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Traditional ball game of Orkney "Ba'" redirects here. For the Arabic letter, see Bāʾ. The Kirkwall Ba' Game (known locally as The Ba') is one of the main annual events held in the town of Kirkwall, in Orkney, Scotland. It is one of a number of Ba' Games played in the streets of towns around Scotland; these are examples of medieval football games which are still played in towns in the United Kingdom and worldwide. The games are played twice a year, normally on Christmas Day and New Year's Day, unless those days fall on a Sunday in which case the game is moved to the following day. Played in the town centre of Kirkwall, the two sides are the Uppies and the Doonies, or more correctly, "Up-the-Gates" and "Doon-the-Gates" from Norn gata (path or road), although it is also common in Scots. The tradition belongs to Kirkwall and the surrounding area of St Ola, and has always been played by men from those two areas since before records began. In the past 50 years, mainly due to improved transport, the game's popularity has grown to include players from all areas of Orkney, including some of the outer isles. This has not met with universal approval from those associated with the game as its sheer size has become a problem from a safety perspective. Scant information is available about the early history but some form of mass football appears to have been practised throughout Scotland and England for at least three centuries. Records from 1797 indicate that "Football is the principal diversion of the common people, which they practise with great dexterity". There is speculation that the game in Kirkwall may have its roots in folklore based on the tale of Sigurd and the Orkneyinga saga. Boys Ba' -------- The Boys Ba', as the name suggests, is restricted to those aged 15 years and below. There is no restriction on the lower age limit and small boys of sometimes as young as 5 years old can be seen around the edges, making their first tentative steps into the game. The Boys Ba' is thrown up from the Merket Cross on the Kirk Green on front of St Magnus Cathedral at 10.00, the start time recently having been moved from 10.30 due to the Boys Ba' having a tendency to last longer. The Boys game, like the Men's, has grown in size and popularity in recent years and the number of boys participating can number over 100. The Boys Ba' has been known to last as little as 4 minutes (New Years Day 1985) or as long as 6 hours (New Years Day 2019). It can be very fluid, with its outcome often decided by a "break" whereby one of the faster boys manages to break free of the scrum and runs with the ba', making valuable ground, sometimes making it all the way to his team's goal, thereby ending the game. Boy's Ba' winners, in the sense of the individual boy who is awarded the ba' after the game as his personal property, will normally be boys playing in their final games prior to turning 16 years old, although there are occasions in history where a younger boy has managed to make off home with it, thereby claiming the ba' as his, despite having further years left to play in the boys game. Nowadays this is generally frowned upon, the conventional wisdom being that younger boys will have other chances to win a Ba', whereas the 15‑year‑olds will not. Although a great honour, winning a Boy's Ba' does not affect status when moving up to the men's game. All young players are considered equal and must prove themselves on their individual performances in the Men's Ba'. Indeed, many players who were prominent in the boy's game prove to be otherwise when they step up to the Men's game, and vice versa. Men's Ba' --------- The Men's Ba' is thrown up also from the Merket Cross, when the cathedral bell strikes 13:00. The person chosen to "throw up" the ba', or begin the game, is usually an older Ba' stalwart, but the honour is occasionally given to some local public figure. The waiting scrum can number up to 350 men and can be a sight to behold. Once thrown up, the Ba' disappears into the scrum and much surging play occurs while the two sides weigh each other up and determine who has the weight on their side on this occasion. Much exciting surging and turning play often occurs on this wider part of the street, which can frequently determine the outcome. Occasionally, the ba' appears out of the scrum and someone makes a dash through the crowds of spectators. To the casual onlooker this can happen at any moment, but the seasoned Ba' watcher can often see what is happening long before the ba' suddenly erupts. Breaks sometimes occur on Broad Street, but can occur anywhere where one side gains sufficient control of part of the scrum. The Doonies have the benefit of a flat push to Albert Street, while the Uppies have a hard push up to the top of Tankerness Lane. The game may also go down one of the flagstone lanes, or down Castle Street onto the open Junction Road. Once there either side may gain the upper hand by means of a smuggle and run, or the scrum may become immobile in one of the many closes and yards. However, if the Uppies manage to enter Victoria Street, or the Doonies Albert Street, the opposition have a much harder time, due to the narrowness and the press of often many hundreds of keen spectators. All the same the Ba' may be restricted for several hours in any of the many lanes and neither side ever gives up the struggle until the goal is reached. Women's Ba' ----------- Immediately after the end of World War II there was a movement to establish a Ba' game for women in Kirkwall. There were only ever two Women's Ba' games played, on Christmas Day 1945 and New Years Day 1946. The first ever winner of the Women's Ba' was Barbara Yule who was an Uppie. Following her death in 1999 the ba' she had kept since she won it, was returned to Orkney, and is on display in The Orkney Museum in Kirkwall. The second winner was Violet Couper who was also an Uppie. The two games played did not follow the pattern of the men's game and were very much running games. The women's game was abolished in subsequent years. History records the reasons for its discontinuation as being a general public dislike for female participation in a very physical and public spectacle, the attitudes of the time being that it was not "lady-like". Goals ----- The Doonies' goal is the sea, normally within the Basin of the Harbour, but so long as it is immersed in the salt water of Kirkwall Bay, the Ba' has gone doon. The Uppies must round the Lang, or Mackinson's corner at the junction of Main Street with New Scapa Road, opposite the Catholic Church, which was the site of the old town gates in bygone times. (The last remains of the town gates were removed in the 1950s, leaving the Uppie goal as the gable end of a house on Mackinson's Corner.) Awarding the Ba' ---------------- Once the Ba' has been goaled Up or Doon, lengthy argument often ensues among players on the winning side before a popular individual winner is acclaimed. This winner is awarded the trophy of the game, which is the ba' itself. When the winner is finally decided, he is normally held aloft and carried shoulder-high from the goal by his teammates in celebration, passing into the ranks of Ba' winners and into Kirkwall history. To stalwart Ba' players, the ultimate honour is to be awarded a ba'. To have any chance of this honour, a player generally has to have played consistently well for a long period of time (usually around 20 years minimum). Ba' winners range from outstanding players in their early thirties to veterans in their mid to late forties. There are several players who are what is known as a "double winner" in that they have been awarded both a Boys' Ba' and a Men's Ba' during their playing careers. Uppie or Doonie? ---------------- Originally the side any individual played on was decided by whether he was born up or doon the gate but when Kirkwall's Balfour Hospital was built in the 1950s, the majority of babies were born there, thus giving a heavy bias to the Uppies. This led to a swing toward family allegiances, meaning players played the same way as their forebears. This tradition continues to this day. For non-Orcadians or ferryloupers (incomers) or indeed anyone with no family history in the game, and often people from the isles or rural areas, their side is determined by the route taken on their first arrival in Kirkwall. Safety ------ The game has no official rules, but there is a code of honour among players whereby certain acts are considered strictly unacceptable. This code is generally adhered to extremely well by those who play the game and as result the game is self-regulating and self-policing, requiring no intervention from outside parties. The game's popularity in recent times has led to the scrum of men becoming very large with up to 350 men playing at any one time. Forces within the scrum can be enormous, with broken and cracked ribs not uncommon. The scrum will collapse often during the game, at which point players are generally very good at ceasing play and aiding teammate and opponent alike to regain their feet. Camaraderie within the game is excellent, although as with any highly physical male pursuit, tempers can and do flare. Such incidents are quickly extinguished by fellow players and grudges are not held. The participation of visitors in the game is not encouraged, mainly for safety reasons but also as Orcadians are very protective of their tradition and do not wish to see it become a pursuit for "adventure tourists" as has happened with several other UK traditional ball games. The current scrum has become very large and those associated with the game believe that further players, particularly ones who have no appreciation of the dangers, tactics, allegiances or history of the game, will be no asset from a safety point of view. This view is endorsed almost universally throughout the game.
Chemical compound used to oxidize another substance in a chemical reaction The international pictogram for oxidizing chemicals. Dangerous goods label for oxidizing agents An oxidizing agent (also known as an oxidant, oxidizer, electron recipient, or electron acceptor) is a substance in a redox chemical reaction that gains or "accepts"/"receives" an electron from a reducing agent (called the reductant, reducer, or electron donor). In other words, an oxidizer is any substance that oxidizes another substance. The oxidation state, which describes the degree of loss of electrons, of the oxidizer decreases while that of the reductant increases; this is expressed by saying that oxidizers "undergo reduction" and "are reduced" while reducers "undergo oxidation" and "are oxidized". Common oxidizing agents are oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and the halogens. In one sense, an oxidizing agent is a chemical species that undergoes a chemical reaction in which it gains one or more electrons. In that sense, it is one component in an oxidation–reduction (redox) reaction. In the second sense, an oxidizing agent is a chemical species that transfers electronegative atoms, usually oxygen, to a substrate. Combustion, many explosives, and organic redox reactions involve atom-transfer reactions. Electron acceptors ------------------ Example of a reduction–oxidation reaction between sodium and chlorine, with the OIL RIG mnemonic Tetracyanoquinodimethane is an organic electron-acceptor. Electron acceptors participate in electron-transfer reactions. In this context, the oxidizing agent is called an electron acceptor and the reducing agent is called an electron donor. A classic oxidizing agent is the ferrocenium ion Fe(C 5H 5)+ 2, which accepts an electron to form Fe(C5H5)2. One of the strongest acceptors commercially available is "Magic blue", the radical cation derived from N(C6H4-4-Br)3. Extensive tabulations of ranking the electron accepting properties of various reagents (redox potentials) are available, see Standard electrode potential (data page). Atom-transfer reagents ---------------------- In more common usage, an oxidizing agent transfers oxygen atoms to a substrate. In this context, the oxidizing agent can be called an oxygenation reagent or oxygen-atom transfer (OAT) agent. Examples include MnO− 4 (permanganate), CrO2− 4 (chromate), OsO4 (osmium tetroxide), and especially ClO− 4 (perchlorate). Notice that these species are all oxides. In some cases, these oxides can also serve as electron acceptors, as illustrated by the conversion of MnO− 4 to MnO2− 4,ie permanganate to manganate. ### Common oxidizing agents * Oxygen (O2) * Ozone (O3) * Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and other inorganic peroxides, Fenton's reagent * Fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), and other halogens * Nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrate compounds such as potassium nitrate (KNO3), the oxidizer in black powder * Potassium chlorate (KClO3) * Peroxydisulfuric acid (H2S2O8) * Peroxymonosulfuric acid (H2SO5) * Hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate, perchlorate, and other analogous halogen oxyanions * Fluorides of chlorine, bromine, and iodine * Hexavalent chromium compounds such as chromic and dichromic acids and chromium trioxide, pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC), and chromate/dichromate compounds such as Sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) * Permanganate compounds such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) * Sodium perborate ([Na+ ] 2·[B 2O 4(OH) 4]2− ) * Nitrous oxide (N2O), Nitrogen dioxide/Dinitrogen tetroxide (NO2 / N2O4) * Sodium bismuthate (NaBiO3) * Cerium (IV) compounds such as ceric ammonium nitrate and ceric sulfate * Lead dioxide (PbO2) Dangerous materials definition ------------------------------ See also: HAZMAT Class 5 Oxidizing agents and organic peroxides The dangerous goods definition of an oxidizing agent is a substance that can cause or contribute to the combustion of other material. By this definition some materials that are classified as oxidizing agents by analytical chemists are not classified as oxidizing agents in a dangerous materials sense. An example is potassium dichromate, which does not pass the dangerous goods test of an oxidizing agent. The U.S. Department of Transportation defines oxidizing agents specifically. There are two definitions for oxidizing agents governed under DOT regulations. These two are Class 5; Division 5.1(a)1 and Class 5; Division 5.1(a)2. Division 5.1 "means a material that may, generally by yielding oxygen, cause or enhance the combustion of other materials." Division 5.(a)1 of the DOT code applies to solid oxidizers "if, when tested in accordance with the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria (IBR, see § 171.7 of this subchapter), its mean burning time is less than or equal to the burning time of a 3:7 potassium bromate/cellulose mixture." 5.1(a)2 of the DOT code applies to liquid oxidizers "if, when tested in accordance with the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria, it spontaneously ignites or its mean time for a pressure rise from 690 kPa to 2070 kPa gauge is less than the time of a 1:1 nitric acid (65 percent)/cellulose mixture." Common oxidizing agents and their products ------------------------------------------ \| Agent \| Product(s) \| \| --- \| --- \| \| O2 oxygen \| Various, including the oxides H2O and CO2 \| \| O3 ozone \| Various, including ketones, aldehydes, and H2O; see ozonolysis \| \| F2 fluorine \| F− \| \| Cl2 chlorine \| Cl− \| \| Br2 bromine \| Br− \| \| I2 iodine \| I−, I−3 \| \| ClO− hypochlorite \| Cl−, H2O \| \| ClO−3 chlorate \| Cl−, H2O \| \| HNO3 nitric acid \| NO nitric oxideNO2 nitrogen dioxide \| \| SO2 sulfur dioxide \| S sulfur(Claus process, ultramarine production, more commonly reducing agent) \| \| Hexavalent chromiumCrO3 chromium trioxideCrO2−4 chromate Cr2O2−7 dichromate \| Cr3+, H2O \| \| MnO−4 permanganateMnO2−4 manganate \| Mn2+ (acidic) orMnO2 (basic) \| \| SbF5 antimony pentafluoride \| SbF6- hexafluoroantimonate or SbF3 antimony trifluoride \| \| PtF6 platinum hexafluoride \| PtF6- hexafluoroplatinate \| \| RuO4 ruthenium tetroxideOsO4 osmium tetroxide \| in organic lab scale synthesis \| \| H2O2, other peroxides \| Various, including oxides and H2O \| \| Tl(III) thallic compounds \| Tl(I) thallous compounds, in organic lab scale synthesis \|
