. I'll explain:\n\nImagine being told to make an airplane out of whatever you can find in a junkyard. You have a lot of tools and parts, but no idea how to make a plane. Nobody at the junkyard knows either, so you're on your own. I spend weeks trying to get some spare parts to fit together and fail over and over. Sometimes I get lucky and accidentally find something useful when I wasn't even looking for it. There's a lot of luck, but it's very exciting when things work.\n\nI just finished taking mice with damaged arteries and giving them a contrast agent (to make them glow) under a *very* sensitive camera. This allowed me to see inside their bodies without hurting them at all. In fact, I just had them breathe a gas that made them sleep so they held still under the camera and they woke right up afterwards. I will be doing this every few days so I can see how their heart disease progresses when we treat them with certain drugs. Mice don’t get heart attacks like people do, so I’m looking for ways to slow down their heart disease and eventually other scientists might take my findings and use them with real people in the hospital.\nThese experiments are very long and draining. Sometimes I work really late into the night and it gets a bit stressful. Since I became a scientist, I started new hobbies and revived some old ones to keep myself from going crazy. I rock climb, skateboard, and bike every week. A lot of my scientist friends are also outdoorsy folks: we even talk science around the campfire after a long day of hiking. Having other scientists around who know what the life is like is great: they are both colleagues and friends. If I have a problem with my experiments, they can help out. If I’m having a bad day, they can meet me for dinner and a movie to relax and have a laugh.\n\nAnything you want to know? \n\nEDIT: [here's a photo](_URL_8_) I took of cells from human blood glowing. The big circle is a dish about the diameter of a coffee cup. Each little point of light is a special kind of blood cell that I can make glow. The colors you see aren't really there; those are fake colors (called pseudocolors) applied to a black and white photograph that make it easier for your eyes to see the cells as they light up.",
"Hi :)\n\nI'm an astronomer working at a university in the USA (though I'm originally from the UK). \n\nI'm interested in all things to do with galaxies, especially how they form, grow, and evolve over time. My speciality is looking at them using very long wavelengths of light, which allows us to see all the dust and gas that makes up the galaxy. I find this interesting because it's so hard to study -- we've been able to look at the stars in galaxies for centuries, but it's only recently that we've been able to properly study the gas in galaxies. So we know very little about it! \n\nI spend most of my time on my computer in an office, analysing data from telescopes and writing up my results in papers (which other scientists then read). And as much as possible, I travel to telescopes all over the world, and use them to collect more data.",
"Hello aspiring scientists, \n\n I work on cancer, especially trying to design drugs that treat this type of disease. Cancers are the second leading cause of death in the United States but every year we get better at fighting it. In the past we have had to use drugs that attack the cancer **and** everything else, which causes side-effects that make people feel not so great. But now we are getting better at making drugs that attack only the cancer. \n\nI spend most of my day [looking at protein structures](_URL_10_). You can't see them under a microscope, but they are very pretty and our cells are full of them. I try to find drugs that fit the proteins like a key fits into a lock. The right key can lock the protein so it cannot help [cancer cells](_URL_9_) grow.\n\nStay curious!",
"Hallo! I still have my microscope from when I was an aspiring young scientist. We use big fancy microscopes now, but my original microscope is just as cool. I hope you're drawing what you see through your scope!\n\nYou've already talked to a few neuroscientists like me. I study the brain, but I also study sleep. We spend a lot of time sleeping, but we still don't really understand why. We're trying to figure out why we sleep, how the brain sleeps, and why some people with certain diseases have problems sleeping.",
"I study math, all day every day. For a number of years I've studied different types of math so they can be applied to make new discoveries or advancements. Right now, I study a specific type of math called statistics. Statistics helps to let scientists know whether the results from their experiments are real or not.\n\n\nWith math, I've helped study cognitive development, Autism, AIDS, artificial neural networks (computer simulations of how brains work), how people understand and perceive taste and flavors (of beer and wine) and even how students understand and learn math and science. \n\n\nRight now, though, I work on just a few things very specifically:\n\n* Side Project(s): I help other researchers understand how humans see, and understand, faces. Some researchers perform experiments where they have people try to remember faces and ask them to recall them later. Other researchers use a giant magnet to \"look inside the brain\" of people while they look at faces. \n\n\n* Main Project(s): Mostly I use statistics to help understand how genes and DNA influence 1) how people behave and 2) if people will end up with certain diseases.",
"Greetings!\n\nI'm a geologist and I am pursuing my Master's degree at a university in the US. My research focuses mainly on modern, invertebrate marine ecology - snails and clams. However, that research is set in the context of the fossil record. I study the behavior and ecology of modern animals to better understand the fossil record of their ancestors.\n\nMy research is, in my opinion, a strong example of the multidisciplinary direction that science has been moving towards.",
"Hello, Dakota! I'm another linguist. We study how language works. There are many different kinds of linguist, but I study the sounds that people use to speak their language and how these sounds change over time. (Have you ever noticed how people speak differently in old books and movies?) \n\nI'm particularly interested in how our brains and bodies influence these changes.\n\nI can answer questions about language in general too!",
"Always happy to see an inquisitive youngster!\n\nI am a graduate student in electrical engineering. Most of what I do is design power supplies for small satellites known as CubeSats, as well as designing a wireless charging system for a large group of scientific instruments. I also run an undergraduate lab focused on building things that go into space!",
"IAMA Polymer scientist/engineer. I study, in a very specific way, how and why plastics flow. Although that might sound lame, it's very important information to, for example, people who make plastic things with big hot presses. AMA about plastic!!",
"Hi! I'm a chemist. Unfortunately, I do not work with colored flames, fumes, beakers, slimes and funny smells. I am an inorganic solid-state chemist, so I prepare and study materials that seem quite boring, because they are white powders that don't seem to do anything special. But when we find the right compositions, and in the right conditions, these materials are incredibly good at doing a lot of things: they can conduct electricity better than the wires you have in your house; they can be powerful magnets; they can glow like a lamp; they can be tough, withstand the highest temperatures, and so on.\n\nBut here's the better part: most of what I do is boring, because I am either in the lab, or reading a scientific paper on my computer - but every few months, we can *really* study our materials, using a *gigantic* microscope that's called a synchrotron. It's really huge - so big that you need a car to get around it. (This is a [photo of it](_URL_11_) from above.)\n\nIn fact, it is a particle accelerator, and it produces extremely brilliant and nice beams of X-rays that we use to study the materials - and the experiments go on 24 hours a day (that's tiring, but also fun).",
"Hi Dakota. When I was about 9 a remember using a home microscope. My dad cut his finger for me (I was too scared). Though I remember I couldn't see any red blood cells. It wasn't until I was about 11 that I got to use a better microscope and I saw blood cells.\n\nAnyway, I'm a cellular neuroscientist. That means I study the brain at the level of individual cells (called neurons). Unlike a lot of people, I haven't spent my career focusing on one specific topic, but rather I use a specific technique to study lots of different things. This technique (called \"Patch Clamping\") allows me to look at the electrical activity of a single brain cell by placing an electrode into the cell (kind of like how a hypodermic needle slides into your body, my electrode is 100x of times smaller and goes into a single cell).\n\nThis has allowed me to study epilepsy, sleep, the basics of how brain cells talk to each other, and even an odd type of brain cell that talks to itself.",
"Hello /u/science-bookworm!\n\nI am a Marine Biologist working at a university in North Carolina, United States. While many young people think Marine Biology and Science is working with dolphins and sharks, there's a lot more about the ocean than that! I study how little certain microscopic critters in the ocean, called phytoplankton, make their food (a process called photosynthesis. You might have heard this term associated with plants getting energy from the sun). Specifically, I'm studying how good these creatures are at making food compared to their environment around them, including light, waves, and temperature. \n\nPast that, I also help students with introductory biology labs as a Teaching Assistant. Let me know if you have any questions!",
"Hi!\n\nI'm a graduate student studying chemistry, more specifically nuclear magnetic resonance. You know how things can be magnetic - like a fridge magnet? That's largely due to _electron spins_ - basically each electron can act like little magnets. It turns out that the nucleus also acts like magnets, and using a very specific frequency of light, we can probe the environment of these nuclei. I'm currently using NMR to study enzyme kinetics - how enzymes do what they do with such amazing efficiency, so my work covers a bit of quantum mechanics, computational chemistry, organic synthesis and biochemistry.",
"Hello everyone. I am a Computer Science PhD student. I work in a developing field called behavioral imaging. This field attempts to use video cameras, microphones, accelerometers, and other types of sensors to observe human behavior. I am currently working with several psychologists to analyze body language as it relates to Autism.",
"I am an astronomer who looks for new stars being born. We are interested in this because when stars form so do planets and we are interested in these planets to look for life outside of Earth.",
"Hi science-bookworm.\n\nI'm a biologist/biochemist/biophysicist working at a university in California. My field combines many aspects of different subspecialties - basically I'm trying to \"see\" what proteins look like on a very, very, very small scale (tenths of a nanometer). These proteins are the workhorses of the cell: they perform chemical reactions, they copy/read/transcribe DNA, they conduct electrical currents, they twitch to make your muscle moves. Just about anything a cell can physically do is done by proteins. The reason we try to look at them is because if you can see what it looks like, you can get a ton of insight into how it works, how it dysfunctions (in disease), and how to make therapies against it based on what types of atoms are where (i.e. negatively charged, positively charged, greasy). \n\nAs you can imagine, looking at things that is 60,000 times *smaller* than a human hair can be tricky, we certainly can't do it with a regular light microscope. Our method of choice in my lab is to coax the proteins to grow into a crystal, then to examine the crystal with an x-ray and calculate, based on how the x-ray's bounce off it, what the underlying molecular structure is. This can take years and years of work, first you have to produce the protein (not always easy) by growing it in something like *E. coli* or bakers yeas or by harvesting it from some natural tissue. Then we break them open, and try to bind the protein while washing away everything else. Then, we try mixtures of different chemicals (sometimes thousands) to get the crystals to grow. To examine the crystals, we use huge government facilities called synchrotrons that accelerate electrons (or positrons) near the speed of light in a circle, as they accelerate they emit radiation which we can tune to the x-ray spectrum.\n\nAfterwards, I spend a lot of time on the computer, building my protein models based on data then refining them with various programs. Most of my other time is spent writing up results or getting ready to present them, which is a **huge** part of science. After all, what good is your work if no one knows about it?",
"Hi Dakota, I'm so happy to see you're taking such an interest in science. We need more aspiring young scientists like yourself to fuel the advancement of our species in the generations to come. Science is hard work, but don't give up. Stick with it, and it is well worth it in the end. \n\nI like to consider myself some what of a scientist, but the real scientists out there (people with PhDs) will probably disagree. I studied Cell and Molecular Biology and Biochemistry back in my college days, and then I moved on to focus on humans. I've studied everything from Human Biochemistry, Histology (the study of human tissues), Pathology (the study of disease), Immunology, Microbiology, Pharmacology (the study of medicines and drugs), Virology (the study of viruses), Parasitology, Bacteriology, Human anatomy, etc. So I've since specialized in humans and let everything else kind of go by the wayside. I also don't actively research like all these real scientists do. I practice my knowledge now to treat and heal people, using the knowledge gained from these fine scientists doing the research. Science is a team effort, I trust the ones doing the research to figure out the answers, and then I use that knowledge to help people feel better. \n\nI couldn't be happier with my job, I love working in medicine and making people feel better. I get to combine my love of helping people with my love of learning and my love of science into one glorious job.\n\nSo, Dakota, have you ever considered a career in medicine or some other health care position? If so, what would you want to do?",
"Hi Science-bookworm!\n\nI'm an astronomer, and I'm trying to figure out what some special stars that go around each other very closely are made of. How do I do that, you ask, since the stars are *at least* 2,000,000,000,000,000 miles (2 quadrillion miles) away from the Earth?\n\nI'm using a technique called spectroscopy, which allows us to see the \"fingerprints\" of different chemical elements in a star's light. [A while back I made a little graphic to explain](_URL_16_), but the light from a star is passed through a prism which spreads out the light into its different \"colors.\" If we look closely at the \"colors\" that are spread out, you can see all sorts of dark bands. [These bands come from the different atoms and molecules that are in the star!](_URL_15_)\n\nScientists first found Helium (the stuff that fills party balloons to make them float and it makes your voice squeaky) by looking at the Sun in this way in 1868! Spectroscopy is an incredibly powerful tool in a scientists bag of tricks :)\n\nBeing an astronomer is so much fun I never want to do anything else. I'm working on my Ph.D., but it takes a really long time; after high school I studied astronomy in college for 4 years, and now I'm in graduate school studying for 6 more years!\n\nSo what else do I do? I try to remind people that scientists are people too! I make [funny movies with my friends](_URL_13_), I play [video games](_URL_12_), and I have a [cat named Leonard](_URL_14_). Have fun reading through everyone's answers!",
"Hi Dakota. I'm an evolutionary ecologist (a type of Zoologist). I study how animals use camouflage, warning colours and behaviour to hide from or deter predators. For instance lots of animals use bright warning colours or patterns to advertise to predators that they are poisonous or taste bad. This is a type of [aposematism](_URL_17_). Other animals might use conspicuous noises (think of a hissing cockroach), smells or movements to do the same job.\n\nAs some of the other scientists have said you spend a lot of time reading and keeping up to date with what other scientists in your field are doing. You also spend a lot of time writing about the experiments you have done.\n\nSome of the experiments I have done in the last few years have involved making up pretend moths or caterpillars with different patterns on them and pinning them to trees. I then go back later to see which ones the birds have taken. This way I can tell which patterns are most effective at hiding or protecting an animal from being eaten.\n\nOnce you've collected all your data you then need to use some statistical tests to check that the results are not likely to have happened by chance. Only then can you write up your experiment in to a paper to publish and show other scientists.",
"Hello there young budding scientist. It's great to see someone with such a great interest at such a young age.\n\nI work more in the field of applied sciences: engineering. My work involves studying the high-temperature material behavior of aluminum. I experimentally determine the response using very well controlled tests in a [mechanical load frame](_URL_19_). These tests help me identify both the [creep](_URL_20_) and/or [viscoplastic](_URL_22_) response. I then use this to define models which describe the mechanical behavior.\n\nTo give you an idea of where this is useful, my work is funded by the US Navy for the [LCS program](_URL_18_). It is in support of survivability of the ship during fire to help save the ship and sailors. This is primarily influenced by severe damage to the [HMS Sheffield](_URL_21_) (an all-aluminum ship) during the Falkland Islands War. Hopefully, my research will be used as a fundamental basis in which the Navy will be able to make educated design decisions. \n\nIf you have any questions, ask away.",
"Hi!\nI work in combustion science, which means I research and learn about fire. \nIn my project, I measure the speed that a flame moves, and then that information can be used to better understand how flames work. My friends have many different projects, but some that you might be interested in are [flat flames](_URL_24_) and [unstable flames that create interesting shapes](_URL_23_).\n\nIf you have any questions about fire, engines, or power plants, you can ask me. I may take a long time to reply (maybe a day or more) because I'm very busy right now at a conference. Like many have said, a big part of science is communicating what I'm doing while learning what others are doing. So, at this conference, about 1000 people travel here to listen to each other give presentations, so that everybody knows what everybody else has discovered, and we can all give each other advice.",
"Glad to see so much interest in this AMA -- I'm a big advocate of science outreach, and I think reddit is a great way for non-scientists to get in touch directly with those of us working in all these different fields. \n\nMy research focuses on trying to discover new, more efficient thermoelectric materials. These materials have the special ability to convert heat directly into electricity, and vice versa; you can put them up against a heat source and use that heat to create electricity, or hook them up to a battery to make one end of the material hot and the other end cold. If we can make them efficient enough, we could potentially use them for a wide range of applications -- from recovering waste heat given off by things like cars and power plants, to replacing the technology in your air conditioner, refrigerator, and stove.",
"I'm a linguistics grad student focusing on syntax (a branch of linguistics) and type theory (a branch of logic, I guess you could say). Most of my day is spent reading papers and trying to understand other peoples ideas.\n\nIn general, the question I study is: what is a possible language, and what is an impossible language? You could imagine lots of funny languages that do all sorts of crazy things, but not all of these imaginary languages could be learned by a human. If someone were to discovery aliens, we would expect them to have very different languages from ours, in many different ways. As a syntactician, I try to understand this question as it applies to the way words are put together to form bigger units.",
"This is so sweet. I've submitted this thread to Forbes in case they're interested in writing about it.\n\n\"Hi Forbes Editors,\n\nYour website pops up on Reddit a lot because you do a good job reporting internet related stories. With that in mind, I would love to see an article on today's askscience AMA series. A 9 year old named Dakota is leading it, and confirmed scientists from /r/askscience are explaining their work to her and the rest of Reddit in the typical Ask Me Anything format.\n\nThe thread can be found here: _URL_25_\n\n- /u/RepRap3d\"",
"Hello! I'm a Medical Physics PhD studying at McMaster University in Canada. I'm investigating ways of measuring how red a person's skin gets when they undergo radiation therapy. It gives people reactions like sun burns which aren't pleasant!\n\nAfter my PhD, I will do a residency and then become a Medical Physicist. Radiation Oncologists are the people who say you need radiation treatment for your cancer. Medical Physicists are the people who actually design the treatment. We say how much radiation you get and when and where.",
"Hi Dakota! I'm a geologist. I try to figure out how and why the earth makes ore deposits, specifically metal deposits. Right now, I'm studying the kinds of systems that we can mine for nickel, copper, and platinum. You use these things every single day, and you might not even know it. Every time you turn on the lights, electricity is flowing through copper wiring. Any time you use something made of stainless steel, there is nickel in it. Probably every car you have ever been in contains some platinum.\n\nWhen I'm doing research, I spend a lot of time reading about what other people have learned, I look at my rocks under a microscope, and I study the chemistry of my samples to try to reconstruct a story about how the rocks got there, where the materials that make them up came from, and where we should look to find more systems like these. Sometimes you can find some unexpected and awesome things. One time I was looking at a rock in the microscope and found a mineral grain that looks a lot like a [bunny](_URL_26_).\n\nI also get to spend time doing fieldwork, hiking around beautiful places outdoors and collecting samples. [This](_URL_27_) is a picture my field partner took of me (making a weird face, it looks like) at work one day. I then take these samples back for different kinds of analysis and see what I can learn or find with them.\n\nI really love how I get to spend time both outdoors and in the lab doing something that I find so interesting and rewarding. It's great to see that you have such an interest in science, and I really hope that one day, if you really love it, you can have a career that excites you as much as geology excites me. One day, you'll teach all of us something new about this world we live in.",
"Hi! \n\nI'm in a psychology department, but many people might call what I study cognitive science. Cognitive scientists are interested in how we think, see, and feel, and in the relationship between the brain and our behavior.\n\nI'm interested in how people see the world. This is a really interesting and difficult thing to study. Light bounces off of surfaces in the world, enters the eye, and hits the back part which sends signals to the brain. Somehow the brain pieces together these millions of signals into things we recognize: objects, people, space, colors, shapes, movement etc. How does the brain do that? \n\nOnce the brain knows that the world is made up of many objects and surfaces, how do we recognize them? For example, if you hold a cup in front of you and look at the rim, you'll see that it's a circle even though from that angle it looks like an oval. You also recognize wheels, DVDs, and coins as having a circular shape even though they are all made from different materials and come in different sizes and colors. How do we know that all of these objects are the same shape? A more complicated question could be: how do we recognize a line-drawing of a dog, a photograph of a dog, a cartoon dog, and a real dog as all different examples of the same thing, dogs?\n\nI do lots of behavioral experiments followed by computational modeling. This means that I first observe how people behave/perceive the world, then I try to come up with theories about what kinds of processes in the brain might give rise to that behavior, and then I try to program a computer to behave in the same way.",
"Hi Dakota! I'm an astronomer, so I get to use a telescope instead of a microscope. I study supernovae, which are the really energetic explosions that mark the end of the life of a massive star. We want to know about the shapes of the explosions (they aren't exactly sphere shaped!) and we can figure some of that out by examining how the explosion interacts with the surrounding gas and dust given off by the star before it died. I do some computer simulations and also get to travel to a big observatory. We compare the results of computer models to the real data we get from the telescope as a way to see if our ideas about what is happening with a supernova are correct. \n\nI'd say scientists do a lot of time reading and writing. You have to be a good writer in order to explain your projects to others and convince them that your projects are worth spending money on. If you want to be a scientist one day, develop good writing skills and don't lose them! Also, don't ever let go of your curiosity and creativity. You'd be surprised how many interesting ideas and solutions to problems I've thought up while dreaming in the night.",
"Hi.\n\nI'm currently helping to write a new programming language, so a lot of time is spent designing it, reading about what other people have done, and actually programming to make it happen.\n\nEDIT [clarification and new information]\n\nProgramming is how you tell computers to do things; examples of programs are your web browser, your IM client, games you play, etc. Computers are really good at following instructions, but they can't think for themselves, so a program is a sequence of very precise instructions telling it how to do exactly what the programmer wanted.\n\nA programming language is a language (in the sense that it has its own words and grammar, although they tend not to look anything like human languages) designed to make it easy for the programmer to express the really precise instructions, and also designed so that it's easy for the computer to actually do what it's told.\n\n* A programming language that has a word for \"fly to the moon\" wouldn't be very useful because most computers can't do that.\n* A programming language that has a word for \"do what I mean\" wouldn't be very useful because that's not precise enough.",
"I'm a particle physicist working on the ATLAS experiment at CERN (PhD student at University of Birmingham, UK). My area of research is specifically Top Quark physics, and I help to maintain one of the event displays. A general day consists of programming, reading and meetings, in order to analyse the data, keep up to date on current theories/results and keep up to date on detector performance, respectively.\nI also help in creating mini experiments for school kids to do using the event display software, in order to help understanding of particle physics.",
"Hi! I'm a physicist looking at the way that atoms and molecules react to very very short (and powerful) lasers, and how the lasers react to those molecules. I do this by modeling the atoms and molecules using really big computers.\n\nI'm happy to answer any questions anyone might have.",
"Hi Dakota,\n\nA little late to the party, but I am an immunologist who studies vaccines for influenza, anthrax, botulism, etc. Part of our project is to create vaccines that do not require painful needle injections!",
"My research is based on designing synthetic polymers for use in tissue engineering. The two biggest activities that make up my job are writing and doing research. As will be mentioned on other places in this thread, there is a lot of reading that goes on too, but most of that reading I usually only do when I'm writing a project proposal, book chapter, review, original research article, etc because they require a very up-to-date portrait of your specific field. The other activity is research, which is to say, finding out what I did wrong on the previous experiment. Usually one activity will dominate over the other for a certain period of time (I'm writing a grant now, so lots of reading and writing, not too much research). \n\nI chose this field because I am naturally very curious, so it initially seemed like a good fit. My favorite part of the job is being surrounded by very intelligent and creative people who are engaged in addressing many different types of questions. When I go crazy, or need a break, reddit is always there, and during the more tedious tasks of mine (cell culture, scaffold manufacturing), I'll listen to NPR, podcasts, or music. I would very much describe it by saying it's like I work at a very small business. For the most part, the hours are flexible (I can work weekends in order to save up time off), and if you can keep a level head through the bad times, the work is satisfying.\n\nI'm also currently in medical school, but I guess that's a bit off topic.",
"Hi, I'm an experimental nuclear astrophysicist working at a university in the UK. I study the structure of r-process nuclei by looking at gamma rays.\n\nLight elements are made in the normal fusion reactions inside stars, but where to heavy elements come from? The short answer: Supernovae. The conditions in certain parts of supernovae are believed to be just right for *r-process* to happen. R-process is what's responsible for the creation of almost all the heavy elements in the universe, even those we see here on earth. What I study is the structure of those heavy nuclei, and by learning more about the structure, we can explain in greater detail how r-process works, and why the elements appear in the proportions we see today.\n\nMy work tends to involve a big accelerator of some kind, a rather heavy ion beam, and a target. There are a few different ways of doing it, but essentially what we do is create (one way or another) the isotope we want to study in a particularly excited state (with lots of energy). The nucleus will give off this energy over time in the form of gamma radiation, which we can detect, and this can tell us about the nuclear structure.",
"Hello AskScience and Dakota! I'm a graduate student in Marine Science at a university in Texas. The main topic I study is how changes in the landscape end up impacting the water quality of rivers and the coastal ocean. I'm particularly interested in the Arctic, where climate change is causing permafrost thaw and vegetation shifts that can greatly impact what materials make it into rivers and then the Arctic Ocean. I also work on Texas rivers. \n\nI spend a lot of time in the field collecting water samples and a lot of time in the lab analyzing them. I mostly do work on the chemistry of these samples, but one of the perks of my job is getting to go to amazing places and see incredible things! A couple years ago, while in Alaska, I got to see a whole herd of caribou (one nearly ran into our car!) and wolves the year before that in Siberia!",
"Hello young investigator!\n\nI am a medical student who also does research. I specialize in genetics, which has to do with the DNA code that makes you who you are. I am about to start a project where I want to find out how a disease called [Rett syndrome](_URL_28_) happens. This is a really sad disease that affects little girls mostly. It makes them lose all the words and skills they have learned, and also makes them move their arms in weird ways. The lab I am working in has made some mice that also have Rett syndrome so we can try to study how it happens and maybe find a way to fix it!\n\nHopefully when I am all done with my education I will get to be a doctor and a scientist. Sometimes I will see sick people and make them healthy, and other times I will work in the lab doing science!",
"I am a biophysical chemist. This means that I use the theories and techniques of physics and chemistry to study biology, in addition to developing new tools to study biology where and when I can. I am presently interested in understanding how cells can \"sniff\" out a chemical in their environment, and how - at the molecular level - the cells can change their behavior (for example, do they move away from the chemical or towards it?).",
"Hi! I am a researcher in materials science, focusing on the mechanical behavior of soft materials. Currently, I am studying [cuttlefish](_URL_29_) skin, specifically how they are able to change its texture as part of their camouflage. I've also worked on studying how things wrinkle and fold and the different patterns which can result from these processes. I'm fascinated by how these complex patterns can emerge from very simple systems, especially in the natural world.",
"I study molecular scale systems at the interface of quantum mechanical and classical methods. The motivation for these methods arises from the following question. How can you investigate systems which are too large for pure quantum mechanical treatments but which still exhibit behavior which can not be described classically?",
"Heyoo!\n\nAside from reading constantly, I also tend to use Microsoft Excel with data input and analysis. Excel also helps me with 2-D graphical functions, as it simplifies a good portion of work I do (input/sorting data and data reduction. Reduction is the process of eliminating data outside of the bounds relevant for my particular experiment).\n\nI've done a preliminary water quality investigation with 2 peers and an instructor of mine. We were measuring FIB (Fecal Indicator Bacteria) levels in a local state park using the Enterolert methods from IDEX Laboratories. \n\nI'm currently doing work on my undergraduate thesis. I'm using a software called Mc-IDAS V (A software for 2-D and 3-D visualization of data) to identify and quantify the strength and extent of Philadelphia's Urban Heat Island (UHI). Many other major cities in the US have been studied, but Philadelphia has been largely neglected. As global temperatures warm, the potential for UHIs to strengthen increases as well. And when surface area of impervious, low-albedo (reflectivity) surface cover increases, UHI strength is also likely to increase. \n\nAs I get into grad school, I hope to do a specialization in mesoscale weather patterns (the size of your typical low pressure or high pressure system, also called a **wave cyclone**), and I'd love to learn more about intrinsic atmospheric dynamics, and cloud physics. \n\nIn the early stages of working on my thesis, I regularly went to a local diner and did reading/note-taking a couple days a week. The breakfasts were great, too and helped me keep my focus! Not to mention the coffee. I LOVE coffee, and I thrive on it.\n\nOne bit of advice, though! **Never take yourself too seriously!**",
"Hi /u/science-bookworm,\n\nI'm a little younger than most people here and I am a graduate student, which means that I am still studying and that I study all day. Usually in order to be a scientist in academia, you have to go to college for four years after high school to get a bachelor's degree, and then usually around five years to get a PhD. (It is different in other countries; I am in the United States). People generally *officially* become scientists after they get a PhD.\n\nI recently started a PhD in mathematics, but I got a bachelor's degree with three majors: mathematics, neuroscience, and computer science. A major is the field you choose to study, and I chose to study three - it's as if I have three bachelor's degrees, which hasn't been very common but is starting to become more common. Before starting for my PhD, I did research in computational neuroscience, which is a field that uses computer programs and mathematics to make models of how we think some parts of the brain work in order to study how those models act, so that we can see whether our understanding is correct. I might revisit the field after studying more mathematics, and I'll also be teaching younger students mathematics.",
"Hi! I'm currently studying clinical veterinary medicine, but I also do biomedical research.\n\nFor many years, I've worked with mice, specifically special genetically engineered mice called \"knock out mice\" where we disrupt a certain gene so that it doesn't make protein. We then see what happens to the mice without the working gene, which can the tell us what that gene does. The gene I worked with affects mouse fetuses, making it so that they don't form a proper placenta, which is the organ the baby uses to get nutrients from him mother in the womb.\n\nRight now, I'm working with dogs, specifically a group of related dogs who have a certain rare genetic disease. This disease is called Mucopolysaccharidosis, and it affects people, dogs, and cats in similar ways. With this disease, patients don't have a certain enzyme, leading to problems with bone development and mental functioning. I'm specifically trying to figure out how the disease causes its effects in the spine so we can find a way to treat the disease.\n\nFeel free to ask any questions you have! I'm going to a conference this weekend to talk about my research (the dog work) so any questions will help me prepare!",
"Hi Dakota (and everyone else)! I'm writing to you from a scientific conference, so I may not reply to anyone immediately. A conference is one of the ways that scientists share information with each other. In my field, we all get together once a year, and everyone does presentations on what they have been working on recently. Afterwards, we all get to ask each other questions, and discuss our research together. It is a great way to rapidly share exciting new information.\n\nAs far as my research goes, I work in a field called Radiation Oncology. We use x-rays to kill tumor cells in people that have cancer. One of the things I do research on is looking for new ways to verify that the radiation is going to the right place. The tumor sits deep inside the body, and we use a big particle accelerator to shoot radiation at it. But we don't want to hit any of the normal tissue with radiation, so we have to aim the beam precisely at where the tumor is inside the body. Since we can't actually see inside the body, this is difficult.",
"Hello! I am a little late to the party but I thought that my story/background may add a bit more... so here goes: My degree is in Molecular Biology and Genetics, but I have not done any \"real\" wet-lab experiments in over 15 years. \n\nDuring my Ph.D. work I started to do a lot of computer-driven analysis of my data, which re-kindled an interest in programming that I had first discovered in high school but neglected all through college. I ended up going for a post-doc in Structural Bioinformatics working on a statistical analysis of the changes in quality of X-ray structures submitted to the [PDB](_URL_30_) over the years. This led to a position at the PDB itself, which I eventually left for a job in the industry where I now run a Bioinformatics group in a small drug discovery company.\n\nI still am very much part of the scientific discussions on all projects, but my group's work is mostly focused on developing computer programs and tools for the other scientists and technicians. We also do quite a bit of data analysis.",
"Hello Dakota!\n\nFirst of all, I want to thank you for wanting to take the time to learn what scientists do! I wish more youths demonstrated the same passion and initiative. I remember when I was a kid I got a microscope that came with different insects slides. There was a pretty girl around my age that lived down the road who had pet two tarantulas and a trap door spider! We tried looking at the web they made under the scope which was always messy.\n\nI’m a little down the line so here goes. \n\nI’m and archaeologist in Canada that does work with Aboriginal people. As an archaeologist I work at different excavation sites digging and finding artifacts from the past. I record data from the different soils when excavating which helps date artifacts. Some of the work that I’ve done in the past is analyzing burial patterns among the Huron/Neutral Indians. I also know quite a bit about making stone tools. I’m currently really interested in that ways that people tell stories about the past using digital technologies.",
"I am Bioengineer, crossing over between Genetics and Biophysics. Since I am also a graduate student, while I do spend lots and lots of time reading and understanding what is considered 'current' and 'background' in my field, I also do a lot of work.\n\nI work on my thesis project and on my boss's stuff, which fortunately overlap to a certain extent. I figure out how genetic mutations lead to specific physical dysfunctions; in particular, I study genetic mutations in skeletal muscle genes.\n\nI take samples of human skeletal muscle tissue (pieces of someone's leg muscle that was pulled out using a big needle), or samples of muscle cells grown on a petri dish, and test the muscle for its ability to produce force. This translates into how well the muscle works, and thus the ability of people with these genetic mutations to move.",
"Hello Dakota, Im a bit younger than most, However I spent the Majority of my Graduate Studies studying Neural networks and Genetic algorithms as well as Compiler Design. Right now I work as a Firmware Framework Engineer for a Large Company (embedded level). Mostly memory management becomes important at such a low level so it's always interesting seeing what Production Leads decide at being \"cut back\" and what \"Necessarily\" bugs are left in.\n \nHowever most of my self study is looking at Search Algorithms and studying efficiency of those, which Is where most of the \"Science\" part comes in. However Software Engineering itself is sort of a Science within itself, Although most people just see Engineers as \"I need to build this with this instruction\". There's so much out there in the world of Programming.",
"Hopefully I'm not too late for this.\n\nI'm a pharmacist that's going through a training program to practice in a hospital. Pharmacists work in many different places, but the majority go into retail pharmacy (think Walgreens, CVS). \n\nThe pharmacists in hospitals do things a little differently. We make sure that the patients in the hospitals get the right type and amount of medication for the problem that they currently have. Sure, we dispense medication, but it's not only stuff that can be taken by mouth. At my hospital, we go through team-based learning, with physicians, students, nurses, and many other disciplines all pitching in. Our primary goal is to get the patient better and manage them so that we don't have to see them in the hospital again.\n\nFeel free to ask anything!",
"Hello Dakota et al. I'm a Molecular Biologist who works for a company. Most scientists who you might meet work for Universities or Government, which means that the work they do is mostly driven by whatever questions seem relevant or interesting to their field of science. My work on the other hand is driven purely by whether it can eventually generate a profit for my company. \n\nMany companies make their products the same way that breweries do, except instead of growing yeast to make beer they might grow some other microorganism to make some other kind of product (like a drug or a vitamin or a chemical). My job is to re-program the genes in these microorganisms to make new products, or to make old products better or more efficiently.",
"Hello!\n\nI'm a Material Scientist focusing on ceramic materials for electronic applications. More specifically I change the material's conductivity by adding in defects in large amounts (much higher than anybody else has for these materials) then investigate how the electrons move around in the material. Additionally, all of the materials I work on are special in that they form really small scale electric fields within themselves. Even after ~30 years of study nobody really knows why the electric fields are there or how exactly they look but we have really good guesses. What I'm doing is seeing how these electric fields inside the material affect the electron motion. We're mainly interested because our materials are really good thermoelectrics, which was discussed by a panelist in a different post.",
"I am a structural biologist that uses many different techniques to determine what a protein looks like and how it does what it does. \n\nI have solved the structure of a protein involved in regulating transcription (DNA to RNA) using X-ray crystallography (crystallizing protein then shooting it with an X-ray beam!). I am currently trying to figure out how it uses it's structure to perform its function in transcription. \n\nTo do that, I use biochemistry (what does the protein interact with?), genetics (When is the protein used in transcription?), and genomics (How has this protein evolved to do what it does?) to answer those questions.\n\nI have also worked in other labs involved with viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages), which are pretty cool on their own.",
"I'm a condensed matter physicist studying liquid helium in confiment using primarily inelastic neutron scattering. I use a combination of x-ray scattering and gas adsorption to characterize a porous material, and then later fill it with liquid helium and study what happens. \n\nMost of my time is spent reading papers or designing experiments. Since neutron sources are nearly all national labs, first I write a proposal to do a specific experiment. If it is accepted, I design a system to put my sample in the proper conditions, and travel to conduct my experiment, then analyze and publish my findings. Nearly all of my experiments are done at the [Spallation Neutron Source](_URL_32_) at Oak Ridge National Lab or [NIST'S Center for Neutron Research](_URL_31_) near Washington DC.",
"Hey there. I'm a paleoecologist, currently a post-doctoral researcher at a major research university (show off!) in the United States. I use fossil pollen (mostly) to help understand how climate and vegetation changed over the last 15 thousand years or so, to help inform research into future climate change.\n\nI have also been involved in the current debate over the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (I disagree with it) and in developing adaptation strategies for future climate change, based on our knowledge of the past.\n\nFeel free to ask me about the earth's recent climate history, what we know, how we know it, how it informs debates about future climate change, or anything really, and I'll do my best to answer!",
"Hi Dakota (i.e. Science-Bookworm),\n\nI have a Ph.D. in entomology, which means that I study insects. I've worked with a variety of different insects over the years including caddisflies and other aquatic insects. I spent the past few years working with the community structure of insects associated with aquatic vegetation and I'm about to begin a new job working on crop pests for the government. \n\nI loved being outside as a kid, and have degrees in biology and entomology. I'm also only a few credits short of a degree in fine arts. I've also done a lot of outreach and extension programs in schools telling kids your age all about how cool insects and spiders are.",
"Greetings! I'm a chemist, but like [EagleFalconn](_URL_33_), I'm a physical chemist. \n\nI don't make new molecules (though I know a lot about this), but I love to talk and learn about the fundamentals of what makes molecules so special, and why they do the things they do. I love to talk and study how molecules react together, and especially love studying structures of molecules and bound clusters of molecules!\n\nI also study molecules and how they form in space, which we call astrochemistry, and maybe even a little about how life evolved from hydrogen atoms all the way to the crazy complex molecules we find in our body (ask an astrobiolgist about this one!).",
"Hello!\n\nI am an immunologist who is currently working on celiac disease. The immune system is specialized to protect the body against infections caused by bacteria and viruses, but sometimes it goes wrong and starts attacking our own bodies. This is called autoimmunity. Celiac disease is when the immune system starts attacking the intestines in response to certain foods that contain gluten (wheat is the main one).\n\nRight now we are trying to figure out what the initial events are that lead to intestinal damage-this means that we use mice that have certain genetic backgrounds, but we also use samples from human patients (albeit for different types of experiments).",
"Hi Dakota! I'm a toxicologist. I spend most of my time studying how different chemicals affect our bodies. Did you know that everything can be a poison (a guy named Paracelsus came up with this theory)? It all depends on how much of something our bodies encounter, how we encounter it (breathing, eating/drinking, touching), and how good our own body is at getting rid of something (susceptibility - kids are more at risk than adults; sick people are more at risk than healthy people). Right now I am running a few different types of experiments to see how inhaled nano-sized metal particles can damage our bodies.",