British Marxist sociologist, cultural theorist, and political activist (1932–2014) For other people called Stuart Hall, see Stuart Hall (disambiguation). Stuart Henry McPhail Hall FBA (3 February 1932 – 10 February 2014) was a Jamaican-born British Marxist sociologist, cultural theorist, and political activist. Hall — along with Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams — was one of the founding figures of the school of thought known as British Cultural Studies or the Birmingham School of Cultural Studies. In the 1950s Hall was a founder of the influential journal New Left Review. At Hoggart's invitation, he joined the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at Birmingham University in 1964. Hall took over from Hoggart as acting director of the CCCS in 1968, became its director in 1972, and remained there until 1979. While at the centre, Hall is credited with playing a role in expanding the scope of cultural studies to deal with race and gender, and with helping to incorporate new ideas derived from the work of French theorists such as Michel Foucault. Hall left the centre in 1979 to become a professor of sociology at the Open University. He was President of the British Sociological Association from 1995 to 1997. He retired from the Open University in 1997 and was professor emeritus there until his death. British newspaper The Observer called him "one of the country's leading cultural theorists". Hall was also involved in the Black Arts Movement. Movie directors such as John Akomfrah and Isaac Julien also see him as one of their heroes. Hall was married to Catherine Hall, a feminist professor of modern British history at University College London, with whom he had two children. After his death, Stuart Hall was described as "one of the most influential intellectuals of the last sixty years". The Stuart Hall Foundation was established in 2015 by his family, friends and colleagues to "work collaboratively to forge creative partnerships in the spirit of Stuart Hall; thinking together and working towards a racially just and more equal future." Biography --------- Stuart Henry McPhail Hall was born on 3 February 1932 in Kingston, Jamaica, into a middle-class Jamaican family. His parents were Herman McPhail Hall and Jessie Merle Hopwood. Herman's direct ancestors were English, living in Jamaica for several centuries, tracing back to the Kingston tavern-keeper John Hall (1722–1797) and his Dutch wife Allegonda Boom. Hall's direct paternal ancestors were implicated in the trans-Atlantic slave trade and slavery in Jamaica, being associated with the Grecian Regale Plantation, Saint Andrew Parish. Hall's mother was descended through her mother from John Rock Grosset, a pro-slavery Tory MP. According to the 1820 Jamaica Almanac, Stuart's great-great-great grandfather John Herman Hall owned 20 enslaved Black African people. Hall was mixed-raced and it is claimed that he was of African, English, Portuguese Jewish, and likely Indian descent. As a teen he had been baptized in an Evangelical Youth Group. He attended Jamaica College, receiving an education modelled after the British school system. In an interview, Hall describes himself as a "bright, promising scholar" in these years and his formal education as "a very 'classical' education; very good but in very formal academic terms." With the help of sympathetic teachers, he expanded his education to include "T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, Freud, Marx, Lenin and some of the surrounding literature and modern poetry", as well as "Caribbean literature". Hall's later works reveal that growing up in the pigmentocracy of the colonial West Indies, where he was of darker skin than much of his family, had a profound effect on his views. In 1951, Hall won a Rhodes Scholarship to Merton College at the University of Oxford, where he studied English and obtained a Master of Arts degree, becoming part of the Windrush generation, the first large-scale emigration of West Indians, as that community was then known. He originally intended to do graduate work on the medieval poem Piers Plowman, reading it through the lens of contemporary literary criticism, but was dissuaded by his language professor, J. R. R. Tolkien, who told him "in a pained tone that this was not the point of the exercise." Hall began a PhD on Henry James at Oxford but, galvanised particularly by the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary (which saw many thousands of members leave the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) and look for alternatives to previous orthodoxies) and the Suez Crisis, abandoned this in 1957 or 1958 to focus on his political work. In 1957, he joined the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and it was on a CND march that he met his future wife. From 1958 to 1960, Hall worked as a teacher in a London secondary modern school and in adult education, and in 1964 married Catherine Hall, concluding around this time that he was unlikely to return permanently to the Caribbean. Hall's grave in Highgate Cemetery (east side) After working on the Universities and Left Review during his time at Oxford, Hall joined E. P. Thompson, Raymond Williams and others to merge it with The New Reasoner journal, launching the New Left Review in 1960, with Hall as the founding editor. In 1958, the same group, with Raphael Samuel, launched the Partisan Coffee House in Soho as a meeting place for left-wingers. Hall left the board of the New Left Review in 1961 or 1962. Hall's academic career took off in 1964 after he co-wrote with Paddy Whannel of the British Film Institute "one of the first books to make the case for the serious study of film as entertainment", The Popular Arts. As a direct result, Richard Hoggart invited Hall to join the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham, initially as a research fellow at Hoggart's own expense. In 1968, Hall became director of the centre. He wrote a number of influential articles in the years that followed, including "Situating Marx: Evaluations and Departures" (1972) and "Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse" (1973). He also contributed to the book Policing the Crisis (1978) and coedited the influential Resistance Through Rituals (1975). Shortly before Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979, Hall and Maggie Steed presented It Ain't Half Racist Mum, an Open Door programme made by the Campaign Against Racism in the Media (CARM), which tackled racial stereotypes and contemporary British attitudes to immigration. After his appointment as a professor of sociology at the Open University (OU) that year, Hall published further influential books, including The Hard Road to Renewal (1988), Formations of Modernity (1992), Questions of Cultural Identity (1996) and Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (1997). Through the 1970s and 1980s, Hall was closely associated with the journal Marxism Today; in 1995, he was a founding editor of Soundings: A Journal of Politics and Culture. He spoke internationally on Cultural Studies, including a series of lectures in 1983 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign that were recorded and would decades later form the basis of the 2016 book Cultural Studies 1983: A Theoretical History (edited by Jennifer Slack and Lawrence Grossberg). Hall was the founding chair of Iniva (Institute of International Visual Arts) and the photography organization Autograph ABP (the Association of Black Photographers). Hall retired from the Open University in 1997. He was elected fellow of the British Academy in 2005 and received the European Cultural Foundation's Princess Margriet Award in 2008. He died on 10 February 2014, from complications following kidney failure, a week after his 82nd birthday. By the time of his death, he was widely known as the "godfather of multiculturalism". His memoir, Familiar Stranger: A Life Between Two Islands (co-authored with Bill Schwarz), was posthumously published in 2017, based on hours of interviews conducted with Hall over many years. Hall was buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery, where in 2022 an audio artwork by Trevor Mathison explored his legacy. Entitled The Conversation Continues: We Are Still Listening, the 40-minute soundscape was "a re-examination of the lives and histories of those laid to rest at Highgate Cemetery in the context of contemporary anti-racism movements." Ideas ----- Hall's work covers issues of hegemony and cultural studies, taking a post-Gramscian stance. He regards language-use as operating within a framework of power, institutions and politics/economics. This view presents people as producers and consumers of culture at the same time. (Hegemony, in Gramscian theory, refers to the socio-cultural production more of "consent" and "coercion".) For Hall, culture was not something to simply appreciate or study, but a "critical site of social action and intervention, where power relations are both established and potentially unsettled". Hall became one of the main proponents of reception theory, and developed Hall's Theory of encoding and decoding. This approach to textual analysis focuses on the scope for negotiation and opposition on the part of the audience. This means that the audience does not simply passively accept a text—social control. Crime statistics, in Hall's view, are often manipulated for political and economic purposes. Moral panics (e.g. over mugging) could thereby be ignited in order to create public support for the need to "police the crisis". The media play a central role in the "social production of news" in order to reap the rewards of lurid crime stories. In his 2006 essay "Reconstruction Work: Images of Postwar Black Settlement", Hall also interrogates questions of historical memory and visuality in relation to photography as a colonial technology. According to Hall, understanding and writing about the history of black migration and settlement in Britain during the postwar era requires a careful and critical examination of the limited historical archive, and photographic evidence proves itself invaluable. However, photographic images are often perceived as more objective than other representations, which is dangerous. In his view, one must critically examine who produced these images, what purpose they serve, and how they further their agenda (e.g. what has been deliberately included and excluded in the frame). For example, in the context of postwar Britain, photographic images such as those displayed in the Picture Post article "Thirty Thousand Colour Problems" construct black migration, blackness in Britain, as "the problem". They construct miscegenation as "the centre of the problem", as "the problem of the problem", as "the core issue". Hall's political influence extended to the Labour Party, perhaps related to the influential articles he wrote for the CPGB's theoretical journal Marxism Today (MT) that challenged the left's views of markets and general organisational and political conservatism. This discourse had a profound impact on the Labour Party under both Neil Kinnock and Tony Blair, although Hall later decried New Labour as operating on "terrain defined by Thatcherism". ### Encoding and decoding model Main article: Reception theory Hall presented his encoding and decoding philosophy in various publications and at several oral events across his career. The first was in "Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse" (1973), a paper he wrote for the Council of Europe Colloquy on "Training in the Critical Readings of Television Language" organised by the Council and the Centre for Mass Communication Research at the University of Leicester. It was produced for students at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, which Paddy Scannell explains: "largely accounts for the provisional feel of the text and its 'incompleteness'". In 1974 the paper was presented at a symposium on Broadcasters and the Audience in Venice. Hall also presented his encoding and decoding model in "Encoding/Decoding" in Culture, Media, Language in 1980. The time difference between Hall's first publication on encoding and decoding in 1973 and his 1980 publication is highlighted by several critics. Of particular note is Hall's transition from the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies to the Open University. Hall had a major influence on cultural studies, and many of the terms his texts set forth continue to be used in the field. His 1973 text is viewed as a turning point in Hall's research toward structuralism and provides insight into some of the main theoretical developments he explored at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. Hall takes a semiotic approach and builds on the work of Roland Barthes and Umberto Eco. The essay takes up and challenges longheld assumptions about how media messages are produced, circulated and consumed, proposing a new theory of communication. "The 'object' of production practices and structures in television is the production of a message: that is, a sign-vehicle or rather sign-vehicles of a specific kind organized, like any other form of communication or language, through the operation of codes, within the syntagmatic chains of a discourse." According to Hall, a message "must be perceived as meaningful discourse and meaningfully de-coded" before it has an "effect", a "use", or satisfies a "need". There are four codes of the encoding/decoding model of communication. The first way of encoding is the dominant (i.e. hegemonic) code. This is the code the encoder expects the decoder to recognize and decode. "When the viewer takes the connoted meaning ... full and straight ... and decodes the message in terms of the reference-code in which it has been coded, ... [it operates] inside the dominant code." The second way of encoding is the professional code. It operates in tandem with the dominant code. "It serves to reproduce the dominant definitions precisely by bracketing the hegemonic quality, and operating with professional codings which relate to such questions as visual quality, news and presentational values, televisual quality, 'professionalism' etc." The third way of encoding is the negotiated code. "It acknowledges the legitimacy of the hegemonic definitions to make the grand significations, while, at a more restricted, situational level, it makes its own ground-rules, it operates with 'exceptions' to the rule." The fourth way of encoding is the oppositional code, also known as the globally contrary code. "It is possible for a viewer perfectly to understand both the literal and connotative inflection given to an event, but to determine to decode the message in a globally contrary way." "Before this message can have an 'effect' (however defined), or satisfy a 'need' or be put to a 'use', it must first be perceived as a meaningful discourse and meaningfully de-coded." Hall challenged all four components of the mass communications model. He argues that (i) meaning is not simply fixed or determined by the sender; (ii) the message is never transparent; and (iii) the audience is not a passive recipient of meaning. For example, a documentary film on asylum seekers that aims to provide a sympathetic account of their plight does not guarantee that audiences will feel sympathetic. Despite being realistic and recounting facts, the documentary must still communicate through a sign system (the aural-visual signs of TV) that simultaneously distorts the producers' intentions and evokes contradictory feelings in the audience. Distortion is built into the system, rather than being a "failure" of the producer or viewer. There is a "lack of fit", Hall argues, "between the two sides in the communicative exchange"—that is, between the moment of the production of the message ("encoding") and the moment of its reception ("decoding"). In "Encoding/decoding", Hall suggests media messages accrue common-sense status in part through their performative nature. Through the repeated performance, staging or telling of the narrative of "9/11" (as an example; there are others like it), a culturally specific interpretation becomes not only plausible and universal but elevated to "common sense". ### Views on cultural identity and the African diaspora In his influential 1996 essay "Cultural Identity and Diaspora", Hall presents two different definitions of cultural identity. In the first definition, cultural identity is "a sort of collective 'one true self' ... which many people with a shared history and ancestry hold in common." In this view, cultural identity provides a "stable, unchanging and continuous frame of reference and meaning" through the ebb and flow of historical change. This allows the tracing back the origins of descendants and reflecting on the historical experiences of ancestors as a shared truth. Therefore, blacks living in the diaspora need only "unearth" their African past to discover their true cultural identity. While Hall appreciates the good effects this first view of cultural identity has had in the postcolonial world, he proposes a second definition of cultural identity that he views as superior. Hall's second definition of cultural identity "recognises that, as well as the many points of similarity, there are also