"I use an electron microscope to study the shape and structure of proteins. An electron microscope is like a light microscope, but it can see things that are much, much smaller.\n\nProteins are like tiny machines. They are a part of every living thing, in fact, they are part of what makes us be \"alive\" at all. There are many different proteins, and for many of them, we know \"what\" it is they do, but we don;t know \"how\" they do it. My job is to look at the shape of the proteins, and from there guess how it is that they do their job.",
"Hi Science-bookworm!\n\nI am a materials engineer (simply put, I do chemistry with solids), studying solar energy. The biggest problem that we face is how to make solar cells both cheap AND efficient. Right now, people know how to do one or the other very well, but there is no real reason why we can't have both. My day to day involves a lot of building, modifying, and repairing the machines that we use to make solar cells, and doing experiments to characterize our materials.\n\nI also have a love for most things electrical engineering, and spend my free time building hobby projects.\n\nAMA!",
"Hi, /u/science-bookworm. \n\nSo what do I do?\nI look at food and see why it tastes the way it does, once I know what is in the food that makes it good to eat and what makes it bad I try to make more of the good and less of the bad. I do other things with advanced math to compare good tasting and bad tasting foods, again trying to find the good tasting stuff and make food taste better. \n\nI think it is great you are getting interested in science so young! Please let me know if you have any questions!",
"I u/Science-bookworm! I'm a microbiologist. While I know a lot about the infectious things that can make us sick, I'm more fascinated by the bacteria that live in and on us and help us instead of harming us. For right now, I'm studying this type of symbiosis (the living together of two different things) in tropical ants. This means that with a lot of my lab work, I actually get to go to Central America and collect the kind of ants I'm working on. If you'd like to learn a little about ants and bacteria, let me know!",
"Hi there! My research is on emotion, learning and memory, in particular how people respond to things in their world and develop emotions about what they experience. Some of the things I've studied have been looking at helping people with depression, anxiety, and especially post-traumatic stress disorder.\n\nI've left research to become a medical student a few years ago, but I'm planning to go back afterwards. I'd be happy to discuss my research, or what research in that area is like or the life of a scientist in that area, or even medicine or medical school.",
"Hi Dakota!\n I'm a neuroscientist that studies how stress can affect the very small connections between your brain cells! I look specifically at pregnant mothers and how stress during their pregnancy can affect them after they have their baby. I also am currently doing projects that involve schizophrenia, which is a type of mental illness, and how chemotherapy can cause patients to become depressed. \n\nI do this all by looking at rats, which are much easier, cheaper, and faster to use than humans. Also, this way we don't have to do any tests on anyone!",
"Hello Dakota! I hope everyone here has answered everything to your satisfaction. I figure I'll throw my hat into the ring and see if you have any questions.\n\nMy most recent big project was working with a group of mice that were altered to be a model for Alzheimer's disease. My job was examining its activity and sleep/wake patterns. We also looked at their brains afterward.\n\nWe were looking for something that happens often in people with Alzheimer's disease, called 'sun-downing' - basically, where they get more agitated and more active during the evening.",
"Hi, /u/Science-bookworm! Glad to see someone of your age so devoted to being a scientist!\n\nI myself am a forest ecologist, currently working both under a grant project dealing with wetland communities, as well as working a state government job in which I help advise for, and manage private forested land for biodiversity and natural heritage. Feel free to ask me anything about my experience in field work, private land conservation, community ecology research, or what dark beer goes best with a prime rib! (well, not that last one)",
"Hi Dakota,\n\nI'm a lung doctor that also researches what goes on inside lung cells in diseases like asthma. More specifically, I study how gene expression changes in the cells that line the lung, the airway epithelium. \n\nIt's great that you are so interested in science. I remember getting a microscope when I was young as well. It was one of my favorite toys. I try to take my kids to lab sometimes and do little science projects with them (dry ice and liquid nitrogen).",
"Hi science-bookworm, I'm a graduate student in Bioengineering. I've worked a bit with optical stimulation of cells in the past, but I'm working on inner ear imaging now. We're trying to develop better diagnostic tools for ENT doctors. I do a good bit of surgery (not on people), optical alignment, and programming depending on what day it is.\n\nEdit: Eh, I guess I can sort of answer questions on hearing research as well. I've studied noise exposure and hearing loss in mice.",
"Hi! I'm an urban planner and demographer. I study the way cities work and the ways in which people use them to work and play. My research is mainly about how people use creative imagery to think about he cities of the future should look and work. I also work in weatherization, which studies how buildings work and how to reduce the amount of energy we use to keep houses and offices comfortable and safe.",
"The quick explanation. I look at tiny clusters of precious metals ( < 5nm diameter) on tiny structures (~8-100nm dimensions) that are in cube, rod, tube and particle morphologies made from ceramic materials (titania, ceria). I test their catalytic activity and their thermal stability. \n\nI use lots of analytical equipment to do my work, [GC](_URL_38_), [TEM](_URL_34_), [SEM](_URL_36_), [XRD](_URL_35_) and [BET isotherms](_URL_37_) to name a few. I'm a Chemist/Chemical Engineer working in a University.",
"I am a Systematic Biologist. A systematist looks at the pattern (who is related to who) and the process (what is driving speciation) of life on earth. We are the people that reconstruct the evolutionary trees you see everywhere. I am currently interested in the evolution of flowering plants. More specifically I am investigating the role of polyploidy(having more than two sets of chromosomes) and hybridization in the formation of new species.",
"I work mainly on 4-D models of geologic systems and how the evolution of an area influences the petroleum that may or may not be there. I do seismic interpretation, structural geology, create geophysical models, and the geochemistry of petroleum which is under the combined name of Basin Analysis. Long story short, I find oil and gas.",
"I read about what other scientists are working on.\n\nI write programs to understand what happens when comets crash into each other.\n\nI talk to other scientists about new discoveries and new ideas. \n\nBut mostly, I make plots, and stare at them, hoping to have some understanding. Mostly I just frown, though, and don't understand.",
"Hi, /u/science-bookworm! \n\nI'm more of an engineer than a scientist, but I work so closely with surgeons and doctors that lots of times I like to pretend I am a scientist! I am working on a new type of tool that makes surgery safer, especially in delicate parts of your body like your eye.",
"Hi Dakota! I am a biomedical engineering grad student. My specialty is cell mechanics and mechanotransduction. I grow cells and then stretch them to watch how their [cytoskeleton](_URL_39_) changes. Cells aren't just blobs of fluid - they're highly organized and can respond and change shape in response to force!",
"I work in cancer research. I (try to) use gold nanoparticles to deliver DNA to dendritic cells (a kind of white blood cell). The DNA delivers antigens and modifies the dendritic cells to trigger the immune system fight prostate cancer better.",
"Hi, Dakota. I'm a molecular biologist, and I research lung diseases. I have a son your age, and he loves coming to the lab with me. He likes biology, but unfortunately wants to study physics. I guess that's ok, at least it's still science. I also have a daughter a few years older than you (she wants to be a writer). \n\nRight now, I research a certain disease that makes people get really bad infections in their lungs because of a bit of machinery in the cell that doesn't work quite right. It's called cystic fibrosis.\n\nTo learn more about this disease and how to fight it, we do two things. First, we grow lung cells in a little dish and look for ways that we might be able to help the different kinds of lung cells fight off or prevent the infections. Second, once we find something that might help, I take mice and give *them* really bad infections in their lungs. I then test those ideas in the mice. \n\nDay to day, however, I spend a *lot* of time talking to people. I talk on the phone in conference calls to get ideas for new experiments. I write emails back and forth discussing plans and new discoveries. I get introduced to new people that want to learn from me or that I can learn from. I go listen to other scientists talk about their research and ask them questions about it. I give talks about my research and have people ask questions about it. I also spend a lot of time reading and writing. I read about other scientist's work and write about my own.\n\nI saw you got a microscope. That looks like a nice one. Try this: Get a cotton swab (like a q-tip) and rub it inside your cheek. Just swirl it around a bit, you don't need to press hard. Then smear it on a slide. Again, just slide it around; don't press hard. Let it dry out just sitting on a counter for about 10-15 minutes. \n\nIf your microscope kit came with some stains, use one of them. If not, go to a pet store that sells fish stuff. They probably have something called methylene blue; it's used as a water treatment, but it also stains cells so you can see them. Just put a few drops of that on your dried out cheek cells, let it sit about 5-10 seconds, and then rinse it off by dunking it in a glass of tap water and swirling it around. Let it dry out again and put it under your microscope. \n\nYou will see big flattened things with dark spots in the middle; the flattened things are your cheek cells and the dark spot is the nucleus. \n\nAlso, if you have a steady hand (or better yet, a tripod) you can take pictures of the things through the microscope. Even an iPhone will work. \n\nJust hold the camera lens about as far away from the eyepiece as you would hold your eye. If you look through the viewfinder on the camera, you should see through the microscope; you can take a picture and save it...but it's really hard to hold the camera in place doing this. That's why a tripod helps.",
"Hi Dakota! I am so glad you are doing this AMA and that you are interested in science!\n\nI am a biochemist. I try to crack open cells, purify their molecules, and understand in detail how they work. This allows us to understand how life works on a fundamental level and hopefully can teach us how to make our lives better as well!\n\nSpecifically, I study the structure of enzymes that are made out of protein. Enzymes are extradorinarily complicated (and fascinating) biochemical machines that act as chemical catalysts. Basically, they make normal chemical reactions that happen relatively slow go super fast inside of cells; fast enough that living things can use then to quickly respond to environmental stresses. Enzymes also make chemical reactions very specific. Many times a normal chemical reaction will produce side products that will lower yields. In the cell, this cannot happen, because some of these side products could be toxic to the organism.\n\nWe want to understand how enzymes are able to this by getting high resolution 3D pictures of them using a technique called X-Ray Crystallography. We start by trying to grow crystals of our pure enzyme (this can be very hard and take years to do but they look very pretty). If we are lucky enough they can look like this (or any number of cool shapes):\n\n_URL_42_\n\nWe can then take a 3D picture of the protein by shooting x-rays at the crystal. Because of the way the proteins are packed in the crystal, x-rays bounce off them in a regular pattern that we can see with a detector. They look a lot like this:\n\n_URL_40_\n\nWe can use these patterns to make pictures of the molecules using computers and we can learn tons of stuff about how the enzyme works using this information. Pictures like this:\n\n_URL_41_\n\nI specifically study a class of enzymes from fungi that make a lot of weird and interesting compounds (from anti-cancer drugs to potent toxins!).\n\nRight now, I am actually still an undergraduate going to school for my bachelor's degree, and I volunteer in the lab I work in now. If you are still interested in science when you go to college (or even before then!), be sure to talk to professors that study things you are interested in about doing research in their lab. Most of the time, they are more than happy to teach and mentor new students that are interested in science. It's been the best decision in my life so far! Right now I am applying to graduate school to get a PhD and become a professional scientist! I hope you stay interested in science, and become a colleague of mine one day :).",
"Hi Dakota,\n\nI am also an astronomer. I am interested in the stuff between the stars. Most people think 'outer space' is simply empty, but in reality, there is a very thin gas out there. This gas is very special; when stars form, they form out of it, and when they die, many of them return their material to it, a sort of cosmic recycling bin. When you count up all the gas (and plasma) floating in outer space it makes up much more mass than all of the stars and planets and black holes in the universe combined! \n\nMy day is pretty great! From the outside it might look boring; I mostly sit at a desk with a computer, like many other jobs. But the difference is I get to try to answer questions about how the universe is built any way I please. For me, science is a lot about creativity -- figuring out the cleverest way to figure something out with the limited information and tools we have. \n\nSomedays look more exciting. I did a lot of work at a telescope in Puerto Rico called Arecibo, the biggest telescope in the world. I sometimes go down there to take observations or meet with scientists who specialize in using it. We get to climb around in it, which is pretty fun. I also travel from time to time to meet with other scientists. I've met with scientists in Japan, Germany, Italy, Australia, and all over the United States. Those trips are fun both because you get to see another country, but also because I get to meet with people from around the world interested in the little slice of the universe I am interested in!\n\nIf I were to give one piece of advice, I'd say learn how to use a computer. Computers are crucial to all of the work we do -- the math needed to find interesting things in our images from telescopes would take far too long to do by hand. Learning how to write computer programs is one of the most important things for any aspiring scientist to do!",
"Hi Dakota,\n\nI'm a bit late here, but hopefully you're still reading! I'm an engineer who builds tools that give us new and better ways to do medicine. This mostly involves making devices that can identify and monitor diseases from a small sample of blood - which is much better than having to perform surgery. My lab makes devices to track the progress of cancer, look at how well our immune system (which fights off infections) is working, and learn how nerves re-grow after injury, among other things. \n\nIn addition, I've spent a lot of time trying to figure out how our ears work. A lot of people lose their hearing as they get older, which is a big deal because it prevents them from talking to other people, or hearing what they're saying. The ways in which we currently treat hearing loss help, but not enough. I've been trying to get a better understanding of exactly how our ears are supposed to work, which will hopefully give us some ideas for better ways to fix them when they break.\n\nIn addition to my research, I also manage my lab and keep it running. This is a job that doesn't lead to the typical rewards of doing science (publications, patents, etc.), but is absolutely essential to the process. While most researchers focus exclusively on the question they're trying to answer, the lab manager has to make sure that all of the equipment is in place and working, that safe procedures are being used, that different people aren't fighting over one piece of equipment, etc. In addition, since young researchers change labs regularly, the lab manager stores information about \"how things are done\" to pass it to new researchers. The reward of this position is that you get to learn about what many different people are doing, so you gain more knowledge about many fields of research. Also, being indispensable means that you have a lot of job security.",
"Hi Dakota!\n\nI'm an archaeologist who works in the pre-contact Southeastern United States (that means before Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas). Most of my work is on understanding how people change/modify the places they hang out. I mostly try to figure out why people spend a lot of time and energy to change a place if it doesn't help them in an obvious way (make it easier to find food, sleep, or meet other people, etc). \n\nThat means that I examine dirt structures, kind of like the Egyptian pyramids, to see what kind of trash or treasures people left inside or on top of them. Some of these structures are VERY old in the Southeast and are filled with things people brought from very far away. Most people aren't aware of that, however. It is my job to discover new information about these old structures and tell the world about them!\n\nI spend most of the summer outside, digging holes (scientific holes, though!) and collecting data. Then, what we found is cleaned and brought to a museum. Our entire team pitches in on identifying the things we found. That information is collected into tables of data, and then is compared to what we expected to find. Usually our expectations are set by what other archaeologists have found in similar places. \n\nThen, we look to see the differences between what we found and what we expected to find and write journal articles (~20pgs) about those differences (or lack of differences). Each year is big cycle of this process, and sometimes if one part takes too long, the cycles overlap! That gets you into a TON of trouble managing your time.\n\nAnyway, along with all of this, I spend my time teaching students and helping my other archaeologist friends with their work!",
"I have been in the process of moving and such, so I didn't have a chance to respond to this... but I am here now! (If anyone finds this).\n\nI just ended doing research looking for volcanic ash in lake sediments. I did my MS thesis on cores from Lake Malawi in Africa, and then did some work afterwards on cores from Lake Superior. I actually used a microscope A LOT to look for the volcanic ash and have a lot of photos. I also used a Scanning Electron Microscope to take some better photos.\n\nIn the end, by finding these volcanic ash layers, I can improve the age dating of the cores (which is very useful because other work has been done to figure out the climate at these times- some times past 200,000 years ago). Also, by finding ash in distal locations, I can extend the known extent of the ash- I am the only person to find ash from the Youngest Toba Tuff eruption (from a volcano in Indonesia) in Lake Malawi, and the only one (so far) to find ash from the Mount Mazama eruption (the one in Oregon that formed Crater Lake) in the Great Lakes. \n\nI am open to any questions or comments!",
"I am an Astrophysics PhD. student who will finally finish school this year! I work on simulating the universe through the use of computer simulations. I like to think of my simulations as a bridge between theory and observations. Essentially we attempt to reproduce astronomical observations within our simulation using theory. \n\n[Here's a movie](_URL_43_) of one of my Dark Matter simulations that starts at the very early universe. You'll notice that at first it's fairly uniform similar to penut butter spread on bread. As time goes on (the value z is redshift, z=0 is today) the dark matter interacts through gravitational attraction and clumps together forming large structures you see in the blue; very little dark matter is red; and no dark matter is black. We believe this to be how our universe has evolved through time. Our galaxy the milky way is thought to lie within one of the arms near one of the very large clusters of galaxies.",
"Hello Dakota! \nI am a computational biologist and immunoinformatician graduate student in NYC. I study the mathematics of how the body identifies foreign materials such as viral and bacterial infections and rapidly calculates through very clever genetics how to make molecules that will bind only to those invaders and clear them. \nAs for aspiring scientist, never be afraid to be curious and if you ever find yourself wondering what you want to do, just wait until your in bed trying to go to sleep one night and find your mind racing, wondering how something works. THAT's the thing you should study...that thing that you want to understand so badly that everything else falls away and sleep doesn't matter any more.\nAsk me anything you'd like!",
"As a current undergrad Biology student, the mini-papers that I write for my classes are generally assigned with minimum background research requirements, such as 7 scholarly pieces that are relevant to our study. This excludes obvious entries, eg for a class paper on an evolutionary/selection study, Darwin's works are not an acceptable source. My question for the contributing scientific community, when do you decide as an author of a piece to include another's work or not? I've used articles that have as many as 50 cited papers to as few as 10. At what point do you make the decision to finish your background research and proceed with your own findings?",
"Dakota, you have a wonderful inquisitive mind, and I have no doubt your natural curiosity will make you extremely successful as a scientist one day. My dad is a geneticist, a person who studies DNA and how our genes make us who we are. My mom is a microbiologist, who sort of does what you do lots of her days, looking at different types of bacteria under her microscopes. I teach English for a living now, but when I showed my parents this post it warmed their hearts much as it warmed mine. I wish you all the very best things in your future endeavors.",
"A bit late to the party, but for what it's worth, here goes. \n\nI'm a PhD student (hopefully my last-ish year), studying magnetic nanoparticles (10000 of these lined up will span the width of a human hair). My main focus is studying how these ultrasmall particles behave in a fluid, especially in an applied magnetic field. \n\nThese nanoparticles have potential applications in MRI as contrast agents, and therefore understanding how they behave in a magnetic field is crucial to designing them for MRI application in the future.",
"Hello there!\n\nI'm an entomologist who uses genetics to determine the classification of insects, specifically moths and beetles.\n\nAll organisms can be grouped into smaller and smaller groups based on shared characteristics, from domain all the way down to species. My job is to look at some of the smaller groups (genus and species) and see whether that group accurately describes the organisms in them or should the group be reworked.\n\nIf you have any questions about classification or bugs in general, let me know!",
"Hi, I'm responsible for making sure your animals don't get too sick! I'm involved in veterinary science, or animal health! I work a lot with parasites and all kinds of creepy crawlies.",
"I used to be a PhD student in virology studying HIV. Ask me about genetics, viruses, biochemical engineering, biofluidics or transitioning away from academia."
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} | [META] AskScience AMA Series: ALL THE SCIENTISTS!
One of the primary, and most important, goals of /r/AskScience is outreach. Outreach can happen in a number of ways. Typically, in /r/AskScience we do it in the question/answer format, where the panelists (experts) respond to any scientific questions that come up. Another way is through the AMA series. With the AMA series, we've lined up 1, or several, of the panelists to discuss—in depth and with grueling detail—what they do as scientists. Well, today, we're doing something like that. Today, all of our panelists are "on call" and the AMA will be led by an aspiring grade school scientist: /u/science-bookworm! Recently, /r/AskScience was approached by a 9 year old and their parents who wanted to learn about what a few real scientists do. We thought it might be better to let her ask her questions directly to _lots of scientists_. And with this, we'd like this AMA to be an opportunity for the entire /r/AskScience community to join in -- a one-off mass-AMA to ask not just about the science, but the process of science, the realities of being a scientist, and everything else our work entails. Here's how today's AMA will work: * Only panelists make top-level comments (i.e., direct response to the submission); the top-level comments will be brief (2 or so sentences) descriptions, from the panelists, about their scientific work. * Everyone else responds to the top-level comments. We encourage everyone to ask about panelists' research, work environment, current theories in the field, how and why they chose the life of a scientists, favorite foods, how they keep themselves sane, or whatever else comes to mind! Cheers, -/r/AskScience Moderators | [
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23bb5h | What is our friend the electron, really? | Is there an accepted definition? How would you, personally, describe it to a chemistry student who is at the end of her gen chem year?
So far I've heard them described as waves, charges, fields, clouds of possible location... anyway, we are currently looking at electricity and redox reactions.
Are electrons affected by gravity? Is gravity charge based? What do you picture when you picture an electron? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cgvj6mx",
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"text": [
"This is an excellent question. The best answer I have ever seen is [this article](_URL_0_), to which I would direct the student (it is behind a paywall, but her university should have a subscription to *Nature*). The article closes with, \n\n > \"So, what is an electron? An electron is a particle and a wave; it is ideally simple and unimaginably complex; it is precisely understood and utterly mysterious; it is rigid and subject to creative disassembly. No single answer does justice to reality.\"\n\n(direstrats220 answered your gravity questions.)\n\nI generally avoid visualizing an electron, so that I can remain agnostic regarding those properties which I do not understand fully (some because they are not understood fully by anyone). When forced to, I consider it as a point charge or cloud/smear/shell of probable charge locations. I *draw* an electron as a single-barbed, vertical arrow (like [here](_URL_1_)).",
"As a fundamental force, gravity is not charge based, as there is no 'repulsive' gravity, and it is not a function of charge density, although you could almost think of mass as 'charge'. I am not a particle physicist so i can not really explain gravity, but gravity is simply a separate force, as are all the fundamental forces. (strong, weak, electromagnetic, gravitational). Electrons are as you describes. We characterize them as a probability density function of charge, but they are whats known as 'elementary particles', meaning they have no constituent parts. Electrons do have mass, and they experience gravitation, electromagnetic, and weak interactions. \n\nI don't know that I picture anything when I think of an electron. The standard gen chem model of a tiny red ball with a - on it suffices for most things, but in reality I am not even sure we could ever 'see' one in the way you could see say a molecule.",
"Nobody knows what an electron actually \"is\" (humans didn't create the universe, and there are no religious prophets who allege to have had direct communication with such a purported creator who have deigned to pass on details of the electron), all we know is how to describe them and categorize them based on observations.\n\nElectrons are particles, first and foremost. But the term \"particle\" in this context is a bit of a complex beastie. \"Particles\" are actually sorta wavy, sorta particle-y, sorta probability field-y things that we can describe rather thoroughly in a mathematical sense but still have a hard time creating good, thoroughly descriptive mental models and terminology to describe well on an intuitive level. Electrons are no different than photons or protons or quarks in that regard, they're just a different type of particle/wave/thing with certain properties.\n\nThat's not entirely helpful, I know, but perhaps it would help to understand electrons by comparing them with other members of their family and dissimilar particles. Electrons are leptons. Leptons have electromagnetic properties but have no interaction with the strong nuclear force (quantum \"color charge\"). Because of the different strengths of the fundamental forces, interactions with electrons tend to be dominated by elctromagnetic and \"weak\" forces, with gravity also a factor but often less so. There are 6 charged leptons, electrons, muons, and taus, plus their anti-particles, and 6 uncharged leptons (the neutrino flavor of each lepton). Electrons are the lightest charged lepton, and the lightest stable charge carriers.\n\nInterestingly, the electron gets all of its mass through the higgs mechanism, because it is a fundamental particle. Compare that to the proton, which is composed of quarks that are very, very light in comparison. A proton masses around 1 GeV and is composed, nominally, of 3 quarks, each of which are only a handful of MeV (higgs mass) each. The remaining rest energy comes from the energy of the QCD fields and so forth within the proton. Note that you can't simply separate out a single, isolated quark because the energy to do so is more than sufficient to create new particles which would mate up with the quark, creating a new composite particle.\n\nAnyway, one may ask, why are electrons so common in our universe then? Well, consider what happens with various particles. An electron can't simply decay into a lower mass lepton, like a neutrino, because doing so would violate charge preservation. In many ways an electron is locked into existence because there is no easy way to get rid of its charge. Similarly, if you have a pile of a bunch of high energy, random quarks eventually they will decay down to something else. A neutron is a good candidate, but it is higher energy than a proton + electron, so it will decay, emitting a proton, an electron, and an anti-electron-neutrino in the process. The proton exists because it is the least massive, stable arrangement of quarks that exists. But it's positive charged, so when it comes into being it tends to also kick off an electron. There are so many electrons in the universe in large part because there are so many protons.\n\nIn other words, if you have a lot of energy (as with the big bang) then one possible outcome is for it to devolve into protons and electrons. Now, there are other forms that energy can turn into, however. Such as photons, or neutrinos. Or, perhaps even more exotic particles such as supersymmetric neutral particles like gauginos or neutralinos or what-have-you.\n\nAnd this is, more or less, what our universe is made of. Matter (protons & electrons and their byproducts). Photons and neutrinos. And, perhaps, supersymmetric WIMPs leftover from the big bang which are no longer able to be made in abundance due to the drop in temperature of the universe (dark matter).\n\nHope that helps.",
"Our friend the electron is an elementary particle discovered in 1897 that completely and fundamentally revolutionized chemistry. This discovery was followed by the modern development of quantum mechanics (which is an essential framework for understanding chemistry), and something called Density Functional Theory -- one framework that is used to calculate all those colorful blobs of orbitals and electron densities that you see in modern general chemistry textbooks. Indeed, all of these things brought Nobel Prizes to their discoverers.\n\nThe electron is also central to many modern Nobel Prizes, my favorite being the one in 2007 in chemistry. Much of the experimental techniques involved doing extremely clever (and difficult) things with electrons!\n\nBut....I'm kind of wandering all over the place. Consider the fact that the periodic table was established *before* the discovery of the electron. Just imagine the impact of having that one *little* piece of information that would fundamentally change how you understood a core framework of your field! The discovery of the electron suggested that there was some very important structure to atoms, and since atoms combine into molecules, these electrons play a huge role in determining how this process takes place.\n\nIt doesn't really matter what exactly the electron is. As chemists, we are comfortable with using whatever descriptions we have at hand to make sense of the chemical world. Sometimes it's useful to think of them as waves, or as particles, or a combination of the two. Sometimes it's useful to describe where we think they reside, whether they are in orbitals, or being surrounded by water molecules, or sitting in a lone pair, or sitting on a molecule and turning it into a radical species. It depends on the context, and it depends on the scientific information you want to express.\n\nThe electron is many things, a mnemonic device for lots of related ideas that can be expressed to varying degrees of precision. Nearly every single major concept in general chemistry can be tied to electrons. :)\n\nOh, not to mention periodic trends. Oh yes. You bet you will be tested on these."
],
"score": [
7,
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2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v498/n7452/full/498031a.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodward%E2%80%93Hoffmann_rules#Selection_rules"
]
} | What is our friend the electron, really?
Is there an accepted definition? How would you, personally, describe it to a chemistry student who is at the end of her gen chem year? So far I've heard them described as waves, charges, fields, clouds of possible location... anyway, we are currently looking at electricity and redox reactions. Are electrons affected by gravity? Is gravity charge based? What do you picture when you picture an electron? | [
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ntmm9 | Is there any chance of there being an undiscovered simple machine? | askscience | {
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"Well - I'd say there are perhaps some chances as we work out the basics of nanotech. Some of those microminiaturised machines might exploit some small-scale properties of matter which are irrelevant at the macro scale.",
"If you're asking whether there is a probability greater than 0, the answer is, \"Of course!\" For a long time we believed we had all the components necessary for a basic electronic circuit, then in 2008 HP created the [Memristor](_URL_0_), which was a fundamental circuit element that had not existed except in theory. I don't know of any theory about hypothetical simple machines, but the beauty of science is that we're always happy to look for more!\n\n**EDIT:**changed the wording slightly for accuracy's sake.",
"Simple machines aren't really fundamental, first principals kinds of things. There is not an accepted test of simplicity that can include or exclude devices as simple. With that said, there are two primary rules of statics, that the sum of forces is zero and the sum of torques is zero. Thus the inclined plane and the lever arm are all you need. Everything else in naive statics is a composite of these two things. So if you want a new simple machine, you need some new rule of statics.",
"If the question is, \"Will anything ever be added to the list of simple machines taught in grade school?\" the answer depends mostly on culture and politics. But I doubt that'll happen any time soon, because grade schools are fans of semi-arbitrary categorizations that originate in Ancient Greek or Renaissance times (this is me being bitter).\n\nOtherwise it depends on what you mean by \"simple\" and \"machine\" and etc. Some have suggested that the screw is really another form of the inclined plane. Aristotle's version of the list includes only three types of machines. And as others have pointed out, the Rolamite is another fairly straightforward way of converting mechanical forces... you could call it a simple machine too... though I'd argue that it could easily be called a variant of a pulley.\n_URL_2_\n_URL_2_\n\nIf you're just asking about devices that a mechanical engineer might call simple, mechanical, useful, and novel in some way, then I defer to other comments.",
"The concept is fairly semantic in the sense that \"simple machine\" is a human, not fundamental, concept. ...which makes it a bit baffling for me to think about how one might \"discover\" a new simple machine. (We might as well debate if there is a \"undiscovered instrument\" to add to the list of strings, woodwinds, and percussion, etc...) \n\nMore likely one might \"define\" a new simple machine. But this also seems a little fishy because the \"simple machine\" concept is fairly straightforward: devices that exploit the vector separation of forces or the equilibrium of torques about a pivot to provide mechanical advantage. \n\nSo while the concept of simple machines is important (certainly historically significant) it is also too closely tied to semantics, in my opinion, to waste too many brain cycles on worrying about there is some mysterious \"undiscovered\" simple machine.",
"There is always a chance. Rolomites.\n\nEdit: Rolamites. Also, rolamites achieve mechanical advantage without pulleys, just rollers.",
"With the risk of being downvoted (I'm not sure if it matches the definitions discussed above), but the machines that [sail downwind faster than the wind] (_URL_6_) is based on extremely simple mechanics (basically a propeller with a groove linked to a set of wheels), and has been invented in the last couple of years. An invention extraordinary enough to have been considered a hoax by many (and yes, I know this lights the crank alert bells, but read the references), and still simple enough that it could have been invented by anyone born after the pyramids were built. [Video one](_URL_6_), [Video two](_URL_5_), [A first analysis of the principle behind it](_URL_4_).",
"If you mean the connotations of a simple, and of the related (wheels, incline, etc.), then no. We've already figured out Newtonian physics, and the reasons why simple machines work is because it abides by the simple physics you learn in high school physics.\n\nOther people are brinigng up good valid points, but I doubt machines of the nanoscale, etc. would be considered 'simple'.",
"I was under the impression that the little y shaped piece of steel in a hard drive actuator is a new machine - not the one that pivots but the flexy one wrapped around the spindle of the stepper motor. It has the virtues of a pulley and a gear at the same time. Smooth but no slippage.",
"Related question: Why are the inclined plane and the wedge considered distinct simple machines? And if there is a reason, at what point does a wedge become large enough to be considered an inclined plane?"
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memristor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulley#Belt_and_pulley_systems",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pulley1a.svg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xHsXcHoJu-A",
"http://www.boatdesign.net/forums/attachments/propulsion/28168d1231128492-ddwfttw-directly-downwind-faster-than-wind-ddwe.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPvGTjmn9y0",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailing_faster_than_the_wind#Sailing_dead_downwind_faster_than_the_wind"
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} | Is there any chance of there being an undiscovered simple machine?
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muc6p | If you placed 2 identical people in separate rooms that got gradually hotter and colder at the same rate, who would die first? | more specifically, why?
EDIT for vagueness: Say the starting temp is 72 Degrees F. The room could each be 10'x10' and would heat/cool by 1 degree F every minute.
(sorry for Fahrenheit, I'm an American and not too scientifically inclined) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c33wqk9",
"c33xbte",
"c33xayq",
"c33wpi9",
"c33wpy5"
],
"text": [
"The question depends on a number of parameters. Do the persons have clothes on, what is the humidity, are they fat or thin, and whatnot. \n\nYou can't survive a body temperature of more than 42-44 degrees C. And at the same time, you can't survive a body temperature of much less than 28-30 degrees C. So, as you can see, if the temperatures cooled or heated the persons equally fast, the one getting hotter would die. But the body has ways of controlling the internal temperature, both when it gets hotter(by sweating) and when it gets colder(by closing off blood supply to extremities). And if the guy getting hotter would remove his clothes due to the heating, and the guy getting colder would be able to keep his clothes on, he would have an advantage in preventing heat from escaping his body.\n\nSo the question is sort of vague, because additional factors are needed in order to answer the question.",
"If you're well hydrated, you can survive in rooms that are at boiling (213F, 100C, 373K) for over eight minutes, provided you don't move. Sweat is a wonderful thing. _URL_0_\n\nNow, 213-72=141, giving us the difference from 72 degrees. 72-141= negative 69 degrees. \n\nAlthough sweat can protect you from the heat, you don't have much stopping you from freezing. My money is on the hot person surviving.",
"Depends on the person too. Aluet (Native Americans from far north) have a genetic mutation that reduces the efficiency of a key step of their metabolism (Oxidative Phosporilation (sp?), producing an average of 22ATP per Glucose vs. the normal 24-26), but in return causes them to generate extra body heat extra heat. Interestingly, this is also the reason they display less cellular damage with age and tend to live longer (similar to people who go on long-term calorie restricted diets). An Aluet in the colder room would probably outlast one in the warmer room. Someone whose ancestry is from the Sahara on the other hand...",
"OP, you might want to add the starting temperature for each room so that there's a baseline to work from.",
"What temperature are you starting at? The answer for starting at 0C might be different than the answer for starting at 40C."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2011/07/26/138603776/when-does-a-person-start-to-boil"
]
} | If you placed 2 identical people in separate rooms that got gradually hotter and colder at the same rate, who would die first?
more specifically, why? EDIT for vagueness: Say the starting temp is 72 Degrees F. The room could each be 10'x10' and would heat/cool by 1 degree F every minute. (sorry for Fahrenheit, I'm an American and not too scientifically inclined) | [
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lsjye | A balanced diet - Ramen and Vitamins? | I was chatting with my room mate who was complaining that I eat too much and it's too expensive to get food. I have always eaten a lot so I told him to just buy a bunch of ramen noodle packets next time he goes for food because they are inexpensive. I know that this leads to serious nutritional imbalances if eaten alone for extended periods, one of my friends went to the hospital for it. I was wondering if I took a series of vitamins and such and ate nothing but ramen would it balance out? Thanks ^_^ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2va0ea",
"c2va22f",
"c2vbe8g"
],
"text": [
"Ramen is harmful in high amounts because of the high amounts of sodium and saturated fat. Take a look at the nutrition label; just two packets will completely cover your sodium and saturated fat requirements for the day. And are you really going to survive on just two ramen packets a day?\n\nAdd to that the fact that you're not going to get sufficient protein and other essential nutrients not available in convenient pill form, and you're gonna die.",
"It should also be added that vitamin pills alone aren't going to do the trick. It's right there on the label, too - they're called \"supplements\", not \"replacements\".\n\nYour body can't store a lot of vitamins and just excretes whatever it can't use. A pill might contain 100% of your daily dose of vitamin C, but you're ingesting it all at once rather than spread out over a whole day. It'll be a lot less effective than eating the same amount of vitamins in the form of fruit split into several meals throughout the day.\n\nAdditionally, qxrt is entirely correct about Ramen being inherently bad for you regardless of whether you eat vitamins or not.",
"No, its definitely not a balanced diet. You have to put a lot of vegetables and maybe even some meat in ramen to make it somewhat healthier. Also you only need like half the seasoning packet, or maybe none of it at all. You can just add low sodium soy sauce, mirin wine, sesame oil, garlic, ginger, onions, maybe even some low sodium chicken broth and it will be way healthier. The amount of sodium in ramen is very unhealthy. In fact living on ramen when I was in college contributed to the risk of pre-hypertension and I was only 18. You need fiber in addition to other nutrients. Ramen alone, especially in addition to the entire seasoning packet will most definitely give you health problems if you consume them daily."
],
"score": [
10,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
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} | A balanced diet - Ramen and Vitamins?
I was chatting with my room mate who was complaining that I eat too much and it's too expensive to get food. I have always eaten a lot so I told him to just buy a bunch of ramen noodle packets next time he goes for food because they are inexpensive. I know that this leads to serious nutritional imbalances if eaten alone for extended periods, one of my friends went to the hospital for it. I was wondering if I took a series of vitamins and such and ate nothing but ramen would it balance out? Thanks ^_^ | [
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|
12mc1s | if 2 e- were perfectly aligned on X,Y axis and we moved closer and closer, at what point would they deflect & at what direction? | *we = were
title explains it as best i can. if two same-charges (on quantum scale) are moved closer and closer together, what does QM (or whatever else is relevant) say about what happens when they get so close that forces demand they deflect & how is the direction of deflection decided? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6wasdo",
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],
"text": [
"The coulomb interaction is inversely proportional to distance squared, and thus has an infinite range. Therefore, no matter where two electrons are in the universe, they're *always* repelling each other. Now, to answer your question, it depends how much force you're using to push them together. As soon as the coulomb force is equal in magnitude to the force you use to push them together, you reach an equilibrium.",
"Quantum mechanics can only give you the probability of measuring your system to be in a given state. So, without asking you to be more specific as to how you're setting up the problem, I'll just say that as you evolve the system, the wavepackets of your two particles will spread. At first, the net flow of probability will be toward a central point, but there will be a time at which the net flow of probability will reverse and begin to flow away from that point. Since your two particles are not confined to a line, their wavepackets will probably spread out in the angular direction as well. That is, some time after the deflection, there will be nonzero probability of observing your particles to have deflected in some direction other than straight back, but you will always observe them to have obeyed conservation of momentum and energy, assuming there is no x- or t-dependent background potential.",
"It depends on the initial velocity they have when you throw them at each other, and how far apart they are. As they move towards each other, the repulsion between them slows them down, until eventually they stop entirely, and then start to move away from each other. Of course, the faster they're moving towards each other initially (and the closer they are at that point) the longer that process will take and the closer they can get."
],
"score": [
15,
3,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | if 2 e- were perfectly aligned on X,Y axis and we moved closer and closer, at what point would they deflect & at what direction?
*we = were title explains it as best i can. if two same-charges (on quantum scale) are moved closer and closer together, what does QM (or whatever else is relevant) say about what happens when they get so close that forces demand they deflect & how is the direction of deflection decided? | [
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2yk6hv | Is it true that laws like conservation of mass, energy, and charge are probabilistic laws? | I overheard somebody saying the law of conservation of mass is a probabilistic law (opposed to an absolute law?). Is this true, and if so, what does it mean? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cpaahp3",
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"text": [
"No, that's not true.\n\nConservation of mass is a special case of conservation of energy, however, and is violated in nuclear reactions and high speed collisions and stuff like that.\n\nThe second law of thermodynamics is a statistical phenomenon. Entropy can locally or temporarily decrease but is unlikely to do so.",
"You probably heard someone talking about thermodynamics. The laws of thermodynamics are generally probabilistic laws.\n\nIt means that the there is a probability that the \"law\" will be violated. This probability is almost always so small you can neglect it, unless the number of particles is small. \n\nSo, for instance if you have 10 gas molecules in one box and try to apply the laws of thermodynamics to those gas molecules, you will occasionally see violations of those laws. If instead you have 10^23 gas molecules, you will never see violations of the laws of thermodynamics.",
"As /u/iorgfeflkd said, conservation of mass is not really a law, since nuclear processes can convert mass to other forms of energy such as light. As for the other 2 you mentioned, these are not probabilistic. A physical event can be random, such as the spontaneous decay of an unstable particle, but even such random processes must individually conserve energy, charge, and other quantities. In fact, which quantities are conserved will tell you what kinds of decays can even happen in the first place.",
"David Hume is one of the first philosophers, in a time of scientific discovery, to doubt the complete faith that people take scientific discovery. The person you encountered, unless just simply a misguided student, may have been reading the Enquiry or any of the large volumes of philosophical work agreeing or arguing against it.\n\nEverything we learn in science is based off of our observations of phenomenon, whether viewed as in nature or in experiment. Of course books are written and we can take for granted the scientific rigor with which these laws are written. They are tested, and retested. Eventually we keep seeing the same results. And can be sure that these things will happen again with the same cause creating the same result. But we are only basing our assumptions that this would happen again off of past experience. It is possible to imagine a world in which these things do not hold true. Because we can not know the future and be sure that every cause will have the same effect these things are truly just highly probabilistic. \n\nI'm sorry if this is not the answer you were looking for but I am studying for a philosophy of science midterm and just got done reading a small piece on Hume's writings where they discuss laws being highly probabilistic in nature.",
"Whether natural laws are probabilistic or not inherently is a little bit of a mistaken way of looking at the question. \nWhat we know of natural laws is **ALWAYS** probabilistic if we use the scientific *method*, which is to say if we use multi-observational analysis, repeated by different parties under similar (as close as we can get to exactly the same) circumstances, what we come to \"know\" will be a probabilistic approximation of reality."
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} | Is it true that laws like conservation of mass, energy, and charge are probabilistic laws?
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|
4kza3d | AskScience AMA Series: I’m Sean Carroll, physicist and author of best-selling book THE BIG PICTURE. Ask Me Anything about the universe and what it means! | I’m a theoretical physicist at the California Institute of Technology, and the author of several books. My research covers fundamental physics and cosmology, including quantum gravity, dark energy, and the arrow of time. I've been a science consultant for a number of movies and TV shows. My new book, [THE BIG PICTURE](_URL_0_), discusses how different ways we have of talking about the universe all fit together, from particle physics to biology to consciousness and human life. Ask Me Anything!
-----
AskScience AMAs are posted early to give readers a chance to ask questions and vote on the questions of others before the AMA starts. Sean Carroll will begin answering questions around 11 AM PT/2 PM ET.
-----
EDIT: Okay, it's now 2pm Pacific time, and I have to go be a scientist for a while. I didn't get to everything, but hopefully I can come back and try to answer some more questions later today. Thanks again for the great interactions!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"I just want to take the opportunity to thank you for your [GR notes](_URL_0_), they helped me a lot during my studies.",
"Firstly, I love your GR textbook. I'm so glad it was assigned in my course, and it's the best introduction out there in my opinion. Love your blog posts about the many-worlds interpretation, too.\n\nMy question is given the \"recent\" (two years already?) issues with the BICEP 2 results being explained away as dust, do you know what the nearest hopes for proving cosmic inflation in the future are? Is there any sense among astrophysicists or cosmologists that inflation may turn out to be wrong as we understand it? What would that mean for the standard model of cosmology?",
"Hi Sean, thanks for doing this AMA! With lots of cosmological experiments out there now and lined up in the future, we're really placing strong constraints on the values of cosmological parameters and therefore the cosmological model. Which do you experiments/parameters think will be the most important going forward for really pushing specific models to the front?",
"Hi folks! This is Sean. It's a bit early, but there's no rule saying we can't get a jump on things, is there?\n\nLooks like there are already ... a lot of questions. I'll make an effort to get to as many as I can. Followups are fine, but they'll have to have a lower priority for the sake of fairness.\n\nThanks to the mods for inviting me, and to everyone for chipping in!",
"Hi Dr. Carroll. I was wondering if you had any thoughts on [Ford's Paradox](_URL_1_). To summarize, classical chaos is effectively \"more random\" than so-called quantum chaos. However, classical physics can be thought of as emerging through the correspondence principle. So, where does this \"information\" come from in classical mechanics (regarding the randomness) that doesn't arise from quantum mechanics?\n\nAlso, do you have read the stuff Lubos Motl says about you on his blog? He's a superjerk.",
"Dr. Carroll,\nThis is a more general question. There is a lot of talk about most of the population as being scientifically illiterate. If there was one piece of knowledge everyone should know, what do you believe it would be?",
"Half way through \"The Big Picture\" excellently written. I have two questions.\n\n1) You seem relatively strongly hitched to superstring theory. In Bayesian percentages what's your overall view of superstring theory vs loop quantum gravity of others? More importantly what experiments are going on now that are most likely to narrow down the field of possibilities going forward? There have been some tantalizing suggestions the LHC may have a bump where a supersymmetric partner of the Higgs should be which would work for string theory and supersymmetric versions of quantum loop gravity.\n\n2) What do you think of MOND theories as dark matter candidates if the WIMP model doesn't work out?",
"Many prominent scientists and science communicators (and one famous Cosmos host in particular) have claimed that philosophy is useless when trying to answer questions about the fundamental nature of the universe. What say you?\n\nIf this seems like an underhanded softball pitch for you to hit into the \"talk about your awesome new book\" seats, that's exactly what it is.",
"How do you personally understand the arrow of time? Is the feeling that time moves from event A to B more a product/illusion of our consciousness or something fundamental to the way that the universe evolves by physical laws?",
"Sean, long time reader of your blog(s). Thanks for doing an AMA.\n\nYour training is in physics, but recently you have been delving deeply into philosophy as well. How did you train yourself in this field, and how have you found the community differs from that of the physics community?",
"If there is a way to break or go around the lightspeed limit, what is the most likely scenario humanity would accomplish this? What discovery or in what field of physics needs a break through to get closer to this?",
"Hey Professor Carroll! I was very impressed with your lecture last night at the Natural History Museum, and I had a question I wasn't able to ask so I thought I'd try here.\n\nIt has to do with quantum gravity. I read your book The Particle at the End of the Universe, where you describe how the Higgs field bestows mass onto fundamental particles. \n\nIf the Higgs creates mass, and mass is the quantity that determines gravitational attraction, then isn't the Higgs field ALSO the gravity field? What is the difference, and does the discovery of the Higgs get us closer to a theory of quantum gravity?",
"How would you explain the Schrodinger equation to Donald Trump in a way that would really resonate with him?",
"Hi Sean! I've had your arrow of time book on my shelf for years, and I'd like to personally apologize for not picking it up yet. No good reason, really. Sorry.\n\nMy question:\n\nSo-called hidden variable theories of QM have been getting a lot more play in the popular press recently, especially pilot wave stuff. Is there any theoretical or experimental reason recently for taking them more seriously now, or is it just the standard whims of the popular scientific imagination?",
"Hi Sean, love your GR book. \n\nMy question is about the recent press surrounding [this APJ letter](_URL_2_). The core idea is that black holes, similar in mass to the ones LIGO detected, may be a considerable portion of the dark matter (and this is argued in the paper by saying that accretion onto these black holes in the early universe produces the observed excess in cosmic infrared). \n\nI'm under the impression that MACHOs have been ruled out as the source of the dark matter for about a decade, mostly due to microlensing surveys of the Magellanic clouds. Why then is this argument about ~30 M_sol black holes not already ruled out? \n\nDid microlensing surveys not have enough events to rule out the presence of a population MACHOs in this high mass range?",
"Hello Sean. Given your similarity in name to Sean B Carroll, and both of your strong science outreach activities, do you have any fun stories to share about sharing the same name? If you challenged him to a duel to the death, what weapons would you choose?\n\nAlso, have you ever talked to him? How did it come that you get to use \"Sean Carroll\" and he got \"Sean B Carroll\"?\n\nEDIT: Also, I once had the chance to speak to Sean B Carroll, and he mentioned that while you have never shared a panel or discussion event together, he told me that your wife once \"panel cheated\" on you with him. Is this true?",
"Dr. Carroll,\n\nSometimes pop-science articles and science communicators use bad analogies that hurt more than they help. For example, Scott Aaronson really dislikes it when articles describe quantum computers as \"trying every possibility\" because it makes people think QCs can solve NP-Complete problems.\n\nDo you have your own bug-bears of this type? A pop-science analogy that particularly bothers you?",
"Hi Dr Carroll, big fan, love your work and I share many of the same views as you in terms of looking at our reality more objectively. How can our science education curriculum be adjusted to include psychology in order for people to identify their biases better to be better scientists and to look at reality more objectively?",
"Do scientists believe what we (as I understand it) call random events on the scale of quantum physics are truly random, or governed by some laws we don't know about?\n\nIn other words, would rewinding time back to the Big Bang eventually lead back to me typing these questions again?\n\nIf considered to be truly random, in which degree do you think random quantum events (my terminology may be way off here) affect our thoughts and decision-making?",
"Hello. I went to a lecture, that was free for anyone to go to, about the findings of the Planck Satellite. I found it very interesting, and wondered what the biggest thing you took away from the results was.",
"Hey Sean, big fan and thanks for doing this AmA! In your opinion, what is our best hope in finally combining quantum mechanics with general relativity? Is it string theory, loop quantum gravity, or something else? Thanks again!",
"Hi Dr Carroll.\n\nIn your GR intro book you mention the similarity between geodesic motion of a ring of particles in a passing gravitational wave and the \"classical\" oscillations of a string corresponding to the (NS-NS) massless modes of the string. You claim this is no accident and is a manifestation of the fact that those string states are indeed the correspondingly polarized gravitons (+ dilaton).\n\nWhy does this work? Why should a ring affected by a gravitational wave deform like the string itself? I feel like this could be a phenomenally clear way of visualizing how strings have gravity (as compared to the standard derivations), but I think I'm missing the intuition for the core step. Or am I overthinking this?\n\nAs an extra: what happens to the Kalb-Ramond field in this visualization?\n\nThank you!",
"Hi, Dr. Carroll. Your book on entropy and the arrow of time is on my short list of important lay science books. Thank you for that, your other books, and your excellent \"Great Courses\" stints.\n\nHow do you divide your time between between research (sitting at a desk with your head in your hands and thinking about equations) and writing (sitting at a desk with your head in your hands thinking about sentences)? How do you get so much done? Is it \"sit down for N hours every day and make steady progress\"? Or is it more, \"I'm an alien from a planet where we cured sleep centuries ago\"?",
"As a many worlds interpretation fan, do you believe world branching can be defined in an observer independent and non-arbitrary way (e.g. not due to the arising of macroscopically distinguishable states, where macroscopic is an arbitrary cutoff and distinguishable implies someone to do the distinguishing)? Can branching (both when and along what basis) be stated purely in terms of types of particle-particle interactions?",
"Hi Sean\n\nI remember hearing your thoughts on free will some time ago. You granted that fundamentally we are just molecules following the laws of the universe but defended free will by saying it was an emergent phenomenon.\n\nHow does freedom of the will emerge in a deterministic universe?",
"Hi Dr. Carroll, Thanks for the AMA!\n\nI've seen talks that alternate between using the terms \"Dark Energy\" and \"Cosomological Constant\" depending on the audience (nonspecialist vs. specialist). Are these terms mutually intelligible, or do they mean different things? And why would different communities receive these terms differently?",
"Thank you for this AMA Dr. Carroll. I was wondering what is your opinion on Max Tegmark's mathematical universe hypothesis, I have just started his book \"Our Mathematical Universe\" and I am curious as to how controversial or not his hypothesis is.",
"Career advice for first year university student?\n\nHow soon during or after university study would you apply for your target organisation/field and how would you decide what position to apply for without prior experience there?\n\nJust finishing off some pure maths before an exam in two weeks. Working toward a degree in mathematics and physics with the Open University.\n\nI certainly want to work for the environment and I'm currently taking an extra course in automating tedious computer tasks with the programming language Python before moving onto iOS app development.",
"Did you get interesting feedback for your book from different categories of people, be it theists, the general public, physicists and experts from other fields?\n\nIs there something you should know/read as a regular person before reading your book? \nDo religious people have particular difficulties understanding certain concepts or overcoming certain intuitions? \nHow different/similar is the paradigm of other physicists or experts from other fields?\n\nI watched a couple of your lectures. Thanks for explaining things a lot more clearly than many others.",
"Can you explain in simple conceptual terms the nature of the existence of matter (serious)? Many of us struggle with the question of how something came from nothing or whether something came from nothing or whether that question is all wrong in the first place.",
"1) What does the universe mean?\n\n2) Do you think we will be able to create synthetic consciousness to the point that it is, for all practical purposes, indistinguishable from biological/\"natural\" consciousness?\n\n3) Thank you! :)",
"Hi Sean,\nThanks again for the book and yesterday's lecture.\nMy question is from a friend, Kent, a Caltech alumni--\n\"Does the De Broglie-Bohm interpretation of QM have any flaws...?\"\n\nMany thanks, Ryan (Vincent Nigel-Murray:)",
"Hello Sean,\n\n1) Is Quantum mechanics fundamentally/purely linear? Or do you believe there could be a miniscule non-linear term in the schrödinger equation?\n\n\n2) What is your opinion on the EM Drive?",
"Hi Sean, thanks for The Big Picture and the AMA!\n\nIn TBP, you say that poetic naturalists are not *moral relativists*, but *moral constructivists*, where the primary difference seems to be that relativists don't feel enabled to make critical observations about moral decisions (especially those deriving from other cultures), where constructivists are perfectly happy to do so, even while admitting that moral frameworks are only attempts to systematize our own personal/cultural intuitions about how to act. My question is: where does this distinction come from? If culture A has an extensive, self-consistant, and useful moral theory that endorses torturing criminals or even suspected criminals, while culture B has a similarly strong theory that forbids torture at any time, what standing does a moral constructivist from culture B (named Bob) have to call torture in culture A \"wrong?\" I don't see Bob how can do it, without a prolog something like \"given the traditions of B culture as assumptions,\" which sounds a lot like moral relativism.\n\nThanks again for the book; I really enjoyed it, and the conversations it's started.",
"Hi Sean. Thanks for all your amazing work! \n\nIf I remember correctly you are in the camp that concludes that we fundamentally have no Free Will, but you advocate that we should still try to make better choices or perhaps treat the sense that we have free will is if it were real, correct?. \n\nI'm curious how you consolidate the two views. I know you say that these are two different levels of reality that have different attributes and ways of talking about them, but if we have no free will, or worse, determinism is how the world works, are we then just pretending to ourselves to make choices? And do you agree with some who propose we should not even tell people they have no free will due to it leading to worse moral behavior?",
"Hi Sean!\n\nBig fan of your work here.\n\n1. Do you have a favorite theory - however speculative - about what may have preceded the Big Bang? \n\n2. What do you see as the most likely end scenario for the cosmos?\n\n3. What is a cosmological breakthrough you hope to see realized within your lifetime?",
"Hi Dr. Carroll,\n\nThanks so much for doing this. I read on your Wikipedia page a while ago that some of your work included modifications to General Relativity. Can you give a brief description of these modifications, why they were necessary, and comment on their success or lack of success?",
"Hello! Thanks for doing this.\n\nCan you explain AdS/CFT to me? A swedish scientist Tony Lund once said in his AMA that in his opinion it was the most beautiful idea in cutting physics, but he never explained it.\n\nI'm not very knowledgeable about physics, so go easy please.",
"Can you believe in physics and religion at the same time? If so, how does one reconcile the two conflicting doctrines?",
"Hey Sean! I'm a high school student looking to study physics, specifically quantum, particle, ore theoretical. Where should I start?",
"First of all, thank you for your wonderful notes amd text on GR. It was very helpful during the course I took on the subject. \n\n Can you give any advice to a theorist just starting out? I am currently in the united states studying gauge/gravity duality and nonabelian gauge theories and most advice I recive is the same as what ive been hearing since undergraduate - that becoming a theorist is a bad idea. Thanks in advance!",
"I studied physics, mathematics, and computer science in my undergraduate. I wanted to continue and study physics for a phd. \n\nHowever, the job prospects are quite bleak post doctorate, so I joined the private sector instead as a programmer.\n\nWhat would you recommend to those who want to pursue knowledge, do research, but also be able to have a house, family, and a retirement?",
"How did you make the transition from academic to public intellectual? Or, more generally, how can scientists best go about impacting the public discourse?",
"Hey Sean,\n This is more of an opinion, but do you believe in extra terrestrial life?",
"What are your plans for eliminating your chief scientific rival, the other Sean Carroll?",
"What, in your opinion, is the best single evidence for the Big Bang?",
"What is your professional opinion and the current scientific consensus on the multiverse theory?\n\nAnd something about it that's been eating up a lot of otherwise slack brain time:\n\nWhen people describe multiverse theory to laypeople, they describe new universes being created identical to those that exist up until a decision is made. But so many decisions are micro-decisions: which second I sit down and in exactly which position. Which finger nail I scratch my arm with. And given that a new universe is born for each different decision, take, for example, the itch:\n\nUniverse Base 0: index finger\n\nUniverse 0a: thumb\n\nUniverse 0b: pinky\n\nUniverse 0c: ignore it.\n\nRight. So, imagining that the multiverse theory is true and that any decision can spark a new universe, doesn't that mean that there are near infinite universes almost exactly like the one I live in, where the differences are so miniscule, I'd probably not be able to pin point the difference? \n\nAnd does that make me/us infinite?",
"Dr Carroll, since you also majored in philosophy, I'm going to ask two questions related to that.\n\n1: I gather from your twitter that you're a moral antirealist. Why is that? It's not a super popular position in ethics.\n\n2: What are your thoughts on Structural Realism, of the sort espoused by Ladyman and Ross? (You did the MNF sessions with Ross, hence my curiosity)\n\nAs an aside, I understand you're a fan of /u/linuxfreeordie's comics, so I'll just tag him so you two can talk.",
"Dr. Carroll, thank you so much for this and all else you have contributed to exposing the broader population to the wonders of the Big Picture. I am a little confused, I think I heard you state that as the universe (space/time) expands, the vacuum energy of a given cubic cm of space remains constant. If my memory is faulty, thanks for resetting it, if not where does the additional energy come from?",
"Hi Sean. I haven't read any of your books but I have seen all your lectures for The Teaching Company. The series about entropy and time especially blew my mind!\n\nMy question: Given what we know about entropy, quantum mechanics, and the fact that the universe seems to be expanding forever, how certain can we be that a Boltzmann brain will ever form?",
"Hey Sean, big fan of your work and lectures! You have been a pretty adamant advocate for the many worlds interpretation. I'd really like to hear what it is that makes this interpretation so attractive to you. Why are an infinite parallel worlds needed to explain the trickiness of wave collapse? Or what makes them more plausible to you than other interpretation?",
"Suppose there were *two* \"significant low-entropy events\" in space time and that they were close enough to strongly interact. What happens at the border between the two regions, where the entropic arrow of time flips? Horrible death? Analogues of various time paradoxes?\n\n ^ ?\n | ? *E2\n | ?\n time | ?\n | ?\n | *E1 ?\n +------------------------ > \n space",
"Hi Dr Carroll. Could you describe how the expansion of space causes redshift of light? I thought that space is expanding, but the contents of space do not stretch with it. Why doesn't this apply to light, whether we think of it as particulate photons or as a wave?",
"Okay, it's now 2pm Pacific time, and I have to go be a scientist for a while. I didn't get to everything, but hopefully I can come back and try to answer some more questions later today. Thanks again for the great interactions!",
"When they say that light can't escape black holes, does that mean that the particles themselves are pulled in. Or is the space/time they travel through compressed so much that it's impossible for light to even move?",
"What would a pile of atoms look like if there where nothing holding them together ?",
"What are your thoughts on the simulation hypothesis, the idea that our universe is a simulation?",
"What happens to the energy of cosmologically redshifted photons?",
"Hi Dr. Carroll, \nIn your book you mentioned that Newtonian mechanics isn't \"perfectly deterministic\" given some very extreme examples in which you can't predict the unique outcome of system from a given state. I've heard something similar from my stat mech professor. I assume an example of this would be something like [Norton's Dome](_URL_3_). However, given the uniqueness theorem of ODEs how can this be so? Do you feel that the newtonian/laplacian paradigm of a clockwork universe is undermined by examples like the one above. I doubt that you do given your views on determinism, but I would love to hear an answer from you on this particular topic. The chapter in your new book got me curious about your view.",
"Professor Carroll! You were my instructor over a decade ago back at UWM and I learned SO much from you. I ran over to UWW when you gave that touching lecture on Darwin's life, your passion for continuing his work and respect for him was so amazing to see. How you closed it with the Beatles was so emotional. You were praised by Professor Birmingham and so many great minds there. I have no question for you, just heaps of thanks for being such a glorious researcher, teacher, lecturer and brilliant human being! Thank you for evolving into such a great primate!!!",
"Hey, so is it possible for me to build a heat engine with intake from the early universe across time into the distant future of a dead universe, such that i can use the expansion of space-time to power some sort of a turbine like it were a hot gas expanding and siphon vast amounts of power by shortening the lifetime of the universe itself?\n\nLike can any theoretical framework for some sort of worm-hole like bridge transecting time exist such that it allows space-time to expand through it like a pinhole in a balloon?",
"Is it possible dark matter exists in the form of massive compact objects (like primordial black holes)? A [theory by Michael Hawkins](_URL_4_) suggests these are uniformly present throughout the universe. \n\nIf so, would these dark matter objects be expected to produce gravitational lensing? \n\nWould they be expected to undergo Hawking radiation, or do these phenomena only apply to ordinary matter?",
"Hi Sean, coincidentally, I came across you on an episode of Stephen Hawking's \"Genius\" today. In the show Hawking and you showed strong support for the parallel universe theory (correct me if I'm wrong). What evidence do we have today that points to this? Since when did possibilities for different realities become realities?",
"Correct me if I am wrong at any point.\n\nTime exists only in the current moment. Information is henceforth transformed through the position of atoms.\n\nHow is information like velocity transferred between moments in time?",
"Hello, thanks for the ama.\n\nIs your book able to be read by a pleb like me? I love the topics but have none of the know how.",
"Great timing! I just spotted this I would like to know what you think:\n\nRadioactive decay anomaly could imply a new fundamental force, theorists say.\n\n_URL_5_",
"If the Universe is expanding, what is it expanding into? What's on the other side?"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/grnotes/",
"https://scottlocklin.wordpress.com/2013/03/07/the-enigma-of-the-ford-paradox/",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8205/823/2/L25",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norton's_dome",
"http://philpapers.org/rec/HAWHDT",
"http://www.nature.com/news/has-a-hungarian-physics-lab-found-a-fifth-force-of-nature-1.19957"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: I’m Sean Carroll, physicist and author of best-selling book THE BIG PICTURE. Ask Me Anything about the universe and what it means!
I’m a theoretical physicist at the California Institute of Technology, and the author of several books. My research covers fundamental physics and cosmology, including quantum gravity, dark energy, and the arrow of time. I've been a science consultant for a number of movies and TV shows. My new book, [THE BIG PICTURE](_URL_0_), discusses how different ways we have of talking about the universe all fit together, from particle physics to biology to consciousness and human life. Ask Me Anything! ----- AskScience AMAs are posted early to give readers a chance to ask questions and vote on the questions of others before the AMA starts. Sean Carroll will begin answering questions around 11 AM PT/2 PM ET. ----- EDIT: Okay, it's now 2pm Pacific time, and I have to go be a scientist for a while. I didn't get to everything, but hopefully I can come back and try to answer some more questions later today. Thanks again for the great interactions! | [
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|
lzalv | What modern object would take the longest time to build from scratch? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2wsyc2",
"c2wu6yq",
"c2wtgxl",
"c2ww8li"
],
"text": [
"A modern computer... the tiny scales required for chip fabrication - entire industries need to exist before you can even contemplate such a thing.",
"FWIW, [NASA claims](_URL_0_) the space shuttle is the most complex machine ever built by humans.\n\nOn the other hand, if you're taking the Carl Sagan interpretation of \"from scratch,\" all of the above are going to require ~13.7 billion years and a Big Bang.",
"A functional satellite cell phone. Not only do you have to get all the solid state stuff together, you have to get an infrastructure to put satellites in freaking space.",
"It depends, what do you consider to be 'from scratch'? Do you mean it in the sense of having all the necessary information, but needing to acquire/assemble the components, or do you mean it in the sense of involving the most complex/advanced concepts? I'm presuming you mean the former, but it might be good to clarify (for conversation's sake at least)."
],
"score": [
27,
22,
18,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/upgrades/upgrades5.html"
]
} | What modern object would take the longest time to build from scratch?
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jaw2x | Do humans have high natural miscarriage rates among animals? If so, why? | The perception I have of human birth is that compared to other animals, it's complicated and highly error-prone. This site said that 15% of pregnancies are miscarriages; is this especially high in the animal kingdom? Do humans have an especially hard/volatile reproductive cycle? If so, how would that have happened evolutionarily?
Edit: Oops! [Forgot to include my link!](_URL_0_) | askscience | {
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"The fact that humans are bipedal means that the legs attach at the bottom of the pelvis whereas in four legged animals the hind legs attach more lateral to the pelvis making a wider opening.\n\nBipedal-ism comes with an evolutionary cost: a complicated and expensive child birth. The reason this has persisted is because by virtue of being bipedal, we freed up our hands to make and use tools which catalyzed the long evolutionary reaction that would eventually allow us to develop cognitive ability to deal with such a complicated childbirth as well as aid us in our survival in the changing environment -- making bipedal-ism a net positive in our attempts at survival.\n\nAs has been mentioned, this is why humans are born so premature compared to other mammals and even primates. If the fetus stayed inside any longer, it would grow too large and inflexible to make it through the birth canal.\n\nTL;DR: It is bipedal-ism that makes human childbirth so complicated, but the trait carries enough positives to make it persist among us.",
"As a layman, I think you need to restrict your question to comparing us to other animals (other mammals?) that have single, live births as the norm. Comparing us to, say, mice or rats isn't really useful because their strategy is completely different: have a bunch of pups, and hope that at least X% of them survive to reproduce.",
"My wife had 5 miscarriages, we have 2 perfect kids. We started late though, in our mid 30s. It's not uncommon to have greater risk of miscarriage as a woman ages. We did a karyotype for I think 3 or 4 of those. I remember three of them. One was a Trisomy 9 defect, one was a Trisomy 16, and one was a Trisomy 18. The Trisomy 18 also had anencephaly and we figured this out early enough to term before the 12th week. \n\nAnways, I'm wondering if it's because couples are putting off baby-making until women are older and egg divisions are more prone to defects? The younger a women is the less chance. It's not socially acceptable to get knocked up at 16.",
"Determining infant mortality rates may be difficult in other animals as there are lots of differences between us and them- not all animals use doctors, though domesticated ones do, some have larger litters and expect some mortality, etc. However, some animals have fairly well defined infant mortality rates. Cows, for example, are very well studied due to the dairy industry. From that we know calves that are well cared for can have a mortality rate of [3.5%](_URL_1_) or as high as 30% if not well cared for. That number is for calves from birth to reproduction age, however. At birth mortality is going to be even lower. When I worked on a farm for a few years and birthed goats, the number varied. The first year there was a disease running through the herd that caused premature births and at birth mortality was high, though still under 20%. By my third year, the mortality rate for goat kids from birth to weaning was less than 2%. I'm having a hard time finding proper documentation of this, but [this](_URL_0_) website indicates typical abortion rates in goats range from 2-5%. Goats usually have 1-3 kids while cows almost always have 1 calf at a time. I think the largest difference between these rates and human rates is that almost all humans have the right to have children, while not all animals have equal rights to give birth. Domesticated animals unfit for breeding will be culled or sold off, and wild animals that are unfit for breeding will likely be removed from the breeding population because they wont survive through childbirth. I don't think our reproduction is really all that different, but we expect even those unfit for reproduction will give birth (such as those who are overweight, underweight, chronically ill, etc).",
"Interesting. I wonder what the miscarriage rate would be without modern medicine.",
"We are more of a quality breeder. One or two babies at a time with enormous time and physical investments to set them up for life. Our species evolved to sustain very few embryos as good as possible.\nSome counter effects are observable in other areas of our evolution, such as bipedalism and brain size.\nThe pelvis could not possibly become broader at one point but our brain sizes kept increasing. \n*Homo sapiens* has a different strategy than *Pan* (chimps). Our babies develop the brain mostly after birth, with flexible skull plates which harden over time to allow brain growth after birth. Chimps are mostly developed before they are born.\n\nSo much for the quality part. Other species, like fish, frogs or spiders, lay a huge amount of eggs and try to bring as many babies as possible through simply by quantity. Obviously the quantity vs. quality thing is a gradient. \n\nTL;DR: Humans are made to avoid miscarriages, other species try to overcome all their miscarriages and deaths after birth by using quantity rather than quality.\n\nAnother extreme would be"
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"url": [
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"url": [
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} | Do humans have high natural miscarriage rates among animals? If so, why?
The perception I have of human birth is that compared to other animals, it's complicated and highly error-prone. This site said that 15% of pregnancies are miscarriages; is this especially high in the animal kingdom? Do humans have an especially hard/volatile reproductive cycle? If so, how would that have happened evolutionarily? Edit: Oops! [Forgot to include my link!](_URL_0_) | [
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|
kft8t | Why are there lefties? | Is it in the genes or do babies "decide" during their early years?
Thank you very much,
a lefty. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2jxx7x",
"c2jx3wc",
"c2jx1c8",
"c2jx3eq"
],
"text": [
"Short answer: we don't really know. But there's a lot that goes on between genes and \"deciding\".\n\nFirst of all, in the literature they usually refer to \"right-handedness\" vs. \"non-right-handedness\", on the grounds that so-called lefties are actually just generally less lateralized and more or less randomly settled on the left side for some tasks (then there'd presumably be an equal number of righties who aren't very picky). Southpaws are not mirror images of wild-types, except in [freaky cases](_URL_1_).\n\nThe reigning hypothesis for a long time was that it involved [prenatal testosterone](_URL_0_). However, it's never really been conclusively tested, and now there's even contrary evidence.",
"While I'm not sure, I just want to share a link to the leftie-subreddit: [r/Southpaws](_URL_2_)",
"Some follow-up questions...\n\nI can imagine there are combat advantages to being left-handed, witnessed by the (sometimes small) advantage that many LH folks have in sports. Given that, would you expect proportionally more LH individuals in a tournament species compared to a more cooperative species? Does combat advantage in dominance interactions suffice to explain left-handedness? What kind of math would you use to determine that it did or didn't?",
"I'd be interested to learn why lefties like myself will use their right hand for certain tasks like using a mouse or throwing a ball."
],
"score": [
9,
7,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind%E2%80%93Galaburda_hypothesis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situs_inversus",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/southpaws/"
]
} | Why are there lefties?
Is it in the genes or do babies "decide" during their early years? Thank you very much, a lefty. | [
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|
6s565s | How come imaginary fucntions can be used to describe real properties like refractive index and dielectric constants? | I have an exam coming up about properties of materials and I have a hard time wrapping my head around the math of it. I hope some one here can make it click in my brain. Fourier transforms are pushing the limit but these real uses of imaginary numbers are too much. All help is appreciated. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dla7lrq",
"dlaitgm",
"dlagks3"
],
"text": [
"\"Imaginary\" is an unfortunate misnomer.\n\nSee this [previous post](_URL_2_) with a good response from /u/dogdiarrhea.\n\nOther good explanations are /u/Doctorbong's [comment](_URL_1_) on the point of complex numbers and [this post](_URL_0_) on the necessity of complex numbers.",
"u/organiker already posted some great links that explain the issue.\n\nI'll just add a not very scientific explanation but a point of view that helped me understand complex numbers in many cases.\n\nI stopped worrying about what was exactly an imaginary number, and realized a complex number (let's say Ae^iθ ) was pretty much a vector. All they do is add a dimension to whatever \"A\" is, now you can make A rotate and you can separate it in Asin(θ) on the one hand and Acos(θ) on the other. Yeah, one of them has an i in front of it, but all that really does, besides making sure all equations work properly, is separate it from anythin gthat doesnt have that \"i\", it creates that extra dimension.\n \nThere's so many things in physics and in mathematics that work as rotations, projections or vector wannabes, and complex numbers are an incredibly easy way to deal with all that without having to deal with actual vectors.\n\nThey're a way to work with more than one number and one piece of information, but while working with only one number and one piece of information!\n\n\nThen the fact that it's imaginary just means at some point, in between all the physical laws and equations there are, for them to work, when you solve the system, there's a sign flip somewhere along the line which means you need an \"i\" in there so everything works.\n\nAnd voila! You now have a number that has two particularly distinct parts that are at the same time related to each other, all in one.\n\nI'll maybe never fully understand what that \"i\" means in front of a number, but I know many cases where having a complex number is necessary to show rotations or to add dimensions necessary to fully explain the situation like [Phasors](_URL_4_), [Waves](_URL_6_), [Pauli matrices](_URL_6_) ,[Complex logarithms](_URL_5_), etc.\n\nSo that's my way of understanding them now and it feels way easier. The \"i\" is just maths.",
"\"real\" and \"imaginary\" in math don't correspond to the every day uses of those words. Don't think of the \"imaginary\" components as some kind of magical non-physical quantity. They are every bit as useful and meaningful as the \"real\" numbers you're familiar with."
],
"score": [
19,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/q984g/how_necessary_are_imaginary_numbers/?st=j628oepl&sh=f93453a3",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1i33k4/whats_the_point_of_imaginary_numbers/cb0k709",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2i1l1w/if_an_imaginary_number_is_imaginary_how_does_it/?st=j628le9i&sh=8725774e",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_wave#Complex_exponential_form",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_logarithm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_matrices"
]
} | How come imaginary fucntions can be used to describe real properties like refractive index and dielectric constants?
I have an exam coming up about properties of materials and I have a hard time wrapping my head around the math of it. I hope some one here can make it click in my brain. Fourier transforms are pushing the limit but these real uses of imaginary numbers are too much. All help is appreciated. | [
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|
53agua | How do we know how many bitcoins are in circulation? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"First off, this is not an area I am an expert in, so If I say something inaccurate, I hope someone can correct me.\n\nBitcoin is a currency that is defined by a protocol. \n\n1. There are 21 million bitcoins that can be mined total, ever. This is by design.\n\n2. Every transaction that happens is stored indefinitely by the blockchain. The blockchain is where the trust that who says they own a bitcoin owns it comes from, and the basis of this trust is somewhat two fold. (Side note: This also means if a wallet is ever definitively linked to someone, there is a permanent record of their transactions) \n\n3. The blockchain is generated using hashing functions (By definition, a good hashing function is irreversible by anything other than brute force), and part of the input to the hashing function is the last thing prior to it in the chain. This means to forge 1 record, you would have to succesfully forge the entire blockchain. \n\n4. you can't forge the entire blockchain as everyone has a copy of what already exists. A theoretical 51% attack on the blockchain is also partially mitigated by having historical blocks every so often, so the damage someone with it is partially minimized here.\n\n5. Because everyone has a record of it, anyone can look at the blockchain to see how many have been mined.\n\n6. Using that number alone however does not account for any bitcoins that may be permanently lost. (Data loss making them inaccessible, forgotten wallet paswords, etc.)\n\nWhen a block of bitcoins is mined, everyone else knows about it at some point soon after through the block chain when a coinbase transaction happens. This makes the public values of each coin known to everyone. \n\nFrom all of this, you can find the number of bitcoins that have been mined so far by looking at the blockchain and totaling the amount that have been mined so far. There are several websites that can do this for you. Many of these are full blockchain explorers, others may just give you general data regarding the current state of the chain. You can also do this manually if you want.\n\n[For more information on transactions](_URL_0_) \n\n[For more information about the underlying protocols](_URL_1_)",
"Well, Bitcoin functions using a very detailed transaction log called a block chain. This block chain has a record of every Bitcoin transaction ever made and is now several terabytes in size. \n\nOne could easily look through the block chain and just look at all of the transactions where Bitcoin miners were paid. \n\nIt's also fairly simple math to figure out all of the bitcoins in existence because they are rewarded to miners at a constant interval (something like every hour) and a predetermined amount which decreases predictably over time. The math would be very easy that way, just multiplication and the numbers wouldn't be hard to find.",
"There are two basic answers to your question:\n\n1. We don't. \n\n2. It depends on what your definition of \"in circulation\" is. \n\nThe reason for the first answer is that the difference between unspent coins and lost ones can never be known. For instance, Satoshi mined many of the original blocks and thus owns a huge number of bitcoins. However, the coins have never moved. These coins could be used at any moment, he could walk down to _URL_2_ and buy some furniture for instance. To contrast, in the case of the guy who had thousands of bitcoins on a hard drive and threw it away, those coins are conclusively lost. \n\nBecause Bitcoin does not require proof of stake, any coins can sit away collecting dust and yet be spent at any moment. So we'll never know just how much is \"liquid\". \n\nHaving said that. We can safely make some assumptions. For instance, we can assume that Satoshi is not going to spend those original coins for a long time yet. He may never spend them. We can assume that a lot of the early coins were lost simply because they had little value back then. After all, would you mourn the loss of a hard drive that had $.50 worth of dogecoin on it?\n\nOn a similar note, a lot of people have bought Bitcoin as an investment, and can be assumed to be holding it for the long term. So those coins are out of circulation too. \n\nSo to bring it down to the second question: *What is your definition of \"in circulation\"?*\n\nI'm going to go with the simple definition and say \"coins spent in the last X amount of time\". And that is actually quite straightforward to figure out. Because of the blockchain's public nature, it is quite easy to track every coin that has been spent in the last year back to its roots. \n\nSo that's all we need to do: take each transaction from the last year, track the coins backward, and give the grand total.",
"Short answer: block height. There have been X blocks mined, and you can visualize them to be blocks stacked on top of each other. The bottom block has height zero, called the Genesis block. The next block has height 1, and so on. Blocks with height 0 through N-1 released 50 bitcoins per block. Blocks with height N-1 through 2N-1 released 25 per block. Every N blocks, the reward is cut in half. We are currently sitting at 12.5 bitcoins per block. So.all we need to do to determine exactly how many bitcoins have been released is to look at the height of the latest verified block.\n\nHowever we do not know how many have been lost or destroyed or forgotten forever. \n\nIf you don't know what a block is: a miner listens to the network for awhile and bundles several propoaed transactions together into a block. The miner verifies that these transactions are legitimate and wishes to announce to the network \"this block appears to be filled with legit transactions.\" In order to earn the right to do so, they have to burn a lot of electricity solving a certain math puzzle... This way, no one can hop on and use sock puppet identities to flood the network with their own illegitimate transactions."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.bitcoin.it/wiki/Transaction",
"https://en.bitcoin.it/wiki/Protocol_documentation",
"overstock.com"
]
} | How do we know how many bitcoins are in circulation?