critical points of deep and significant difference which constitute 'what we really are'; or rather – since history has intervened – 'what we have become'." In this view, cultural identity is not a fixed essence rooted in the past. Instead, cultural identities "undergo constant transformation" throughout history as they are "subject to the continuous 'play' of history, culture, and power". Thus Hall defines cultural identities as "the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and position ourselves within, the narratives of the past." This view of cultural identity was more challenging than the previous due to its dive into deep differences, but nonetheless it showed the mixture of the African diaspora. In other words, for Hall cultural identity is "not an essence but a positioning". #### Presences Hall describes Caribbean identity in terms of three distinct "presences": the African, the European, and the American. Taking the terms from Aimé Césaire and Léopold Senghor, he describes the three presences: "Présence Africaine", "Présence Européenne", and "Présence Americaine". "Présence Africaine" is the "unspeakable 'presence' in Caribbean culture". According to Hall, the African presence, though repressed by slavery and colonialism, is in fact hiding in plain sight in every aspect of Caribbean society and culture, including language, religion, the arts, and music. For many black people living in the diaspora, Africa becomes an "imagined community" to which they feel a sense of belonging. However, Hall points out, there is no going back to the Africa that existed before slavery, because Africa too has changed. Secondly, Hall describes the European presence in Caribbean cultural identity as the legacy of colonialism, racism, power and exclusion. Unlike the "Présence Africaine", the European presence is not unspoken even though many would like to be separated from the history of the oppressor. But Hall argues that Caribbeans and diasporic peoples must acknowledge how the European presence has also become an inextricable part of their own identities. Lastly, Hall describes the American presence as the "ground, place, territory" where people and cultures from around the world collided. It is, as Hall puts it, "where the fateful/fatal encounter was staged between Africa and the West", and also where the displacement of the natives occurred. #### Diasporic identity Because diasporic cultural identity in the Caribbean and throughout the world is a mixture of all these different presences, Hall advocated a "conception of 'identity' that lives with and through, not despite, difference; by hybridity". According to Hall, black people living in diaspora are constantly reinventing themselves and their identities by mixing, hybridizing, and "creolizing" influences from Africa, Europe, and the rest of the world in their everyday lives and cultural practices. Therefore, there is no one-size-fits-all cultural identity for diasporic people, but rather a multiplicity of different cultural identities that share both important similarities and important differences, all of which should be respected. #### Difference and differance In "Cultural Identity and Diaspora", Hall sheds light on the topic of difference within black identity. He first acknowledges the oneness in the black diaspora and how this unity is at the core of blackness and the black experience. He expresses how this has a unifying effect on the diaspora, giving way to movements such as negritude and the pan-African political project. Hall also acknowledges the deep-rooted "difference" within the diaspora as well. This difference was created by destructive nature of the transatlantic slave trade and the resulting generations of slavery. He describes this difference as what constitutes "what we really are", or the true nature of the diaspora. The duality of such an identity, that expresses deep unity but clear uniqueness and internal distinctness provokes a question out of Hall: "How, then, to describe this play of 'difference' within identity?" Hall's answer is "differance". The use of the "a" in the word unsettles us from our initial and common interpretation of it, and was originally introduced by Jacques Derrida. This modification of the word difference conveys the separation between spatial and temporal difference, and more adequately encapsulates the nuances of the diaspora. Global policy ------------- Hall was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth. Legacy ------ * The Stuart Hall Library, Iniva's specialist arts and culture reference library, currently located in Pimlico, London, and founded in 2007, is named after Stuart Hall, who was the chair of the board of Iniva for many years. * In November 2014, a week-long celebration of Stuart Hall's achievements was held at the University of London's Goldsmiths College, where on 28 November the new Academic Building was renamed in his honour, as the Professor Stuart Hall building (PSH). * The establishment of the Stuart Hall Foundation in his memory and to continue his life's work was announced in December 2014. The Foundation is "committed to public education, addressing urgent questions of race and inequality in culture and society through talks and events, and building a growing network of Stuart Hall Foundation scholars and artists in residence." * In May 2016, Housmans bookshop sold Hall's private library. 3,000 books were donated to Housmans by Hall's widow Catherine Hall. ### Film Hall was a presenter of a seven-part television series entitled Redemption Song — made by Barraclough Carey Productions, and transmitted on BBC2, between 30 June and 12 August 1991 — in which he examined the elements that make up the Caribbean, looking at the turbulent history of the islands and interviewing people who live there today. The series episodes were as follows: * "Shades of Freedom" (11/08/1991) * "Following Fidel" (04/08/1991) * "Worlds Apart" (28 July 1991) * "La Grande Illusion" (21 July 1991) * "Paradise Lost" (14 July 1991) * "Out of Africa" (7 July 1991) * "Iron in the Soul" (30 June 1991) Hall's lectures have been turned into several videos distributed by the Media Education Foundation: * Race, the Floating Signifier (1997). * Representation & the Media (1997). * The Origins of Cultural Studies (2006). Mike Dibb produced a film based on a long interview between journalist Maya Jaggi and Stuart Hall called Personally Speaking (2009). Hall is the subject of two films directed by John Akomfrah, entitled The Unfinished Conversation (2012) and The Stuart Hall Project (2013). The first film was shown (26 October 2013 – 23 March 2014) at Tate Britain, Millbank, London, while the second is now available on DVD. The Stuart Hall Project was composed of clips drawn from more than 100 hours of archival footage of Hall, woven together over the music of jazz artist Miles Davis, who was an inspiration to both Hall and Akomfrah. The film's structure is composed of multiple strands. There is a chronological grounding in historical events, such as the Suez Crisis, the Vietnam War, and the Hungarian Uprising of 1956, along with reflections by Hall on his experiences as an immigrant from the Caribbean to Britain. Another historical event vital to the film was the 1958 Notting Hill race riots occasioned by attacks on black people in the area; these protests showed the presence of a black community within England. When discussing the Caribbean, Hall discusses the idea of hybridity and he states that the Caribbean is the home of hybridity. There are also voiceovers and interviews offered without a specific temporal grounding in the film that nonetheless give the viewer greater insights into Hall and his philosophy. Along with the voiceovers and interviews, embedded in the film are also Hall's personal achievements; this is extremely rare, as there are no traditional archives of those Caribbean peoples moulded by the Middle Passage experience. The film can be viewed as a more pointedly focused take on the Windrush generation, those who migrated from the Caribbean to Britain in the years immediately following the World War II. Hall, himself a member of this generation, focused on the racial discrimination faced by the Windrush generation, contrasting the idealized perceptions among West Indian immigrants of Britain versus the harsher reality they encountered when arriving in the "mother country". A central theme in the film is diasporic belonging. Hall confronted his own identity within both British and Caribbean communities, and at one point in the film he remarks: "Britain is my home, but I am not English." IMDb summarises the film as "a roller coaster ride through the upheavals, struggles and turning points that made the 20th century the century of campaigning, and of global political and cultural change." In August 2012, Professor Sut Jhally conducted an interview with Hall that touched on a number of themes and issues in cultural studies. ### Book * McRobbie, Angela (2016). Stuart Hall, Cultural Studies and the Rise of Black and Asian British Art. McRobbie has also written an article in tribute to Hall: "Times with Stuart". OpenDemocracy. 14 February 2014. Archived from the original on 13 July 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2014. * Scott, David (2017). Stuart Hall's Voice: Intimations of an Ethics of Receptive Generosity. Durham: Duke University Press. Personal life ------------- Hall was married to the feminist historian Catherine Hall. Publications ------------ This is not a complete list: ### 1960s * Hall, Stuart (March–April 1960). "Crosland territory". New Left Review. I (2): 2–4. * Hall, Stuart (January–February 1961). "Student journals". New Left Review. I (7): 50–51. * Hall, Stuart (March–April 1961). "The new frontier". New Left Review. I (8): 47–48. * Hall, Stuart; Anderson, Perry (July–August 1961). "Politics of the common market". New Left Review. I (10): 1–15. * Hall, Stuart; Whannell, Paddy (1964). The Popular Arts. London: Hutchinson Educational. OCLC 2915886. * Hall, Stuart (1968). The Hippies: an American "moment". Birmingham: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. OCLC 12360725. ### 1970s * Hall, Stuart (1971). Deviancy, Politics and the Media. Birmingham: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. * Hall, Stuart (1971). "Life and Death of Picture Post", Cambridge Review, vol. 92, no. 2201. * Hall, Stuart; P. Walton (1972). Situating Marx: Evaluations and Departures. London: Human Context Books. * Hall, Stuart (1972). "The Social Eye of Picture Post", Working Papers in Cultural Studies, no. 2, pp. 71–120. * Hall, Stuart (1973). Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse. Birmingham: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. * Hall, Stuart (1973). A ‘Reading’ of Marx's 1857 Introduction to the Grundrisse. Birmingham: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. * Hall, Stuart (1974). "Marx's Notes on Method: A ‘Reading’ of the ‘1857 Introduction’", Working Papers in Cultural Studies, no. 6, pp. 132–171. * Hall, Stuart; T. Jefferson (1976), Resistance Through Rituals, Youth Subcultures in Post-War Britain. London: HarperCollinsAcademic. * Hall, Stuart (1977). "Journalism of the air under review". Journalism Studies Review. 1 (1): 43–45. * Hall, Stuart; C. Critcher; T. Jefferson; J. Clarke; B. Roberts (1978), Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State and Law and Order. London: Macmillan. London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 0-333-22061-7 (paperback); ISBN 0-333-22060-9 (hardback). * Hall, Stuart (January 1979). "The great moving right show". Marxism Today. Amiel and Melburn Collections: 14–20. ### 1980s * Hall, Stuart (1980). "Encoding / Decoding." In: S. Hall, D. Hobson, A. Lowe, and P. Willis (eds). Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972–79. London: Hutchinson, pp. 128–138. * Hall, Stuart (1980). "Cultural Studies: two paradigms". Media, Culture & Society. 2 (1): 57–72. doi:10.1177/016344378000200106. S2CID 143637900. * Hall, Stuart (1980). "Race, Articulation and Societies Structured in Dominance." In: UNESCO (ed). Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 305–345. * Hall, Stuart (1981). "Notes on Deconstructing the Popular". In: People's History and Socialist Theory. London: Routledge. * Hall, Stuart; P. Scraton (1981). "Law, Class and Control". In: M. Fitzgerald, G. McLennan & J. Pawson (eds). Crime and Society, London: RKP. * Hall, Stuart (1988). The Hard Road to Renewal: Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left. London: Verso Books. * Hall, Stuart (June 1986). "Gramsci's relevance for the study of race and ethnicity". Journal of Communication Inquiry. 10 (2): 5–27. doi:10.1177/019685998601000202. S2CID 53782. * Hall, Stuart (June 1986). "The problem of ideology-Marxism without guarantees". Journal of Communication Inquiry. 10 (2): 28–44. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1033.1130. doi:10.1177/019685998601000203. S2CID 144448154. * Hall, Stuart; Jacques, Martin (July 1986). "People aid: a new politics sweeps the land". Marxism Today. Amiel and Melburn Collections: 10–14. * Hall, Stuart (1989). "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference". Radical America 23 (4): 9–20. Available online. ### 1990s * Hall, Stuart; Held, David; McGrew, Anthony (1992). Modernity and its futures. Cambridge: Polity Press in association with the Open University. ISBN 9780745609669. * Hall, Stuart (1992), "The question of cultural identity", in Hall, Stuart; Held, David; McGrew, Anthony (eds.), Modernity and its futures, Cambridge: Polity Press in association with the Open University, pp. 274–316, ISBN 9780745609669. * Hall, Stuart (Summer 1996). "Who dares, fails". Soundings, Issue: Heroes and Heroines. Lawrence and Wishart. 3. * Hall, Stuart (1997). Representation: cultural representations and signifying practices. London Thousand Oaks, California: Sage in association with the Open University. ISBN 9780761954323. * Hall, Stuart (1997), "The local and the global: globalization and ethnicity", in McClintock, Anne; Mufti, Aamir; Shohat, Ella (eds.), Dangerous liaisons: gender, nation, and postcolonial perspectives, Minnesota, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 173–187, ISBN 9780816626496. * Hall, Stuart (January–February 1997). "Raphael Samuel: 1934-96". New Left Review. I (221). Available online. ### 2000s * Hall, Stuart (2001), "Foucault: Power, knowledge and discourse", in Wetherell, Margaret; Taylor, Stephanie; Yates, Simeon J. (eds.), Discourse Theory and Practice: a reader, D843 Course: Discourse Analysis, London Thousand Oaks California: SAGE in association with the Open University, pp. 72–80, ISBN 9780761971566. ### 2010s * Hall, Stuart (2011). "The neo-liberal revolution". Cultural Studies. 25 (6): 705–728. doi:10.1080/09502386.2011.619886. S2CID 143653421. * Hall, Stuart; Evans, Jessica; Nixon, Sean (2013) [1997]. Representation (2nd ed.). London: Sage in association with The Open University. ISBN 9781849205634. * Hall, Stuart (2016). Cultural Studies 1983: A Theoretical History. Slack, Jennifer, and Lawrence Grossberg (eds), Duke University Press. ISBN 0822362635. * Hall, Stuart (2017). Selected Political Writings: The Great Moving Right Show and other essays. London: Lawrence & Wishart. ISBN 9781910448656. * Hall, Stuart (with Bill Schwarz) (2017). Familiar Stranger: A Life Between Two Islands. London: Allen Lane; Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822363873. ### 2020s * Selected Writings on Marxism (2021), Durham: Duke University Press, ISBN 978-1-4780-0034-1. * Selected Writings on Race and Difference (2021), Durham: Duke University Press, ISBN 978-1478011668. Further reading --------------- * Chen, Kuan-Hsing (1986). "A Working Bibliography: Writings of Stuart Hall". Journal of Communication Inquiry. 10 (2): 125–129. doi:10.1177/019685998601000211. ISSN 1552-4612. S2CID 145128052. * Davis, Helen (2004). Understanding Stuart Hall. London: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-4715-8. * Grossberg, Lawrence (1986). "History, Politics and Postmodernism: Stuart Hall and Cultural Studies". Journal of Communication Inquiry. 10 (2): 61–77. doi:10.1177/019685998601000205. ISSN 1552-4612. S2CID 143469634. * ——— (1986). "On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall". Journal of Communication Inquiry. 10 (2): 45–60. doi:10.1177/019685998601000204. ISSN 1552-4612. S2CID 143711821. * Grossberg, Lawrence; McRobbie, Angela; Gilroy, Paul, eds. (2000). Without Guarantees: In Honour of Stuart Hall. London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-287-4. * "Scholar Stuart Hall Named Among the Most Important Black Britons of All Time". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (43): 59. 2004. doi:10.2307/4133554. ISSN 2326-6023. JSTOR 4133554.