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||
1a6ko7 | If I dropped a jar filled with water into the ocean, would the pressure eventually crack it open? | Here is my thought process..
1. Jar filled completely (no air) with sea level pressure water
2. Dropped into a deep part of the ocean
3. Eventually the pressure outside the jar would greatly exceed the pressure inside the jar
4. However, since the water inside the jar cannot be compressed(?) the jar stays in tact?
Please help me science wizards of reddit | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8ukddh",
"c8ut6cc",
"c8unnkm"
],
"text": [
"Assumping the jar is incompressible (ceramic or glass or some such), and assuming the weight of the jar is of order the weight of the water inside it, then the jar will sink down through the water column and eventually the pressure difference between outside and inside will be such that the jar will be crushed.\n\nWater is not completely incompressible, it's just not very compressible.",
"It would likely remain intact. Water is slightly compressible, but not enough to damage a strong jar or bottle. Remember, Mason jars are designed for vacuum storage, and are quite strong. \n\nWine bottles survived sinking with the Titanic.\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_ (second photo)\n\n_URL_3_ (under \"Debris Fields\" )\n\n_URL_2_\n\nA number of these bottles were seen with corks intact, and unbroken.",
"I think we are failing to address the weight of the jar. How much pressure it would be subjected to is dependent upon what level it reaches.\n\nWhere does our jar come to rest? Must it fall to the floor?"
],
"score": [
12,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2012/apr/13/nine-titanic-artifacts-currently-las-vegas/",
"http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-09-19/entertainment/8503030821_1_ports-and-sherries-wines-burgundy",
"http://www.flickr.com/photos/11291471@N02/1086686155/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreck_of_the_RMS_Titanic"
]
} | If I dropped a jar filled with water into the ocean, would the pressure eventually crack it open?
Here is my thought process.. 1. Jar filled completely (no air) with sea level pressure water 2. Dropped into a deep part of the ocean 3. Eventually the pressure outside the jar would greatly exceed the pressure inside the jar 4. However, since the water inside the jar cannot be compressed(?) the jar stays in tact? Please help me science wizards of reddit | [
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9krtq8 | Musics with binaural beats, certain frequencies (eg. "417 Hz healing music") - do they really have effects on hormones release in the brain, or brain activities? | What is the state of science on music and brain activity? Are there any proven benefits to listening to that type of music?
& #x200B;
Here is a [exemple](_URL_0_) | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I'm copying and pasting what I found from digging through Google. I've held interest in this as well. TL;DR is at the bottom. Everything below the following line is from\n\n_URL_0_\n\n-----------------------------------------------\n\n\n\"Since I was asked in chat about binaural beats, and have been posed this question a number of times before besides, I looked into the most recent literature using Google Scholar for the single term \"binaural beats\" and restricted my search to papers published between 2010-2015. For convenience, this is the definition of a binaural beat I will use.\"\n\nWhen two coherent sounds with nearly similar frequencies are presented to each ear respectively with stereo headphones, the brain integrates the two signals and produces a sensation of a third sound called binaural beat (BB). — Gao et al., 2014.\n\nState of the evidence\n\nBroadly speaking, some research on binaural beats does exist, but the evidence presented in the studies I examined is by and large negative, inconclusive or statistically underpowered with respect to the efficacy of binaural beats' ability to improve cognition, and to whether it is even processed differently from acoustic beats at all.\n\nMuch of the research that does exist seems to be published in journals whose credibility I cannot vouch for, and this answer should therefore be taken for what it is: a cursory review of the best literature I could find, not as scientific fact.\n\nAre binaural beats processed differently?\n\n\"The perceptions of binaural beats involve cortical activity that is not different than acoustic beats in distribution and in the effects of beat- and base frequency, indicating similar cortical processing.\" — Pratt et al., 2010.\n\nDo binaural beats entrain brain waves?\n\n\"We observed RP increase in theta and alpha bands and decrease in beta band during delta and alpha BB stimulations. RP decreased in beta band during theta BB, while RP decreased in theta band during beta BB. However, no clear brainwave entrainment effect was identified. Connectivity changes were detected following the variation of RP during BB stimulations. Our observation supports the hypothesis that BBs could affect functional brain connectivity, suggesting that the mechanism of BB–brain interaction is worth further study.\" — Gao et al., 2014.\n\nDo binaural beats induce a frequency following effect?\n\n\"Analysis of changes in broad-band and narrow-band amplitudes, and frequency showed no effect of binaural beat frequency eliciting a frequency following effect in the EEG.\" — Vernon et al., 2011.\n\nConcluding remarks\n\nWhat evidence exists is mixed and, at best, inconclusive. Based on this, I will tentatively say that it appears the claims put forward by many commercial binaural beats companies, while theoretically plausible in some sense, are not empirically supported in the literature.\n\nTherefore, the most prudent position for a consumerto adopt seems to be that binaural beat music is as preferable, but no more preferable than acoustic beat music. For researchers, of course, binaural beats remains theoretically interesting.\n\nReferences\n\nGao, X., Cao, H., Ming, D., Qi, H., Wang, X., Wang, X., ... & Zhou, P. (2014). Analysis of EEG activity in response to binaural beats with different frequencies. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 94(3), 399-406.\n\nPratt, H., Starr, A., Michalewski, H. J., Dimitrijevic, A., Bleich, N., & Mittelman, N. (2010). A comparison of auditory evoked potentials to acoustic beats and to binaural beats. Hearing research, 262(1), 34-44.\n\nVernon, D., Peryer, G., Louch, J., & Shaw, M. (2014). Tracking EEG changes in response to alpha and beta binaural beats. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 93(1), 134-139",
"I did undergraduate thesis work on this very topic. Basically we tried different frequencies to try to affect different brain wave states in our participants and then put the subjects through a battery of standardized tests to measure things like mood, creativity, and even transcendent experience, all while recording fnirs/eeg live. We mostly focused on beta and theta. We did not reject the null. Best I can tell from my experience is that binaural audio had little to no effect over and above other effects (like the meditative effect) in ~50 participants. \n\nEdit: I'd like to clarify that the point is we couldn't seem to actually put someone into a specific brain wave state (e.g. theta, beta primary) just by exposing them to those kinds of binaural audio. We used different commercially available binaural audio files with pink noise as a control. This research was so exciting because so little had been done before in the US. Most of my lit reviews were borrowed from the University of Bonn, in Germany. We were hoping to actually see an effect but no such luck.",
"The healing effect of binaural ~~audio~~ **beats** is real in the same sense that the placebo effect is real.\n\nWhat is real: **binaural audio, a variation of stereo sound ** The tiny delays in sound processing from one ear vs. the other help your brain determine the direction from which sounds originate. \n\nTherefore, binaural **audio** recordings can give you an extremely immersive video watching experience, as Destin (u/MrPennyWhistle) of Smarter Every Day points out on his \"Sound Traveler\" channel.\n\nGo see a rocket launch\n_URL_5_\n\nWalk around Paris\n_URL_5_\n\nWalk through a pyramid\n_URL_5_\n\nSlide down a mountain\n_URL_5_\n\nWatch a geyser in Iceland\n_URL_5_\n\nEDIT (added beats vs. audio nomenclature per the clarification of other redditors).",
"I'm a psychologist, and I've had multiple patients mention ASMR helps relax them. Some also mentioned binaural healing frequency also. So I researched it. While ASMR does have a scientific reason for eliciting a response, and the white noise/background sound application of it can help one relax, the 417hz healing frequency, and theta music you can find on youtube etc have no proof they do anything more than that of white noise.",
"Since it seems a lot of the primary posts seem to be injecting their own personal conclusions into whatever studies/answers they provide, I'll try to post a more general answer with sources for you to explore. I'm on mobile so I apologize for any formatting issues.\n\n\nSummary answer: Maybe. We can't definitively say that there is or is not an effect on cognition, stimuli perception, or emotional states, among other things. Most studies I've found agree that binaural beats do produce a response, but to what and what kind of response varies. Thus, more extensive studies need to be done to give you a more comprehensive answer. However, if you're interested, below are the articles I've read in their entireties. I started out trying to summarize each one on my own, but that got tiresome, so I ended up just starting to pare it down to relevant quotes from the abstracts, results, and conclusion sections. If you are interested in reading the entire articles from below that aren't available to you without paying, just PM me.\n\n_URL_14_\nMeta analysis of 22 studies suggesting there's a moderate but positive, consistent effect on cognition and perception of stimuli that depends upon the frequencies used and the length and timeline of exposure. This particular analysis indicates studies show best results when exposure begins before and through the task at hand, with longer exposure maximizing benefits.\n\n_URL_13_\nDirectly from the abstract: \"This perceptual phenomenon is known as binaural auditory beats, and it is thought to entrain electrocortical activity and enhance cognition functions such as attention and memory.\" \n\nThis study focused on potential effects on long term memory with 32 participants blind to the study. \"These findings indicate that the presentation of binaural auditory beats can affect long-term memory both positively and negatively, depending on the frequency used.\" It suggested that beats in the beta frequency had better results than those in the theta frequency.\n\n\n_URL_10_\nOn the other hand, here's a study suggesting no real effects, at least at 7hz. But the sample size was 4, so there really wasn't enough of an experiment to draw wide reaching conclusions.\n\n_URL_13_\n\"The results showed that theta activity was induced in the entire cortex within 10 min of exposure to the stimulus in the experimental group.... Moreover, tension factor of BRUMS was decreased in experimental group compared to control group which resembled the meditation effect. Thus, a 6-Hz binaural beat on a 250 Hz carrier tone was suggested as a stimulus for inducing a meditative state.\"\n\n_URL_15_\n\"Our findings suggest that high-frequency binaural beats bias the individual attentional processing style towards a reduced spotlight of attention.\"\n\n_URL_12_\n\"Healthy adults listened to gamma-frequency (40 Hz) binaural beats or to a constant tone of 340 Hz (control condition) for ten minutes before and during a feature-repetition task. While the size of visuomotor binding costs (indicating the binding of visual and action features) was unaffected by the binaural beats, the size of visual feature binding costs (which refer to the binding between the two visual features) was considerably smaller during gamma-frequency binaural beats exposure than during the control condition. Our results suggest that binaural beats enhance selectivity in updating episodic memory traces and further strengthen the hypothesis that neural activity in the gamma band is critically associated with the control of feature binding.\"\n\n\n_URL_15_\n\n_URL_12_\n\n\"Six acoustic stimulation conditions were used: None, Pure Tone, Classical Music, 5 Hz binaural beats, 10 Hz binaural beats, and 15 Hz binaural beats.\n\nMAIN RESULTS: We determined that listening to 15 Hz binaural beats during an N-Back working memory task increased the individual participant's accuracy, modulated the cortical frequency response, and changed the cortical network connection strengths during the task. Only the 15 Hz binaural beats produced significant change in relative accuracy compared to the None condition.\" \n\n\"The three auditory control conditions and the 5Hz and 10Hz binaural beats all decreased accuracy.\"\n\n\n_URL_11_\n\"As predicted, exposing participants to binaural beats in the gamma range increased this effect as compared to a control condition in which participants were exposed to a continuous tone of 340 Hz. These findings provide converging evidence that the cognitive-control style can be systematically biased by inducing particular internal states; that high-frequency binaural beats bias the control style toward more flexibility; and that different styles are implemented by changing the strength of local competition and top-down bias.\"\n\n_URL_14_\n\"Although the TBB [theta binaural beats] and the placebo interventions both reduced the pain scores, a post hoc Bonferroni correction that compared pairs of MPI scores found a 77% larger drop in the mean for the TBB intervention, from M=4.60 at pretest to M=2.74 at the end of both TBB periods than in the mean for the sham intervention, with a change from M=4.60 at pretest to M=4.17 at the end of both sham periods.\nCONCLUSIONS: The results supported the hypothesis that an external audio protocol of TBB was effective in reducing perceived pain severity for participants.\"",
"The next question is, how much of the desired effect would be lost, when listening over YouTube as well as with consumer headphones. \n \nThere is possible audio codec compression by the uploader, than there is the youtube audio codec it self:. AAC-LC, Stereo or Stereo + 5.1, 96khz or 48khz. \n\nThan some of modern hardware / software produce a fake 3d effect, use a consumer EQ preset, bass boost, etc. This are additional factors.\n\nThere are also some binaural beats that feature very deep 7,83 hz \"earth\" frequencies. This is some high end subwoofer / rotary woofer stuff, below what we can hear (only feel) and the average person can't play with their speakers.\n\nI personally would assume, without high end hardware, lossless audio, specific speaker positioning, or specific headphones a (big?) part of its desired effect would be lost.\n\nWhy do people use this music for concentration in a work environment etc.? I'd say like other ambient music it's something minmalistic, that is soothing to the mind (but not occupieing it) when running in the background.",
"NO. Better explained, those things are INEFFECTIVE. Its not that the brain doesn't respond to different frequencies or sounds (indeed, constant exposure to high frequency sound that is above our hearing range can make us super irrritable, forgetful, and cranky), but no positive use on the brain has been proven YET. \nALso, while Binaural AUDIO is very immersive and interesting (it can make it sound like you are actually in that place, or something is passing by you, etc) Binaural BEATS dont do this. THEY DO MAKE the brain decide that the tone is one specific frequency( brain math and reasoning) but they dont really have been proven to show that this \"heals, improves, or relaxes\" the brain. People have also claimed this can \"brainwash\" or \"hypnotize\" people, and again, no research has PROVEN that this can happen."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mgwd_3k3pOw"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8371/is-there-scientific-evidence-on-the-benefits-of-binaural-beats",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmD4_5K2NiE",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kTkVnb3TXO8",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h6G-anHhuL4",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImoQqNyRL8Y",
"https://youtu.be/spcCAeowHjw?t=7m1s",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00221-017-4957-9",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00426-017-0959-2",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00426-018-1066-8",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1741-2552/aa5d67/meta",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/17388762/?i=5&from=/30073406/related",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/27605922/?i=17&from=binaural%20beats",
"https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0166630",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28701912/?i=10&from=binaural%20beats",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/26773319/?i=18&from=binaural%20beats",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5233742/"
]
} | Musics with binaural beats, certain frequencies (eg. "417 Hz healing music") - do they really have effects on hormones release in the brain, or brain activities?
What is the state of science on music and brain activity? Are there any proven benefits to listening to that type of music? & #x200B; Here is a [exemple](_URL_0_) | [
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2p8d3r | I guess I don't understand evolution. It is 100% purely random mutation? | So, I feel like a fucking idiot, here, because this has always confused me. I thought I understood the theory of evolution, but years ago I had my understanding of the concept turned upside down when someone explained to me that evolution does *not* mean that a species evolved in order to adapt. Rather, species evolve constantly due to mutation for no specific reason, and the ones that *just so happen to have evolutionary traits that help them adapt* are the ones that survive.
Maybe it's because I grew up thinking that evolution had a reactionary part to it, but it's just hard for me to grasp the idea that we seem to only have evidence of species with evolutionary traits that seemed to serve a purpose in the environment. I mean, if evolution is truly random, is there a reason we don't have evidence of species with seemingly random traits, such as a mouth on ones hands?
Maybe people just find a way to explain how the mutations of different species are beneficial, which gives the illusion that there is causation there, but I just feel like there's this veil over my ability to understand this that I'd love some clarity for. | askscience | {
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"Evolution is not goal-oriented in the sense you originally thought. It has no agency. Mutations are definitely random. But the process of evolution that acts on those mutations is not really. \n\nNatural selection (the mechanism of evolution) is often described as survival of the fittest. Another way to think of it (that is perhaps a little more accurate) is elimination of the unfit. (Fitness in this sense just means the capacity of an organism to reproduce and pass on its genes to subsequent generations.)\n\nRandom mutation generates genetic diversity. Some traits that result from these mutations are adaptive (\"useful\"). This will allow individuals with those traits to survive to reproduce at higher rates than organisms without those traits. Some random mutations generate maladaptive (\"bad\") traits that do actually are detrimental to an individual's survival. Organisms with maladaptive traits therefore don't survive long enough to reproduce. Or if they do, it isnt at the same rate as organisms with more adaptive traits. \n\nSo what traits appear is random. But what traits persist in a population (what is or is not adaptive) is not really random. It is entirely dependent on the environment. For your example, a mouth on the hands of a colobus monkey would likely be maladaptive. Yeah, it seems super cool, but the colobus monkey uses its hands to manipulate the environment around it and to locomote. A mouth-hand would get in the way, be prone to infection or irritation, etc. So any colobus that randomly developed that trait due to mutation wouldn't survive very long and therefore wouldn't reproduce, deleting the maladaptive trait from the gene pool. This is natural selection at work. \n\nTl;dr: mutations are random, but natural selection (the mechanism of evolution) is not.",
"Organisms unfit for a new change in the environment die out and the ones that survive are more fit. Mutations are one way that the more fit guys happened to be more fit.\n\nEver play 5 card draw poker? You get to hold onto cards you think are good and are dealt a few random cards. Over time if you did this repeatedly your hand would be great.",
"You have a giraffe population. Thanks to random variation (both in mutation and the nature of sexual reproduction), there's a spread of neck heights in this population, peaked around some average. Each individual giraffe will have kids that are statistically in a tinier bell curve peaked around the parent's neck length (as a simple model). Some have especially long necks, some have shorter ones.\n\nNow the leaves start to dry up. The giraffes with long necks can reach food that the shorter ones can't, so they have a good food supply as the shorter ones squabble for dwindling food, and survive better. They have more children. Now the bell curve of giraffe neck lengths is shifted slightly toward the high end: some of the short ones died off or had fewer kids than the tall ones, so the new distribution is shifted toward the tall side ever so slightly compared to before. Repeat this incremental success of tall giraffes over several generations and the new average will be substantially taller. Giraffes have 'evolved' longer necks.\n\nThis is all evolution is. \"Something that can survive better will survive longer and prosper more\". Everything else is just working through the consequences of that one idea.",
"Imagine there is some number representing a trait. Suppose the best number is 236 (the right length beak to get grubs fastest, the right thickness fur to be warm but not overheat when running, whatever). Now, start with a population of 12 random numbers between 1 and 1000. They don't know that 236 is a good number. 'kill' four of them. They were too far away from 236 and got too cold or couldn't reach grubs. Now there are six left, and they are closer to 236 than the other 4. Before they die of old age, they breed in three pairs. Each pair has four children. The children are the average of their parents numbers, plus a random number between -5 and 5. Now you have a new generation of 12, and they are all closer to 236, with some random variation. \n\nIf you do this a few times, you will get a population that is all pretty much 236, with a little variation, but they didn't do it on purpose.\n\n If the environment changes gradually (the best number changes, say, by one or two each generation), some will be closer to the new ideal number, because of the variation. They will survive, and the next generation will be shifted a little. The population will adapt to the changing conditions.\n\nIf you have more than one number that is good, the population might split, and eventually you get two species. If the environment changes suddenly, and none of them are close enough to the best adaptation to survive, the whole population will go extinct. While there isn't really one gene that decides how long a beak should be, but many genes working together, the idea is the same.",
"Maybe to add on \"random\" mutations: Mutations are not random in the sense that they appear without cause; they are random in the sense that they cannot be predicted and serve no specific goal. \nOne of the most common causes of mutations is that a DNA-molecule gets hit by a very high energetic particle (from cosmic radiation or radioactive sources), which causes the molecular bindings in this DNA molecule to break. If this particle is high-energetic enough, that it can break multiple molecular bindings at once, then the repair-mechanism of the DNA might fail to fix the DNA in the way it was before and thus leaving a DNA-Molecule with a slightly different information. This is also why we observe higher rates of mutations in radioactive conterminated areas like tschernobyl. Btw,there are a lot of interesting articles about evolution in the area of tschernobyl. \nSimilar things can be caused if the DNA is exposed to highly reactive chemicals. Coincidently one of these highly reactive chemicals is O^1, atomic oxygen, which is in a certain fraction always contained in the natural oxygen, that we need to breath. You can thus imagine that a certain rate of mutations is automatically part of life. \nThe most common result of mutations is just that a cell gets cancerous. If our immune system then fails to eliminate alot of these cells, we develope cancer. However, the tiny percentage of all these mutations that are not directly harmful make up the driving force behind evolution.",
"> if evolution is truly random, is there a reason we don't have evidence of species with seemingly random traits, such as a mouth on ones hands?\n\nThe mutations are random, the selection is not. \n\nEvolution is not *only* random mutation, evolution includes the selection of advantageous traits simply by virtue of the advantage those traits give. \nIndividuals with advantageous traits have a better chance of survival and thus a better chance to pass on those traits to the next generation, than individuals with no advantageous traits.",
"Here: _URL_2_ \nIs discussed ways that variations (mutations) are 'conserved' when a species is not threatened by its environment, so that the variations are available generations later when things get tough. \nHere: _URL_1_ \nDescribes horizontal gene transfer, where genes are transferred from one species to another without inheritance. in this case, btwn two species of ferns. \nHere: _URL_0_ \nDescribes how evolution can be 'accelerated' by environmental.stress, in this case, fish suddenly swept into cave environment evolving to become blind cave fish. \nSorry I don't have more, but i wanted to post something before you gave up on this post. \nHypothetically, if there is a way that the environment that an individual endures can cause its genetic 'download' to alter and increase the offspring's chances, that is itself also a survival trait and is likely to be added to the\n genome. Researchers are now mapping out these 'meta' survival traits.",
"Think of a hill with a bunch of rocks on it. There is an earthquake. The rounder rocks will roll further away from the hill than those less round.\n\nSo without agency (a mind, goal or propose), nature has just selected rounder rocks from less round.",
"Some points that might help you understand:\n\n1) mutations happen *A LOT*. Most of them mean nothing in the present circumstances, positive or negative. or so little as to mean nothing. so these accumulate and spread and diversify, creating little quirks and combining with other little 'nothing' mutations.\n\n2) Circumstances can happen a long long time after a mutation happens that cause a mutation to be either bad or good, especially in the case of disease, as a little quirk can easily mean the difference between resisting a disease or being more vulnerable to it. Being resistant to a viral disease rather than dying can also sometimes wind up incorporating some of that viral DNA or RNA into our 'germline' cells, and this can cause further mutations and changes.\n\nevolution tends to happen over an insanely long period of time. It's so big we cannot actually comprehend it. and all the little events that make up evolution are constantly happening.\n\nAlso, creating a mouth on a hand would cost a lot of energy and resources, limit the use of the hand, and would gain no benefits, so would be naturally eliminated. plus that change is too radical to happen in a single step generally speaking (Re-merged twins and such are process errors, not a change encoded into the DNA)",
"The reason we don't see the bad mutations is very simple. Fossilization is a very very rare process, it requires a very specific set of circumstances to happen which is why we generally have limited numbers of specimens to study. If only a handful of a given species are going to be preserved it is most likely going to be individuals with the most common traits.\n\n\nLook at it this way. Imagine if aliens randomly transported a few hundred people from Earth to their planet. What are the odds they would get an albino? A dwarf?"
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"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v513/n7518/full/nature13726.html"
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} | I guess I don't understand evolution. It is 100% purely random mutation?
So, I feel like a fucking idiot, here, because this has always confused me. I thought I understood the theory of evolution, but years ago I had my understanding of the concept turned upside down when someone explained to me that evolution does *not* mean that a species evolved in order to adapt. Rather, species evolve constantly due to mutation for no specific reason, and the ones that *just so happen to have evolutionary traits that help them adapt* are the ones that survive. Maybe it's because I grew up thinking that evolution had a reactionary part to it, but it's just hard for me to grasp the idea that we seem to only have evidence of species with evolutionary traits that seemed to serve a purpose in the environment. I mean, if evolution is truly random, is there a reason we don't have evidence of species with seemingly random traits, such as a mouth on ones hands? Maybe people just find a way to explain how the mutations of different species are beneficial, which gives the illusion that there is causation there, but I just feel like there's this veil over my ability to understand this that I'd love some clarity for. | [
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|
59hvnv | What are some energy sources better than electricity? | Its hard to define energy source when talking about electricity because everything runs off it, but for the sake of this, what are some things either:
A. If you designed a system around it, something could be powered by it. Example: pnuematics use electricity but also air.
B. Alternative ways of generating electricity that we just don't use for some reason. (preferably small scale, we all know nuclear and etc) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d99oqko",
"d98xwdy",
"d98y2wv",
"d9904ad"
],
"text": [
"There are some classic old standards: pressure, heat, mechanical energy, and chemical energy.\n\nPneumatic and hydraulic equipment runs off of pressure distributed through lines and controlled via valves. This is an incredibly common way to operate all manner of tools and equipment (jack hammers; impact wrenches; actuators for loaders, dump trucks, excavators; etc.).\n\nBefore electricity was common steam power used to be delivered by either heat/pressure or through mechanical transmission. For example, a steam generator might power a whole factory, transmitting power via rotating shafts, gears, chains, etc.\n\nToday there are many mechanisms for transferring heat energy, steam distribution, hot water, etc. Often these are for environmental control or personal use but sometimes they are used in industry as well.\n\nChemical energy is also routinely used and transferred around, and natural gas lines are one of the most common forms of this, though the gas/diesel pumps et al on automobiles fit the role as well. Special equipment is required to make effective use of the chemical energy at the destination but that's just as true of, say, pneumatic energy as well.\n\nLight can also be transmitted long distances as an energy source but it's not currently much used simply because of the abundance of electrical power. There are some use cases where light transmission (typically via conversion from/to electricity at both ends) is one of the only viable means of transmitting power. One interesting example would be a hypothetical space elevator. The transmission distances involved (thousands of kilometers) and other constraints mean you can't simply use a cable, but if you relied on natural solar power you wouldn't have enough power to climb to geosynchronous orbit very fast at all. But by shining very powerful lasers on carefully tuned photovoltaic cells you could transfer perhaps megawatts of power over thousands of kilometers quite readily.",
"Pressure is a big one. For example, lots of oil and gas wells have fairly complicated machinery attached to them that do things like heat the pipes so they don't freeze, drop moisture out of the gas, dose in antifreeze or chemical treatment fluids, etc. Most of the older technologies have no electrical inputs, they are entirely powered by the elevated pressure of the stuff coming out of the ground (and maybe a little combustion too). Pressure also fits with your pnuematic idea, though in my mind that is mostly just a transmission of power and not a source.\n\nAlso you can't forget combustion. A lot of times we are just using combustion to generate electricity, but 99% of our vehicles rely on combustion inside some kind of engine to turn chemical potential energy into power without ever creating electricity (besides through a little generator to power auxiliary equipment).\n\nRadiation (light) is a pretty large one. You can always turn that into electricity but you can also build a solar oven, power biology through photosynthesis, and out in space you can power a spacecraft with a light sail.\n\nAnd if we look a little more at things related to electricity we can find things like piezoelectricity and the thermoelectric effect. In the former you can generate electricity by applying force to an object and squeezing its crystal structure, used in a bunch of high tech stuff but also low tech light gas grill click-button lighters. The latter is something we can use to get minimal amounts of power out of low grade heat ([more here](_URL_0_)).",
"Ovens use heat....supplied by wood, coal, natural gas or electricity.\n\nCandles provide light while using oil and wax to provide the energy.\n\nCanons and guns run on explosive chemical reactions.\n\nSling shots use mechanical force.\n\nLiving things use chemical reactions to provide energy.",
"Mechanical energy is often transferred by spinning shafts and belts. You can also use gears, but those are really more useful for changing the rotation speed.\n\nThere's also chemical energy. It's how we get energy from food and air. We also use it to power cars, small generators, and quite a lot of power plants."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect"
]
} | What are some energy sources better than electricity?
Its hard to define energy source when talking about electricity because everything runs off it, but for the sake of this, what are some things either: A. If you designed a system around it, something could be powered by it. Example: pnuematics use electricity but also air. B. Alternative ways of generating electricity that we just don't use for some reason. (preferably small scale, we all know nuclear and etc) | [
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|
ikywh | Say I want to implant an RFID chip into myself. What can I do with it? | I believe that are some applications for paying with RFID chips (in upcoming smartphones, IIRC), but I was wondering if I could make a receiver linked to my door handle and open the door with a wave of my hand, or something related. Basically, what can an RFID implant do for me, how much does it cost, and where can I find some more information? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c24kqsg",
"c24ld7i",
"c24kubf",
"c24ll8o"
],
"text": [
"You could find yourself if you got lost.",
"Apparently you can get door lock setups with keycards for only [$14 each](_URL_1_), so you'd definitely want to at least wire up your house doors, car locks, and at least a few light switches and motorized blinds (~$100/window) in the bedroom. Maybe the computer, too- if you have a Gigabyte mobo you could wire up an RFID switch to your keyboard to trigger the \"turn on with keypress\" function. I don't know how difficult it'd be to reprogram these products to match your card, but it'd be worth it to be able to dim the bedroom lights by waving your hand at the wall by your bed (hide the RFID receivers behind the drywall).\n \nIf you have money to burn after all that you can also get this [hard drive](_URL_0_) to protect your secrets (while browsing Reddit on your neighbor's unsecured wifi).",
"I'm not sure how far this is from the private sector, but 3M is working with the US military to develop a system of passive RFID tags to access medical records. Perhaps this could be a possibility for you in the future, if not already.",
"Have you heard about the experiences of Dr. Mark Gasson? [He tried this experiment.](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
12,
6,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.buy.com/prod/buslink-disk-on-the-go-500-gb-external-hard-drive-usb-2-0-sata-2-5/q/loc/101/211423049.html",
"http://www.1topstore.com/product_info.php?language=en&currency=USD&products_id=13645",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10158517"
]
} | Say I want to implant an RFID chip into myself. What can I do with it?
I believe that are some applications for paying with RFID chips (in upcoming smartphones, IIRC), but I was wondering if I could make a receiver linked to my door handle and open the door with a wave of my hand, or something related. Basically, what can an RFID implant do for me, how much does it cost, and where can I find some more information? | [
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|
aylxlf | Does the US government run scientific experiments to determine if policies work? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"There are many cases in politics and government internationally where the lack of experimental evidence screwed things up. Therefore hopefully someone will learn from these mistakes and start running scientifically structured experiments on their policies. \n\n1) Randomised urine samples for marijuana use in prisons lead to prisoners switching to harder drugs that didn't show up in urine samples. Marijuana use declined but heroin use increased. \n\n2) A city/province in India had a bounty for a particular type of wild Cobra that was very dangerous and they wanted to get rid of them. You could catch and hand in a dead cobra for a reward. People started breeding the cobras at home to get the reward money. The government cancelled the scheme, so everyone released their farmed cobras into the wild. Cobra population increased massively.",
"In many cases, yes, but sociology is a difficult field to control variables for. The granularity of the data is limited and it can be difficult to determine the exact impact of any one initiative.\n\nIt's also difficult to really call them \"experiments\"; they best they can do approximate it because you can't randomly assign policies to just some people and see what happens. You just collect before and after data (or pay a third party to do it).",
"The US government is a very large organization, really an organization of organizations. (And I'm really only talking about the Federal level here — the fact that the US government is really multiple governments that intersect in complicated ways at different levels: federal, state, local.) Most government agencies have some kind of \"reporting requirement\" that makes them keep data of different sorts, and Congress can also demand that agencies generate data on specific topics. This data can be then analyzed either in-house or made public for analysis by others.\n\nThis is not a scientific experiment, though. They aren't setting up controls and rigorous methodologies and then getting peer review and then making determinations. That isn't anything like how government policy works, _even_ for agencies that actually are supposed to base their policies on scientific evidence (like, say, the CDC, the FDA, and the EPA). This gets especially complicated whenever any of the evidence butts up against the beliefs or desires of interest groups (whether they be political, religious, industrial, whatever). It should also be noted that our legal system does not particularly privilege scientific expertise.\n\nSo on the whole your answer is \"no,\" though they do often collect data, and do analysis, to see if policies are having the desired outcome (e.g., does crime drop if you change law X?). But the policy is not necessarily based on any of those results, either: it's a totally different pathway to make policy, and there are plenty of policies that have no basis in evidence whatsoever, in part because evidence is not the only thing that governments (or people) value. (For example, ideology, moral beliefs, and political capital are all certainly larger influences on US government policy than evidence. At best, evidence is deployed to back up these pre-existing structures.)\n\nThe work of Sheila Jasanoff (_Science at the Bar_, _The Fifth Branch_) is especially useful for looking at the ways in which science does and does not work in the US legal and federal regulatory systems. It is of note that the US system is somewhat unusual; several European governments (notably Germany and France) take a very different approach to scientific expertise, elevating it to a level somewhat above the political fray. This isn't necessarily _better_ (depends on the experts you listen to, and it depends on whether you think democratic input into these kinds of decisions is worthwhile), but it's different. The US system essentially elevated political argument and input to the highest level of importance (e.g., the approach is not, \"let's find the smartest person on this topic and do what they say,\" but \"let's open this up to argument and debate and see what happens\"), which has both positive and negative outcomes depending on the issue (it is easily captured by well-monied groups, like industrial representatives, but it also can allow people to have input on issues that affect them).",
"It's also very difficult when the government organisations which exist to capture, analyse and make conclusions on data is barred by legislation from investigating key national issues. \n\nLike say... the CDC and guns."
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} | Does the US government run scientific experiments to determine if policies work?
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8qt6je | Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
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Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e0luf0r",
"e0mdu69",
"e0lsk7e"
],
"text": [
"[Biology] What is the purpose of blood-sucking parasitic bugs/insects in nature such as ticks and horseflies besides being a nuisance? In other words, what is their significance to an ecosystem?",
"\\[Biology\\] How fast are hormones manufactured in the body? Do I have adrenaline, for example, stored somewhere ready to go on demand? or is it created/manufactured in the body as needed?",
"[Chemistry] I use a calcium chloride \"dri-z-air\" product in my basement which converts moisture in the air into some water-like substance that collects in a reservoir. What the heck is that stuff, ie what does the calcium chloride do to water vapor, is it dangerous in any way, and if so what should I be doing to protect myself and the environment?"
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3exo6p/askscience_panel_of_scientists_xiii/"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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qbnuu | What is the reason certain people have a stronger resistance to anasthesia? | The reason I ask is because Ive had 3 surgeries in my life. The first for wiring my broken jaw shut, second for rotator cuff surgery, and third for bone spurs in my elbow. The first surgery I had, the doctors ended up giving me the "cocktail" that is supposed to knock you out in seconds. However, i counted down from 10, looked around, and nothing happened. They ended up giving me a smaller additional dose two more times before I was finally out. The second surgery I needed a bit extra, but not like the first. The third surgery I knocked out instantly. What exactly is the reason some people need more than others? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Estimating your dose of anesthetic is done by the anesthetists based on your body weight and the average response. Its not unreasonable to expect that sometimes they wont have given you enough for immediate effect and you need a few extra miligrams. Safer to err on the side of caution than give you too much and spend all day trying to wake you at the other end ( or drop your BP into your boots). Factors which influence your dose/response include;\n\nage\n\ngender\n\nbody weight (especially in obese )\n\nestimate volume of distribution ( your fat Vs muscle will affect this, as well as the individual lipid solubility of the drug ) and estimated clearance ( your liver function/ renal function )\n\nindividual genetics \n\nother medications\n\nA anesthetist then titrates his dose to your response and to your heart rate /blood pressure and your ability to tolerate the changes in this.",
"Mutations in specific genes. Redheads for example need up to 20% more anesthesia to achieve the same results as in blondes, brunettes.\n\nMetabolism of each person is different too. Though this has nothing to do with resistance per se.\n\nMostly mutations in genes it's believed coupled with human error on the anesthesiologist part.",
"To address your specific case, you probably got different doses each time. There are no hard and fast rules about how much induction agent to use, although we can estimate on a mg/kg basis how much you will need, and they are titrated to effect. Unless there is a medical indication for a rapid induction, I personally prefer to work it in a little slower, rather than slamming a full induction dose in over a few seconds as some anesthesiologists do.\n\nAs for why some people need more anesthetics than others for the same physiologic effects, that is a much more complicated question that I don't have the strength to answer today.",
"So... Fun story. When I was 17 I had a mapping and ablation (out patient percedure...) they used catheters inserted in my hip area rather than cutting my chest open, they used the tubes to preform the surgery while viewing an X-ray of my chest.\n\nSO\nWhile I'm sitting on the table and they are attaching all the nodes, the anesthesiologist is all \" my goodness! You are such a delight! Such a tiny thing!\" (awkward because I'm totally naked and he is male and I'm female, just sitting there red as a beat)\nSo I'm knocked out before I know it and the next thing I know is I'm awake about 15 minutes before the surgery is over and the doctor is saying things like \"don't move...almost done\" (I'm squirming, there's this huge tube pulling in and out of my leg, doesn't feel pleasant) \n\nI think it was because I was so skinny, and the anesthesiologist wasn't used to people like me... And I don't blame him for it, I feel a little bit more badass from it.\n\nSorry if it doesn't answer your question, just a personal experience with the situation =]"
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} | What is the reason certain people have a stronger resistance to anasthesia?
The reason I ask is because Ive had 3 surgeries in my life. The first for wiring my broken jaw shut, second for rotator cuff surgery, and third for bone spurs in my elbow. The first surgery I had, the doctors ended up giving me the "cocktail" that is supposed to knock you out in seconds. However, i counted down from 10, looked around, and nothing happened. They ended up giving me a smaller additional dose two more times before I was finally out. The second surgery I needed a bit extra, but not like the first. The third surgery I knocked out instantly. What exactly is the reason some people need more than others? | [
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nf1mw | Have we found ANY proof of the string/m-theory since the past 5~ years? | My questions actually sums up to those below, I just needed a title. However if any other particle or whatever have been proved dont hesitate to fill me in!
Have supersymmetry sparticles been found?
Have gravitons been caught escaping?
CERN or not, im interested. | askscience | {
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"No, as of now String Theory is still a mathematical theory that explains current observations but none of its' additional predictions about the universe have been proven. To suitably test String Theory predictions we would need an incredibly large particle accelerator and that quite a ways a in the future.(Think energy 10^14 greater than the LHC)\n\n \n \n\n \nThere hasn't been any direct evidence of supersymmetry, *but* scientists at the LHC have made some tantalizing progress recently towards finding the Higgs particle which if found may lead to progress with Supersymmetry. [Article on recent Higgs news](_URL_0_)\n\n \n \n\n\nGravitons have not been observed and may never be, jimmycorpse answered this recently very well\n\n > The problem is that gravity is by far the weakest interaction (as shown in the table here). We have trouble detecting neutrinos, which take part in the weak interaction. Gravity is 10-25 times weaker than the weak interaction.\n\n > To put it very roughly, if we had a detector that detected both neutrinos and gravitions, we'd only detect 1 graviton for every 10^25 neutrinos we detect. Just to get some perspective, SNO, a giant neutrino detector that helped solve the solar neutrino problem, detected about 10 neutrinos per day. If there were the same number of gravitons floating around as neutrinos it would take our detector 10^21 years to detect a graviton.\n\n > This is very rough of course, and we'd optimize the experiment a bit, but even in the most ideal conditions it's not very feasible.",
"First things first, and I feel like a broken record here, **there is no such thing as proof in science**. We're at the stage right now where any evidence we do find in favor of string theory would be circumstantial and would have plausible explanations in other theories. You start to really believe a theory when these sorts of experimental evidence begin to accrue in a way that no other theory really does a nice job of explaining.\n\nIf you want evidence for string theory, look to cosmology. I'll guarantee you that if we find evidence to support string theory in the next few decades, it's going to come from the sky rather than from a particle accelerator. The upcoming Planck data could be quite interesting (although I wouldn't be *too* optimistic about it): the things to watch out for are B-mode polarization and non-Gaussianities, both of which could provide us with information about the inflationary era, and inflation could very well probe energies at which string theory operates.\n\nLooking towards the future, there are lots of other interesting ideas to get potentially stringy information from the skies in the coming decades. One intriguing one we're just starting to hear about is using the distribution of galaxies to get information about primordial non-Gaussianity. There are predictions that those data could beat the Planck data within even a decade or so. The really exciting thing to look forward to, though, is the second generation of space-based gravity wave detectors, which have a real shot of detecting the primordial gravitational wave background. This is a background of gravitational waves analogous to the cosmic microwave background, except that while the CMB was emitted 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the gravitational wave background would have been emitted a tiny fraction of a second after the Big Bang, a consequence of the fact that gravity is so much weaker than electromagnetism. The gravitational wave background has the potential to provide information on inflation and other early universe phenomena which may have stringy origins.\n\nThis is probably our best shot at finding strings in the sky in the somewhat near future, but the prospects are looking dimmer. LISA, a first-generation space-based gravity wave detector, just had its funding pulled by NASA. The Europeans are going through with it, but it's a significant delay, and until LISA is up and getting data and letting us know what to expect, the next generation of detectors - the ones which would really probe the gravitational wave background - are still going to be a pipe dream. So bug your congressman!",
"There is no experimental evidence for string theory. The evidence, such as it is, is theoretical, and comes from the fact that string theory is a theory of quantum gravity. That is to say, it is a theory which is consistent with both the rules of quantum mechanics as well as general relativity in appropriate limits. \n\nTheories of quantum gravity are extremely difficult to construct, and string theory is by far the most convincing such theory. This is the primary reason why string theory is taken seriously by many physicists. However, as there is no experimental evidence - and no immediate prospects for direct experimental verification (despite what some people may say) - string theory should at this point be regarded as somewhat speculative.\n\nAs others have mentioned the \"smoking gun\" experimental signatures of string theory are completely out of reach of current accelerators. There may be some indirect experimental signatures (from cosmology, for example) but I do not think this is particularly likely in the near future.\n\n > Have supersymmetry sparticles been found? Have gravitons been caught escaping?\n\nNo to both of these. Note that the existence of supersymmetry and gravitons are logically independent of string theory, although they are related. \n\nString theory predicts supersymmetry, but not necessarily at an energy scale which would be observable with current accelerators. Supersymmetry is a theory of particle physics independent of string theory, so if supersymmetry were discovered this does not necessarily imply string theory is correct (though it would be strong circumstantial evidence). It is a possibility that supersymmetry will be discovered at the LHC. Indeed the latest results on the Higgs mass make me marginally more optimistic about seeing supersymmetry at the LHC, but we will probably not have a clear picture of the experimental evidence for several years.\n\nGravitons are a very general prediction of quantum mechanics and general relativity, and are not specific to string theory. The experimental prospects for observing them directly are quite poor, although in some theories of inflationary cosmology there are indirect effects due to gravitons in the early universe which are observable by current satellite experiments.\n\nBy the way, as others have noted, we usually don't \"prove\" things in science. We gather evidence which supports a theory, and eventually if enough convincing evidence is gathered the theory is generally accepted as correct. There is a sense in which there is strong \"theoretical\" evidence for string theory, as mentioned above, but in order to truly believe a theory of physics one needs experimental evidence.",
"[This article](_URL_1_) provides a good summary.\n\nBut in short, no. Those theories aren't mature to the point of being tested. These things take time. The Higgs was theorized in the 60s or 70s and we're looking for it now. Black hole's were theorized in the 1700s and not detected until the 70s. Bose-Einstein condensation was predicted in the 20s and achieved in the 90s."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21279-lhc-sees-hint-of-lightweight-higgs-boson.html",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1112.0788"
]
} | Have we found ANY proof of the string/m-theory since the past 5~ years?
My questions actually sums up to those below, I just needed a title. However if any other particle or whatever have been proved dont hesitate to fill me in! Have supersymmetry sparticles been found? Have gravitons been caught escaping? CERN or not, im interested. | [
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|
v41ed | Is the ISS AC or DC? | Stop, I know what you were thinking! But seriously, does the equipment on the space station run on AC or DC power? If it's AC, how do you ground anything? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The solar arrays produce 160V DC, which is then stepped down to 120V DC for usage.",
"AC is primarily used for sending power long distances.",
"BiPolah's right that it's mostly 120V DC, but that's only for the U.S. side and modules dependent on it. The Russian side uses lower-voltage DC ([this site says 28V](_URL_0_)) and the two sides' system are bridged by a DC-DC converter.\n\nMy memory tells me it also uses the aerospace-standard 400 Hz AC power for some things, but I can't find anything to back that up so I may be misremembering. But to answer your second question, yes it is possible to use AC in space or on planes and is routinely done. There's really no difference in principle between AC and DC in grounding needs, flying things just use themselves as the reference \"0 volts\".\n\nSometimes they can build up a voltage relative to some other object (like the runway they're about to land on or a spacewalking astronaut about to touch something) so they'll use mechanisms to \"ground themselves\" to the surrounding environment: for airplanes look for brush-shaped *static wicks* on the trailing edges of wings, for the ISS apparently they use a small ion gun to shoot excess charge off into space -- at least that's my impression from the section called *Plasma Contactor* [in this article](_URL_1_). Which, thanks for asking this question, because I had no idea about!",
"Well thank you for educating me. One last question, and purely to educate me, could you use AC power in space, or for an aircraft in the air, or do they have to be DC?",
"> If it's AC, how do you ground anything?\n\nYou don't have to, at least not to the earth. Voltages are not an absolute scale - you have to choose what counts as zero volts. For aircraft, you reference the zero voltage to the fuselage.",
"I thank you all for the incredible education."
],
"score": [
7,
5,
4,
3,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/solar_arrays.html",
"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs06grc.html"
]
} | Is the ISS AC or DC?
Stop, I know what you were thinking! But seriously, does the equipment on the space station run on AC or DC power? If it's AC, how do you ground anything? | [
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30099u | What is energy? | I understand that energy is essentially the ability or potential to do work and it has various forms, kinetic, thermal, radiant, nuclear, etc. I don't understand what it is though. It can not be created or destroyed but merely changes form. Is it substance or an aspect of matter? I don't understand. | askscience | {
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"There's really no satisfying definition beyond \"the quantity that is conserved over time.\" This may sound arbitrary and ad hoc but it emerges from this deep mathematical principal called Noether's theorem that states that for each symmetry (in this case, staying the same while moving forward or backwards in time), there is something that is conserved. In this context, momentum is the thing that is conserved over distance, and angular momentum is the thing that is conserved through rotations.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI less rigorous explanation is that it's essentially the currency used by physical systems to undergo change.\n\nedit: I have since been aware that today is Emmy Noether's 133rd birthday and the subject of the Google Doodle.",
"Nobody can explain it better than Feynman: _URL_1_",
"If you want to grasp the very accurate meaning of energy, you should stick to the mathematical definition. Other definitions are less rigorous but help people make an image of it. Stating it is the ability to do work is unfair: because not *every* energy can be converted to work, and defining *work* rigorously also requires some effort. \n\nJust like we define velocity to be distance over time, an energy is any term which can be part of a certain conservation law. For example, the terms in the expression for the [first law of thermodynamics](_URL_2_) are called *energies* and they receive particular names based on other physical quantities that can be related to them.",
"> There is a fact, or if you wish, a *law*, governing all natural phenomena that are known to date. There is no exception to this law - it is exact so far as we know. The law is called *conservation of energy*. It states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in the manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity which does not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number and when we finish watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same. (Something like the bishop on a red square, and after a number of moves -details unknown- it is still on some red square. It is a law of this nature.) Since it is an abstract idea, we shall illustrate the meaning of it by an analogy... \n\nand he goes on to talk about a kid given 28 absolutely indestructible blocks to play with and at the end of the day, some goes under the rug yada yada... Whatever happens the number of blocks are the same (28). \n\n > ... It is important to realize that in physics today, we have no knowledge of what energy *is*. We do not have a picture that energy comes in little blobs of a definite amount. It is not that way. However, there are formulas for calculating some numerical quantity, and when we add it all together it gives \"28\" - always the same number. It is an abstract thing in that it does not tell us the mechanism or the *reasons* for the various formulas\n \n*The Feynman Lectures On Physics Volume I - Chapter 4.1 What is energy?*",
"To give you a direct (but very limited) partial response:\n\n > Is it substance or an aspect of matter?\n\nEnergy is not a substance. If by \"aspect\" you mean things like velocity, weight, and momentum, then yes, energy is an aspect. But I wouldn't use that word; I'd call it a property. (It's a property of matter, and also of other things.)",
"The situation here, I believe, is analogous to one addressed by the axiomatic method.\n\nThe modern way to do Geometry (after the style of [David Hilbert](_URL_3_)) is to start by specifying several terms that you're going to avoid defining (he used 'point', 'line', 'plane', 'incidence/lies on', 'between', and 'congruent'). You then set down some axioms that establish the relationships between the undefined terms. From there, the process of proving theorems is a sort of exploration of the space you created by combining those undefined terms with those axioms. It is necessary to leave the terms undefined because if you try to define them you end up with unnecessary complexity and, ultimately, circularity.\n\nSince scientists care about whether or not the characters in their stories actually exist, you're less likely to find them saying something like:\n > Oh *that*? That's just something I made up in order to make a point about this other thing.\n\nBut whether you're describing Elliptic Geometry, or you're describing Reality, you're still bound by the limits of description--and at some point you're going to have to do exactly that.\n\nIf I had to take a stab at listing the undefined terms for our current description of reality, they would be: \n\n* mass/energy\n* space/time\n* information\n* observer\n\nI'm more mathematician than scientist, so I bet others could come up with a better list (though I bet 'energy' would be on it). The point remains, however. These are the brush strokes that science uses to paint us a picture of reality. If you want somebody to paint you a picture of energy, they're going to need a different set of brushes.\n\nI imagine that one could come up with quite a number of alternate theories that would fit experimental data just as well as our current ones, and that would provide a very satisfying definition of energy. Those theories would probably have their own, different, undefined terms--and they would struggle similarly to find definitions for those.",
"Like /u/vingnote says, mathematical concept is likely going to be stronger. To go deeper, let's list things and separate them into things we directly measure, and things we calculate (note, there's lots of room to nitpick and quibble over what is actually directly measured vs calculated from a related measurement, but let's not get into that).\n\nWe directly measure things like length, time and mass. We indirectly measure things like speed, acceleration, force and momentum. Speed is length/time, acceleration is speed/time, force is mass*acceleration and momentum is mass*speed. In some sense these are all things that are calculated instead of measured. You don't measure the momentum of a football player running at you, you measure his mass and his speed and then calculate the momentum. You don't measure the force of spring, you measure the object's mass and its acceleration and calculate the force of the spring.\n\nOver time, though, we develop an understanding and intuition of what those things mean. It helps that while growing up we regularly encounter instances of these things: we get hit by a bug and a ball going the same speed, but we know one has more momentum because it hurts more.\n\nSo, the same is true about energy. Kinetic energy is just 1/2mass*speed^2. Potential energy is different for each conservative force, but is also calculated. We may or may not have the same level of intuition with these mathematical quantities, but that doesn't make them any less useful.\n\nThe thing of it is, that the mathematics and the universe don't really care about the labels we give stuff. So whether we think about a force acting on a mass or we talk about the energy changing from potential to kinetic doesn't matter; it gets us to the same answer in the end.\n\nDoes that mean energy *isn't* some true piece of the universe and is instead a trick? Well, it turns out, no. Or rather, that even space and mass and time are also \"tricks\". Us labeling these things doesn't make them actually separate entities from the universe. The universe just does what it does. We create the labels. So the universe does stuff and we sometime find it easier to label things as mass and distance and time, but other time we find it easier to label things as energy and space-time. Or whatever.",
"Think of it as \"potential\". Every form of energy is like a reservoir of such a potential. A water dam literally is a reservoir full of water - which literally holds *potential* energy that can be used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. For that the water has to fall down those big tubes, losing potential energy which (most of it) is converted into electricity in the turbine. The water once past the damn lost \"potential\" because it is now deeper in the gravity field of Earth. Using this example you can also see that we need a difference in \"potentials\" in order for the \"energy\" to move from one of these potentials down to a new potential state and in the process by some means enable us to extract some and convert it to a useful form from that flow.\n\nA radioactive nucleus holds \"potential\" for us because it can be made to explode into smaller nuclei (which are at a lower \"potential\" - iron is the lowest potential between the nuclei in the periodic system and the isotope range). And we extract the explosion heat to make electricity.\n\nThermal radiation is the flow coming from a huge potential, a sun for example, and we can directly tap it e.g. with a solar cell.\n\nEtc etc\n\nAnd it cannot be destroyed, as for it to flow it needs to flow somewhere, to a new potential e.g. Or sit in the old state. Both don't enable destruction of energy. And if we convert some form of energy to another, all we are doing is tap a flow between potentials, and load some other potential, that for now shall store our energy until we need it. E.g. I can tap the voltage potential difference in the electrical outlet to drive a chemical reaction: I can boil one of these chemical heater packages to \"rejuvenate\" it. Now I stored potential to heat my hands in the package until I need it....\n\nBut those packages also work with an entropy trick. To fully understand the idea that energy is a \"potential\" and flows between \"potential differences\", you also need to look at entropy, because sometimes energy vanishes into a weird shape that isn't easily realized: Entropy.",
"To piggy back on OP, where is energy stored??\n\nSay when you pick up an object it gains potential energy, is there a location for this energy? Is it like an invisible rubberband between the object and the Earth or?",
"Way late to the game, but the definition of energy that satisfied me the most is that it is the currency of action/motion.",
"Coming late to the party here, but I feel like I can add something that's been missing: an intuitive explanation of energy in terms of something familiar to most people's experience. \n\nLet me preface this not-at-all-rigorous explanation with a disclaimer: questions of the form \"What *is* X?\" in science can't all be answered, ultimately. We can only explain something you don't know about in terms of something else that you do, so ultimately there have to be some *primitives*: some terms that you don't have a definition for.\n\nIn particular, let's take 'force' and 'movement' as primitive notions. These are intuitively familiar to pretty much everyone. Force is what makes things move. All of our tactile interactions with the world involve exerting and feeling force.\n\nThese are good starting points because they're so familiar. It's possible to talk about quite a few more abstract concepts in terms of force and movement without even bringing math in. \n\nSo here goes:\n\n- Friction is a force you have to push against when you slide something across a surface or push it through a fluid. Stop pushing, and the thing will stop sliding or pushing through, because of the friction. If you take away the friction, like by floating in space or sliding on a super slippery surface, then when you push on something it will go and keep going.\n\n- In the no-friction example, not all objects are created equal. Push a little toy car and it'll get going real fast. Push against a full-size car just as hard and it barely budges, even with zero friction. The big car has more intrinsic resistance to being pushed. That resistance is called inertia.\n\n- Are those two examples good? Okay, now for energy. Take two objects of the same size - same inertia - in a situation where they are moving and ignore friction. Like a thrown ball. If you try to catch a fast-moving ball, it takes a lot more force than the slow one; sometimes to the point where it hurts! The faster moving one takes a lot more force to slow down than the slow one. So there's a property of movement here: the faster something is moving, the harder it is to change its speed. And it gets a LOT harder - an object moving twice as fast is four times as hard to stop! That's the object's (kinetic) energy.\n\n- Other forms of energy are, when you get down to the brass tacks of it, definable and measurable in terms of basic kinetic energy like I described. Thermal energy relates to little micro-movements of matter that are essentially the same as the macro-movements you're familiar with. Electromagnetic and nuclear energies are defined in terms of how much good-old pushing they can do to everyday objects, and so on.\n\nNow before anyone chimes in about all the stuff I missed (conservation laws, relationship to momentum, etc.), please keep in mind that the excellent top posts on this thread already cover those things. I'm trying for the simplest plain-english explanation without introducing grievous errors or misunderstandings. I hope this does someone some good :)",
"I've seen a lot of New Age BS in this thread along with a lot of people giving definitions which shouldn't. The answer is we do not know. It is a something that within the Universe is never created or destroyed insomuch that we have seen experimentally. It is something that depending in which reference frame you are in is a certain value and is conserved in all interactions. Look up Noether's theorem and you'll see that for every symmetry in this Universe, there is an associated conserved current. For rotational symmetery it is Conservation of Angular Momentum, for translational symmetry it is Conservation of Linear Momentum. For time translations, something called Energy is conserved.",
"Definitely not a substance.\n\nThe energy of a physical system (like a person holding a rock on top of a tower) is a number you can compute. Under certain assumptions the number will not change with time. The number expresses in some sense how much \"work\" the system is capable of doing."
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I understand that energy is essentially the ability or potential to do work and it has various forms, kinetic, thermal, radiant, nuclear, etc. I don't understand what it is though. It can not be created or destroyed but merely changes form. Is it substance or an aspect of matter? I don't understand. | [
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28mwft | Beside gravity and dark matter, what's the biggest problem with the Standard Model? | There's a growing list of problems associated with the Standard Model but what I would love to know what in your opinion is the biggest problem, experimental or theoretical (besides gravity and dark matter), and why? | askscience | {
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"A few more that I can think of:\n\n* **Neutrino masses** - The Standard Model has massless neutrinos, but we know they have some non-zero mass (for example, we see neutrinos changing type as they come to us from the Sun, which means they have to have mass). What are the details of how they acquire this mass, and what consequences (e.g., new particles) are there?\n* **Strong CP problem** - Why doesn't quantum chromodynamics (the theory of the strong nuclear force) violate [CP symmetry](_URL_0_)? The Standard Model allows interactions which break this, but these interactions seem not to be present. Either there's an unnatural fine-tuning of parameters, or there's new physics. One popular proposal for solving this problem introduces a new particle called the axion.\n* **Higgs mass** - Why is the mass we measure for the Higgs boson so much smaller than the Planck mass? We would expect that quantum effects from new particles arising near the Planck scale should contribute an effective mass to the Higgs which would be huge, far larger than we realize. One possible explanation is [supersymmetry](_URL_1_), which would fix this, but supersymmetry is in an uncertain experimental state right now.",
"It's UGLY. Physics has a trend to go from really cumbersome and ugly mathematics and as we go more and more fundamental, things tend to get more aesthetically pleasing. Electricity and magnetism merge to electromagnetism. Electromagnetism and optics merge into electrodynamics. Electrodynamics and classical mechanics merge to special relativity. Gravity and mechanics merge to general relativity. And so on and so forth.\n\nEventually, you get to the Electroweak theory and, ultimately, the standard model. It is hysterically ugly. When I first learned the EW theory, I was mad. I was so disappointed that this was our most fundamental theory.\n\nMost physicists expect that physics should have a very simple final theory. All the results in the SM are too arbitrary for nature to have picked them. There must be a simpler theory that has the standard model as a low energy approximation.\n\nSo in a lot of cases, many physicists don't even bother trying to solve individual problems and just try to pull back to find a more fundamental theory in anticipation that the rest of the ugly stuff (neutrino mass, C/P/T violations, etc) will be answered as a side bonus.",
"The main fundamental issue with the standard model is its lack of mathematical rigour: the quantum field theories that comprise it all have limits beyond which they don't work, and we make them work up to that limit through this mathematical technique called renormalization. There are a number of free parameters in the standard model (including particle masses and coupling constants) that can't be derived from something more fundamental but are only known experimentally. This isn't really my area of expertise, so someone can give a better explanation.\n\nIt is hoped that something beyond the standard model would predict the same physics with fewer free parameters, suggest a natural connection between the different interactions, and function smoothly to arbitrarily high energy. Things like supersymmetry attempt to do this.\n\nGravity isn't really a problem for the standard model because it doesn't attempt to describe gravitational interactions."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP-symmetry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry"
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} | Beside gravity and dark matter, what's the biggest problem with the Standard Model?
There's a growing list of problems associated with the Standard Model but what I would love to know what in your opinion is the biggest problem, experimental or theoretical (besides gravity and dark matter), and why? | [
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|
7sy8vq | Does force influence the density of a fluid? | So we have been experiencing liquid losses at the plant I'm working at and we haven't been able to figure out what the problem is. We have the known amount of liquid going into a tank (known amount is in pounds) and we have a flowmeter on the outlet of the tanks. I'm wondering if the force of the pump on the liquid could increase the density of the fluid in the pipes and cause a false reading at the flowmeter.
EDIT: The fluids we use are Non-Newtonian | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dt8frlm",
"dt8fjp7",
"dt8g4fc"
],
"text": [
"Technically, yes. Practically speaking, no.\n\nThe density of a material does change as pressure is applied to it. The constant of proportionality is called the [bulk modulus](_URL_0_). Gases have a low bulk modulus, liquids have a high one, and solids have an extremely high one. Because of this, liquids and solids are generally considered to be \"incompressible\" except at extremely high pressures. So unless your pump has an outlet pressure of like 500MPa or more, density changes probably aren't your issue.",
"I don't know if this helps but I seem to recall some flow meters need to know the viscosity to get an accurate flow. I have used a flow meter perviously to measure the flow of a shear-thinning fluid (non-newtonian) fluid that automatically calculated it for accurate flow readings.",
"Not to a significant degree. For a force to alter the density of a fluid, you would need alter its volume. Liquids are difficult to compress, and unless these pumps are operate at pressures orders of magnitude above 1 atm, you won't see any meaningful density increase. Here's a chart denoting the compressibility factor for some common liquids."
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_modulus"
]
} | Does force influence the density of a fluid?
So we have been experiencing liquid losses at the plant I'm working at and we haven't been able to figure out what the problem is. We have the known amount of liquid going into a tank (known amount is in pounds) and we have a flowmeter on the outlet of the tanks. I'm wondering if the force of the pump on the liquid could increase the density of the fluid in the pipes and cause a false reading at the flowmeter. EDIT: The fluids we use are Non-Newtonian | [
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|
9061k4 | Was the Truman Show delusion a thing before The Truman Show existed? | My understanding of this delusion is that it deals with someone who believes their whole life is a TV show. So, did this delusion exist before the movie? Or was it brought on by the movie? What was it called before the movie? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e2oav94",
"e2of0ci",
"e2oslun",
"e2ojzyo"
],
"text": [
"Not sure if this is what you mean but there is something called the [spotlight effect ](_URL_0_)",
"If you look at the Wikipedia page, it's not exactly clear. What I summed up is that the concept existed in literature for a while, Phillip K. Dick wrote a novel with a similar plot. The actual delusions, while not an official condition, have only been observed by the guys who coined the term in 2008. \n\n_URL_1_",
"I felt that way as a child. I remember when the movie came out, '95 I think, it gave me bad nightmares, and I felt like my fear had come to fruition. It didn't last for me, though. As I got older something changed, and now I know there's nothing so special about me that anyone would want to watch it all the time.",
"I don't know about the specific Truman Show delusion (that someone is living a reality TV show) but there are a broad range of grandiose delusions where someone believes they are inordinately special or different from everyone else around them. \n\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
14,
6,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotlight_effect",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Truman_Show_delusion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandiose_delusions"
]
} | Was the Truman Show delusion a thing before The Truman Show existed?
My understanding of this delusion is that it deals with someone who believes their whole life is a TV show. So, did this delusion exist before the movie? Or was it brought on by the movie? What was it called before the movie? | [
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3849rg | How come in Physics we can round off numbers willy nilly? | Doing A-Level Maths and Physics. In Maths you almost always have to keep the majority of the figures in a number.
Example one: The number 147.673. In maths you would pretty much always leave it to the 3dp, but in physics you might round it to anything from 100, 150, 148 and so on, depending on the equation and the numbers used before.
Why is it that in physics, removing a large portion of the significant figures is fine and normal? It doesn't make a large amount of sense to me. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Someone asked a very similar question the other day and it got a lot of good answers, so I'd recommend you [read those answers](_URL_0_) (I linked directly to my favorite response). But here's my quick take on it. Numbers in math are ideal. If I ask you to solve the equation x^2 = 2, the answer is exactly sqrt(2), even though that has an infinite number of decimals - it's 1.41421356... where the ... means it keeps going on forever. If you round, it's usually because you don't have enough space for the full answer (in the case of sqrt(2), it's because you don't have an infinitely long sheet of paper).\n\nIn physics or other experimental sciences, you can only ever measure a quantity to some finite accuracy. So if a measurement you make is only accurate to the third decimal place, then if it comes out with the number 1.414, you can't just write 1.4140000, because the real answer might be 1.41414131, or 1.41402492, or anything else. When you manipulate that number - multiplying it by something else, for instance - then you can only keep up to 3 decimal places, because your measurement was only ever good for that many to begin with, and it wouldn't be honest to pretend that you can get a more accurate answer.",
"Your reported answer in sciences should reflect the accuracy to which you know it. If your measurements allow you only 3 digits of accuracy, then so be it. For instance, a 12-inch ruler you may have lying around the house probably has one side for centimeters, perhaps with millimeter hashes as well. It would not make sense for you to be able to measure a length with that ruler and report any value with accuracy beyond millimeters.",
"When measuring things in the real world, there is uncertainty related to the measurement. When using a ruler, I may often get an answer 0.1 mm wrong, sometimes 0.2 mm wrong and occasionally 0.3 mm wrong, for example. That's why physicists usually specify their results of the form foo ± bar. For example, if I measured a length at 425.1735 mm, and had studied how accurate my ruler is and found the error to be less than 0.257 mm 68% of the time (68% may seem a bit arbitrary, but it is based on properties of the [normal distribution](_URL_5_), the most common shape errors take), I would quote the result as ´425.1735 mm ± 0.257 mm´. The last number is the [standard deviation](_URL_5_), and indicates the typical size of errors.\n\nWhen specifying the uncertainty explicitly, the number of digits you quote is mostly a question of convenience. Since my measurement is typically off by about 0.26 mm, I can safely drop the last few digits of my result without losing much real accuracy. For example, if I drop the last two digits I would be moving 0.0035 mm away from the most likely answer, effectively introducing an extra error terms. Uncorrelated errors add in quadrature, so this would bring the total standard deviation up to sqrt((0.257 mm)²+(0.0035 mm)²) = 0.257024 mm, which is practically the same. So we can safely drop a few digits.\n\nWe can use our knowledge of the uncertainty to quantify how [statistically significant](_URL_5_) a change in any given digit would be. A change in the last digit, for example from 425.1735 mm to 425.1730 mm, is a change of -0.0005 mm, which is 514 times less than the standard deviation. We usually consider a change to be statistically significant if it is at least two times lager than the standard deviation, so the last digit is definitely not significant. The same holds for the next three digits (51, 5 and 0.5 times less than the uncertainty). So we are left with 4 significant digits: 425.1 mm.\n\nIf we know that we only quote the significant digits, then we can to some extent make do without specifying the uncertainty explicitly. So instead of writing 425.174 mm ± 0.257 mm, I could simply write 425.1 mm. This is much more compact and less tedious to deal with. But it is also less informative, as one now suddenly has only a vague idea of the standard deviation (to within a factor of 10).\n\nI work in physics (astronomy to be precise) and I rarely use the [significant figures](_URL_5_) framework for calculating. I and my colleagues use [full error propagation](_URL_5_) instead.\n\nTLDR: In physics there is uncertainty which needs to be indicated somehow. This can either be done by explicitly giving the standard deviation, or by only quoting the significant digits. If you don't specify the uncertainty explicitly, it will be assumed that all your digits are significant. That is why people bug you about using too many digits.",
"If I wanted to know the average acceleration of gravity, say, at the surface of the Earth, I know the radius is about 6,371 km, the mass is about 5.972e24 kg, and G is 6.67384e-11 m^3 / (kg s^2 ).\n\nI would use all of those numbers as they are, then round the result to four significant digits because that's the least precise of my initial numbers. Instead of 9.819296623, which is what Google's calculator gives me, I use 9.819 m/s^2 .\n\nIf I just wanted a ballpark figure I'd use 6400, 6.0e24, and 6.7e-11, and I'd get 9.814, but since I only had two significant digits in my numbers, I could only claim to have gotten 9.8 m/s^2 .\n\nBut sometimes people have to be very precise in physics. Quantum Electrodynamics is famously [\"the most precisely tested theory in the history of science\"](_URL_6_):\n\n > Experimental tests of QED measure small shifts, but to an absurd number of decimal places. The most impressive of these is the “anomalous magnetic moment of the electron,” expressed is terms of a number g whose best measured value is:\n\n > g/2 = 1.001 159 652 180 73 (28)",
"It might be better to reword the question as, \"when doing physics problems it is possible to generate increasingly long series of decimal points through math operations. Which ones should be kept?\".\n\nAny measurement starts with an error. Even if I'm very accurate measuring length to A +/- A/10,000 if I'm taking that result to powers or adding it to something less accurate I have to carry the resulting error along in my calculations. \n\nLet's say I'm predicting the expected temperature of my pool based on solar heating. I can estimate the volume fairly accurately but not the loss due to radiant heating in the pumps or the direct amount of solar radiance absorbed. If I say \"temperature delta is heat input divided by volume factor minus losses\" terms with high errors could dominate. The error is included in the calculations. You have to carry them along as fractions of the original values and perform all the same operations on the error. The calculated total error provides guidance about how many decimal places to keep."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/37x4fr/why_do_we_use_significant_figures/crqij0v",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_significance",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_of_uncertainty",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figures",
"http://scienceblogs.com/principles/2011/05/05/the-most-precisely-tested-theo/"
]
} | How come in Physics we can round off numbers willy nilly?
Doing A-Level Maths and Physics. In Maths you almost always have to keep the majority of the figures in a number. Example one: The number 147.673. In maths you would pretty much always leave it to the 3dp, but in physics you might round it to anything from 100, 150, 148 and so on, depending on the equation and the numbers used before. Why is it that in physics, removing a large portion of the significant figures is fine and normal? It doesn't make a large amount of sense to me. | [
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|
3cjkvv | AskScience AMA Series: Hello Reddit! I'm Dr. William “Trey” Driggers, Fisheries Research Biologist for NOAA's Southeast Fisheries Science Center Laboratory in Pascagoula, Mississippi. I conduct research on sharks within U.S. waters. AMA! | Hello Reddit - Dr. Trey Driggers here to answer your questions about sharks! As shark experts here at NOAA, we love sharks and want to better understand and protect them. Sharks are absolutely vital to the health of the ecosystems they inhabit. Additionally, some shark species represent an important resource for the commercial and recreational fishing communities.
As a shark biologist with NOAA Fisheries, my job is to monitor trends in abundance of coastal sharks in U.S. waters off the East Coast and throughout the northern Gulf of Mexico. To do this, my colleagues and I spend a couple of months each year collecting important information about various shark species from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina to Brownsville, Texas. The resulting data are used by stock assessment analysts to determine if population levels are increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant. Other areas of my research include examining the behavior, distribution, growth, habitat use, and reproduction of sharks.
I’ll be here from 11:00am ET through 1:00pm ET today answering your questions about sharks as well as what it’s like to study these amazing fish… AMA!
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
We are out of time, but I want to thank you all for your questions and your interest in sharks. Thanks for spending a little bit of #NOAA #SharkWeek with me. If you’re interested in learning more about sharks, the work that NOAA Fisheries and others do to conserve and protect sharks, and how you can help, please visit some of the following sites:
Southeast Regional Office Shark FAQs - _URL_4_
Washington Post Interview with NOAA Fisheries Biologist Kristin Hannan - _URL_2_
NOAA Shark Videos - _URL_3_
NOAA Shark Feature Stories - _URL_1_
Apex Predator Program - _URL_0_
| askscience | {
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"OK, I'll ask the obvious question. What's going on with all the shark attacks?\n\nSecondly, I live in the Carolinas and fishermen here are grumbling that shark populations have gotten too large due to regulations the fishermen are required to follow, like not being able to use certain types of nets. Are shark populations on an upward trend?",
"Hi Trey, it's David Shiffman! Glad to see other shark folks doing these AMAs. I have a very important question for you- will I see you at AES next week?",
"I was born in 1973, so I don't remember a time before the movie *Jaws.* but someone older than me recently told me that before the movie came out, people weren't particularly aware or afraid of sharks, any more than any other dangerous sea creature. Do you happen to know if this is true? I know it's crazy off-topic, but what made me think of it was when you posted that you love sharks, and how important they are to ocean ecosystems. That felt like a surprising new perspective to me (even though now it seems obvious) because I and everyone I know has been bombarded with shark-terror images as long as I can remember. I was wondering if the collective antipathy toward sharks really all started in 1975.",
"How do you feel about Shark Week? In the past it seems to have been pretty hilariously ridiculous (I don't know; I don't watch, that's just the impression I got from some articles), but I read yesterday that they're making it \"more serious\" this year. Thoughts?",
"What are the vital things a shark contributes to an ecosystem?",
"I am currently applying to become a NOAA Corps officer, and was wondering if you could shed some light on your interactions with these officers and the roles they play in helping conduct your research. Thanks for your time!",
"Thanks for taking the time to answer questions here! Two questions:\n\n1. What made you decide to research sharks and what did that career path look like? Have you been at NOAA for your whole career?\n\n2. Obviously the best known shark is the great white - what other roles do different species fill other than apex predator?",
"Dr. Diggers, thanks for your work with NOAA. I was actually looking at the [NMFS site](_URL_0_) yesterday for its shark week content.\n\nWhen collecting these data do you collaborate with other biologists/ecologists to address the trends, like influences of oceanic currents, temperatures, jellyfish and sea turtle populations?\n\nEver been able to see any *Alopias* sp.? If not, what's the coolest species you've seen, and why wasn't it a thresher?",
"Hello! Thanks so much for answering our questions, I'll try and keep this brief:\n\n1. As a Scottish (soon to be) zoology student, how would I get into this line of work? I love the ocean and fish, and fisheries and monitoring aquatic populations would be a dream job.\n\n2. What's the closest you've come to being seriously injured on the job?\n3. Have you any advice for the general population for helping reduce human impact on shark/ocean life damage?",
"Hello! I am currently a marine biology student in college, and this would be my dream job. I have so many questions but I guess my main ones are:\n1. Are shark populations holding steady despite shark fining and climate changes?\n2. What is the typical pattern of migration you have seen in your studies?\n3. I've heard so many disappointing stories from marine biologist. Do you think the field of marine biology is growing, and worth majoring in? What would you recommend for me, and others who aspire for jobs like this?",
"On land, we as a species have decided that there are some places that large predators just shouldn't be. It's considered pretty normal to not want wolves in Chicago, for instance.\n\nYet in the ocean, we seem to throw up our hands and say \"well HEY we went in their environment!\" Do you think that there should be ocean zones that can/should be \"claimed\" for human use and thus somehow made off limits to sharks? Is there a feasible way to do this beyond the Australian approach to kill any large sharks that approach recreational beaches?",
"AskScience AMAs are posted early to give readers a chance to ask questions and vote on the questions of others before the AMA starts. \n\nGuests of /r/AskScience have volunteered to answer questions; please treat them with due respect. Comment rules will be strictly enforced, and uncivil or rude behavior will result in a loss of privileges in /r/AskScience.\n\nInstructions for obtaining flair are here: [AskScience Flair Instructions](_URL_1_)",
"What is the fastest shark, and how fast can it swim? I was once told that dolphins are able to swim incredibly fast without raising their heart rate very much, since the blubber in their tails can act as a spring mechanism. Do sharks have this ability as well? Do sharks have blubber?",
"Thank you for doing an AMA!! I have two things to ask!\n\n1) I was wondering, with the proof of Megamouth Sharks and Goblin Sharks and other \"strange\" deep sea species what is one type of shark you have yet to see but believe exists? Maybe hiding in the Mariana Trench or near the deep water heat vents? \n\nWhat makes you believe in them? What do you believe they might look like?\n\n2) What is your favorite part about studying sharks?",
"What is the most fascinating thing you find, about Sharks or their behaviors?",
"Has there been much shark activity on the Mississippi and Alabama gulf coasts? I seem to recall reading about sightings in the Florida panhandle, however, I don't think I've heard of any being closer to home.\n\nAlso, have an upvote for being from Pascagoula. PHS Class of '96 in the house.",
"Hello Dr. Driggers! I have two questions. \n1. My bother wanted to get into this field. How hard is it to get a job and do the jobs pay at least well? \n2. I'm an avid surfer here in southern California. Are there any suggestions you could give me that will help me avoid sharks (without being suggested to stay out of the water). Or a way that will keep sharks from being curious enough to taste me? \n\nThank you!",
"I just finished a PhD that I spent studying fish and marine biology (but not fisheries specifically). I'm interested in working for NOAA or similar government agencies. Do you have any career advice? How did you get to where you are today?",
"Is there a known Lotka Volterra population equilibrium for sharks and if so, what is that number? Is it possible that our seas are overpopulated with sharks and that the population of sharks would, without human fishing activity, naturally decline anyway?\n\nThe completely anecdotal story that made me think of this question is my recent inshore fishing experience off Captiva Island recently, where it seemed our boat would catch 3 small sharks for every 1 game fish.",
"Thanks so much for this AMA! Shark and ocean conservation in general is my number one passion. Any advice for someone with no formal education background on these subjects for how I can get involved to help these causes and also further devil these passions? \n\nAlso, is there a path to follow to make shark studies a second career?",
"There has been increased presence of great whites in Monterey Bay on the California coast and the local newspaper has suggested that the sharks indicate a coming El Niño. Can you explain this correlation? Many thanks for doing the AMA!",
"What are some common shark safety tips you think everyone should know to keep safe while swimming in the ocean this summer?",
"I was scheduled to go diving on a wreck off the NC coast near where this radio-tagged great white shark named Mary Lee had been pinging from. As it happened, she moved a few hundred miles away by the time I went. Do you think going ahead with the dive would have been risky if she'd still been in the area? I'm just wondering how overblown the fear of white sharks is.",
"Hi Dr. Driggers!\n\nThanks for doing this. \n\nYou mentioned that 'sharks are absolutely vital to the ecosystems they inhabit.' Could you expand on that, and explain how and why they're so vital? And extending off of that, how has climate change, pollution and other human activity affected shark populations?\n\nAnd on a more personal note: what's the most harrowing/dangerous or amusing experience you've had with a shark during your studies?",
"Hi! The other day, our family was swimming in the Chesapeake Bay near Annapolis. I told my daughter not to worry, that there are no sharks here, and my husband gave me a look that said, \"Don't lie to the child.\" Is he right?!",
"I'm sure at this point you've heard somethings about the current lionfish crisis affecting the tropical/subtropical regions of the atlantic ocean. I was wondering if you think any sharks could viably act as a natural predator for these lionfish?",
"Hi there! Awesome AMA! \nTwo questions. First, do you personally think that it's possible that the Megaladon may still exist somewhere in our deep unexplored oceans??\n\nAnd also, when studying sharks, do you personally go out on the platform and risk being the person to have to restrain the animal? If so, what's the closest call you've ever had out there? How large or aggressive was the shark? \n\nEdit: one more question. Sharks make huge migratory journeys, led by instinct, prey, and magnetic field awareness. I find it amazing that they can survive all alone, in frigid, deep, and shallow, tropical waters! What's the most fascinating journey you've logged? What kind of \n shark? Thank you!",
"Hey Trey, \nLast summer I was fortunate enough to take the ecology of sharks and rays at my university and was given the opportunity to fish for sharks along the east coast of FL which really helped to spark my interest in shark fisheries. My question for you, as you are stationed I the gulf, is what effect did the BP oil spill have on shark populations, and what effects is it currently having? \nAlso, I know BP recently put out a report saying the Gulf and it's fisheries are mostly restored, but I don't believe the Gulf is anywhere near restored due to other recent studies I've read. Thoughts?",
"Hi Dr. Diggers, thanks for doing this. Two questions: one, I was recently in Cape Town visiting a shark conservation group, the South African Shark Conservancy. I spoke with the director, and she feels that, given the critical state of sharks today and no signs that human exploitation will do anything but increase, sharks may be extripated in most places around the world in the next decade or so, and face total annihilation. Do you agree?\n\nAlso, what's to be done about the global shark finning epidemic?",
"Is the number of shark attacks in the US disproportionate when viewed in the context of all shark attacks worldwide? According to the International Share Attack File, in 2014 there were 72 unprovoked shark attacks globally, of which, 52 occurred in the US. This seems disproportionate to any contributing factor that I can think of (the amount of coastline, swimmers, etc.). If the number of attackes has been found to be disproportionate, have any causes been identified?",
"Do sharks suffer? As in are they consciously experiencing suffering when something harms them? \n\nAccording to a [2012 study](_URL_2_) on the subject of fish nociception, it seems that sharks do not posses the proper receptors in their brain to be able to experience suffering. Could you weigh in on that?\n\nFrom an ethical standpoint it seems to imply that torturing them would be equivalent to torturing a rock (not implying we need to torture them).",
"I'm not really a shark kind of guy but as a future fisheries biologist as well, do work man. People really take fish for granted.\n\nFor a question, what jobs can you get with just a bachelor's degree in the field? Do I need further education to end up somewhere worth while?",
"Why is it that shark attacks seem to come in waves? eg. There'll be two years without a single attack and then 11 attacks around the same geographical area all at once. Are there environmental factors that can help explain this?",
"Could the recent shark attacks in NC be related to climate change? I was wondering if a change in temperature may have caused their prey species to move closer to beaches, which brought the sharks into more contact with people.",
"Hello, I've been in this debate for some time, are sharks attracted to human blood? And what about human menstrual blood, are they attracted by that, and if so is there any difference of preference compared to arterial blood?",
"Is there any link or evidence with rising temperatures in ocean waters with a sudden die off in an essential food(a certain fish or something) for sharks that has lead them closer to shore to feed?",
"How do you feel about the media/Discover Channel constantly portraying sharks as man-eating monster machines? I feel like they both have contributed to an over-hyped fear of an amazing animal.",
"What's your opinion on how The Discovery Channel got footage for their \"voodoo\" shark documentary?",
"How did the deep water horizon disaster effect the shark population in the gulf?",
"Do you have any good stories about stuff going wrong in the field?",
"What is your favourite type of shark and why?"