19th-century Norwegian politician, bishop, and theologian Frederik Wilhelm Klumpp Bugge (20 May 1838 – 7 April 1896) was a Norwegian theologian and politician for the Conservative Party. Personal life ------------- Bugge was born in Trondhjem as a son of rector Frederik Moltke Bugge (1806–1853) and Anne Marie Magelssen (1811–1874). He was a nephew of professor Søren Bruun Bugge and grandson of bishop Peter Olivarius Bugge. In May 1863 Bugge married Edvardine "Dina" Magdalene Margrethe Daae (1841–1921), a daughter of vicar Jens Kobro Daae (1811–1897) and sister of Norwegian-American physician Anders Daae. Their son Fredrik Moltke Bugge became a barrister and mayor of Kristiania. Through this son, who married a daughter of bishop Johan Christian Heuch, Wilhelm Bugge was a grandfather of barrister Wilhelm Bugge, and great-grandfather of barrister of Frederik Moltke Bugge and Supreme Court Justice Jens Bugge. Career ------ Bugge served as vicar at Holmestrand Church starting in 1866, before being appointed professor of theology at the Royal Frederick University in 1870. He was a theological conservative, and edited the magazine Luthersk Ugeskrift until 1880. He is best known for his popular exegeses of New Testament documents such as the Epistles of Paul, Epistles of Peter, Epistle of Jude, Acts of the Apostles, the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John. He also worked with a new translation of the New Testament, but this translation was ultimately published several years after his death, in 1904. Bugge was also elected to the Parliament of Norway from the constituency Kristiania, Hønefoss og Kongsvinger in 1882, and served through the term 1883–1885. In 1893 he was appointed Bishop of Oslo. He served until his death in April 1896.
1781 military battle in the Province of Georgia during the American Revolutionary War 33°28′12.00″N 81°58′30.00″W / 33.4700000°N 81.9750000°W / 33.4700000; -81.9750000 33°28'12.00"N, 81°58'30.00"W \| * v * t * e Southern theater 1780–1783 \| \| --- \| \| 1780 * 1st Mobile * Charleston * Moncks Corner * Lenud's Ferry * Waxhaws * Mobley's Meeting House * Ramsour's Mill * Huck's Defeat * Colson's Mill * Rocky Mount * Hanging Rock * Camden * Fishing Creek * Musgrove Mill * Wahab's Plantation * Black Mingo * Charlotte * Kings Mountain * Shallow Ford * Tearcoat Swamp * Fishdam Ford * Blackstock's Farm 1781 * Yorktown Campaign + Richmond + Waters Creek + Cape Henry + Blandford + Spencer's Ordinary + Green Spring + Francisco + Chesapeake + Yorktown * 2nd Mobile * Cowpens * Cowan's Ford * Torrence's Tavern * Pyle's Massacre * Wetzell's Mill * Pensacola * Guilford Court House * Fort Watson * Hobkirk's Hill * Fort Motte * Augusta * Ninety-Six * House in the Horseshoe * Elizabethtown * Eutaw Springs * Lindley's Mill 1782 * Videau's Bridge * Wambaw * Combahee River * James Island 1783 * Chesapeake Bay \| The siege of Augusta took place between May 22, 1781, and June 6, 1781. American Patriot forces, led by General Andrew Pickens and Colonel Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, were successful in capturing Augusta, Georgia held by British loyalist militia. Fort Cornwallis, the primary British defence, was successfully exposed to cannon fire by the construction of a tower 30 feet (9.1 m) high on which the Americans mounted a small cannon. The British surrendered on June 6. Background ---------- The arrival of the British regular army in Georgia in 1778 was shortly followed by the occupation of Augusta by loyalist Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Brown, leading the East Florida Rangers on January 31, 1779. Brown and the East Florida Rangers retreated from Augusta following the British defeat at the Battle of Kettle Creek in February 1779. Brown and his militia unit, rebranded as the King's Carolina Rangers retook August on June 8, 1780. On 14 September 1780 Elijah Clarke and Patriot forces launched a surprise assault on British held Augusta. The four day siege was unsuccessful and Clarke raised the siege, retreating on 18 September. Clarke's militia re-entered Wilkes County in April 1781. Joined by General Andrew Pickens’ militia and Major General Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee's continentals, they arrived outside Augusta on May 21, 1781. Siege begins ------------ On April 16, Patriot militia companies under the command of Micajah Williamson arrived on the outskirts of Augusta, Georgia and established a fortified camp. The garrison of the town's primary fortification, Fort Cornwallis, was held by the King's Carolina Rangers commanded by Loyalist Thomas Brown, and did not immediately confront Williamson due to exaggerated reports of his troop strength. General Andrew Pickens maneuvered a force of 400 men between Augusta and Ninety Six, South Carolina to prevent the British outpost there from reinforcing Brown. On May 15, Williamson was joined by his commander, Elijah Clarke and another 100 men, effectively cutting British supply lines. General Nathanael Greene had sent Major Henry Lee to attempt the capture of Ninety Six, but when Lee neared he learned that the town had been fortified in anticipation of Greene's arrival. Greene then ordered Lee to assist Pickens at Augusta. Pressing on, Lee reached Augusta after traveling 75 miles (121 km) in three days. Galphin's prize --------------- On May 21, the stockaded house of George Galphin, an Indian agent, located 12 miles (19 km) south of Augusta, was attacked by forces under Clarke and Lee. After a brief exchange, in which one Patriot died of the heat and eight to ten were wounded, the British garrison there surrendered after three or four men were killed. A total of 126 men, mostly regulars, surrendered. The prize (and the reason for the Patriot attack) was much-needed supplies and military equipment which had been intended for distribution to the local Indians. Fort Grierson ------------- Fort Grierson was a secondary fortified outpost located about half a mile (0.8 km) from Fort Cornwallis. This fort was defended by about 80 men under Colonel Grierson. On May 23 the Patriot forces began to encircle the fort in a manner intended to draw Grierson out in an attempt to reach Fort Cornwallis. Brown, aware of the danger to Grierson, sallied forth from Cornwallis, but when faced with Lee's strength, limited his support attempt to an ineffective cannonade. Grierson, desperate to escape the trap, attempted to flee along the riverbank but his entire company was captured. Clarke's men then took their revenge for actions perpetrated by Brown and refused quarter, killing Grierson and all of his men. Fort Cornwallis --------------- The forces defending Cornwallis numbered about 300 Loyalist militia, who were assisted in defensive works by about 200 African-Americans. The fort was well-constructed and the Patriots could not find a ready means of attack, since they only had a single cannon. At Lee's suggestion they decided to use a stratagem that had met with success at the siege of Fort Watson. Under cover of a nearby house, they constructed a wooden tower about 30 feet (9.1 m) high. During its construction Brown made several further sorties, but Lee's men fought them off each time. The tower was high enough to top the fort's walls on June 1 and the Patriots began firing into the fort. That night Brown led most of the garrison out and a pitched battle ensued in which Brown was once again forced to retreat behind his defenses. He then sent out one of his men, pretending to be a deserter, to gain access to the tower with a view to setting it on fire. He suggested to Lee that he could direct the cannon at the fort's magazine, and had very nearly succeeded in his quest when Lee somehow became suspicious and had him placed under guard. The cannon atop the tower continued to rake the interior of the fort, knocking guns off their mounts and destroying the barracks. The Patriot leaders then began planning an attack on the fort, exploring places to position sharpshooters in the few remaining houses near the fort. On the night of June 3 the last remaining house exploded. Brown had sent sappers to undermine the house, expecting it to be used for such purposes, and the explosive charge had gone off before the building was occupied. Patriot forces lined up for assault on the morning of June 4, and Pickens and Lee sent in a surrender demand, which Brown turned down. In deference to the fact that it was the King's birthday, the attack was delayed one day. Surrender --------- On June 5, Brown offered to negotiate terms of surrender. To avoid a repeat of Grierson's fate, he was specifically surrendered to a detachment of Continental Army troops from North Carolina, as a number of the local militia were interested in seeing him dead over his previous acts of brutality. Aftermath --------- Brown survived the war, moving first to Florida and then the Bahamas.