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"http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/federal_government/kristin-hannan-monitoring-the-ocean-for-a-healthy-shark-population/2015/06/30/923aa194-1f38-11e5-aeb9-a411a84c9d55_story.html?postshare=7231435761746750",
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} | {
"url": [
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"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2tc1xz/",
"http://www.vapaa-ajankalastaja.fi/files/Tiedostot/RoseEtAl_FishFish_online_2012.pdf"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: Hello Reddit! I'm Dr. William “Trey” Driggers, Fisheries Research Biologist for NOAA's Southeast Fisheries Science Center Laboratory in Pascagoula, Mississippi. I conduct research on sharks within U.S. waters. AMA!
Hello Reddit - Dr. Trey Driggers here to answer your questions about sharks! As shark experts here at NOAA, we love sharks and want to better understand and protect them. Sharks are absolutely vital to the health of the ecosystems they inhabit. Additionally, some shark species represent an important resource for the commercial and recreational fishing communities. As a shark biologist with NOAA Fisheries, my job is to monitor trends in abundance of coastal sharks in U.S. waters off the East Coast and throughout the northern Gulf of Mexico. To do this, my colleagues and I spend a couple of months each year collecting important information about various shark species from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina to Brownsville, Texas. The resulting data are used by stock assessment analysts to determine if population levels are increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant. Other areas of my research include examining the behavior, distribution, growth, habitat use, and reproduction of sharks. I’ll be here from 11:00am ET through 1:00pm ET today answering your questions about sharks as well as what it’s like to study these amazing fish… AMA! --------------------------------------------------------------------------- We are out of time, but I want to thank you all for your questions and your interest in sharks. Thanks for spending a little bit of #NOAA #SharkWeek with me. If you’re interested in learning more about sharks, the work that NOAA Fisheries and others do to conserve and protect sharks, and how you can help, please visit some of the following sites: Southeast Regional Office Shark FAQs - _URL_4_ Washington Post Interview with NOAA Fisheries Biologist Kristin Hannan - _URL_2_ NOAA Shark Videos - _URL_3_ NOAA Shark Feature Stories - _URL_1_ Apex Predator Program - _URL_0_ | [
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3u7lje | How close can two things get without touching? | Is there a measurement for this or anything | askscience | {
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"Defining what counts as touching on the atomic is actually pretty tricky. The reason is that on such small scales, matter doesn't really behave like it has a crisp border, but more of a soft cloud-like shell. To get a sense for why things are so ill-defined, take an electron in the system and try to define its position. At first it may be tempting to think of electrons as hard sphere swirling around the nucleus, but this picture is very misleading. In reality, the position of electrons can only be described by a [probability distribution](_URL_2_), which can be visualized as a [diffuse cloud](_URL_1_) that extends to infinity! So let's say you have to such simple atoms and you bring them together, when do they actually meet? \n\nAnother example that nicely highlights this problem is [this video](_URL_0_), which shows two nanowires being brought together in an electron microscope. What is really cool about this technique is that the resolution is high enough that you can actually see the crystal lattice (the periodic arrangement) of atoms in both wires. Now notice how at one point the wires basically snap together. This effect is called [cold welding](_URL_3_), and it is exactly what it sounds like. Essentially the electrons and atoms in the two wires don't know that they are supposed to belong to separate chunks, so when you put them close together at the right orientation they simply fuse together. But again, can you actually say when the two wires touched? Not really, the best you can say is that at one point they were close enough that the electrons of the two wires could feel each other strongly enough, and then *bam!* they immediately came together.",
"I don't have a great answer, but I like this video from SixtySymbols.\n\n[Do Atoms Ever Touch](_URL_4_)",
"The closest I know of is found in non-contact atomic force microscopy which uses electron repulsion between a carbon monoxide molecule tip and the surface for analysis. The distance is on the order of 3-6 angstroms.",
"(1) For two similar faces of the same crystalline material, you can say they touch when the interplanar separation corresponds to that in the bulk crystal. This depends on the material and is known with some precision. A typical value might be 0.2 nm\n\n(2) In day to day life, we feel that two different materials pushed together are touching when we begin to meet resistance to further movement. That is, we experience that compression takes place beyond the touching point. This point can be identified unambiguously using the concept of interatomic potential (or force) curves. It corresponds to the minimum point of the potential energy curve that corresponds to the approach of the two objects.",
"When two atoms get close enough, they can exchange electrons in their orbits. There is a device called a scanning tunneling microscope that maps the surface of molecules by moving a probe so close that electrons can migrate from atoms in the probe to atoms in the substance being mapped. The migration is measured as a tiny current. A couple of IBM scientists got the Nobel for it back in the 1980s.",
"As said here, electrons don't have specific positions. They also don't have any limit on how close they can get. Provided two electrons don't have the same spin, the probability of both of them being in the same location is typically non-zero."
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"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgsuxEHxFjY",
"http://sdsu-physics.org/NaturalScience100/znatsci_images/electron_cloud2.gif",
"http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/51425/H_and_He_orbitals.gif?revision=1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P0TNJrTlbBQ"
]
} | How close can two things get without touching?
Is there a measurement for this or anything | [
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|
1l40gy | Why can't you donate blood after receiving eye surgery? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbvk34n",
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"cbvm7mq",
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],
"text": [
"You may have received something like a corneal transplant and acquired a disease from that donated tissue. Rather than delving into the specifics of the operation they may simply disqualify you out of an abundance of caution.",
"It's a precaution against the spread of disease from the blood donor to the blood recipient. In particular, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (a universally fatal neurodegenerative disease) can be transmitted from patient to patient through surgeries such as corneal transplants. If you have had a surgery like this, there is a small chance that you may have acquired CJD (the chance is extremely slim nowadays, but in the past before we understood much about these diseases, several people contracted CJD this way). CJD can take a long time to develop, so if you had acquired it through a surgical procedure you might look and feel completely fine for many years before suddenly succumbing to the disease. CJD can also be transmitted through blood transfusion, even if you are still asymptomatic. Rather than take a risk that you might be unknowingly infected, it is safest to ask people who have had eye surgery to avoid donating blood.\n\nP.s. CJD and other prion diseases are really fascinating.. If you are interested in learning a bit more I could recommend a few sites",
"I believe it is because there was an increased risk noted for prion disease (scary \"bug\" that's damn near impossible to kill and impossible to cure) in those who received eye surgery performed with non-sterile equipment. These prions cause among other diseases \"mad cow disease\" and can be transmitted by cow blood/brain tissue (you may remember some articles about Britain a few years back) or even human blood (transfusions)\n\nPrions and eye surgery: _URL_0_\n\nPrions and transfusions: _URL_1_",
"Any time there is a chance of donor tissue being involved the blood bank gets wary. The cost of donating may seem trivial when you are on the donating end but the amount of processing and testing after gets too costly for us to let everyone donate and end up wasting the product. We have a set length of deferral as certain infections (HIV, hep, prions) can have long incubation times and not show up until an immunocompromised patient receives the product. This is to protect not only the recipient, but to protect those who issue the product.\n\nIn the future the guidelines will be shifting. As the gay generation who had a ton of problems with HIV (not understanding the risks, high infection rates back in the 80s and such) gets to a point where they are no longer donating the risk may be deemed low enough to allow anyone regardless of sexual orientation to donate. The sad part is there is still a stigma associated with male-male sex, but with education and commercials helping the population understand the risks the infection rate has dropped.\n\nKinda went on a little tangent but I work in both the collecting of donor blood and crossmatching to patients. I get a lot of mad people when I have to tell them they cannot donate, but it's the FDA, not me that is denying them.",
"Blood banks and plasma centers have certain requirements like this set by the FDA and other agencies. Basically there is a huge binder full of medical procedures that donors could have possibly done, and a time frame for a deferral. The likelihood of receiving blood products, medication, xenografts, and other suspect material during surgery dictates the length of the deferral."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/1/06-1004_article.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22737075"
]
} | Why can't you donate blood after receiving eye surgery?
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3org8g | What kind of MPG would a human get? | If humans were able to consume gasoline for energy how far could someone walk/ run on a gallon of the stuff? I know there are a lot of variables like efficiency and how much energy goes thermal vs mechanical and all, but I'm looking for a rough estimate. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvzryru",
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"cvzsu70"
],
"text": [
"A lot.\n\nOne gallon of gasoline has 114,000 BTUs of energy, or 29,000 kcalories. So 1/10th of a gallon of gasoline would provide 2900 kcals, which is about the daily needs of a young reasonably-active male.\n\nNow, drinking gasoline for your caloric needs will probably kill you ^*(citation ^needed)*. But as many graduate students know, it is possible for ethanol to be used as a primary source of nutritional energy (in conjunction with caffeinated beverages.) There are 5736 calories/liter in 100% ethanol. In that case, the FDA standard daily needs of 2500 calories/day would be provided by 0.44 liters of 100% ethanol, or 0.968 liters of 45% ABV liquor. I suggest bourbon.",
"u/Overunderrated got a good start, but I'm going to drill down a bit into some of their assumptions to get a bit more precise, making some assumptions of my own about what sort of person is doing this and for how long.\n\n(the following have citations, but don't expect them to be definitive - that's just where I got these numbers from)\n\nLet's say a person can walk, on average, about [3.1mph](_URL_0_). Let's say that you walk 16 hours continuously and sleep for 8, that gives you 16*3.1=49.6 miles traveled in a day. The median American male is [69.3 inches tall](_URL_4_) and for that group, the ideal weight for an average body type is [157 lbs](_URL_2_). This man walking at this speed burns [235 calories per hour](_URL_3_), which means he burns 235 * 16 = 3760 calories (as u/Overunderrated stated below, this may be an underestimate based on whether or not that calculator takes in the basal metabolic (resting) rate). While sleeping, he burns [67 calories an hour](_URL_5_), or 536 calories. Putting it together, he needs 4296 calories per day. As we saw earlier, gasoline has 29,000 kilocalories (the actual unit for calorie we use in food), so 4296 / 29,000 = 0.148 gallons of gasoline (again, don't actually eat this). That means this man got 49.6 miles / 0.148 gallons = 334.8 MPG.\n\nThis further assumes that we have 100% conversion efficiency of calories, but the human conversion rate is closer to [20%](_URL_6_), which means that 80% of what we consume is not used for useful work. Don't worry, cars aren't much better, having a max thermodynamic efficiency of [25-30%](_URL_1_). So that means we'd need 5 times as much intake, and means our miles per gallon drops to 20% of what it was before: 66.96 MPG.\n\nAgain, there are tons of assumptions in there, but I would wager that this would be within, say, 20% of what an experiment with a similar setup would show. Not knowing the individual errors of each assumption, it's difficult to even stake a guess as to the error of this calculation, but it should be a good \"rough estimate\" as requested.",
"One gallon of gasoline provides 29,000 kcalories. A 155 pound person burns 110 kc per mile walked. Which means that person can walk 263 miles by eating the equivalent of one gallon of gas. 29000/110 = 263. This is on top of the energy needed to sustain the person's life.\n\nEdit: this page goes into the details and will answer all your questions: _URL_7_",
"I took the figure u/Overunderrated provided for gasoline and matched it to [this](_URL_8_) walking calorie calculator. At the default 3 mph speed and the average male American weight of 195, I got 280 miles to burn 28955 calories. Depending on weight and pace, the figure will vary."
],
"score": [
117,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_efficiency",
"http://www.healthdiscovery.net/links/calculators/ideal_bw_men.htm",
"http://www.everydayhealth.com/Calories-Burned-Walking.htm",
"http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/body-measurements.htm",
"https://www.fitwatch.com/caloriesburned/calculate?descr=sleeping&mets=0.9",
"https://www.quora.com/How-efficient-is-the-human-body-at-converting-matter-food-into-energy",
"http://physics.ucsd.edu/do-the-math/2011/11/mpg-of-a-human/",
"http://walking.about.com/library/cal/uccalc1.htm"
]
} | What kind of MPG would a human get?
If humans were able to consume gasoline for energy how far could someone walk/ run on a gallon of the stuff? I know there are a lot of variables like efficiency and how much energy goes thermal vs mechanical and all, but I'm looking for a rough estimate. | [
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|
y12gd | Question on babies, bright loud toys, and evolution. | So I was taking care of my 3 month old niece, and noticed she was really attracted to her neon orange rattle. My question is, isn't this attraction contrary to a favorable reaction in nature? Aren't animals typically hard wired to avoid small bright colored things that move? Especially in the case of something that rattles. I feel like hundreds of thousands of years living alongside poison dart frogs, coral and rattlesnakes should've killed off any babies attracted to that kind of thing. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5rea1e",
"c5reeay",
"c5rgjlw",
"c5ri7fr"
],
"text": [
"Just about everything human babies do is deadly. They make noise to attract predators. They will fall off high things. They play with fire or sharp objects. They put poisonous, sharp, choking-hazard things in their mouth. \n\nThe evolutionary advantage is that it FORCES caregivers to give them constant attention. Humans are helpless for years. The more they can do as babies to force someone to care for them, the better off they will ultimately be.",
"Baby mistakes are a big deal when you're an animal that's on its own from birth. Less so for humans who get fed and cared for until we're much older. For us, bright colors and noise (can be) just stimulus for a rapidly growing brain, a learning experience and thus a good thing. But that's only possible with adult caregivers to provide safety while our massive noggins reach their potential. Human child rearing if fascinating, it would appear to be a key component to the success of our (sub)species.",
"We haven't evolved alongside most of those animals for that long. For humans, bright colors = ripe fruit much more than poisonous critters. The distribution of the optimal wavelengths of our cone cells is heavily optimized for picking out ripe fruit against a green background of leaves, for instance.",
"On a related note. \n\nCould someone please explain from an evolutionary perspective, why babies scream and cry so much?\n\nHumans haven't always been top of the food chain, surely a screaming baby is the last thing you need when you're hiding from a sabre tooth tiger / wolves / dingos."
],
"score": [
30,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Question on babies, bright loud toys, and evolution.
So I was taking care of my 3 month old niece, and noticed she was really attracted to her neon orange rattle. My question is, isn't this attraction contrary to a favorable reaction in nature? Aren't animals typically hard wired to avoid small bright colored things that move? Especially in the case of something that rattles. I feel like hundreds of thousands of years living alongside poison dart frogs, coral and rattlesnakes should've killed off any babies attracted to that kind of thing. | [
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|
2a833h | Are electromagnetic wave diagrams wrong? | Literally any book I have come across, have diagrams like [this](_URL_0_). And my textbook (David J Griffiths, Electrodynamics) also has similar diagram.
But, the amplitudes of E and B are related as
B = E/c
Since c is a large number, the amplitude of B should be negligible, compared to E. But the diagrams depicts that E and B has same magnitude. What am I missing?
EDIT: Thank you every for your comments. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cisg4qa",
"cisfrd6",
"ciso89a"
],
"text": [
"You're missing that c is simply a measurement of the speed of light, not a \"large number\".\n\n* If c is expressed in m/s, then there are many m/s to make up c: 299,792,458 of them.\n\n* If c is expressed in AU/minute, then c = 0.12 AU/min.\n\nAlso, more fundamentally, the author did not label the magnitudes on the horizontal and vertical axes.",
"The diagram isn't supposed to show the relative amplitudes, just the dynamic relation between the E and B (or H) fields. Also, there are no units on the axes, which makes comparing amplitudes meaningless.",
"A few points to consider:\n\n- The E field and the B field have different units, so you can't really plot them on the same scale, or say one is bigger than the other in an absolute sense.\n\n- *However*, you can compare the strength of the E and B field by how they interact with matter. For instance, if an EM wave travels past a point charge particle with charge q and velocity v (in the same direction of the wave to make the math simple), then the electric field in the wave will exert a force qE on the particle, and the magnetic field will exert a force qvB = qEv/c on the particle. The ratio of the electric field's force on the particle to the magnetic field's force on the particle is therefore c/v. So if the particle is moving very slow compared to the speed of light (v < < c), the electric field of an EM wave passing by exerts a much larger force than the magnetic field. A lot of times when we are doing derivations involving EM waves interacting with matter, we ignore the magnetic field interactions altogether because they are so weak."
],
"score": [
10,
8,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/imgel2/emwavec.gif"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Are electromagnetic wave diagrams wrong?
Literally any book I have come across, have diagrams like [this](_URL_0_). And my textbook (David J Griffiths, Electrodynamics) also has similar diagram. But, the amplitudes of E and B are related as B = E/c Since c is a large number, the amplitude of B should be negligible, compared to E. But the diagrams depicts that E and B has same magnitude. What am I missing? EDIT: Thank you every for your comments. | [
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|
2r0dtk | Are the "E=mc^2" and "Ek=(1/2)mv^2 equations connected ? | So i was reading ("this post")[_URL_0_] again, and I had this though : since everything is travelling with a "speed" of c, these two equations look quite similar after all.
So is there any connections between them ? And then why is there this (1/2) in the kinetic equation ? Am I missing something ? Or am I just dumb ? These are the questions... | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cnbexa8",
"cnbmgf1",
"cnbedg9",
"cnbenk2"
],
"text": [
"The relativistic energy of a moving mass is mc^2 /sqrt(1-(v/c)^2 ). Use the approximation formula (1+x)^a = 1+ax for small x to get the energy for small velocities (v/c small):\n\nmc^2 (1-(v/c)^2 )^-1/2 = mc^2 (1+1/2(v/c)^2 ) = mc^2 + mv^2 /2 = rest energy + kinetic energy.\n\nSo the 1/2 comes from the square root in the relativistic formula for the energy.",
"The full relativistic equation is for energy is\n\nE = sqrt(m^2 c^4 + p^2 c^2 )\n\nIf you pull out the m c^2 to get \n\nE = mc^2 * sqrt(1 + (p/mc)^2 ) = mc^2 (1 + (p/mc)^2 )^1/2\n\nand Taylor expand about the (p/mc)^2 term, you will get\n\nE = mc^2 + p^2 /(2m) + ...\n\nThe p^2 /(2m) term is another way of writing the classical kinetic energy, 1/2 mv^2. So yeah, the equations are connected, and the relativistic equation reduces to the classical equation in the low velocity/momentum regime.\n\n#Edit:\nAbove, I did it in terms of mass and momentum. I'll do it in terms of mass and velocity. We can start with\n\nE = sqrt(m^2 c^4 + p^2 c^2 )\n\nand recall that relativistic momentum is\n\np = mv / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2 )\n\nIf you plug that into the energy formula and do some algebra, you can write the energy as\n\nE = mc^2 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2 ) = mc^2 (1 - (v/c)^2 )^-1/2\n\nFrom this, you can do the same Taylor expansion as above and recover\n\nE = mc^2 + 1/2 mv^2",
"Something that is moving slowly in a given reference frame will have total energy mc^2 + 1/2 mv^2 . The first term is the energy it has at rest, and the second is the energy it has due to its movement.",
"A Taylor series is a way of turning a function into an infinitely long sum of simpler functions (polynomials, i.e. 1, x, x^(2), x^(3) etc). This is useful because, usually, the further you go along the infinite sum the less important the terms become in your approximation. This means you can just take the first couple and still have a pretty good approximation.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) shows you what happens if you apply this process to E=(gamma)mc^(2)."
],
"score": [
26,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/22pi7o/eli5_why_does_light_travel/cgp58ml"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence#Low_speed_expansion"
]
} | Are the "E=mc^2" and "Ek=(1/2)mv^2 equations connected ?
So i was reading ("this post")[_URL_0_] again, and I had this though : since everything is travelling with a "speed" of c, these two equations look quite similar after all. So is there any connections between them ? And then why is there this (1/2) in the kinetic equation ? Am I missing something ? Or am I just dumb ? These are the questions... | [
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|
jziz0 | Is it possible to manage your diet enough to eliminate the need to go to the bathroom? | Sounds weird but I was wondering if someone were to manage their diet so precisely that they take in just enough vitamins and nutrients that their body uses everything efficiently, remains healthy and has no form of solid or liquid waste to remove from the body? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2gd26u",
"c2gczcl",
"c2gd924",
"c2gcumy"
],
"text": [
"Your body expels old red blood cells to the colon. It's what makes your poop brown.",
"No, there are a lot of products generated by cell respiration, for example, that have to be eliminated. CO2 is produced in the oxidation of sugars, fats, and amino acid, and is eliminated through the lungs. Urea is produced in the oxidation of amino acids and is eliminated in the urine. That's just a very short list of waste products produced by maintaining life in your body.\n\nAlso, you have to have some fiber to maintain a healthy intestinal tract, and most of that is not digested and must be eliminated. Then as Fuddbeast noted, you have a crapload of bacteria in your gut, some of which comes out through defecation.",
"Follow-up question to the answers about poop being made of primarily dead cells: \n\nWhy couldn't the dead cells be fed back into your system for recycling?",
"Most of your waste is bacteria from your digestive track that has died and is being expelled.\n\nSo, no, not really."
],
"score": [
13,
8,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is it possible to manage your diet enough to eliminate the need to go to the bathroom?
Sounds weird but I was wondering if someone were to manage their diet so precisely that they take in just enough vitamins and nutrients that their body uses everything efficiently, remains healthy and has no form of solid or liquid waste to remove from the body? | [
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|
m19in | Is the Large Hadron Collider living up to expectations in terms of findings? | Or is it disappointing? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Both the accelerator and the detectors work wonderfully compared to previous such establishments. Measurements in heavy ion collisions - which generally need much less events to see something interesting than in p+p - are more precise and detailed than most people expected, surprisingly consistent among the experiments, and already killed several outstanding models. Now LHC is about to do proton + nucleus collisions, much earlier than originally expected. \n\nConcerning Higgs search and other p+p program goals - LHC already excluded Higgs in the easy regions where most people thought it is unlikely to find one. It also eliminated some other beyond-standard-model theories, at least in some of their simpler forms. To find something interesting in p+p collisions takes a lot of interactions (~hundreds of billions), which translates into running time of many years. LHC is operating rather smoothly, and the current energy (7TeV) will be doubled to the full design energy of 14TeV in two years or so. The higher the collision energy the more likely it is to find something new. \n\n\nTL;DR: LHC works great, new scientific results are pouring out of it. Media scientific reporting is generally shit.",
"In a sense, it isnt possible for it to be disappointing. In the case of the Higgs particle for example, finding nothing would be more interesting in many ways, as experimentalists in the field of particle physics have often proved theorists work to be true, and disproving the Higgs would be the experimentalists leading the way!\n\nOur understanding will ultimately be advanced whatever is/is not found at LHC energies.",
"Keep in mind that the LHC is only running at [half capacity](_URL_0_) right now and will do so until 2012, and won't be running at full energy until 2014.",
"Ok, time to use the way-back machine...\n\nTwo doctors of physics, let's call them Dr. C. and Dr. P., are a bit jealous of the Tevatron and are itching to get their hands on some new and shiny gear to study the great big universe. So, after one night of consuming questionable amounts of mind-enhancing agents, they come up with a great plan.\n\nDr. C. \"What we need to do is to find the Higgs boson.\"\n\nDr. P. \"You idiot, gravity is an emerging phenomenon! how are you going to do that?\"\n\nDr. C. \"By building the *ahem* Large Hadron Collider\"\n\nDr. P. \"Hey, that actually sounds cool. What's one of those do?\"\n\nDr. C. *stone-faced* \"It's a 14 Tera electron Volt particle accelerator.\"\n\nDr. P. *snorting his coffee through his nose* \"Geezer, you're mental. You're never going to get funding for that. It would cost 10 fucking billion dollars to build something like that!\"\n\nDr. C. \"I'm telling you we're doing it.\"\n\nDr. P. \"That's never going to happen. Nobody has built a machine in that range of energies before. You can never sell the bean counters on that idea.\"\n\nDr. C. \"I will if we can convince them we're looking for the 'God particle', mark my words.\"\n\nDr. P. \"There-isn't-a-god-particle, you fucking moron!!!!\"\n\nDr. C. \"-I- know that, -you- know that, but -they- have no fucking clue, right? They can't tell a quark apart from a lepton, if we tell them we need this amazing new machine to find the gravity particle, what argument are they going to use to tell us we're wrong? Science?\"\n\n*general guffaws*\n\nDr. P. \"You're off your rocker, mate. What if you build that thing and you can't find anything?\"\n\nDr. C. \"1. we build it that means we have it. 2. we're going to be working in the Tera electron Volt range, we're always going to find -something-, right? It's a big universe out there. 3. If we don't find it at those energies, we simply state 'We did not find the Higgs, much to our amazement, but here is what we did find, also much to our amazement. These elements [elements soandso] indicate that we are on the way to the discovery, unfortunately our fine-grain measurements, which we could not have made without the LHC, now indicate that the Higgs boson probably resides at energies that hugely exceed, at least by a factor of 15, what the LHC is capable of today.\" *stone faced* \"Tell me I'm wrong.\"\n\nDr. P. \"Dude, that's fucking brilliant.\"\n\nDr. C. \"**Tell me I'm wrong!**\"\n\nDr. P. \"Man, that's fucking amazing. We so have to do that. You know what, tomorrow morning, when we no longer sound like we've been having too much weed, I'm calling D. and tell him we've got a fantastic idea. You're a fucking lunatic, you know that?\"\n\nDr. C. \"As long as I'm a lunatic with observation time, you can call me whatever the fuck you want.\"\n\nThus the empire was forged...\n\n/true story",
"The problem is that the public are all expecting amazing findings that immediately translate to \"we can travel backwards in time!\" or \"we can travel to another galaxy in a day!\". They're collecting tons of useful data, refining what we understand. \n\nEven if a lot of what they find seems \"boring\" to laymen, it does not mean it doesn't have huge significance. In around 1865 James Clerk Maxwell mathematically predicted radio waves, and to the average person it probably seemed like a bunch of convoluted, and ultimately useless mathematical tinkering. It took a while after that, but his discovery turned out to be pretty useful."
],
"score": [
40,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_hadron_collider"
]
} | Is the Large Hadron Collider living up to expectations in terms of findings?
Or is it disappointing? | [
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108ry2 | If evolution is so incremental, how does it provide a "competitive advantage"? | My title is a little vague, so let me give an example. Let's take arms. Arms are nice. In a fight between a guy with arms and a guy without, all other things being equal, I'm putting my money on arms-boy.
But we didn't suddenly get arms overnight from the evolution fairy. They probably started out as little nubs, and then got a bit bigger, evolving some bone structure and musculature along the way.
Tiny little nubs, however, don't make that much of a difference. And I remember reading somewhere that survival-neutral adaptions (like wisdom teeth) disappear over time. So how did the folks with nubs get a "competitive edge" that let them stay around for so long before they developed full-on arms? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The tendency among lay people is to look at the end result of an evolutionary path (eyes, arms, etc) and to get confused as to how you could have got here from there. The complexity of the eye, for example, is is often used by creationists befuddle people. Dawkins covers this quite well in \"The Blind Watchmaker\" but the important thing is that each tiny modification itself confers an independent survival advantage. For example, arms didn't begin as 'nubs' they began as fins which started out as something else even more primitive. Fins are, obviously, very useful for swimming and whatever preceded fins doubtless more advantageous than a smooth body given the environmental niche the proto-fish inhabited. In any event, you can see from the fossil record (and, indeed living animals like coelacanths and mud skippers that for them, leg-like fins are very useful things to have. \n\nOf course, some wannabe future mud skippers died out because their leg-like fins were 'nubs' but the thing is out of countless billions of experiments over millions of years, you gradually ended up with a 'fish with legs' - more leg and less fins. Each of the successful variations was on the whole slightly better adapted for survival and reproduction within the environmental context of the time and not because they were destined to grow legs.",
"Say the no arms guy has a zero percent chance of winning and the nubs guy has a 1% chance. If the population is large enough a bunch of nubs guys will win. And if they win they get to put their nubs genes into the gene pool. Then the gene pool becomes nubby and from it emerges new mutations that look like thalidomide victims who have a 2% chance of winning. And so it goes on until you have gibbons.",
"It's not about winning one fight. It's about being better able to create and provide for offspring. If you can obtain 1% more food and your offspring are therefore 1% larger, then your genes will have a better chance to continue down the line. No guarantee, but a better chance.",
"Your example assumes the environment is static. The genius of evolution is that the nubs may give advantage when the species lives on the bottom and eats bacteria; but later those nubs can continue to evolve into arms so that when the sea was getting shallow -- individuals with strong nubs could drag themselves through the shallows, providing advantage. \n\nIt is not so much that there is advantage in change, but that change itself can be harnessed for adaptation to new environmental conditions. It's the ultimate 'tool'."
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} | If evolution is so incremental, how does it provide a "competitive advantage"?
My title is a little vague, so let me give an example. Let's take arms. Arms are nice. In a fight between a guy with arms and a guy without, all other things being equal, I'm putting my money on arms-boy. But we didn't suddenly get arms overnight from the evolution fairy. They probably started out as little nubs, and then got a bit bigger, evolving some bone structure and musculature along the way. Tiny little nubs, however, don't make that much of a difference. And I remember reading somewhere that survival-neutral adaptions (like wisdom teeth) disappear over time. So how did the folks with nubs get a "competitive edge" that let them stay around for so long before they developed full-on arms? | [
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|
6rvqni | Since nobody is the same, is it possible for the body to have a slight deviation of body temperature and be ok? | Since the average human has a body temp of 98.6F, is it possible that someone could have say a 98.5 or 98.7 and be ok; or does even a minor variance create problems for the body? How much could one get away from the average and still live normally? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dl887dm",
"dl89vmv",
"dl87zva"
],
"text": [
"The normal body temperature ranges from 97.7 to 99.5 but there probably are exceptions. \nThe main issue lies in the proteins, required for the regular functioning of our body, which are heat sensitive and lose their structure at higher temperatures.",
"I have tracked my body temp every week or so for the past six months. Many times daily. Not writing it down but just mental noting. I run from 99 to 100. That's what it is. Doctor says it's fine since nothing else seems to be wrong with me. Not dead yet. I do feel like I overheat really easy. 6 foot 2, 220 pounds, a little bit of a gut but my job keeps me active and I've got enough muscle mass.",
"I run an average of 97.8, and don't experience problems besides being cold all the damn time, I almost never overheat and prefer warmer climates, but that's probably due to personal preference, in general the human body can operate with in a deviance of normal temperatures without an issue."
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Since nobody is the same, is it possible for the body to have a slight deviation of body temperature and be ok?
Since the average human has a body temp of 98.6F, is it possible that someone could have say a 98.5 or 98.7 and be ok; or does even a minor variance create problems for the body? How much could one get away from the average and still live normally? | [
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|
1klmll | Question on the 'Demon Core': Why did coming into contact with tungsten carbide result in a massive release of radiation? | I get it when the two halves of the core went supercritical but what would tungsten carbide do to it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbq6s5f",
"cbqaky0",
"cbqcr80"
],
"text": [
"Criticality of a fissile assembly is determined by the neutron multiplication rate--if you introduce a neutron into the assembly (which plutonium 239 does on its own through spontaneous fission), does it make, on average, more than one neutron or less? If the former, then the assembly is supercritical and will undergo a runaway chain reaction; if the latter, then the number of neutrons in the assembly will eventually decay away. Whether an assembly is subcritical or supercritical depends on the fissile material, how much of it is there, what its geometry is (spheres have the lowest neutron loss rates), and what it's surrounded by. \n\nIn a bare assembly of nuclear material, neutrons that get to the edge of the assembly leave the material and are lost. The \"demon core\" was subcritical as a bare assembly. When Daghlian accidentally dropped a tungsten carbide block onto it, the block acted as a \"tamper\" for neutrons, meaning it reflected just enough of these lost neutrons back into the assembly that it turned slightly supercritical, having a neutron multiplication rate greater than one, until he moved the brick. Doing so got him so close to the supercritical fissioning assembly that he received a fatal dose of radiation.",
"For those reading this who have no idea what \"demon core\" is/was like me: \n_URL_0_ \n\nInteresting, thanks! \n\nEdit: phone added unnecessary format correction to the hyperlink.",
"The tungsten carbide acted as a neutron reflector. However the tungsten carbide did not reflect neutrons like a mirror reflects light. It absorbed the neutrons coming from the core then re-emitted them, some back in the direction of the core.\nThis increased the neutron flux in the core to the point of criticality. The increase in neutron flux from this was relatively small, but the core was so close to criticality it was enough."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon_Core"
]
} | Question on the 'Demon Core': Why did coming into contact with tungsten carbide result in a massive release of radiation?
I get it when the two halves of the core went supercritical but what would tungsten carbide do to it? | [
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syscb | Can you someone please debunk this silly 'hollow earth theory' for me? | _URL_0_
It just seems entirely ridiculous to me. This doesn't seem to be how gravity or planet formation works. I would just like some examples of how unlikely it might be. That, or if it can be disproven - would also be nice. Thanks! | askscience | {
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"As someone in geology, the hollow earth theory is a painful theory to discuss. Just the shear volume of complete lies and mis-interpreted facts shoved into those arguments is awful. I'll try to work through some of the points on that web-page, but discussing the theory is an unpleasant experience for me so I may not delve too much into this.\n\n1) Newtons Theory of Gravity has been outdated for a long time now. The actual formula for gravitational pull is a stronger more robust approach which explains many observed interstellar phenomena to extreme accuracy. Of course, Newton's Theory of Gravity is good enough by itself when it comes to the structure of planets, so I don't even know what they mean by \"untested\" outside the solar system. Now in that site they discuss the possibility for the force of gravity to change depending on where in the universe you are. This goes against all measurements we have ever made of the universe *ever*, for gravitational pull *and* many other things, which show that the physics in the universe appear to be identical no matter where you are.\n\n2) The section on seismology is especially painful. We have a fantastic, extremely robust collection of data which shows directly the structure of the interior of the planet. He mentions that there are cases where the tested seismology is different than predictions, which is of course what would occur since we don't know the interior of the Earth to 100% perfectly everywhere. For example, maybe seismic waves showed that the lithosphere extends down to 101 km in some location rather than the predicted 100 km. If that's the sort of discrepancies the person is referring to, then those discrepancies would seem to support the validity of seismology. So just pointing out that there are discrepancies is completely meaningless and tells us nothing. But the important take home message here is that seismology is an extremely well understood and robust field that returns results that are undeniable representations of the interior of the planet.\n\n3) The section on geology is even worse. It's not only filled with lies, but even assuming its premises are correct it reaches an absurd conclusion. We know we have evidence for magmas that originate deep in the planet. We also have magmas that originate in the crust, and they are very different types of magmas and our predictive power for the types of magmas we get in different locations in phenomenal and complete in line with a solid Earth. Furthermore, there are more than the two proposed mechanisms mentioned for magma melting (radioactive elements and shear stress). There are a whole suite of mechanisms that the author seems completely oblivious too, and these mechanisms come into play differently depending on your location on the planet. The author also just says \"Lava cannot possibly be rising from the centre of the Earth as some may be tempted to think\", which is of course true because the center of the Earth is solid and iron/nickle. But there is strong evidence that magmas that form hotspot volcanoes do originate from the core-mantle boundary or close to it. If not, they certainly originate from deep in the mantle.\n\n4) As for the author's mentioned 'shadow zone', the author just completely mis-interprets what the shadow zone is. There is no portion of the Earth that seismic waves [can not penetrate](_URL_0_). He completely mis-interprets the shell theorem, which would not diffuse hydrogen toward a core, but diffuse it evenly throughout then entire hollow interior of a structure.\n\nI only briefly touched on each of these points. I didn't point out every problem in the post you linked to. The body of evidence out there to support the current model of the planet is so overwhelming I could spend my life writing many books just on how solid and varied that evidence is. Furthermore, I could also write books just debunking how completely absurd the hollow earth theory is and how it would contradict (even if you are generous) a vast quantity of data of a vast variety.\n\nAll I can say is that the people writing these books are either deluded or actively lying to you and making it sound scientific. Just because something sounds scientific doesn't make it true, so be extremely wary of sites like this that provide literally zero evidence of any sort to back up their claims.\n\nEDIT: just to expand on why talking about this is painful - it's because someone can quickly come up with an \"alternate\" theory for how the world works, lazily throw in some words like atoms and pressure and electromagnetic force, and all of a sudden you are forced to recount the entire body of science on each of those things in order to convince anyone they are wrong - and even they it often doesn't pan out.",
"There's a load of response you could have, starting with something like Occam's razor: there is no real reason to suppose that the earth could be hollow, so why try and create a massive implausible system to justify the hypothesis.\n\nSecondly, it's not supported by evidence:\n\n1. We can work out the relative masses of the Earth and other bodies in the Solar system (masses, not weights), and from this we can safely say that the earth would require a very dense core in order to maintain its weight.\n\n2. The author's suggestion is that the void between the shell and the core is filled with hydrogen. Hydrogen would easily escape from such a gap, causing it to collapse if it ever formed, so the outer crust would need to be airtight, but seismology, even if it is considered entirely crustal, would not allow for a situation like that to be maintained for billions of years\n\n3. He mentions the existence of anomalies in the transmission of p and s waves, which is very true and interesting, but then doesn't add that it is due to p and s waves that we know of the existence of a dense core to our planet, and that if there were a void completely around the core these waves would not transmit, and we would get a very different picture\n\nThese are just a few objections, there are plenty more which I'm sure others will point out, but rest at ease, the ground beneath your feet is definitely solid",
"The varying density of the inside of the earth causes differential diffraction of mechanical waves produced by seismic events. We can use this to map the inside of the earth, and we have done so.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nAlso, a hollow planet would collapse in on itself.",
"That thread has ample comments within it that debunk the junk.",
"That's idiotic. Why should you even waste time debunking it?"
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"url": [
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} | Can you someone please debunk this silly 'hollow earth theory' for me?
_URL_0_ It just seems entirely ridiculous to me. This doesn't seem to be how gravity or planet formation works. I would just like some examples of how unlikely it might be. That, or if it can be disproven - would also be nice. Thanks! | [
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1neh4j | Are germaphobic parents hurting their kids in the long run? | Got into this conversation with a friend not too long ago about this. Are parents who are super germaphobes and try to eliminate germs at all costs hurting their kids in the long by not allowing their immune systems to build a resistance to everyday normal kid-germs?
For example, say a mom is super against germs, always decontaminating the house and their kid, forcing them to use GermX or whatever and just overall trying to make sure their kid doesn't get sick. Does this not allow their immune system to build a resistance to normal germs that are around?
Kind of like how the natives of Central America died from diseases they were not used to from the Europeans back in the early 1500s. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Hygiene hypothesis\n\nFrom the wiki: that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents, symbiotic microorganisms (e.g., gut flora or probiotics), and parasites increases susceptibility to allergic diseases by suppressing natural development of the immune system.\n\nFor this reason I always lick bus seats, so I don't get sick.",
"(Note: The following is from a news article about a published journal article. Unfortunately I can’t link the actual article here.) \n\n_URL_0_\n\nA study recently published in a pediatrics journal suggested that parents who \"clean\" a baby's pacifier by licking it as opposed to washing it off with water tend to have children who have fewer instances of asthma, eczema and other autoimmune disorders later on in life. \n\nThe article states: > The hygiene hypothesis -- a practice of exposing children to harmless bacteria to build immunities -- has been around for almost 10 years, according to Ferdman, who also said studies showed children growing up on farms were less likely to develop allergies.\n\nThe study did have a very small sample size of only 184 kids so it is hard to say it is definitive. Still, it is an interesting hypothesis.",
"An evolutionary answer to OP's question: *\"in the long run\"* if you use many antibacterial soaps etc., you are constantly killing off a large fraction of \"germs\", namely those with the lowest resistance for the stuff you're using, but you'll never kill all. The ones that have offspring are those with the highest resistance for the stuff you're using. \n\nIn effect, you've created the perfect selective pressure for stronger, potentially more harmfull \"germs\" to evolve.\n\nMy intuition is that you should avoid becoming really dirty, but a bunch of germs here and there don't matter; in fact, living very cleanly may *in the long run* be more damaging.\n\nThis does not address the effects the presence of \"germs\" have on the development of the human immune system though, another aspect of OP's question.",
"There is a very good, real world example of this. Polio\n\nI've heard this from multiple sources so I feel safe in quoting wikipedia\n\n > Before the 20th century, polio infections were rarely seen in infants before six months of age, most cases occurring in children six months to four years of age.[92] Poorer sanitation of the time resulted in a constant exposure to the virus, which enhanced a natural immunity within the population. In developed countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, improvements were made in community sanitation, including better sewage disposal and clean water supplies. These changes drastically increased the proportion of children and adults at risk of paralytic polio infection, by reducing childhood exposure and immunity to the disease.[92]",
"No. The reality is that every surface of every home will be teeming with bacteria no matter what you do. They're in the air, on our skin and mucous membranes, in our bodies, and on the surfaces of everything that we purchase. If kids ever go out in public at all, they're going to encounter millions of antigens every single time they leave the house. \n\nWashing surfaces isn't the same thing as living in a biobubble, and we have a radically higher age of death relative to 3rd world countries, which actually argues for us doing something right, at least in terms of infectious agents. \n\nAnd on a personal note, the hygiene hypothesis, which frequently gets brought up in situations like this, is BS even on the face of it. The correlation that they base it on is that *country-wide* rates of autoimmune diseases differ nation-by-nation according to per capita wealth in the nation. Even on the face of it, what they're trying to imply is that cleanliness is *causing* the increase in illness, but the reality is that these diseases are most prevalent in the poorest, dirtiest, and most congested areas. This is one of the reasons they have to ground it on a *nationwide* basis...because it doesn't hold true for demographics at all. \n\nThe second hygiene hypothesis thing I wanted to point out is that the correlation is relative to *autoimmune* diseases, not infections or longevity."
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"url": [
"http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/Infants-Baby-Allergies-Parents-Lick-Pacifier-Saliva-Study-206299061.html"
]
} | Are germaphobic parents hurting their kids in the long run?
Got into this conversation with a friend not too long ago about this. Are parents who are super germaphobes and try to eliminate germs at all costs hurting their kids in the long by not allowing their immune systems to build a resistance to everyday normal kid-germs? For example, say a mom is super against germs, always decontaminating the house and their kid, forcing them to use GermX or whatever and just overall trying to make sure their kid doesn't get sick. Does this not allow their immune system to build a resistance to normal germs that are around? Kind of like how the natives of Central America died from diseases they were not used to from the Europeans back in the early 1500s. | [
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|
jdfye | Can anyone help identify this object? We think it is a model of a 5 dimensional cube, but we have no clue of the usage! | I am talking about [this](_URL_0_) object. It is currently placed at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands. There has been a post on there website about it and they aren't sure what its exact properties are. This post draw my attention as a student and I thought that r/AskScience might know what it is.
This 'cube' was use from 1950 ~ 1980 as a demonstration in electrical engineering classes. On this sphere there are small grooves. These grooves represent the five-dimensional cube. It has 32 corners indicated with 32 holes. 31 holes all have their own letter and number combinations and the last, 32nd, hole is just for the stick it sits on.
The numbers run from 0 ~ 15 colored with red and from 1 ~ 15 in black. Al the corners are connected with a wire.
There has been one reply on the post the university made and this only tell us it has been used to symbolize 5 bit signals. Also it tells that you should be able to figure out how to pick 5 bit signals under certain contraints. (this hasn't been verified yet)
There isn't any more information available to us, so hopefully you could fill me in here. I hope there is someone out here, who can help explain how they used this object in the classes and how it helps to imagine 5 bit signals.
Edit: as RickRussellTX pointed out. Not all the corners are connected by the wire. Some aren't connected, I am not sure why they choose this layout or if it's possible to arrange the wire in a different way.
Edit 2: Thanks for the big input r/askscience! You have helped a lot!
For now I think we can say that it is a model of a hypercube, that represents a model of some computer architecture (for example processors, servers of any form of memory). There hasn't been any further updates from the university yet, whenever they give out more information I will post an update! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2b6y6x",
"c2b6y1q",
"c2b6x6y",
"c2b71k3",
"c2b706i",
"c2b7rdd",
"c2b8s8w",
"c2bggxb",
"c2bazhm"
],
"text": [
"I'm not exactly sure how you can represent 5 dimensions with a 3 dimensional object. On another note, to even call this a cube is rather odd.",
"It looks like it *could* be a 3d shadow of a 5d hypercube. \n\n*If* it is meant to represent 5-bit signals, it is almost certainly showing the [Hamming Distance](_URL_0_) between them. This metric is common in coding theory; for example, the Hamming Error Correcting Code can correct 1 bit error by looking for the codeword closest to the received signal.",
"A five dimensional cube would have 2^5 =32 corners so that makes sence.\n\nBut I have no clue apart from that...\n\nEDIT: Here is a little illustarion I made to help explain a 5 dimensional space. Hope it helps:\n_URL_1_",
"> All the corners are connected with a wire.\n\nWell, no they are not. The vertex closest to the camera (in the center of the sphere) has no wire on it. Neither are the vertices to the SE and SW of the sphere.\n\nAll of the vertices are connected to their 5 nearest neighbors by grooves routed into the surface of the sphere. Only some of them have wires.",
"This reminds me of the detonators and conventional explosive surrounding the core of an implosive/explosive nuclear device. I wonder if the two are mathematically similar for some reason; I understand timing the detonators is very important.",
"I clicked on this thinking it had to be something from r/fifthworldproblems. Instead I ended up learning about Hamming Distance and Information Theory. Thanks again r/Askscience!",
"Have you tried r/math ? They might have some topologist over there",
"How to draw an n-dimensional cube using basic set theory and combinatorics.\n\nLet n be the dimension of the \"cube\" you want to \"draw\". On the first row (top of and middle of the page) write the symbol for the empty set. This is the first \"point\" of your n-dimensional cube. This represents the subset of C ={1,2,3,...,n} that has size zero. There is only one as (n choose zero) = 1. On the second row write the numbers one to n. This represents all subsets of C of size 1, there is (n choose 1) = n of these. Now we can talk about lines. You draw a line between objects on row x to row x-1 if one is the subset of the other (where x < =n). Since the empty set on the first row is a subset of everyone of the sets on the second row, then we draw a line from the empty set to each one of the sets on the first row. [Now how and where you draw these \"points\" and \"lines\" is irrelevant, other than each line should be straight for a realistic shadow of an n-dimensional cube on a 2d piece of paper.]\nNow for the third row. These are all the subsets of C of size 2. There are (n choose 2) of these sets. Connect \"points\" from the second row to the thrid row if one is the subset of the other. So the point on the second line labelled {1} connects to each subset on the thrid row of the form {1,2}, {1,3},...., {1,n}. Similarly the point on the second row labelled with {2} is connected to each subset on the third row with a 2 in it. And so on.\n\nSo the rule is on row x+1 with 0 < = x < = n. Draw all subsets of C of size x (there are (n choose x) of them) in a row. Connect subsets from row x+1 to row x if one is the subset of the other.\n\nOn row n we have one point being the set C itself. There is only one subset of C that is the same size of C and that's C itself. Or if you prefer (n choose n) = 1.\n\nYou always have on row one the empty set and on row n+1 the whole set C. And you only connect between rows x and x-1, never between further away rows.\n\nExamples. A 0-dimensional \"cube\" is a point. There is only one set and subsets of it and that is the empty set. C = empty set.\n\nA 1-dimensional \"cube\" is a line. C = {1}. On row 1 there is the always present empty set. On row two is the set C. The empty set is a subset of C, so we draw a line between them. That's our 1-dimensional \"cube\".\n\nA 2-dimensional \"cube\" is called a square (just in case you forgot :). So n = 2. C = {1,2}. On row one we have the empty set. On row 2 we have all subsets of C of size one. So row 2 has the \"points\" {1} and {2}. On row three we have the subset of size 2 of C, which is C itself. Row one is connected with each \"point\" on row two, and every \"point\" on row two is connected to C on row three.\n\nA 3-dimensional \"cube\" is a cube. Row one has the empty set as a \"point\". Row 2 has {1}, {2}, {3} as \"points\". Row 3 has {1,2},\t{2,3}, {1,3} as \"points\" and row 4 is C. Between row 2 and 3 it gets interesting: {1} is connected to {1,2} and {1,3}; {2} is connected to {2,3} and {1,2}; and, {3} is connected to {1,3} and {2,3}. If you drew this carefully you should have something that looks like a cube.\n\nNow pick a number bigger than 3 and you can draw hyper-dimensional cubes in your sleep.",
"Yep, looks like a 5-D projection onto a 3-D sphere"
],
"score": [
120,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/42sLM.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_distance",
"http://i.imgur.com/9yiAc.png"
]
} | Can anyone help identify this object? We think it is a model of a 5 dimensional cube, but we have no clue of the usage!
I am talking about [this](_URL_0_) object. It is currently placed at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands. There has been a post on there website about it and they aren't sure what its exact properties are. This post draw my attention as a student and I thought that r/AskScience might know what it is. This 'cube' was use from 1950 ~ 1980 as a demonstration in electrical engineering classes. On this sphere there are small grooves. These grooves represent the five-dimensional cube. It has 32 corners indicated with 32 holes. 31 holes all have their own letter and number combinations and the last, 32nd, hole is just for the stick it sits on. The numbers run from 0 ~ 15 colored with red and from 1 ~ 15 in black. Al the corners are connected with a wire. There has been one reply on the post the university made and this only tell us it has been used to symbolize 5 bit signals. Also it tells that you should be able to figure out how to pick 5 bit signals under certain contraints. (this hasn't been verified yet) There isn't any more information available to us, so hopefully you could fill me in here. I hope there is someone out here, who can help explain how they used this object in the classes and how it helps to imagine 5 bit signals. Edit: as RickRussellTX pointed out. Not all the corners are connected by the wire. Some aren't connected, I am not sure why they choose this layout or if it's possible to arrange the wire in a different way. Edit 2: Thanks for the big input r/askscience! You have helped a lot! For now I think we can say that it is a model of a hypercube, that represents a model of some computer architecture (for example processors, servers of any form of memory). There hasn't been any further updates from the university yet, whenever they give out more information I will post an update! | [
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|
1lgqdm | Yesterday I captured a (female) mouse that was on my apartment. Today, when I checked on her, she had aborted. What kind of abortive natural abortive mechanisms animals have? | I'm curious if this was an abortive mechanism or just a consequence of bad health. I'm unaware if animals can abort "by will" under certain situations. Although the simplest explanation I can come up with is that it got pretty nervous, affected its health and provoked the abortion.
EDIT:
Just in case, my roommate and I freed the mouse in a park that is a few minutes away. We don't know if she will survive, but at least she will get a second chance and she won't keep pooping in our kitchen. She was very cute :) I really like rodents.
EDIT:
This got much more attention than I expected. This is the only pic that I can provide of said mouse
_URL_0_
I trapped her manually with a metal trash basket. I felt pretty handy, I thought I wasn't going to be able to since it was pretty fast :) Anyway, it was damn cute, if I may say. Thank you for the answers. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbz2hu0",
"cbz4vza",
"cbz514i",
"cbz4w2k"
],
"text": [
"I work with rats, and often have to breed them. Too much stress or too little nutrition will cause them to abort their pregnancies which is true of just about any species. Can they \"will\" it to happen? Probably not, but most animals, especially those that typically fall into \"prey\" categories are pretty tightly wound, and they won't handle a significant amount of stress very well. \n\nSource: researching FASD using Long-Evans rats.",
"Stress-induced abortion has been studied quite a lot in mice and rats due to interest in stress's role in human miscarriages. First off - a pregnant mouse, or almost any oregnant mammal really, must have high progesterone at all times or the uterus will almost immediately shed the placenta. Bear in mind here that a mammalian pregnancy is an unusual state in which the mother's body must immunologically tolerate a genetically foreign \"invader\" (the fetus and placenta). So during pregnancy the mother's entire immune system is \"turned down\". Especially in the uterus. Turns out progesterone is partially responsible for this; it exerts a powerful immunosuppressive effect in uterine tissue. So if progesterone drops, it's as if all of a sudden the immune system wakes up and notices there is a genetically foreign tissue in the uterus and BOOM, the immune system attacks, the lining sheds. (I'm simplifying a lot but that's the idea.)\n\nThen here's part 2: Stress hormones inhibit the secretion of all reproductive hormones. In rodents the major adrenal stress hormone is corticosterone, and it directly reduces progesterone levels.\n\nSo: scared rodent - > corticosterone shoots up - > progesterone plummets - > immune system \"wakes up\", notices genetically foreign fetus, attacks - > placenta falls off. \n\n[source](_URL_0_) - can post more later, am on phone.",
"There's another mechanism that some species of mouse will use to abort their fetuses. It's called the **Bruce Effect**; when a pregnant female rodent comes across a male that she is unfamiliar with (in other words, not the male that impregnated her) she will terminate her pregnancy.\n\nThis won't always happen. It only occurs when the female comes across the male's scent during a certain period in her pregnancy when there is a spike in a chemical called prolactin.\n\nThis is beneficial to both the female and the male. \n\nIt allows the male (who will often pee in a females direction in order to trigger the Bruce Effect) to sabotage rival male's offspring and thus give his genes a major advantage.\n\nIt allows females to select superior mates after they get pregnant, thus ensuring that their genes will be passed to strong, healthy offspring.\n\n**TL;DR Male rodent pee can cause female rodents to abort.**",
"Yes, rodents tend to abort and resorb their fetuses when stressed.\n\nAnother thing that can cause it, since you ask, is [the Bruce effect](_URL_1_), where a pregnant mother exposed to the smell of an unfamiliar male aborts. Possibly because this gives them a way to change their minds about mate choice even after they've been impregnated, or possibly just because the new male would kill the old one's young once they're born anyway, so why share all those delicious nutrients."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/B3RnYyA.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0897.2007.00512.x/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&amp;amp;userIsAuthenticated=false",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_effect"
]
} | Yesterday I captured a (female) mouse that was on my apartment. Today, when I checked on her, she had aborted. What kind of abortive natural abortive mechanisms animals have?
I'm curious if this was an abortive mechanism or just a consequence of bad health. I'm unaware if animals can abort "by will" under certain situations. Although the simplest explanation I can come up with is that it got pretty nervous, affected its health and provoked the abortion. EDIT: Just in case, my roommate and I freed the mouse in a park that is a few minutes away. We don't know if she will survive, but at least she will get a second chance and she won't keep pooping in our kitchen. She was very cute :) I really like rodents. EDIT: This got much more attention than I expected. This is the only pic that I can provide of said mouse _URL_0_ I trapped her manually with a metal trash basket. I felt pretty handy, I thought I wasn't going to be able to since it was pretty fast :) Anyway, it was damn cute, if I may say. Thank you for the answers. | [
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|
b67xix | How are human haplogroups different from speciation? | I don't want this to come across as racist. I know race relating to skin color is an arbitrary, dated, and ignorant concept. This is a serious question.
Why aren't the differences in human haplogroups isn't considered speciation?
Also I am aware that species are a sort of dubious concept to begin with, I am using it in the basic sense of similar but different animals like lions and tigers. But humans being more similar like with dog breeds. I know dog haplogroups exist but not much more than that.
Also, I am asking if "the races" are different species now. I want to know if the variation in haplogroup types are the begins of new species. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You are equally related to your mother and your father, but if they belong to different mitchondrial haplogroups, you only inherit from your mother, so your haplogroup would only be informative about part of your ancestry. This obviously isn't a good way of tracking the network of relatedness.\n\nIt *is* true that there's no clear boundary between what constitutes organized genetic variation within a species (called genetic structure) and variation between species. It's totally a blurry line and up to the general sense of the people who study the groups to make the decisions. However, haplotypes are not really a part of this since on their own they don't signal the genetic structure. You have to look at patterns throughout the whole genome for that.\n\nIt's even possible to get something called mitochondrial capture where individuals can belong to the mitochondrial haplogroup of one species, but almost the entire rest of their genome matches a different species. So just looking at haplogroups isn't really informative in the way you think it is.",
"Technically speaking, a haplogroup can be any set of alleles that are inherited together, but yes, Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA are the main systems used for human ancestry purposes as other comments mention. The main reason for this is that these are the only pieces of DNA we have that do not undergo [recombination](_URL_0_) when making gametes. So they form relatively large chunks of DNA that are always inherited as a single piece and can't be mixed up. This means the only differences between Y-chromosomes/mitochondrial DNA are due to mutations rather than shuffling of alleles, and so they are useful for tracing ancestry by looking at which people share which sets of mutations.\n\nHowever, the flip side of this is that both Y-chromosomes and mitochondrial DNA represent very small parts of your overall genetic composition (\\~2% for Y, much less for mitochondria), and so really have nothing to do with race, let alone species. Most ethnic groups contain lots of different haplotypes of both varieties that also overlap with other ethnic groups, though the distributions may vary a bit (see [this table](_URL_1_), I know it's Wikipedia but it gets the point across). Furthermore, the DNA variants that are used to delineate haplogroups are almost all neutral and have no actual phenotypic effect at all, so it's a pretty big stretch to say that they are the beginning of new species.",
"Aside from the other answers, nearly every species on earth is going to have a similar mix of haplogroups and as a result would have to be divided up into an enormous array of basically identical species with no physical, ecological, or even really significant genetic distinguishing factors. Which would be a mess and ultimately pretty far from what we mean when we say \"species\".",
"Haplogroups are linked to either Y-chromosome DNA or mitochondrial DNA. That is, they're only connected to a single maternal or paternal line, which is useful for tracing historical population movements, but doesn't say much about any specific person's genetic makeup, and haplogroups therefore don't represent distinct populations that could move toward speciation long term."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-recombination-514",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-DNA_haplogroups_by_ethnic_group"
]
} | How are human haplogroups different from speciation?
I don't want this to come across as racist. I know race relating to skin color is an arbitrary, dated, and ignorant concept. This is a serious question. Why aren't the differences in human haplogroups isn't considered speciation? Also I am aware that species are a sort of dubious concept to begin with, I am using it in the basic sense of similar but different animals like lions and tigers. But humans being more similar like with dog breeds. I know dog haplogroups exist but not much more than that. Also, I am asking if "the races" are different species now. I want to know if the variation in haplogroup types are the begins of new species. | [
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imgss | What are some fun science experiments for 1st graders? | Well I'm at camp and i'm in charge of the 1st grade. I have always been good at science and I am going to 1 science experiment per week. I am not a very creative person so I was wondering if anyone could give me some ideas? I love physics and chemistry so those kid of experiments would be the best. | askscience | {
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"I teach K-4 science, so this is right up my alley.\n\nA few ideas:\n\n-Make parachutes out of cut-up trash bags, string and tape, and drop clothespins or action figures from someplace high. Let the kids experiment with things like how big to make the chute, how long to make the strings, etc.\n\n-[Balloon rockets](_URL_2_) are also a big hit with my first graders. An added idea: what happens if you tape things (pennies, etc) onto the rocket before letting it go?\n\n-Go on a bug hunt if you have any outdoor areas. Before you go, make \"bug habitats\" out of old plastic containers, putting in things that will make the bugs happy - this is a good way to talk about the things that animals need (air, water but not too much, etc.). You can probably find worms, isopods, spiders, etc. in even a garden. Scope out likely spots before taking the kids for better success. Put the bugs back when you're done.\n\n-Build towers out of straws and cut-up pipe cleaners - stick one end of a 1\" segment of pipe cleaner into the end of one straw (the best for this are the really skinny kind, like coffee stirrer straws) and the other end into another straw. How tall a tower can you make? What shapes help you make strong towers? Kids will figure out that triangles are far more stable than squares. Toothpicks and mini marshmallows are also fun to build with, though you need to keep an eye on the kids to make sure they don't just eat all the marshmallows! Instead of towers, you could also challenge them to make a bridge between two blocks/books/bricks/something.\n\n-Make homemade silly putty out of borax and white glue - you can find several recipes online.\n\n-After spending a little time playing \"will this float or sink?\" with a bunch of different objects, make small boats out of modeling clay or squares of tinfoil. (You might start with, \"Look, the ball of modeling clay sinks... could we make it float?\") How many pennies can your boat hold before it sinks? How can you change your boat to make it hold more?\n\n-Soap bubbles have possibility... maybe coming up with the best formula (combination of soap, water & glycerin)?'\n\n-Magnets: What is attracted to the magnet? Making \"mazes\" for paper clips on one side of a stiff piece of paper, then guide the clip through it just by moving the magnet on the back of the paper.\n\nSome more ideas from [Scientific American](_URL_1_) and [San Francisco's Exploratorium](_URL_0_).",
"Three ideas:\n\n* [Non-newtonian fluids with cornstarch and water](_URL_4_). Also, you can explain that ketchup does the opposite (becomes thinner when it flows).\n\n* Make an [electromagnet](_URL_3_) with some wire, a nail and a 9V battery. Actually, making almost any kind of low-voltage circuit is good, safe fun. LEDs are probably safer than bulbs, though.\n\n* Deflect a compass with a wire attached to a battery.",
"Leave a tomato outside covered with some mesh so birds can't get to it, and take a picture/observations of it every day as it decays.",
"I've posted these before. They aren't really experiments, more like demonstrations, but they are fun and teach about science. I can't find the post, but I have it all in a textfile, so here's the pasta:\n\nA few years ago (In fact, the summer after 1st grade) my wife got together with some other parents in the area and made up a camp for our boys. The kids all went to somebody's house and did some camp-style day there. We rotated it so everybody had a day; the \"cost\" of the camp was to host one day; great cheap way to do camp, BTW. My son wanted science. So we did the laws of motion:\n\n1) Constant velocity. Google for \"egg trick newtons first law\". It takes some practice, but is impressive. There are simpler ones with pennies and playing cards. You can also show this with a drill, a ball, a piece if string and a razor blade. Fasten the string to the drill and tie on the ball on the far end. Get the drill going so the ball spins around (this will take some practice). Bring the razor up into the string to cut it & show that an object in motion stays in motion.\n\n2) Take a bucket and suspend it like a pendulum. Get a student to start it swinging, and get another to stop it. Now fill it halfway with water & repeat. Fill it all the way and repeat. It's harder to get the bucket moving/stop the bucket when it has more mass. Force, mass and acceleration, second law. \n\n3) Google \"soda bottle rockets\" This is not baking soda, but a partly filled 2L soda bottle rigged to a device you can make from PVC, a bike pump and an old bicycle tire. There are lots of good plans online, and it's great fun. We still take ours out on hot days. Show them the difference between launching and empty one vs one with water filled to various levels; great demonstration of the role of reaction mass than even a little kid can get.\n\nAnother good, simple one is pressure/volume/temperature relationships:\n\nGet a burner (a stove or hotplate works fine), a soda can, a bowl of ice water, and some tongs. Put a little water in the bottom of the soda can (just a few mLs) and get it boiling. Using the tongs, plunge the can mouth down into the ice water. If you do it right, the can collapses quite spectacularly. It's really impressive to watch, great example of pressure-volume changes. \n\nAnother great one is a DNA day:\nHave them extract DNA from a strawberry; it's REALLY easy. Mash up a strawberry, add a bit of liquid soap and a bit of meat tenderizer. The soap breaks down the membranes, and the proteases in in meat tenderizer break down the proteins. Salts in the tenderizer facilitate precipitation later on. Mash well with a fork. Scoop/pour the mess into a coffee filter. Twist it a bit so you can squeeze the juice out into a (clear plastic or glass) cup. Now add a roughly equal volume of rubbing alcohol and stir. That cottony stuff is (mostly) DNA. There will be a LOT of it. Use frozen strawberries to make it cheaper. You can \"experiment\" by seeing how much DNA is recoverable from different types of foods; weigh the food beforehand and guesstimate how much DNA you recover; unless you have a really good scale you probably won't be able to weigh it.\n\nIf you're feeling up to it, do the genetic code:\nMake up a genetic code with codons making up the alphabet. AGG = A, GTT = B, CCT = C, etc. You can also make it so specific codons equal words. Make up a DNA sequence and get them to \"translate\" it. If you're feeling industrious, you can even make little tRNA's from index cards. (EDIT : Bonus points for making the tRNAs fit to the transcript like puzzle pieces. Hard to set up, but gives them a more realistic idea of what's going on)\n\nAnd then my favorite, evolution:\nGet some kitchen utensils. Tongs, slotted spoons, ladles, forks, etc. Get several of each. Gather some objects that are easily gathered with one of those utensils; this is your \"food\". For example, a bowl of water with foam bits floating in it (slotted spoon), or a pan filled with scraps of paper (tongs), or a bunch of marbles (ladle).\n\nScatter the food containers around the room and cover each with a towel or something (so they can't see it). Now tell each kid to go to the pile of utensils and pick one. Then start a timer and tell them that they have one minute to gather as many of the things in their bowl as they can (you may have to make them take turns, depending on how cooperative they are). At the end of the time, rank them based on how many things they got. For anyone that got less than a certain number of food items (or who is in the bottom third, or however you want to do it), they must trade in their utensil for the utensil of the top performer in their group. For example, say Terry got 20 foam bits from the bowl with his slotted spoon, and Bobby got 16 foam bits with his ladle, and Sally and Frank both got 8 bits with their tongs, and poor Larry got nothing with his fork. Sally, Frank, and Larry turn in their tongs or forks and get slotted spoons.\n\nRepeat until each \"niche\" has only one \"species\". This can be REALLY informative to the kids. If you do it enough (or play a little intentionally unintelligent design) you'll get suboptimal groups. For instance, in the example above, no kid got a slotted spoon to start with. That \"gene\" wasn't in their gene pool. At the end of the game, everyone will have ladles. You can ask them what they think might have been a better way to get the food and they will easily pick the slotted spoon. Ask why they didn't use it...it wasn't there....watch the lights come on.",
"[Potato watch](_URL_8_),\n[Invisible ink](_URL_6_),\n[Mentos and soda](_URL_5_), and\n[Paper airplane contest](_URL_7_)"
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"http://www.scientificamerican.com/section.cfm?id=bring-science-home",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=under-pressure-launch-a-balloon-rocket",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid#Oobleck",
"http://www.eepybird.com/featured-video/the-extreme-diet-coke-mentos-experiments/",
"http://chemistry.about.com/cs/howtos/ht/invisibleink2.htm",
"http://www.10paperairplanes.com/",
"http://www.ehow.com/how_6363180_make-lcd-watch-science-project.html"
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} | What are some fun science experiments for 1st graders?
Well I'm at camp and i'm in charge of the 1st grade. I have always been good at science and I am going to 1 science experiment per week. I am not a very creative person so I was wondering if anyone could give me some ideas? I love physics and chemistry so those kid of experiments would be the best. | [
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j35z0 | Why are old ships sunk instead of being recycled? | My wife is watching the show "Blowdown" on the Science channel in which they are sinking an old spy ship. They apparently spent a month just getting the ship ready to tow it out to sea to sink it.
I'm not sure if this is really a science question but why would you sink a retired ship instead of recycling it for all the steel? Isn't that much steel worth astrobucks? Is there something special about a 'spy ship' that makes it un-recyclable? | askscience | {
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"The distinction, whys and wherefores of artificial reefing vs shipbreaking have been discussed.\n\nBut many times, ship and boat owners who have an old vessel simply abandon it. All the benefits of not owning your ship anymore, without the hassle of paying any fees. Drawbacks include environmental problems, legal ramifications, and the blockage of navigation.\n\nPeople tend to cluster these \"ship graveyards\" around particular areas - one abandonment draws another. Interestingly, people tend to be drawn to reuse abandonment sites, even if they can't see evidence of prior abandonment activity. There are sites that were used at one point in history, and then used again ages later.\n\nOne of the largest such sites in the world is at [Mallow's Bay](_URL_0_) along the Potomac River in the US. That site's been used for ship dumping since the colonial days, but most of the ships you see in that picture (overgrown with plants as they may be) are the Emergency Fleet from the first World War.\n\nAnother site of note is the [Arthur Kill graveyard](_URL_1_) along the shore in Staten Island. More pictures [here](_URL_3_).\n\nIn fact, somewhere near almost every port will be ship abandonments. Many can be found on Google Earth, once you know how to see them. With a kayak or canoe, you can visit the vast majority of ship graveyards.\n\nI will take the time to remind you here that abandoned vessels and shipwrecks are frequently dangerous, and the graveyards are not usually near good parts of town. If you want to go exploring, please exercise extreme caution, and remember that both human and animal locals may not appreciate it. Also remember that shipwrecks are a scientific resource and part of our maritime cultural heritage, even if they look old and terrible. Even if they're a barge. Please do not remove anything from a site, or vandalize the resource.\n\nFinally, here's a view of [Alang](_URL_2_), one of the biggest shipbreaking operations. These ships aren't abandoned, but are being scrapped.",
"Most ships *are* cut up and recycled. But, it's [nasty](_URL_4_) work, and it's not cheap.\n\nIn some instances, you see ships deliberately sunk in order to act as a platform for a coral reef, or to attract scuba divers, which is probably what they were doing.",
"I believe they scupper many kinds of ship to create artificial reefs. This can act as a local attraction for scuba divers. Can't answer for the economics against scrapping and recycling.",
"I live near a ship yard, and they recycle ships all the time.\n\nthey have these giant metal clamps that cut the thing up, and then they truck them off. \n\nI have pitchers if you want, no time to get them up now.",
"There's an artifical reef off the coast of tampa made out of a fleet of tanks. Best fishing spot i have ever been to. Maybe the guys in the navy just love fishing :)",
"I'm a ships engineer. the main reason is .. it's cheaper. \nunless you can blatantly disregard safe working conditions and making sure that no harmful material gets into the environment .. like they can in [Alang](_URL_5_) India for example, it is way to expensive to break down a ship into recyclable parts."
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"url": [
"http://maps.google.com/?ll=38.472675,-77.267532&spn=0.00698,0.009645&t=h&z=17",
"http://maps.google.com/?ll=40.556445,-74.216294&spn=0.006774,0.009645&t=h&z=17",
"http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Alang,+Bhavnagar,+Gujarat,+India&hl=en&ll=21.409046,72.199059&spn=0.066404,0.077162&sll=15.876809,84.111328&sspn=66.471741,79.013672&geocode=FWjjRgEdec9NBA&t=h&z=14",
"http://www.opacity.us/gallery87_wrecks.htm",
"http://www.france24.com/en/20100422-bangladesh-sues-ship-breaking-yards-over-pollution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alang"
]
} | Why are old ships sunk instead of being recycled?