Men's basketball team of Florida Atlantic University The Florida Atlantic Owls men's basketball team represents Florida Atlantic University and competes in the American Athletic Conference of NCAA Division I college basketball. Their home games are played on the Abessinio Court in the Eleanor R. Baldwin Arena on the school's Boca Raton, Florida campus. The Owls have appeared in the NCAA tournament three times, in 2002 while a member of the Atlantic Sun Conference, 2023, and 2024. The Owls joined Conference USA (C-USA) in 2013 as part of the early-2010s NCAA conference realignment. After not winning a single NCAA Tournament game coming into 2023, the Owls qualified for their first Final Four in program history by defeating the Kansas State Wildcats 79–76. After the 2022–23 season, FAU left C-USA for the American Athletic Conference (The American). Overview and history -------------------- Main article: List of Florida Atlantic Owls men's basketball seasons Florida Atlantic University basketball began play in the 1988–89 season. The Owls competed as an NCAA Division II independent until the 1993–94 season, when they moved up to Division I and the Atlantic Sun Conference, now known as the ASUN Conference. After spending 11 seasons in the Atlantic Sun, the Owls moved to the Sun Belt Conference, with the rest of Florida Atlantic University's intercollegiate sports teams. The Owls moved to C-USA in July 2013, and then moved to The American in July 2023. ### Beginning: FAU gets basketball (1988–1993) Florida Atlantic University played its first-ever intercollegiate basketball contest on November 18, 1988, against fellow local NCAA Division II school, Palm Beach Atlantic University. The Owls won the game 111–62. Even though the newly formed college squad hung 111 points in their first game, they would finish the inaugural season 9–19, which included a 12-game losing streak in the middle of the year. Head coach, Lonnie Williams, was known to be a "program-builder", but after one year, left FAU after its first season to become head coach at the University of California, Davis. Williams would only last one year at UC Davis, posting an 11–16 record. Replacing Williams was Penn State assistant coach, Tim Loomis. Loomis started his coaching career with a 21–7 record, and followed that up with back-to-back 15–13 seasons. The three consecutive winning seasons is a feat that no other Owls coach has ever matched, until Dusty May did it in his first three seasons. Along with the winning seasons, Loomis was able to schedule games against neighbor and powerhouse, University of Miami Hurricanes. Though Miami would beat the Owls soundly in the appearances, the ability to schedule games against them was seen as the Owls basketball program's growth. Loomis would lose the core of that inaugural team after the Owls' fourth season, and the Owls would suffer devastating 3–24 (1992–93) and 3–25 (1993–94) seasons the latter being their first official year as Division One. The members of these teams were true pioneers and super fundraisers for the athletic department as they hit the road to play teams like Florida State, Georgetown, and Iowa State while taking large paydays and suffering losses to higher ranked (#10 Georgetown) opponents. In fact, Loomis' team beat NC State on the road in 1993–94 to become the first Atlantic Sun team to ever beat an ACC team at the time. ### Move to Division I (1993–2005) The 1993–94 season would mark the beginning of the Owls competition in the NCAA Division I. The Owls joined the Atlantic Sun Conference later, mostly due to the fact that the Owls baseball team was exceeding expectations so early in its development. In 1994–95, the team improved to 9–19 while in Loomis' last year. The team repeated that win total in 1995–96 under new coach Kevin Billerman but showed improvement by taking South Florida, Saint Louis, and Southern Illinois to close road losses determined by the last possession, while winning two conference games to end the season. Former Duke Blue Devil captain and leader, Kevin Billerman, was hired to further lead the Owls into Division I; his second season produced the most wins of any Division One FAU men's basketball coach up to that point. Due to NCAA's rule, the Owls were not eligible for the NCAA tournament for four years, with their first season of tournament eligibility coming in 1993–94. In Billerman's four seasons, the Owls had two 20+ loss seasons (his last two) and only one winning season (his second). For the 1999–2000 season, FAU hired decorated UNLV All-American forward/center and NBA first-round draft pick Sidney Green. In his first season, Green's Owls went 2–28, with a 25-game losing streak in the middle of the season. In each of his first and second seasons, the Owls would win their opening round game in the Atlantic Sun Conference Tournament, but would lose in the second round. #### 2001–02 season: A-Sun champions During the 2001–02 season, Green would lead the Owls to his only winning season, as FAU finished 19–12 and 13–7 in the Atlantic Sun. In the first-round of the 2002 Atlantic Sun Conference Tournament, FAU would again win their opening game, this time defeating Jacksonville University. The Owls would break their second-round losing tradition, beating Jacksonville State University. In the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship, the Owls faced Georgia State University and won 76–75, clinching their first conference championship and a bid to the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. In the 2002 NCAA tournament, the Owls were seeded as a 15-seed, and placed in the South Region, and were paired with 2-seed Alabama. Though the Owls hung tight throughout the game, heavily favored Alabama held on to win 86–78. ### Coaching carousel (2005–2018) Green was fired after the 2004–05 season and the Owls landed former NCAA Coach of the Year and Tar Heel Matt Doherty. Doherty led the Owls to a 15–13 record and then left abruptly to become the head coach at Southern Methodist University. With the rapid success of the football program, created from scratch just in 2001, the Florida Atlantic sports programs again moved up in level of competition. This time, the Owls would move to the Sun Belt Conference, and basketball played its first season of competition in the Sun Belt in the 2006–07 season. To replace Doherty, assistant coach and former Kansas Jayhawk star, Rex Walters, was elevated. In his first season, Walters' Owls were 16–15 and 10–8 in the Sun Belt. The 16–15 marked the first time FAU posted back-to-back winning seasons since the 1989–90 and 1990–91 seasons. The 10–8 conference record was only the fourth time the Owls had a winning record in conference play. Walters' sophomore season regressed a bit, as FAU finished 15–18. After the 2007–08 season completed, Rex Walters accepted the head coaching job at the University of San Francisco, and for the third time in four years, the Owls were searching for a new coach. FAU hired Mike Jarvis as their new coach. Jarvis had been the head coach at Boston University, George Washington University and, most recently, St. John's University. Between the three schools, Jarvis led his teams to nine total NCAA tournament appearances, including an Elite Eight appearance with St. John's in 1999. Jarvis was fired from St. John's on December 19, 2003—the first Big East Conference coach to be fired during the season. It later emerged that school officials had fired Jarvis in part due to a series of embarrassing off-court incidents. Among these, a junior college transfer had been charged with assaulting a female student, and a senior guard had been kicked off the team after being caught smoking marijuana near St. John's campus in Queens. During the 2003–04 season, St. John's center Abe Keita claimed that a member of Jarvis's basketball staff had paid him nearly $300 a month for the past four seasons. As a result, St. John's placed itself on two years' probation, withdrew from postseason consideration for the 2004–05 season, and forfeited 43 wins including the 2002 NCAA Tournament and the 2003 NIT. Jarvis was faulted for not properly monitoring Keita's situation. After his ouster, Jarvis was criticized for ignoring New York City's rich pool of high school players, which particularly rankled fans used to seeing national powerhouses built primarily on New York City talent. At FAU, he looked to become the first coach in NCAA basketball history to win 100 games at four different schools. Following the 2014 season, Jarvis resigned after reports indicated that he was going to be fired. He finished with a 76–112 after six years in Boca Raton. On April 7, 2014, the school hired Michael Curry, a former NBA player and coach of the Detroit Pistons. Curry's teams never finished with more than 12 wins overall or more than six wins in conference. They never finished higher than 11th in C-USA. Following the hiring of a new athletic director, Brian White, Curry was fired after four seasons at the school and a 39–84 record. ### Dusty May Era and 2023 Final Four Run (since 2018) White, brother to then-Florida head coach Mike White, thanked Curry for his years at FAU, but saw no reason the Owls could not compete in C-USA. On March 22, 2018, the school hired Florida assistant coach Dusty May as head coach. The FAU Owls began to experience much improved results and consistent success under May, as they finished that first season in 2018-19 with an above .500 record at 17-15 and an invite to the 2019 CIT, where they lost to the Charleston Southern Buccaneers in the first round, 68-66. The Owls followed that success with winning records in each of the first 5 seasons with Dusty May at the helm. The 2022-23 FAU Owls, led by May, had their most successful season in program history, going 31-3 en-route to winning that season’s Conference USA Championship for both the regular season and the conference tournament. During that season, FAU was ranked in the Associated Press Top 25 for the first time in school history, as they at one point won 20 consecutive games. In March of 2023, the Owls made the NCAA Tournament for only the second time in program history and remarkably, made it to the Final Four in Houston after defeating the Kansas State Wildcats 79-76 in the Elite Eight at Madison Square Garden. The Owls then narrowly lost to the San Diego State Aztecs in that Final Four, 72-71, as San Diego State’s Lamont Butler hit a buzzer-beating jumpshot to help the Aztecs advance to the 2023 NCAA Tournament National Championship Game. The 2022-23 FAU Owls finished the season 35-4, the most wins of any program in Men’s Division I College Basketball that season. Head coaches ------------ Main article: List of Florida Atlantic Owls men's basketball head coaches Current coaching staff ---------------------- \| Name \| Current Title \| JoinedFAU \| Alma mater \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Dusty May \| Head coach \| 2018 \| Indiana \| \| Todd Abernethy \| Assistant coach \| 2019 \| Mississippi \| \| Drew Williamson \| Assistant coach \| 2021 \| Old Dominion \| \| Kyle Church \| Assistant coach \| 2018 \| Charlotte \| \| Brandon Gilbert \| Assistant to the head coach \| 2018 \| Florida \| \| KT Harrell \| Director of Basketball Operations \| 2022 \| Auburn \| Postseason ---------- ### NCAA tournament results The Owls have appeared in the NCAA tournament three times. Their combined record to date is 4–3. \| \| \| \| Year \| Seed \| Round \| Opponent \| Result \| \| 2002 \| No. 15 \| First Round \| No. 2 Alabama \| L 78–86 \| \| 2023 \| No. 9 \| First RoundSecond RoundSweet SixteenElite EightFinal Four \| No. 8 MemphisNo. 16 Fairleigh DickinsonNo. 4 TennesseeNo. 3 Kansas StateNo. 5 San Diego State \| W 66–65W 78–70W 62–55 W 79–76L 71–72 \| \| 2024 \| No. 8 \| First Round \| No. 9 Northwestern \| L 65–77 OT \| ### NIT results The Owls have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) once. Their record is 0–1. \| Year \| Round \| Opponent \| Result \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 2011 \| First Round \| Miami (FL) \| L 62–85 \| ### CBI results The Owls have appeared in the College Basketball Invitational once. Their combined record is 0–1. \| Year \| Round \| Opponent \| Result \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 2022 \| First Round \| Northern Colorado \| L 71–74 \| ### CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament (CIT) results The Owls have appeared in one CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament (CIT). Their record is 0–1. \| Year \| Round \| Opponent \| Result \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 2019 \| First Round \| Charleston Southern \| L 66–68 \| Team records ------------ ### All-time record vs. current AAC teams Official record (including any NCAA imposed vacates and forfeits) against all current AAC opponents as of the completion of the 2022–23 season: \| Opponent \| Games Played \| Won \| Lost \| Percentage \| Streak \| First Meeting \| Recent Meeting \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Charlotte \| 14 \| 8 \| 6 \| .571 \| Won 4 \| 2014 \| 2023 \| \| East Carolina \| 4 \| 2 \| 2 \| .500 \| Lost 1 \| 1993 \| 2015 \| \| Memphis \| 2 \| 1 \| 1 \| .500 \| Won 1 \| 1993 \| 2023 \| \| North Texas \| 22 \| 8 \| 14 \| .363 \| Won 2 \| 2007 \| 2023 \| \| Rice \| 10 \| 6 \| 4 \| .600 \| Won 4 \| 2014 \| 2023 \| \| SMU \| 2 \| 0 \| 2 \| .000 \| Lost 1 \| 1997 \| 1998 \| \| South Florida \| 16 \| 2 \| 14 \| .125 \| Lost 2 \| 1993 \| 2019 \| \| Temple \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| -- \| -- \| -- \| -- \| \| Tulane \| 5 \| 0 \| 5 \| .000 \| Lost 5 \| 1993 \| 2014 \| \| Tulsa \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| .000 \| Lost 1 \| 2014 \| 2014 \| \| UAB \| 18 \| 5 \| 13 \| .278 \| Won 1 \| 2008 \| 2023 \| \| UTSA \| 16 \| 10 \| 6 \| .625 \| Won 3 \| 2014 \| 2023 \| \| Wichita State \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| .000 \| Lost 1 \| 1998 \| 1998 \| Through April 1, 2023. Owls in international leagues ----------------------------- * Aleksandar Zečević (born 1996), Serbian basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Jo Hodges (1959 – 25 July 2017) was a British scriptwriter, novelist, advertising creative and lecturer at London College of Communication. Hodges wrote the 1997 comedy film The Girl with Brains in Her Feet, the first feature film directed by Robert Bangura. Life ---- Jo Hodges was born in 1959 in Leicester. The Girl with Brains in Her Feet, a 1997 film script which Hodges turned into a 1998 novel, told the coming-of-age story of 'Jack', a mixed-race working-class girl from Leicester with dreams of becoming a professional runner. Photographed by Robert Taylor for a 2001 book Portraits of Black Achievement, she provided encouragement to young black people feeling scared of attempting writing as a career: > In the beginning I didn't dare write as I thought you had to be extremely clever and fantastically well educated to do it...I eventually had a go and decided that maybe I wasn't so stupid after all. I think a lot of black kids deliberately hold themselves back. There is no need to be embarrassed if you're talented or clever at something. Go ahead and show people what you can do. > > Hodges worked in advertising for DMB&B, GGK and Ogilvy & Mather. In 2002 she started lecturing on advertising at the University of the Arts London. In 2007 she joined London College of Communication, going on to become course leader of the BA in Advertising there, and later Creative Practice Director for Communications and Media. She died from an ongoing illness on 25 July 2017, aged 58. Works ----- * The Girl with Brains in Her Feet. London: Virago Press, 1998.
Village in Punjab, India Pallian Kalan is a village in Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district of Punjab State, India. It is located 1.7 kilometres (1.1 mi) away from branch post office Kot Ranjha, 11.8 kilometres (7.3 mi) from Nawanshahr, 12.7 kilometres (7.9 mi) from district headquarter Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar and 87 kilometres (54 mi) from state capital Chandigarh. The village is administrated by Sarpanch an elected representative of the village. Demography ---------- As of 2011, Pallian Kalan has a total number of 123 houses and population of 594 of which 308 include are males while 286 are females according to the report published by Census India in 2011. The literacy rate of Pallian Kalan is 77.95% higher than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 68 which is 11.45% of total population of Pallian Kalan, and child sex ratio is approximately 1000 as compared to Punjab state average of 846. Most of the people are from Schedule Caste which constitutes 38.55% of total population in Pallian Kalan. The town does not have any Schedule Tribe population so far. As per the report published by Census India in 2011, 333 people were engaged in work activities out of the total population of Pallian Kalan which includes 166 males and 167 females. According to census survey report 2011, 96.70% workers describe their work as main work and 3.30% workers are involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Education --------- The village has a Punjabi medium, co-ed upper primary school established in 1974. The school provide mid-day meal as per Indian Midday Meal Scheme. As per Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act the school provide free education to children between the ages of 6 and 14. KC Engineering College and Doaba Khalsa Trust Group Of Institutions are the nearest colleges. Industrial Training Institute for women (ITI Nawanshahr) is 8.8 kilometres (5.5 mi). The village is 70.6 kilometres (43.9 mi) away from Chandigarh University, 44.8 kilometres (27.8 mi) from Indian Institute of Technology and 55.4 kilometres (34.4 mi) away from Lovely Professional University. List of schools nearby: * Govt Senior Secondary School, Ladhana Jhikka * Dashmesh Model School, Kahma * Govt High School, Jhander Kalan * Govt Gigh School, Khan Khana * Guru Ram Dass Public School, Cheta Transport --------- Nawanshahr train station is the nearest train station however, Garhshankar Junction railway station is 23 kilometres (14 mi) away from the village. Sahnewal Airport is the nearest domestic airport which located 52 kilometres (32 mi) away in Ludhiana and the nearest international airport is located in Chandigarh also Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport is the second nearest airport which is 164 kilometres (102 mi) away in Amritsar.