My wife is watching the show "Blowdown" on the Science channel in which they are sinking an old spy ship. They apparently spent a month just getting the ship ready to tow it out to sea to sink it. I'm not sure if this is really a science question but why would you sink a retired ship instead of recycling it for all the steel? Isn't that much steel worth astrobucks? Is there something special about a 'spy ship' that makes it un-recyclable? | [
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|
8pb285 | Chemically, why was the Fat Man more powerful than the Little Boy? (The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki) | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There are mechanical differences as well as chemical differences that account for the difference in explosive power of the Fat Man and Little Boy:\n\n**Fat Man**:\n\nUsed about 13.6 lbs. of plutonium in an implosion, caused by surrounding the plutonium in nearly 3 tons of conventional explosives. Plutonium releases about 210 MeV of energy per fission. Total explosive power of the Fat Man was about 21,000 tons of TNT, which is 5.48404 x 10^32 eV.\n\n**Little Boy**:\n\nUsing a gun mechanism, a 85 lb. hollow \"bullet\" made of uranium is shot into a 55 lbs. mass of uranium, causing it to go critical. Uranium releases about 200 MeV of energy. Little Boy's explosive power was about 15,000 tons of TNT, which is 3.91717 x 10^32 eV.\n\nMost likely, the initiation mechanism for the Fat Man was just more efficient, causing more atoms to undergo fission. This would make sense if you think about an implosion vs a gun barrel mechanism. Doing the math, you'd find that 2.61144762 x 10^24 atoms of plutonium underwent fission. For the uranium, it was 1.958585 x 10^24 atoms. To calculate the efficiency of the bombs, you'd have to know their relative atomic densities, but I can't find that information.\n\nEdit: fixed notation and which mass of uranium was shot into which.",
"For the implied backup question: why did they go with one design over the other?\n\nThe explosives needed to make Fat Man work had to be incredibly precise. If they all didn't go off in the exact correct shape at the exact right time, it would have shot the Plutonium out of the shell like a cannon instead of compressing it. Frankly, the explosives were possibly a greater engineering challenge than the nuclear part. \n\nLittle Boy was much simpler, engineering-wise. They both took an astronomical amount of resources to build, but Little Boy they were almost positive would work. Fat Man was much more efficient, but required testing and had a higher potential failure rate. We went with Fat Man style bombs going forward, hence all the nuclear testing, but we had Little Boy as backup to make sure *something* went off.",
"Hi. Former DOE nuclear weapons guy here. First of all, the weapon effects are nuclear (not chemical) in nature. The simple answer to your question is that the weapons were different in design (gun vs. implosion type) as well as how much special nuclear material (SNM) and the types of SNM used. Little Boy was designed as a low-efficiency but high probability of success device. Gun type weapons are a pain in the ass as U-235 is hard to refine and the design tends to go supercritical too quickly. Perhaps the ultimate gun-type design was the W33 artillery fired atomic projectile (AFAP). Fat Man was a single stage implosion device. More complex due to designing explosive lenses/timers/detonators to get a good burn. In the end, most countries ended up using imposion-type primaries with plutonium or hybrid plutonium/uranium pits and secondaries/tertiaries using both SNM and lithium deuteride. \n\n(TL/DR) Kinda like comparing the performance of cars. Lots of different variables and design constraints come into play.",
"Little Boy used over 10 times as much fuel by mass (uranium) than Fat Man (plutonium) but the design of Fat Man was over 10 times as efficient. Their estimated explosive forces are of the same order of magnitude.\n\nLittle Boy used a gun-type design that pushed a chunk of uranium into a casing of uranium to get supercritical mass. Fat Man used an implosion-type design that pushed ~~two hemispheres~~ of plutonium together. Little Boy was significantly simpler than Fat Man, but weapons-grade uranium is harder to produce than weapons-grade plutonium, but the plutonium gun-type design would have been 17 feet (5 meters) long and had trouble staying in the necessary position to detonate.\n\nChemistry-wise, plutonium has a lower critical mass, the mass required to achieve detonation. Pu-239 has higher fissile probability and produces more neutrons than U-235 per fission event. Pu-239 can be formed into very large subcritical masses due to its stability.\n\nEdit: typos",
"Fission-based nuclear weapons work through a chain reaction of neutrons hitting atoms, releasing neutrons, which hit other atoms, and release more neutrons. It’s all about neutrons. More neutrons hitting the fissile material means more energy. Put enough neutron producing radioactive atoms together, and you have a runaway chain reaction. \n\nHowever, when you set off the weapon, it explodes (because of the runaway reaction). The energy tears apart the weapon, which ends the reaction. This is potentially quite inefficient, as not all of the material actually gets to undergo fission. \n\nLittle Boy used a “gun type” mechanism, essentially a cylinder where a “bullet” of uranium hits another piece of uranium. One was hollow, but this is a simple mechanism and the combination process is sort of two dimensional - one thing is pushed into another thing. Quickly, the reaction blows up the entire fissile material involved, and the reaction ends. It is an extremely inefficient design in terms of the fissile material involved. \n\nFat Man used a more advanced technique where the fissile material is imploded all at once from all sides. This is a three dimensional method of pushing everything together using conventional explosives, and achieves a higher density of fissile material. More material together all at once in a tighter, more compressed space, means more neutrons. More neutrons means a bigger explosion. Even though it is just a brief instant while the fissile material is compressed together, many more atoms are able to experience the reaction. This is more efficient and creates a larger explosion. (They used Uranium versus Plutonium, but the fundamental difference was in how the reaction was set off and the larger power of fat man was primarily due to the more advanced design.)\n\nHowever, both are fairly inefficient. Little Boy only used around 1-2% of its fissile material, and Fat Man only used about 17%. \n\nThermonuclear weapons can be much more efficient, since the fusion reaction produces a lot of neutrons all at once. Surround the reaction with fissile material and almost all the fissile material will be hit with neutrons before it is torn apart. This works even for fissile material that can’t support a chain reaction on its own, because you are supplying the neutrons from the fusion reaction. This method can efficiently use all the fissile material because you have a large amount of neutrons hitting it, and provides a huge amount of energy (much of the energy in thermonuclear weapons is actually through this process, not the primary fusion reaction).",
"I realize there are other answers, but I thought I would get this in. \n\nThe reason for the difference in explosive yield was not chemical, but rather efficiency. Both were fission bombs and are not terribly efficient to begin with. Thermo-nuclear bombs (i.e. two+ stage fusion bombs) are much more efficient, but have never been deployed in warfare. Fission bombs use either a gun-type or explosion type method.\n\nA bit of background; uranium or plutonium (or any radioactive material for that matter) have what is called a 'critical mass'. That means if you collect enough of it in a small enough space, it will go critical (i.e. explode). This is because radioactive elements decay and produce particles. In sub-critical masses, these particles mostly escape. In critical masses, these particles hit enough nuclei of other atoms to cause them to explode and release even more particles. So if you have enough material in a small enough space, too many particles hit other nuclei and cause a chain reaction which results in an explosion.\n\nThe gun type method is basically two sub-critical masses which are brought together to make a critical mass. There is a 'bullet' and a 'target'. The only real requirement is that both the bullet and target are sub-critical, but together are critical. Usually, they are of similar masses for efficiency, but that doesn't matter too much. To activate, simply throw the bullet at the target really hard. \n\nThe explosion type method has a mass of material that is sub-critical because of its low density. Consider a hollow sphere for example. It is made critical not by adding more mass like the gun method, but instead by compressing into a smaller space, thus increasing its density and making it critical. The compression is achieved with a bunch of shape charges meant to focus power inward, and thus compress the sphere into a smaller ball.\n\nIn both cases, when a critical mass is formed, it wants to explode. Explosion decreases density because the fissile material is now spread out, which makes the whole system sub-critical again. It is kind of like pushing two repelling magnets together; the stronger you push, the stronger they repel.\n\nThe explosion type method was more efficient because the explosion was compressing the fissile material more or less equally from all directions with great force. If you slow it down, the shape charges push the material in tighter and tighter, and when it achieves critical mass, it starts pushing back. But the shape charges were quite powerful and were able to make the mass even denser and keep it at that density longer before the force of the nuclear reaction won out causing an outward explosion.\n\nThe gun type method only had pressure from one direction. When the mass went critical, it was allowed to expand in all other directions without resistance, which meant that the whole mass was not critical for very long compared to the explosion type bomb.",
"The basic concept of a nuclear weapon is actually pretty simple: you rapidly increase the density of a mass of fissile material well past its critical point, thereby releasing about 850 keV of energy for each amu of reacted mass (~74 GJ/g for U-235, ~76.5 GJ/g for Pu-239). For comparison, the energy density of gunpowder or natural gas is about 11 J/g.\n\nIn Little Boy, this was done by driving a subcritical mass of U-235 into another subcritical mass of U-235, in a \"gun type\" configuration. There's a few different ways to do this, but the easiest way to picture it is explosively pushing a hemisphere of metal into another, or firing a rod into a hollow cylinder.\n\nUnfortunately, doing it this way is slow, relative to the increase in reactivity; as the fissile chunks come together, reactivity spikes well before the sphere is whole, and the released energy starts pushing them back apart - so you end up not fissioning very much of the available fuel - only about 1.5%. On the \"up\" side (as far as \"up\" sides go for making weapons of mass destruction), it's a much easier weapon to build correctly.\n\nIn Fat Man, the strategy was to explosively compact a hollow sphere of Pu-239 into a solid sphere. This was done with high-powered shaped charges and inertial tampers (basically, added mass for the pushing).\n\nThis has a couple of advantages. First, the condensing sphere becomes reactive more slowly, giving inertia more time to work. Second, since the material is still mostly solid, there's some extra resistance to the nuclear-induced rebound.\n\nAll this results in a _much_ larger percentage of the fuel getting burned - about 16%.\n\nThe choice of fuel had a little sway over the difference in yield - accounting for a 3% increase per gram of fuel - but the efficiency and higher burn rate meant that, despite having less fissile content, Fat Man burned about 10% more mass of nuclear fuel.",
"Current DOE nuclear weapons engineer here. \n\nIts important to note, that chemical reactions are interactions of the electrons of atoms while nuclear reactions are interactions of the nucleus of an atom, so 'chemical' difference doesnt make sense unless you are referring to the chemistry of the explosives that drive the nuclear resction or other chemcials inside a nuclear bomb.\n\nWhat makes one more powerful than the other? In a \"single stage\" weapon like fat man and little boy (as opposed to two stage bombs that use a 'fat man' bomb as the explosives to initiate an even bigger bomb) the factors that determine how much bang you get are: how well enriched your Plutonium (Pu) or Uranium (U) is and how many cycles of chain reactions you can hold it together before the bomb blows itself apart.\n\nSo for fat man and little boy, they could have made one more powerful than the other by putting in more Pu or U in the bombs.\n\nBeyond those two factors (enrichment and how long you can hold it together) it becomes a question of efficiency, not necessarily efficiency in the nuclear package, but efficiency in the rest of the bomb to get the biggest bang in the smallest/lightest package. Fat man for example had a really small nuclear core (actual size is classified) but by the time you get all the explosives, tampers, and other things packed in there, you have an enormous 6Ft-ish diameter bomb that they had to modify a B29 just to drop it.\n\nOver the years we have found many ways to turn an enormous fat man bomb into a much smaller much more powerful package. All wespons in the current US stockpile are 'fat man' types (only two stage instead of single stage).",
"The implosion type mechanism used by the Fat Man has a higher yield than the gun type mechanism of the Little Boy. As some other comments have noted, plutonium also released more energy per fission than uranium, but the compression caused by the implosion mechanism allowed for a much larger amount of plutonium to fission. So it was better efficiency-wise and materials-wise.",
"After reading other answers (and learning a lot in the process), I have two follow up questions:\n\n1. Little Boy used a gun-like mechanism. Fat Man used a implosion mechanism. What kind of mechanism today's bombs use?\n\n2. I understand that might be a difference between \"atomic\" and \"nuclear\" bombs? I always used both interchangeably up until now.",
"Given that the explosive lenses of the implosive device increased the density of the plutonium core until criticality occurred, what would happen if you replaced the plutonic with a core made of steel? Would the end result be a sphere of super dense steel?"
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} | Chemically, why was the Fat Man more powerful than the Little Boy? (The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki)
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n1uik | How scientifically accurate is this list of foods to avoid? (Includes canned tomatoes, microwave popcorn, farmed salmon, and several more) | A friend posted a link to [this article](_URL_0_) on Facebook. It claims that these seven things are "loaded with toxins and chemicals" and should be avoided:
* canned tomatoes
* corn-fed beef
* microwave popcorn
* nonorganic potatoes
* farmed salmon
* milk produced with artificial hormones
* conventional apples
Are these claims well-supported? They do quote actual scientists, but the article's also written with a kind of sensationalistic bent. (After all, that's what sells magazines.) I'm especially curious about the canned tomatoes, as I eat more of those than I do of other things on the list. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c35m5at",
"c35m44u",
"c35pwvk"
],
"text": [
"\"toxins and chemicals\" should be your warning sign right there - they're scare terms. But let's break them down anyway.\n\n1. Canned tomatoes and BPA. It's true that BPA has been discovered to leach from plastics into food and drink. However, the consequences are still being studied and additionally, the food industry has been aggressively removing BPA from its packaging in response to customer concerns. The FDA is working to remove BPA from its approved list of food contact substances, but that is not a fast process. **6/10**\n\n2. Corn-fed beef. Joel Salatin is not what you would call an unbiased source, first off. He has a particular philosophy of farming that was popularized when he was featured in *The Omnivore's Dilemma* but he is not a scientist and should not be considered objective. That said, grass-fed beef is certainly more nutritious than corn-fed beef, and in fact has a lower risk of foodborne illness, but corn-fed beef is hardly as dangerous as Salatin makes it out to be. **2/10**\n\n3. Microwave popcorn. This one is pretty reasonable; the long-term effects of high levels of exposure to some of these packaging materials isn't entirely known, but the outlook isn't great; the EPA is recommending removal of the worst offenders but as the article points out, that's going to take some time. Vaporized diacetyl from the butter flavor has also been linked to serious respiratory issues. **8/10**\n\n4. Nonorganic potatoes: This is pure scare. I've sprouted conventional potatoes several times, and any fungicidal/herbicidal residues that would be harmful to humans would be detected during inspection and rejected. Jeffery Moyer is an organic activist who has a clear and historic bias in favor of organic agriculture, and his time on the NOSB was in a production, not scientific role. **2/10**\n\n5. Farmed salmon. \"Nature intends\" is meaningless. However, different countries have different standards for farm-raised fish, and import controls are difficult to apply universally. There is nothing inherently bad about farm-raised salmon; just be aware of your farm. **5/10**\n\n6. Milk produced with artificial hormones. This one is still seriously controversial; the amount of IGF-1 surviving pasteurization and stomach acid is a hard value to pin down, and the correlation between IGF-1 and cancer isn't solid either. However, like the BPA issue, manufacturers are responding to consumer demand and these days it's easier to find hormone-free milk than not. **5/10**\n\n7. Conventional apples. This is naked speculation, and nothing else. \"Just common sense\" may safely be translated as \"we don't have any proof.\" Workers who are exposed to orchard levels of pesticides without proper protective equipment are at risk, absolutely, but there is a qualitative difference in exposure levels compared to surviving residues on the fruit. Rinse your fruit well and don't get a job as an orchard worker without having the number for OSHA on speed dial. **2/10**\n\nMostly, this article takes some reasonable or controversial concerns, pulls quotes from organizations and individuals with blatant agendas, and dresses them up in scare language. Yes, be aware of what you're eating. No, don't get into an orthorexic tizzy over things that should 'never pass your lips.'",
"May be irrelevant, but check out the article **\"Cigarette Smoking: An underused tool in high-performance endurance training\".** \nBehind a paywall, so here's [my dropbox download link](_URL_1_)\n\nAnyway, you can prove anything as long as you cherry pick your data. If I spent an hour answering your question, I could find epidemiological articles supporting and not supporting either of these claims. And, I'm betting the relative risk increase would be like 20-30% (which sounds huge) until you realize that a problem that manifests itself in 10 out of 100,000 people increases to 12 out of 100,000 people and that's a *twenty percent increase*. WOW!\n\nHopefully some people can actually cite real sources refuting these claims, but you can be sure that there's no government conspiracy. i.e. if these things were demonstrated to be a serious health risk, they would be banned or severely regulated by the FDA.\n\nSorry to keep being off topic here, but here's my favorite resource ever:\n[RED FLAGS OF QUACKERY](_URL_0_)",
"Aquaculture engineer here: \n\nFarmed salmon stories are pure sensationalist BS. \nthe article itself is not only inconsistent, but ridiculous.\n\nSalmon are not fed poultry litter or hydrolysed chicken feathers. Salmon feeds are very carefully made using the highest quality sources of fish protein. The industry is leaning towards creating feeds based on vegetable proteins to reduce the dependency on capture fisheries for making the feeds. \n\nAntibiotic and chemotherapeutical use standards in salmon farming is way more stringent than those in the poultry and cattle industries. The industry is shifting quickly towards non-chemical treatments and better management practices to prevent diseases.\n\nThere was some controversy a few years ago on the dangers of consuming farmed salmon. Today, the general consensus is that farmed salmon is a safe food. The quality controls exerted over the industry would not allow otherwise. \n\nThe article says canned tomatoes are dangerous and then it suggests you to buy canned salmon? wtf...."
],
"score": [
40,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.prevention.com/tips/nutrition/7-foods-should-never-cross-your-lips"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://sci-ence.org/the-telltale-quack/",
"http://dl.dropbox.com/u/6679231/Myers_2010.pdf"
]
} | How scientifically accurate is this list of foods to avoid? (Includes canned tomatoes, microwave popcorn, farmed salmon, and several more)
A friend posted a link to [this article](_URL_0_) on Facebook. It claims that these seven things are "loaded with toxins and chemicals" and should be avoided: * canned tomatoes * corn-fed beef * microwave popcorn * nonorganic potatoes * farmed salmon * milk produced with artificial hormones * conventional apples Are these claims well-supported? They do quote actual scientists, but the article's also written with a kind of sensationalistic bent. (After all, that's what sells magazines.) I'm especially curious about the canned tomatoes, as I eat more of those than I do of other things on the list. | [
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|
23bizt | Have we seen "Blood Moons" before? How did we know this one was coming? | I keep seeing all this stuff about the end of times and how the bible predicted the blood moon on Facebook. I decided to show people how there have always been blood moons and that they probably just put it in the bible because they have seen it before.
All I can find is stuff about the four blood moons and "The end of times."
So have we had blood moons before? If not, how did we know this one was coming? I assumed(perhaps wrongly) that they were like any other eclipse and they just happen every number of years. How wrong am I? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cgvg0pk",
"cgvgrpd",
"cgvsbgk"
],
"text": [
"Yes, they happen all the time. There are several lunar eclipses (so-called 'blood moons') every year, and there will be a total of 230 in the 21st century:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nWe know when a lunar eclipse is coming because we understand the laws of gravity and motion which determines where the Moon is going to be at any given time.\n\nArguing with people on Facebook who post superstitious garbage is unlikely to be worthwhile, by the way.",
"> I keep seeing all this stuff about the end of times and how the bible predicted the blood moon on Facebook.\n\nI predict eclipses with another old book called the [Farmer's Almanac](_URL_4_). There's another one in October by the way.\n\nWithout looking at the chart, there will be another one almost but not quite exactly like the April 15th one about 6,585.32 days (18 years) after. This is how often the full cycle repeats, with small variations. NASA, which has been to the moon, has [extremely detailed models](_URL_4_).\n\nWhat's happening is sunlight is passing through Earth's atmosphere and hitting the moon. It is red for the same reason sunsets are red; our atmosphere tends to absorb and scatter blue light. All eclipses are reddish-orange; the moon is only ever truly red during moonrise and moonset, and only sometimes.\n\nThis is not the first time people have [been afraid of eclipses](_URL_4_).\n\nThere are [tables](_URL_4_) for doomsday panics. The pattern is less stable than the orbit of the moon, but there has been a notable gradual increase in panics over the last 14 years. I worry that this is a bad omen for the health of our civilization.",
"I have never heard of full lunar eclipses referred to as \"blood moon\" before but my assumption without thinking too much about it was that it was just another term for them as full eclipses ALWAYS look browny-red. Turns out I'm right.\n\nThis [article](_URL_5_) is probably what you're looking for in terms \"debunking\".\n\nThe key points from it are:\n\n1. A \"blood moon\" is just a more dramatic term for a full lunar eclipse\n\n2. The lunar eclipse last night was special as it is the first of a tetrad(four full lunar eclipses not separated by partial eclipses)\n\n3. The reason the term blood moon has taken off seems to be primarily because there are a couple of pastors connecting this tetrad with biblical prophecies referring to a blood moon.\n\nLunar eclipses happen, we can easily predict them with our knowledge of gravity and orbits etc. tetrads are obviously less common and tetrads that fall on specific Jewish festivals (which is what supposedly makes this tetrad special) whilst rarer still, has happened eight times in the past 2,014 years.\n\nHope this helps!"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_21st-century_lunar_eclipses",
"http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/LEsaros/LEperiodicity.html#section109",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historically_significant_lunar_eclipses#1_March_1504",
"http://www.almanac.com/moon/eclipse-dates",
"http://earthsky.org/space/what-is-a-blood-moon-lunar-eclipses-2014-2015"
]
} | Have we seen "Blood Moons" before? How did we know this one was coming?
I keep seeing all this stuff about the end of times and how the bible predicted the blood moon on Facebook. I decided to show people how there have always been blood moons and that they probably just put it in the bible because they have seen it before. All I can find is stuff about the four blood moons and "The end of times." So have we had blood moons before? If not, how did we know this one was coming? I assumed(perhaps wrongly) that they were like any other eclipse and they just happen every number of years. How wrong am I? | [
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|
kp4ls | Panelists, this girl used this site to try and show me the speed of light is relative. I don't understand what's going on. | As far as I can tell, this guy seems like a hack. I have looked everywhere for this guy and some sort of critical analysis of the ideas he brings up here, but I can't find any mention of Don E. Sprague outside of this site. What's the deal?
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2m1vf4",
"c2m10n9",
"c2m15gh",
"c2m1glo"
],
"text": [
"I skimmed looking for some actual claim (other than \"Einstein was wrong\") and saw this:\n\n > There isn’t any proof that the length of the 2 cars simultaneously shrinks different amounts based on the motion of various observers. There isn’\nt any proof that time gets longer for observed frame based on the velocity of an observer frame that is chosen as being\nconsidered to be stationary.\n\nOne has only to look at muons to find evidence (I refuse to use the word \"proof\", because proof applies to mathematics, not science), of both length contraction and time dilation. According to [Wikipedia](_URL_0_):\n\n > Another example is the observed lifetime of muons in motion and thus their range of action, which is much higher than that of muons at low velocities. In the proper frame of the atmosphere, this is explained by the time dilation of the moving muons. However, in the proper frame of the muons their lifetime is unchanged, but the atmosphere is contracted so that even their small range is sufficient to reach the surface of earth.\n\nIn short, muons from the sun *should* decay before they reach the ground if relativity is wrong. But we see them as reaching the ground because of time dilation, and they see themselves reaching the ground because of length contraction.\n\n > Philosophically Einstein’s relativity might be 100$% accurate. When you see a mirage, according to Einstein, the illusion is\nreality so the mirage is water. \n\nThat is 100 dollar-percent ridiculous, and just goes to show that the author is either a crackpot, has a fundamentally flawed understanding of relativity, or is purposefully attempting to mislead his readers.\n\n****\n**Edit:** Oh man, this is some great stuff:\n\n > We observe the turns of a planet so it is what it is. CM [Classical Mechanics] 100% accurately predicts the turns the orbit of Mercury. Someone claims that CM doesn't explain the number of turns it 100% accurately predicts. Who says that any person can design the\nway the universe should act. We simply deal with reality and try to understand. We don’t know why the planets have the number of turns. That lack of knowledge of forces just means we don’t know or understand all forces. \n\nHahahahaha. That's just . . . it boggles the mind that anyone could write that. \"CM explains the orbit of Mercury 100% accurately. And who cares that it doesn't explain the orbit of Mercury 100% accurately? The universe is mysterious and we just don't know why 100% accurate CM isn't 100% accurate. It is what it is.\"",
"That website is too crazy for me to sift through the find his flaw, but it seems the Michelson-Morley experiment from the late 19th century disproves his theory.",
"There seems to be a distinct lack of math on that page. I don't understand how you can disprove the constant speed of light with no math",
"You'd think we'd have known if the speed of light was trivially able to be shown as relative, what with the actually going out and measuring it a few million times in a disturbing large number of ways.\n\nTalk is cheap, show me the predictions! Surely such a groundbreaking idea is worth the author's time to devise experimental proof that can't be denied? Yet I can't find anything in the gigantic wall of text to do so."
],
"score": [
14,
14,
13,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.complexrelativity.com/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_contraction#Experimental_verifications"
]
} | Panelists, this girl used this site to try and show me the speed of light is relative. I don't understand what's going on.
As far as I can tell, this guy seems like a hack. I have looked everywhere for this guy and some sort of critical analysis of the ideas he brings up here, but I can't find any mention of Don E. Sprague outside of this site. What's the deal? _URL_0_ | [
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1kctat | Do identical objects at different temperatures cool at the same rate? | Consider two identical iron blocks. If one is heated to say 900 degrees and the other to 500 degrees, and left in identical rooms at identical temperatures, would they cool at the same rate?
After about 15 minutes, if the first block cools to 850 degrees, would the second object be at 450 degrees? | askscience | {
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"No they do not cool at the same rate. The rate of cooling is proportional to the difference in temperature between the ambient air and the temperature of the block. This means that the greater the difference in block temperature to ambient air temperature results in a faster rate of cooling. This also indicates that the rate of cooling approaches zero as the block approaches ambient air temperature. (The rate of temperature change)= -k(T-Tambient) the k is the constant of proportionality that depends on the material and its shape. For more information look up newtons law of cooling",
"There are three main methods of heat transfer, [convection](_URL_1_), [conduction] (_URL_2_) and [radiation](_URL_0_). If you leave a solid object in a room as you describe the two main methods for heat transfer will be the conduction of heat from the object to the air and radiation.\n\nFor an object of relatively low temperature, radiative heat transfer is not high usually but it does depend on the temperature to the fourth power, meaning the higher the object's temperature (on the absolute Kelvin scale), the greater the rate at which it will radiate away heat.\n\nConduction is different. Without going into too many details, the rate of heat transfer depends on the temperature gradient, that is, the difference in temperature between air and your object in this case. So if the two objects are placed in the same conditions, then the one with the higher temperature will cool faster in the beginning then the one that started at lower temperature. As both temperatures drop, and get closer to the ambient temperature the rate of cooling will decrease for both objects so when the object that started at 900 reaches 500 degrees, it will be cooling at the same rate as the object that was at 500 was cooling initially, if we did not raise the ambient temperature at all.",
"No, they do not, the ability for a material to retain heat, is actually a function of the temperature of the material.\n\nThink of it this way. Temperature is, conceptually, the average kinetic energy of the particles in the object or, more simply, the velocity. So since this one object (say A), is at a higher temperature, then its particles are moving (vibrating) faster than the other object (say B). Now since the particles in A are moving fast, then the particles at the boundary of the object (Think a cube, and the boundary are the particles on the side) are colliding with the particles in the soundings more often. Every time particle collides with another particle, the initial particle transfers some of its energy to the later particle (think a pool ball). Now since that other particle is not part of the system that particle goes flying off into space with it's knew found energy that it got from the particle that is part of the object. Since this one particle has lost energy then the average energy has gone down, and the temperature decreases.\n\nThat was a way to explain how cooling works, so now that we have that. We know kinetic energy = mv^2 /2. The actual math is not important as long as the concept of kinetic energy if proportional to the square of the velocity isunderstood. So lets say A is 4 times the temperature as B. It is not hard to translate that the particles in A have 4 times the kinetic energy of the particles in B. So say collisions happen in batches, all at once. Well velocity is the rate of change of movement, with can translate that to the rate at which collisions occur. So, say, every collision, reduces the velocity of a particle in the object by 10% (Differently, it loses 10% of its momentum). So at a rate of v, as defined earlier, v decreases by 10% (mathematically, dv=v0-v1=0.1v0, dv is the difference of the velocity before (v0) and after (v1) the collision). So change in kinetic energy (here out as KE) is dKE, or (mv0^2 - mv1^2 )/2. From here on out we will ignore the 2 and the m and just say proportional. Now, dKE is proportional to v0^2 - v1^2 , and earlier we said v1=0.9v0 so we get, dKE is proportional to v0^2 - (0.9v0)^2 or by rearranging we get that dKE is proportional to 0.19v0^2. So, after every collision the KE decreases 19% (Or dKE=0.19mv^2 /2). So since we said that the velocity would be the rate at which the collisions occur, then the Kinetic Energy is decreased at the same rate. We can observe that change=rate x time, so v x dt=0.19mv^2 /2, where dt is some time interval (could be 1 second, could be 1 hour), so by canceling a v on each side, we get the time it would take for the object to decrease it kinetic energy by 19% (which came from the lose of 10% of the velocity of a particle) would be t=0.19mv/2. So the mass of object A's particles are the same as those of B's particles, but since A was 4 times the kinetic energy of B (equivalent to 2 times the velocity), the time it would take for cool 19% would be 2 times as long. This 19% is arbitrary and is dependent on the conditions we a have assumed, and it is safe to say that if we have a percentage cooled of any value and a time period would be consistent with the square root of the of Kinetic Energy of Temperature (Mathematically if some object was at some temperature, T, and cooled n percent over time period t, then t would be proportional to n x sqrt(T))\n\nFrom your original question and the derivation above. Lets see what happen to the temperature difference of your objects (on at 900 degrees (A) and the other at 500 degrees(B)). So after 15 mins A cooled by 50 degrees (5.5 %). So how much would B have cooled after 15 mins. So we had our proportionality earlier and, as with all direct proportionalities, it can be ratioed so that the ratio is always constant regardless of conditions. Now the ratio is na x sqrt(Ta)/t = nb x sqrt(Tb)/t, where Ta and Tb are the initial temperatures of A and B respectively and na and nb are the percentage cooled of A and B respectively. Now we sub in our numbers and solve for nb, the t's cancel we get, nb=0.055*sqrt(900/500)=7.4%. So after 15 mins of B would be cooled by 37 degrees, and be 463 degrees. \n\nIn conclusion, objects at different temperatures cool at different rates. This write up is dependent on a number of untrue assumptions (such as temperature is lost at a constant rate across a finite temperature region, which we disproved with the work through, that the amount of energy transversed out of the object is independent of location and time, no intermolecular force were taken into account, nor were quantum effects) but the theoretical argument holds.\n\nTL;DR: The rate at which a object cools is dependent on the objects [Heat Capacity](_URL_3_) and [Thermal Conductivity](_URL_4_), which both vary at different rates with temperature. The rate change is also dependent of the difference between the object and its surroundings, see [Heat Transfer](_URL_5_).\n\nEdit: Grammar, Wording, and Spelling",
"No - how quickly an object cools is related to both what it's made of (some materials retain heat better or worse) as well as how different an object's temperature is from its environment - the bigger the difference, the faster the object approaches the heat of the room.",
"~~Yup~~ Nope. The rate is directly proportional to the difference in temperature.\n\nI believe its dT/dt = k(T2-T1)\n\nWhich is equivalent to Rate of Temperature change = Constant(Difference in Temperature)\n\n\n- Big temperature difference = Faster Cooling \n\n- Small temperature difference = Slower Cooling\n\n*EDIT: I'm stupid.*"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conduction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer"
]
} | Do identical objects at different temperatures cool at the same rate?
Consider two identical iron blocks. If one is heated to say 900 degrees and the other to 500 degrees, and left in identical rooms at identical temperatures, would they cool at the same rate? After about 15 minutes, if the first block cools to 850 degrees, would the second object be at 450 degrees? | [
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35yceg | Could you fit the whole population of the United States in one state? | Just out of curiosity, could you jam every human being in the state of Texas for example? What about the whole world population in America? Just a random question I thought of. :) this question is assuming there is no comfort involved, even if it requires being packed like sardines. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"**Short answer:** Yes. If you shipped everyone to Texas, we'd all have about a football field's worth of space each. If you put us all shoulder to shoulder, we'd fit in an area smaller than Rhode Island.\n\n**Longer answer:** According to the 2010 Census, the densest populated area of the US is the incorporated town of Guttenberg, NJ, which is part of the NYC metropolitan area. Guttenberg has a population density of 58,821 people per square mile, more than twice that of NYC (27,016 people per square mile). \n\nThe reason for this high density in Guttenberg is actually because the land area is quite small (0.19 mi^(2)) and there is a large population in high rises. The population is actually only 11,176. This is the magic of dividing by small numbers - for example, did you know the Papal density of Vatican City (0.17 mi^(2)) is nearly 6 popes per square mile?\n\n\nAnyway, supposing we could take all 320 million Americans and put them in an area with the density of Guttenberg, we'd only need an area of 5440 mi^(2), which is about 4x the area of Rhode Island. This actually isn't too surprising. This would be like taking all of the downtown highrises of the US and concentrating them in Rhode Island and its neighbor states to make America into one megacity. \n\nChecking the Wikipedia list that ranks US states by land area (seriously, that site has *everything*), I find that only Delaware and Rhode Island are too small to host us all, provided we did some serious work on building some dense high rises. \n\nIf we didn't settle for high-rise packing though, and instead wanted to just stand around in Texas, we still would be okay. The land area of Texas is 268596 mi^(2), giving us each about half an acre to stand in. That's about half of a football field each. \n\nOf course, if we wanted to all stand shoulder to shoulder, with about 1 square meter each, then we'd want to go back to Rhode Island. [According to Wolfram, we'd all fit in an area about 10% the size of Rhode Island, which they inform us is about the size of an adult male cougar's home range.](_URL_0_) For some reason I remember that joke from an xkcd...",
"You could fit the entire world population into [Rhode Island](\n_URL_1_)",
"Yes.\n\n[This infographic shows you could fit all of the world's population into Texas if the density was the same as New York City's.](_URL_3_)\n\n[[source](_URL_2_)]",
"To make Manhattan as densely packed as the densest place (Kowloon walled city, a former neighborhood thing in Hong Kong), you'd have to take everyone in Texas and move them to Manhattan to live alongside the existing inhabitants. If it's possible to live that packed in, then yes, all Americans can surely fit in any state.",
"Using Manhattan's population density, you could fit the whole planet's population in [379,098 km^2](_URL_6_), roughly the [area of Montana](_URL_4_). \nETA: Dutch architectural studio MVRDV [already calculated](_URL_5_) what a city this big would require.",
"Since New York City comes up so often (and assuming I did this correctly) everyone could fit into New York State at the rate of about 10 1/2 to the acre, and New York City would then be less than 1/4 of the population at just over 2 million (about 64 ft x 64 ft for each person at ground level, but if we put all the people on the second floor so there is room for offices, stores, restaurants, parks, etc. and left all the streets in place the size that they are, the dimensions allotted to each person would be roughly less than half). Texas obviously would be a better choice since it would increase the space by about 5 1/2 times, but then you got fire ants, mesquite, cowboy hats and hair that reaches god taking up a good portion of those 1/2 acreish lots, but no roads, no offices and just rattlesnakes to eat because space wasn't taken out for stores and restaurants either.",
"i was once told that everyone in the world (this was back when there were around 5 billion people) could fit on the danish island called Bornholm.\n\nbornholm has an area of 589.16 km2 (227.48 sq mi)\n\ni dont know the math though.\n\nbut seeing as that island is very much smaller than texas...."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=320000000+m^2",
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/8/",
"http://persquaremile.com/2012/08/08/if-the-worlds-population-lived-like/",
"http://i.imgur.com/HUd4Kfn.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_area",
"https://vimeo.com/106793190",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=world+population+%2F+manhattan+population+density"
]
} | Could you fit the whole population of the United States in one state?
Just out of curiosity, could you jam every human being in the state of Texas for example? What about the whole world population in America? Just a random question I thought of. :) this question is assuming there is no comfort involved, even if it requires being packed like sardines. | [
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|
k7khn | As a scientist, what is your inclination on the odd weather this summer. Statistical quirk, or simply the beginning of patterns that only get worse from here? | I know better than to base predictions on a small handful of data from a brief slice of time, but I can't help suspecting a great deal of what's happened so far in 2011 was predicted by climatologists. I'll grant this is a hot button topic, but that fact alone may prevent a national discussion from taking place which might otherwise happen.
So am I right in worrying about what the next few decades have in store - that 2011 may seem like a mild year a 10 or 20 years from now - or am I just basically behaving like Henny Penny?
To be clear, I'm not asking if you believe if anthropogenic climate change is a reality; as my question is based on the assumption it is. I'm asking if you believe 2011 is a direct result of this theory.
Some background:
_URL_0_
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2i3az0",
"c2i3rma",
"c2i37m9"
],
"text": [
"Actually, I think [2010 is the really bad year](_URL_1_) or [is it 2009](_URL_0_). My point is two fold. 1. We remember the most recent ones most vividly but in a couple of years, Hurricane Irene won't really be remembered as a great tragedy 2. For climate analysis it is important to look at the weather irrespective of who it affected. A huge blizzard in Chicago may kill a lot of people while a huge blizzard 10 miles away from Chicago doesn't kill anyone. But in studying the climate, they are the same. So measuring by \"dollars of damage\" isn't really useful for climate analysis.",
"The phrase to grasp now is \"consistent with climate change.\" Some of the predictions of climate change are increased hurricanes (Irene? maybe), more splotchy water distribution (i.e. droughts it some areas (i.e. Texas), excessive rain in others (the northeastern US is flooded all over the place), and more persistent heat waves (like the one seen in the northeast this summer).\n\nBut this could just be weather noise. One peak in the wildly fluctuating signal that is weather.\n\nSo, like [Bill Nye](_URL_2_) said recently, \"check in with [climate scientists] about March...after they have a few months to collect...data and compile them.\"",
"What was unusual about the weather this summer? It didn't seem out of bounds for a normal summer in the U.S.\n\nLower than usual reports of tornadoes and hurricanes, normal levels of rainfall, normal temperature variations... I'm not seeing it."
],
"score": [
9,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/sep/05/us-unprecedented-weather-extremes"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.infoplease.com/world/disasters/2009.html",
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/40739667/ns/us_news-2010_year_in_review/t/s-world-gone-wild-quakes-floods-blizzards/",
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/30/bill-nye-on-climate-science_n_942459.html"
]
} | As a scientist, what is your inclination on the odd weather this summer. Statistical quirk, or simply the beginning of patterns that only get worse from here?
I know better than to base predictions on a small handful of data from a brief slice of time, but I can't help suspecting a great deal of what's happened so far in 2011 was predicted by climatologists. I'll grant this is a hot button topic, but that fact alone may prevent a national discussion from taking place which might otherwise happen. So am I right in worrying about what the next few decades have in store - that 2011 may seem like a mild year a 10 or 20 years from now - or am I just basically behaving like Henny Penny? To be clear, I'm not asking if you believe if anthropogenic climate change is a reality; as my question is based on the assumption it is. I'm asking if you believe 2011 is a direct result of this theory. Some background: _URL_0_ | [
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|
s6n2i | We call it the "scientific method," but is it really? Is it even fathomable that a better method for gaining knowledge is possible? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"To be honest, in my experience, the scientific \"method\" we teach kids in school bears little resemblence to how research is carried out. It's useful for understanding the relationships between different words like hypothesis and experiment and theory, but real research has a lot of iterations and loops and twists and turns that are hardly like the elementary school linearity of the \"scientific method.\"\n\nAt the end of the day, can you gather experimental evidence that allows you to predict the outcome of a future experiment within statistical significance? That's science.",
"[This wiki on the Scientific Method gives the history and offers alternatives that have been proposed.](_URL_0_)\n\nHowever, the current Scientific Method is based on empirical observations which can be independently confirmed - which seems to me to be a pretty robust and hardened definition.",
"Science is at it's heart no more than\n\n\"Watch what the universe does, and assume that given the same circumstances it will do it again.\"\n\nMagic becomes reality if it's what the universe does, so, while I hate to say never, it's rather unlikely humans could devise a better method for predicting the future.",
"The scientific method is simply a set of techniques. It's not set in stone, if a better technique is discovered then it will be implemented.",
"It is possible that a better method of obtaining knowledge exists that is outside of science. After all, if you make the claim \"all valid knowledge comes from empirical observation\", then that is a statement in itself of knowledge that cannot be proved by empirical observation.\n\nHowever, if we begin discussion on what this method is ... well, it's by definition outside of the realm of science, so this is really the wrong forum to be asking it."
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"url": [
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]
} | We call it the "scientific method," but is it really? Is it even fathomable that a better method for gaining knowledge is possible?
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Subsets and Splits