Overview of the drug policy of Nazi Germany A methamphetamine tablet container Pervitin, an early form of methamphetamine, was widely used in Nazi Germany and was available without a prescription. The generally tolerant official drug policy in the Third Reich, the period of Nazi control of Germany from the 1933 Machtergreifung to Germany's 1945 defeat in World War II, was inherited from the Weimar government which was installed in 1919 following the dissolution of the German monarchy at the end of World War I. Historical background --------------------- Before the First World War, the collaborative research efforts of the German university system and German corporations enabled the German corporate sector as a whole to obtain a virtual worldwide monopoly on drugs whose production required chemical expertise and industrial capacity. This research was fueled by revenues from the sale of morphine, an alkaloid found in opium, first identified by a German chemist in the early 19th century and patented by Merck soon afterward. German pharmaceutical companies' work with morphine and its derivatives found particular success in using them as pain relievers and cough suppressants, with Bayer eventually recognizing the potency of heroin, which was legal in Germany at the time (and until the 1950s, before which it was banned only in Asia and the United States). During the era of the German Empire, consolidated in the late 1860s and early 1870s, the German government's militaristic inclinations prompted it to add financial support to research in sectors including pharmaceuticals and optimization of industrial processes. The unprecedented casualties of World War I brought the need for treatment of acute and chronic pain, the means of treating that pain, and the side effects of that treatment, including opioid dependence, to the forefront of public consciousness.[] Civilian-sector drug policy in Nazi Germany ------------------------------------------- The German populace's experience during and after the First World War inspired the Weimar and Nazi governments to adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the use of drugs to relieve pain, increase performance, and avoid withdrawal. Most drugs were permitted either universally or for individuals with a medical prescription. Many of the drug addicts in 1920s and 1930s Germany were First World War veterans who required addictive drugs for pain relief and/or medical personnel who had access to such drugs. During the Weimar era, addiction was seen as a curable disease. Following the advent of Nazism, addiction continued to be viewed as curable for all.[clarification needed] Among members of such groups, symptoms of drug addiction were often attributed to other conditions, which themselves were often pseudoscientifically diagnosed; even when addiction was recognized as such, Nazi physicians often viewed it as incurable in light of what they believed to be an inherent predisposition or weakness. Drug policy and use within the Wehrmacht ---------------------------------------- Drug use in the German military during World War II was actively encouraged and widespread, especially during the war's later stages as the Wehrmacht became depleted and increasingly dependent on youth as opposed to experience. ### Stimulants In 1938 Pervitin, a methamphetamine drug newly developed by the Berlin-based Temmler Pharma, was introduced to the civilian marked and quickly became endemic among the German population. It was particularly popular among people who worked night shifts and young recreational drug users, both of whom often stayed awake late into the night, because the drug increased alertness, confidence, concentration, and risk-taking behavior, in addition to reducing sensitivity to pain, hunger, and tiredness. Nazi military doctor Otto Friedrich Ranke tested the drug on 90 university students to study its effects, which led him to conclude that Pervitin could help Germany win the war. Methamphetamine use is believed to have played a role in the speed of Germany's initial blitzkrieg. At the request of Vice-Admiral Hellmuth Heye for a stronger pill that would "keep soldiers ready for battle when they are asked to continue fighting beyond a period considered normal," a pharmacologist produced a pill dubbed D-IX. The new drug contained cocaine, whose effects substantially overlap with those of amphetamine but feature greater euphoria, and a morphine-based painkiller in addition to Pervitin. ### Alcohol At the start of World War II, alcohol consumption was widespread among members of the Wehrmacht. At first, high-ranking officials encouraged its use as a means of relaxation and a crude method of mitigating the psychological effects of combat, in the latter case through what later scientific developments would describe as blocking the consolidation of traumatic memories. After the Fall of France, however, Wehrmacht commanders observed that their soldiers' behavior was deteriorating, with "fights, accidents, mistreatment of subordinates, violence against superior officers and "crimes involving unnatural sexual acts" becoming more frequent. The Commander-in-Chief of the German military, General Walther von Brauchitsch, concluded that his troops were committing "most serious infractions" of morality and discipline, and that the culprit was alcohol abuse. In response, Hitler attempted to curb the reckless use of alcohol in the military, promising severe punishment for soldiers who exhibited public drunkenness or otherwise "allow[ed] themselves to be tempted to engage in criminal acts as a result of alcohol abuse." Serious offenders could expect "a humiliating death." This revised policy accompanied an increase in Nazi Party disapproval of alcohol use in the civilian sector, reflecting an extension to alcohol of the longstanding Nazi condemnation of tobacco consumption as diminishing the strength and purity of the "Aryan race." Drug use inside the Nazi Party ------------------------------ Adolf Hitler is believed[] to have been addicted to drugs that were initially prescribed to treat his chronic medical conditions. After Doctor Theodor Morell prescribed cultures of live bacteria, Hitler's digestive ailments eased, and Hitler made him his primary physician. Dr. Morell's popularity among Hitler's inner circle skyrocketed, and he was sarcastically dubbed by Göring "The Reichsmaster of the Injections." Dr. Morell went on to prescribe powder cocaine to soothe Hitler's throat and clear his sinuses. According to Norman Ohler in his 2016 book Blitzed: Drugs in Nazi Germany, when Hitler's drug supplies ran out by the end of the war, he suffered severe withdrawal from serotonin and dopamine, paranoia, psychosis, rotting teeth, extreme shaking, kidney failure and delusion. Hermann Göring, Hitler's closest aide, had served in the Luftstreitkräfte during World War I and suffered a severe hip injury during combat. He became seriously addicted to the morphine that was prescribed to him in order to relieve the pain which resulted from this injury and the gunshot wound, variously described as a thigh or groin injury, that he sustained while taking part in the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. In 1925, after consulting his wife, he entered a Swedish mental hospital for detoxification and treatment. When Göring was captured near the end of the war, he was found to be addicted to dihydrocodeine and was subsequently weaned off it. Aftermath --------- After the war, Pervitin remained easily accessible, both on the black market and as a prescription drug. Doctors prescribed it to patients as an appetite suppressant or they prescribed it in order to improve the moods of patients who were struggling with depression. Students, especially medical students, turned to the stimulant because it enabled them to review more information through the night and finish their studies faster. The drug was removed from the medical supplies of East and West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s respectively, and following German reunification it was deemed illegal in the entire country. Today, a different form of the drug, crystal methamphetamine, has become popular throughout Europe and the United States despite governmental prohibition and eradication efforts. Further reading --------------- * Ohler, Norman. Blitzed: Drugs in Nazi Germany (2016), ISBN 0241256992 * The pharmaceutical industry and the German National Socialist Regime: I.G. Farben and pharmacological research \| * v * t * e Drug laws, policies, and regulations \| \| --- \| \| Aspects \| \| \| \| --- \| \| * Amnesty bin * Drug checking * Drug education * Drug policy * Drug prohibition * Harm reduction * Drug liberalization + Latin America * Get Your Drugs Tested * Needle and syringe programmes * Regulation of therapeutic goods * Supervised injection site * War on drugs \| \| \| International law \| \| \| \| --- \| \| * Drug control treaties + 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs - changes in cannabis scheduling + 1971 Vienna Convention on Psychotropic Substances + 1988 UN Convention on Illicit Trafficking * Other treaties addressing drugs + Law of the Sea Convention + Convention Against Doping + Convention on the Rights of the Child \| \| \| By country \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| Asia \| * Bangladesh * India * Laos * South Korea \| \| Europe \| * Cannabis in Malta * Czech Republic * Germany * Netherlands * Poland * Portugal * Romania * Slovakia * Soviet Union * Sweden * United Kingdom \| \| North America \| * Canada (cannabis) * United States (alcohol, cannabis, harm reduction, psilocybin) * Mexico (cannabis) \| \| Listings by country \| * Drug and precursor laws by country or territory * Alcohol (absinthe, consumption, moonshine) * Anabolic steroid * Areca nut * Ayahuasca * Benzodiazepine * Caffeine * Cannabis * Cocaine * DMT * Ibogaine * Kava * Khat * LSD * MDMA * Mephedrone * MPDV * Methylone * Methamphetamine * Mitragyna speciosa (also known as kratom) * Opium * Psilocybin * Psychoactive Amanita * Psychoactive cactus * Salvia divinorum * Tobacco \| \|
American poet, novelist and scholar Neal Bowers (born Larry Neal Bowers, August 3, 1948 in Clarksville, Tennessee) is an American poet, novelist, memoirist, and scholar. He received the B.A. (1970) and M.A. (1971) from Austin Peay State University and the Ph.D. in English and American Literature from the University of Florida (1976). He taught for thirty-one years at Iowa State University, earning the highest academic rank awarded by the university, Distinguished Professor. His regular courses included creative writing and modern and contemporary poetry. He retired from teaching in 2008. In addition to his poetry, Bowers is best known for his defense of poetry in Words for the Taking: The Hunt for a Plagiarist (W.W. Norton, 1997). As the victim of a bizarre and relentless literary thief, Bowers made a stand for intellectual property and the deeply personal nature of the creative process at a time when fewer and fewer scholars and writers believed in either. After publishing several articles expressing his dismay, most notably University Poetry, Inc. (Poetry, July 2002), Bowers stopped writing poetry for more than a decade. Prior to that hiatus, he published hundreds of poems in such journals as Poetry, The New Yorker, Sewanee Review, Hudson Review, Shenandoah, and Virginia Quarterly Review, and his work was represented in over three dozen anthologies. Books ----- * Theodore Roethke: The Journey from I to Otherwise (biographical criticism) Univ. of Missouri Press, 1982. * The Golf Ball Diver (poetry) New Rivers Press, 1983. * James Dickey: The Poet as Pitchman (criticism) Univ. of Missouri Press, 1985. * Lost in the Heartland (poetry) Cedar Creek Press, 1990. * Night Vision (poetry) BkMk Press, 1992. * Words for the Taking: The Hunt for a Plagiarist (nonfiction) W.W. Norton, 1997; reprint & update Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 2007. * Loose Ends (novel) Random House, 2001. * Out of the South (poetry) LSU Press, 2002. * Cats Rule: The Bookstore Cat's Guide to the Care and Training of Humans (whimsy) BookSurge, 2009. Awards ------ * Poetry Prize (Society of Midland Authors): Best book of poetry in 2002 for Out of the South. * Union League Civic and Arts Poetry Prize (from Poetry), 1996. * Frederick Bock Prize (from Poetry), 1991. * National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship in Poetry, 1989. Personal life ------------- Neal Bowers and his wife, Nancy, have lived in the same house in Ames, Iowa, for thirty years. In younger days, they traveled extensively but are now content to pursue their various writing projects with the assistance of six special-needs cats.
A steel detailer is a person who produces detailed drawings for steel fabricators and steel erectors. The detailer prepares detailed plans, drawings and other documents for the manufacture and erection of steel members (columns, beams, braces, trusses, stairs, handrails, joists, metal decking, etc.) used in the construction of buildings, bridges, industrial plans, and nonbuilding structures. Steel detailers (usually simply called detailers within their field) work closely with architects, engineers, general contractors and steel fabricators. They usually find employment with steel fabricators, engineering firms, or independent steel detailing companies. Steel detailing companies and self-employed detailers subcontract primarily to steel fabricators and sometimes to general contractors and engineers. Training and certification -------------------------- ### United States Collegiate degree programs specific to structural steel detailing are rare to nonexistent in the U.S. but more general degree and certification programs may be found with curricula pertaining to design, manual or computer-aided drafting in general, or specific computer-aided drafting software. A college degree is not required to become a steel detailer in the U.S. Training is usually provided on the job, with a new trainee usually needing about five years of practice under an experienced detailer to become proficient with all of the requirements of the trade. Practitioners of this occupation in the U.S. may range from degreed, and possibly licensed, civil/structural engineers to those with little or no formal academic training who nevertheless possess extensive industry experience. Certification of structural steel detailers is not required in the United States. The National Institute of Steel Detailing (NISD) offers a selection of certification programs for steel detailers and detailing companies, but these are strictly voluntary. ### Canada In Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada there are College courses specifically for Steel Detailing. Vancouver Community College Downtown Campus has been offering a Steel Detailing Certificate for many years. It is approximately a one-year program. BCIT (British Columbia Institute of Technology) also offers training. Many of the most well trained Steel Detailers in British Columbia have attended these institutions. Responsibilities ---------------- A steel detailer prepares two primary types of drawings: erection drawings and shop drawings. Erection drawings are used to guide the steel erector on the construction site ("in the field") as to where and how to erect the fabricated steel members. These drawings usually show dimensioned plans to locate the steel members, and they often also show details with specific information and requirements, including all work that must be done in the field (such as bolting, welding or installing wedge anchors). Since the erection drawings are intended for use in the field, they contain very little specific information about the fabrication of any individual steel member; members should already be completed by the time the erection drawings are used. Shop drawings, also called detail drawings, are used to specify the exact detailing requirements for fabricating each individual member (or "piece") of a structure, and are used by the steel fabricator to fabricate these members. Complete shop drawings show material specifications, member sizes, all required dimensions, welding, bolting, surface preparation and painting requirements, and any other information required to describe each completed member. The shop drawings are intended for use by the fabrication shop, and thus contain little or no information about the erection and installation of the steel members they depict; this information belongs in the erection drawings. The detailer must comply with the requirements of the design drawings and with all industry standards and protocols, such as those established by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) and the American Welding Society (AWS). The detailer is usually not responsible for design, including structural strength, stiffness, and stability (which are the responsibility of the structural engineer), major dimensions of the structure and compliance with relevant building codes (which are the responsibility of the architect). A detailer is generally required to submit his drawings to the structural engineer and/or architect for review prior to the release of drawings for fabrication. However, to complete his drawings, an experienced steel detailer usually suggests connections subject to the approval of the structural engineer in cases where the structural drawings have insufficient information. In these situations, the steel detailer is guided by his experience and knowledge of existing engineering codes such as the Steel Construction Manual published by AISC. In the case of non-building structures there is typically no architect, and detail drawings are reviewed exclusively by the structural engineer of record. This design review ideally assures engineering accuracy and compliance with the design intent. Techniques ---------- Traditionally, steel detailing was accomplished via manual drafting methods, using pencils, paper, and drafting tools such as a parallel bar or drafting machine, triangles, templates of circles and other useful shapes, and mathematical tables, such as tables of logarithms and other useful calculational aids. Eventually, hand-held calculators were incorporated into the traditional practice. Today, manual drafting has been largely replaced by computer-aided drafting (CAD). A steel detailer using computer-aided methods creates drawings on a computer, using software specifically designed for the purpose, and printing out drawings on paper only when they are complete. Many detailers would add another classification for those using 3-D Modeling applications specifically designed for steel detailing, as the process for the production of drawings using these applications is markedly different from a 2-D drafting approach. The detailer literally builds the project in 3D before producing detailed shop drawings from the model. Structural steel detailing requires skills in drafting, mathematics (including geometry and trigonometry), logic, reasoning, spatial visualization, and communication. A basic knowledge of general engineering principles and the methods of structural and miscellaneous steel fabrication, however acquired, is essential to the practice of this discipline. A computer-aided detailer also requires skills in using computers and an understanding of the specific CAD software used. A detailer's drawings generally go through several phases. If there is any unclear information that would prevent the detailer from creating or completing the drawings accurately, a request for information(RFI) is sent to the relevant trades(typically the general contractor, architect or structural engineer) before proceeding. If the required information is not needed immediately, then the detailer may opt to list the questions on the drawings. Following creation of the drawing, the detailer must usually (as described above) submit a copy of the drawing to the architect and engineer for review ("approval"). Copies of the drawing may be sent to other recipients at this time as well, such as the general contractor, for informational purposes only. The drawing must also be checked for accuracy and completeness by another detailer (for this purpose, the "checker"). To keep track of changes during the drawing creation workflow, the revisions are identified by incrementing an associated number or letter code which should appear in the drawing revision block. Comments arising from approval and corrections made during checking must be resolved, and the original drawing must be updated accordingly (or "scrubbed"). After this, the drawing may be released to the fabricator and/or erector for use in construction. List of steel detailing software -------------------------------- \| Title and developer \| 2D/3D \| Supports BIM? \| Supports IFC? \| Supports DXF? \| Supports KISS? \| Supports DSTV? \| Supports SDNF? \| Supports CIS/2? \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| StruCAD by AceCad \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Bocad by AVEVA \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Advance Steel by Autodesk \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| AutoSD, Inc. \| 2D \| No \| No \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| No \| No \| \| Parabuild \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| No \| Yes \| \| ProSteel by Bentley Systems \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Tekla Structures by Trimble Navigation \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| TecnoMETAL by Steel&Graphics \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| SDS/2 by Nemetscheck \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Soft Steel \| 2D/3D \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| \| SSDCP \| 2D \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Yes \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Unknown \| \| SOLIDWORKS \| 3D \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Yes \| Unknown \| Yes \| Yes \| Unknown \| \| TSD (The Steel Detailer) \| 3D \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Yes \| Unknown \| Yes \| Yes \| Unknown \| \| TSteel 3D by Techsteel \| 2D/3D \| Yes \| Yes \| No \| Unknown \| Unknown \| Yes \| Unknown \|
American politician Nathaniel Head (May 20, 1828 – November 12, 1883), also known as Natt Head, was an American construction material supplier and Republican politician from Hooksett, New Hampshire. He served as a member of the House of Representatives, adjutant general of the New Hampshire Militia, state senator, and the 45th governor of New Hampshire. Biography --------- Nathaniel Head was born in Hooksett, New Hampshire, on May 20, 1828. He was educated at Pembroke Academy, and became active in his family's farming, brick making and lumber businesses. He later established a successful railroad construction company, and became active in banking and insurance. A Republican, Head served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives in 1861 and 1862. Having been active in the militia as a musician and chief of the governor's staff during the Civil War, he was appointed adjutant general in 1864 and served until 1870. In 1874, Head ran for the New Hampshire State Senate from the 2nd District, and narrowly placed second to Democrat James Priest. However, Priest had not won an apparent majority, which was required for election to the State Senate under the state constitution. Had no candidate won a majority, the election would have been decided by the whole General Court, which was narrowly controlled by Republicans, likely guaranteeing that Head would be selected. However, Governor James A. Weston and the Democratic majority on the Executive Council rejected all votes cast for Head on the grounds that they "did not contain the full Christian name of the candidate voted for," which made Priest the winner. Priest, along with John Proctor, another Democratic State Senator who was similarly selected, were both seated by the State Senate. The Democratic majority in the Senate ratified the Governor's actions and rejected, on party lines, a challenge to Priest's and Proctor's qualifications. The Republican majority in the State House sought an advisory opinion from the state supreme court, which ultimately concluded that the action of the State Senate was final and unreviewable. Head was subsequently elected to the State Senate in 1876 and 1877 and served as the President Pro Tempore in his second term. In 1878, Head was elected Governor and served as the state's first governor elected to a two-year term. During his governorship construction on the state prison begun under his predecessors was completed and the facility became operational. The state also enacted child labor laws and passed railroad safety measures, including one requiring a telegraph in all railroad stations to facilitate emergency communications. After leaving office Head returned to his business interests. He passed away in Hooksett on November 12, 1883 at the age of fifty-five, and was buried at Head Cemetery in Hooksett.
American judge For the tennis player, see Michael Joyce (tennis). Michael T. Joyce is a former Judge of the Pennsylvania Superior Court. Biography --------- Joyce served in the U.S. Army from 1967 to 1970. He attended the Army Intelligence School and the Defense Language Institute, where he learned three main dialects of the Vietnamese language before serving 13 months in Vietnam with the 25th Infantry Division.[] He was awarded the Bronze Star and two Army Commendation Medals and was promoted to the rank of Staff Sergeant. Upon his return, Joyce attend Pennsylvania State University and graduated in 1973. He received a law degree from Franklin Pierce Law Center in 1977 and served as a Presidential Law Clerk in the Ford White House in 1975. He maintained a private practice from 1977 to 1985 before being elected judge for the Erie County Court of Common Pleas in July 1985. He was retained for an additional term in November 1995. He was elected judge of the Pennsylvania Superior Court in 1997. In the fall of 2008, Joyce was convicted of two felony counts of mail fraud and six felony counts of money laundering. In 2010, the conviction was upheld on appeal and Joyce was sentenced to 46 months in federal prison. In October, 2011, it was announced that Joyce is now suing Erie Insurance and State Farm, claiming the companies defrauded him. Joyce was released from prison in August 2012.
Austrian orthopedic surgeon Adolf Lorenz Adolf Lorenz (21 April 1854, Vidnava – 12 February 1946, Sankt Andrä-Wördern) was an Austrian orthopedic surgeon. Career ------ He studied medicine at the University of Vienna and subsequently worked as an assistant to surgeon Eduard Albert (1841–1900) in Vienna. In 1901 he was one of the founders of the German Society of Orthopaedic Surgery. He was the father of famed ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989). Adolf Lorenz is remembered for his work with bone deformities. As a young surgeon during the 1880s, he developed a severe allergic skin reaction to carbolic acid, a compound that was used extensively in operating rooms. Although the condition prevented him from performing traditional surgical operations, he continued in the medical profession as a "dry surgeon", treating patients without cutting into skin or tissue. Subsequently, he was given the nickname "The Bloodless Surgeon of Vienna". His techniques became known as bloodless surgery, reflecting his noninvasive techniques. He was also a eugenicist who said that babies born prematurely should be left to die rather than develop spastic paralysis. He was renowned for his treatment of congenital dislocation of the hip in children. His technique involved putting the patient under light anesthesia, placing the child in a plaster spica cast in abduction, then using external rotation as the child matured. Also, he added a specialized walking frame to give the patient a measure of mobility. He created a manipulative treatment for club feet, a process that involved stretching or breaking the tendons, ligaments, and epiphyseal plates until the foot was properly aligned. Once alignment was achieved, he applied a cast so that the foot healed in the corrected position. Through the use of traction and pulleys, Lorenz developed a mechanism for treatment of scoliosis. Due to his fame in orthopedics, he became acquainted with several dignitaries, including U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. During his travels in the United States, he gave an inspirational exhibition in Dallas, an exhibition that became a catalyst in the creation of the Texas Baptist Memorial Sanitarium, later known as the Baylor University Medical Center and Baylor Health Care System. Personal life ------------- Lorenz married his assistant, physician Emma Lecher. The family owned a large estate at Altenburg, including a "fantastical neo-baroque mansion" which Konrad Lorenz inherited, and had a city apartment in Vienna.
Townland in County Cavan, Ireland Aghaboy (Irish derived place name, Achadh Buí, meaning ‘The Yellow Field’) is a townland in the civil parish of Kinawley, barony of Tullyhaw, County Cavan, Ireland. Geography --------- Aghaboy is bounded on the north by Monydoo (or Tonycrom) townland, on the west by Binkeeragh and Commas (Kinawley) townlands and on the east by Gorteennaglogh and Gubnafarna townlands. Its chief geographical features are Cuilcagh mountain on whose eastern side it lies, reaching a height of 1,208 feet; Pollnagollum Cave (Irish derived place name Poll na gColmán, meaning 'The Hole of the Pigeons') on the boundary with Binkeeragh townland; mountain streams; mountain pools; river swallowholes; caverns; a wood; spring wells and a dug well. The Yorkshire Ramblers' Club said of Pollnagollum Cave, "A fine open pot masked by vegetation, N. wall 40 feet high. An easy scramble. Three passages, the longest 75 yards." John Kelly, of the Geological Society of Dublin, wrote in 1855: > > The upper part of the limestone occurs here, and there is a cave, called Pulgulm, or the Pigeon-hole, from which a subterranean mountain stream emerges, about which there are some fossils. In this cave the surface of the limestone has a high degree of polish, probably from the friction of particles contained in the muddy waters which flow through it in floods, and which flow down from the sandstone and argillaceous strata of the coal rocks. > > > Richard Griffith wrote in 1818: > > If we except the cave of Dunmore, in the county of Kilkenny, which is mentioned in the Report on the Leinster coal district, none is more curious than the cave called Pulgulm, or the Pigeonhole, three miles to the south of Swanlinbar, in the county of Cavan. This cavern is narrow, but very lofty, and more than half a mile in length in a northern direction; in a southern direction it descends very rapidly. Its length was not ascertained, from the difficulty of proceeding. The lower, and many of the loose rocks which cover the bottom of the cave, are as highly polished on the surface as the most finished piece of marble. This must have been effected by the dropping of water: though water falling through the fissures of a limestone cavern usually forms calcareous stalactites from the roof, and calcareous incrustations on the sides. This is not the case at Pulgulm; the difference may be attributed to the flowing of the water directly from the colliery hills into the cavern and, meeting no limestone in the way, it is not likely to contain any thing but particles of sand and clay, the constant friction of which may have had the effect of polishing the surface of the limestone in the cavern. > > > Aghaboy is traversed by minor public roads and rural lanes. The townland covers 287 statute acres. History ------- In the 1609 Plantation of Ulster, Aghaboy formed part of the mountain of Cuilcagh which were granted to John Sandford of Castle Doe, County Donegal (the father-in-law of Thomas Guyllym of Ballyconnell) by letters patent dated 7 July 1613 (Pat. 11 James I – LXXI – 38, ‘Quilkagh’). It was later sold by Sandford to his wife's uncle Toby Caulfeild, 1st Baron Caulfeild, Master of the Ordnance and Caulfield had the sale confirmed by letters patent of 12 July 1620 (Pat. 19 James I. XI. 45 ‘‘Quilkagh’’). The 1652 Commonwealth Survey spells the name as Aghaboyceanan (Irish derived place name, Achadh Buí Ceanan, meaning ‘The Baldfaced Yellow Field’) and lists the proprietor as Mr Thomas Worshipp and the tenants as Tiernan McHugh & others. A deed by Thomas Enery dated 29 Jan 1735 includes the lands of Aughaboy. A deed dated 13 December 1774 by John Enery spells the townland as Aughaboy. The 1790 Cavan Carvaghs List spells the name as-Aghaboy. The 1821 Census of Ireland spells the name as Aughaboy and states- containing 24 acres of arable land & limestone rock & also 200 acres of black mountain. The Tithe Applotment Books 1834 spell the name as Aghaboy. The Aghaboy Valuation Office Field books are available for 1838. Griffith's Valuation lists twenty-two landholders in the townland. The landlord of Aghaboy in the 19th century was the Hassard Estate. Aghaboy folklore is found in the 1938 Dúchas folklore collection. Census ------ \| Year \| Population \| Males \| Females \| Total Houses \| Uninhabited \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1841 \| 56 \| 29 \| 27 \| 12 \| 1 \| \| 1851 \| 52 \| 32 \| 20 \| 9 \| 0 \| \| 1861 \| 49 \| 31 \| 18 \| 8 \| 0 \| \| 1871 \| 43 \| 25 \| 18 \| 8 \| 1 \| \| 1881 \| 42 \| 21 \| 21 \| 9 \| 1 \| \| 1891 \| 45 \| 19 \| 26 \| 7 \| 0 \| In the Census of Ireland 1821, there were seven families living in the townland. In the 1901 census of Ireland, there were eight families listed in the townland. In the 1911 census of Ireland, there were seven families listed in the townland. Antiquities ----------- 1. Stepping-stones over the stream 2. A foot-bridge over the stream 3. Lime-kilns 4. Aghaboy 19th century Hedge-School. The 1938 Dúchas folklore collection states- A hedge-school was carried on in a field now owned by Mr James McGovern, Aughaboy, Swanlinbar, County Cavan. The last teacher in it was Miss McCairn. The school was held in a barn in Winter and under a hedge in the Summer. The stone on which the teacher sat is still pointed out. The children wrote with pointed quills and used ink made of the black buds of the elderberry. They also wrote on little boards with burnt sticks or pieces of lime. They sat on stones. The teachers were paid a penny a week by each child. In the Summer the teacher stayed in the farmers' houses-a week or a fortnight in each. In the Winter she stayed in a house near where she taught and some of the pupils brought her supplies. They were taught English, Arithmetic, Geography but no Irish. There was an old school in Aughaboy on the rock near Swanlinbar. John McGovern, Mary Byrne (Swanlinbar), Hannah & Annie Maguire (Gubrawoollly) taught in this school.
Helsinki Subdivision in Uusimaa, Finland Uspenski Cathedral Katajanokka (Swedish: *Skatudden) is a neighbourhood of Helsinki, Finland, with around 4000 inhabitants in 2005. The district is located adjacent to the immediate downtown area, though in the first major town plan for Helsinki from the mid-18th century, the area fell outside the fortifications planned to encircle the city. Originally, Katajanokka was a headland of the Helsinki peninsula but is now technically an island, as a small canal was dug across the base of the headland in the 19th century. There are four bridges across the canal connecting Katajanokka with mainland Helsinki. Buildings in Katajanokka include the former Katajanokka prison (now a Tribute Portfolio hotel by Marriott), the Uspenski Cathedral, the Katajanokka Casino, Wanha Satama, the Stora Enso head office designed by Alvar Aalto, the building of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Katajanokka Terminal used by Viking Line. Katajanokka is one of the most distinguished neighbourhoods in Helsinki. Katajanokka's residents have included former Finnish President (from 1982 to 1994) Mauno Koivisto and composer Einojuhani Rautavaara. Overview -------- The south side of Katajanokka is dominated by a passenger harbour which is frequented by large cruiseferries traveling between Helsinki, Stockholm, Mariehamn, Tallinn and Rostock. The rest of the district comprises co-operative apartment buildings and several small parks. The western part of the residential area, known as the "Old Side" of Katajanokka, is an upscale neighborhood and a well-preserved example of early 20th century Art Nouveau architecture, though up until the mid-19th century – while the centre of Helsinki was being filled with stone buildings – the area was essentially still a wooden shanty town. The eastern part was for a long time a closed military area containing a naval base and shipyard, later a commercial shipyard. It was redeveloped in the 1970s and 1980s into a mainly residential zone, often referred to as the "New Side" of Katajanokka. The new residential area is considered an exceptional example of modern town planning. A major part of the project was the conversion and extension of the old Russian naval barracks to house the Finnish foreign ministry. The northern shore of Katajanokka still serves as a base for the Finnish coast guard, Helsinki maritime police as well as the Finnish icebreaker fleet. Housing cooperatives built around 1902 in the popular Jugendstil style. Landmarks of Katajanokka include the Russian Orthodox Cathedral, also known as Uspenski Cathedral (architect Alexey Gornostaev, 1868), the Merikasarmi complex of the Foreign Ministry (architect Carl Ludvig Engel, 1825) and the Finnish headquarters of Stora Enso (architect Alvar Aalto, 1962; the most controversial of Aalto's works). The Katajanokka prison (now a Tribute Portfolio hotel by Marriott). Another famous building in Katajanokka is the former district prison of Southern Finland. The old prison dates back to 1837, and functioned as a prison until 2002. The prison underwent an extensive interior renovation to convert the cells of the prison into hotel rooms, with sets of two or three cells combined to make up the current hotel rooms. The Best Western Premier Hotel Katajanokka opened in May 2007 with 106 guest rooms. Renovations cost a reported 15 million euro. As a historic building, strict limits were imposed on the redevelopment due to the strict regime of protection for historically significant buildings that is in effect in Finland. Thus, as a hotel, the exterior of the building has been preserved, as has the central corridor of the old prison and even the old prison wall. A restaurant at the lowest level of the hotel has attempted to keep much of the character of the old prison alive. However, an actual former prisoner told a Finnish newspaper that the supposed "prison cutlery" is very different from what the prison actually used: for example, prisoners never drank out of tin cups. Katajanokka is the harbour of many large cruiseferries; M/S Gabriella from the Viking Line fleet docked to the Katajanokka Terminal. During the development of Katajanokka in the 1970s and 1980s, many old red brick industrial buildings were spared by converting them for public uses, such as a primary school and an indoors sports arena. There was controversy over the demolition of the former cadet school of the Russian navy, built in the early 20th century. Vacated by the Finnish military in the 1980s, the building survived, with various uses, mainly as a cultural centre. In the late 1990s, the city of Helsinki announced that it was going to demolish the building to build a new apartment building in its place. This caused huge protests, and the demolition was put off for almost a decade, mainly because of opposition from local inhabitants, and the Green League party. The navy school building was finally demolished in autumn 2006. However, additional problems resulted: Contrary to what the city of Helsinki and the architecture bureau responsible for the new building had thought, there was no solid rock bottom underneath the old building, but only scattered rocks here and there. Because the original building had stood there since Czarist Russia, no original construction plans were available, and therefore the new plans had to be redone from scratch. The Katajanokanpuisto park ("Katajanokka park") was renamed as Tove Janssonin puisto ("Tove Jansson's park") on the 100th anniversary of her birth. The ceremony was attended by Moomintroll himself. The local community organisation of Katajanokka is called Katajanokkaseura. The organization publishes an annual regional magazine, Katajanokan kaiku* (Finnish for "The Echo of Katajanokka"). There is an annual running event called the Katajanokan ympärijuoksu, open for everyone who lives in Katajanokka or has relatives living there. History ------- Old wooden houses in Katajanokka in the 1860s. In the background is the Uspenski Cathedral which had just been completed at the time. Photograph by E. Hoffers in 1868. The Katajanokka Airport during the aviation days in winter 1928. On the left-hand side is the edge of the Lutikkalinna building with its radio mast. The broadcast station of the radio battalion formerly located at the building was used to send Finland's first common radio broadcasts in the 1920s. Urban settlement of Helsinki expanded from what is now the Senate Square to Katajanokka already in the 18th century. The outskirts settlements formed on the peninsula remained mostly untouched for decades even after the rest of Helsinki had been completely rebuilt according to the zoning plan made by Johan Albrecht Ehrenström in the early 19th century. The Katajanokka canal separating Katajanokka from the mainland and connecting the South and North Harbours of Helsinki with each other, already proposed in Ehrenström's plan, was ultimately only built in 1844. ### Name The name "Katajanokka" literally means "Juniper Point" but the connection with junipers is just a coincidence resulting from a mistranslation. The neighbourhood was originally known in the 17th century by the Swedish name Estnäs Skatan ("Estnäs Point"). The Finnish-speaking population did not understand Swedish, so the word skata ("point") became kataja ("juniper"). The Swedish name Skat Udden can be found from a 1775 map, while the Finnish name Katajanokka was first mentioned in the Suometar newspaper in 1856. ### Barracks The recently completed Merikasarmi building seen from the northern harbour in 1827. The military harbour of the Baltic Fleet on the northern shore of Katajanokka in 1907. From the 1810s to the 1830s barracks buildings designed by Carl Ludvig Engel and Anders Fredrik Granstedt for the use of the Russian military were built on the eastern tip of Katajanokka. In 1831 the barracks were taken into use by the First marine crew of Finland, which also caused the name of the barracks to be established as Merikasarmi ("Marine barracks") instead of the Katajanokka barracks. This branch of the military was disestablished in the 1880s when the Grand Duchy of Finland introduced conscription. After this, the area became the base of the Russian Baltic fleet. After Finland became independent the garrison moved to the Finnish Defence Forces. It hosted the Helsinki navy station and military station (until 1958), the broadcast station of the radio battalion (in the 1920s) and the Valmet docks until the middle 1970s. The command of the Finnish Navy was located in a red brick building built in the 1880s until 1983 and the Guard Jaeger Regiment used the barracks in the 1960s. The deteriorated barracks buildings were renovated and restored for the use of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs from 1984 to 1989. New side buildings on either side of the old artillery courtyard were also built at the same time. A gate dating to 1776 was left as part of one of the side buildings. It is part of the artillery magazine built at the same time as the Suomenlinna fortress. Also a copy of the western officers' barracks was built on the eastern side of the barracks according to Engel's original plan. ### Zoning plan Up to the 19th century, most of the buildings on the western side of Katajanokka were old wooden buildings built in the 18th century, already badly deteriorated, and warehouses. Exceptions to this included the Uspenski Cathedral built in 1868, the building of the Mint of Finland (1836), the Helsinki County Prison located near the garrison and some apartment buildings built in the very end of the century. Katajanokka had been left outside the city's zoning plan, until it became a subject of central interest in the 1870s. The zoning plan in the area was confirmed in 1895. According to it, the southern shore of the peninsula was reserved for a harbour and the area north to it as a residential area. The tip of the peninsula remained in the use of the garrison. ### Other building history A postcard showing the corner between Luotsikatu, Satamakatu and Kruunuvuorenkatu around 1900. A number of brick warehouses were built in the harbour area. The neighbouring residential area, the "old side" of Katajanokka, was mostly built during one decade in the early 20th century. The buildings in the area form a rare harmonious Art Nouveau architectural entity. For example the architects Gesellius, Lindgren, Saarinen designed three of the houses: the first to be completed was the Tallberg house, whose design was the trio's first competition victory. Rebuilding of a couple of houses destroyed in World War II or unbuilt lots has been done in accordance with the historical surroundings. On the western side of Katajanokka is the Stora Enso headquarters designed by the academic Alvar Aalto (1962), a building clad in white marble, inspired by Italian renaissance palaces. It is visible as an ending to the Pohjoisesplanadi street from the Market Square, although a distinctive feature of the building is that it sort of lacks a frontal facade. The decorative red brick Norrmén house built in 1897 had been demolished to make room for Aalto's building. There has been intense debate for several decades about whether Aalto's building fits in with the Market Square milieu and the cityscape dominated by the Uspenski Cathedral. When a white office building for the use of the development assistance department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was built near Aalto's building in 1993, the buildings have been seen as supporting each other and forming their own clear-bordered architectural entity. In 1913 the so-called Chapel of Peace was built at the lot of the Uspenski Cathedral to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn. It was seen as a symbol of Russian oppression and in 1919 nationalistic students covered it with tar. It was impossible to get the tar off the rock surface, so the building was dismantled. The buildings on the eastern tip surrounding the Merikasarmi building, in the so-called "new side", consisted already in the 1920s of various buildings related to warehouse, workshop and dock activities. The Katajanokka Airport used by Aero Oy (now known as Finnair) was also located on the southern shore of the area, serving as an airport for route flights from 1924 to 1936. When the navy garrison and the military harbour had moved to Upinniemi and the Valmet dock had moved to Vuosaari, most of the old warehouse and industrial buildings were dismantled. The zoning plan designed by the architectural trio Vilhelm Helander, Pekka Pakkala and Mikael Sundman was confirmed in 1977 and from 1977 to 1986 a total of 21 new apartment buildings were built in the area. The last of the free lots were built from 2006 to 2009. The zoning plan sought to return to the tightly-built urban space in a contrast to the earlier suburban type of construction, which has later been seen as a turning point in Finnish city design. The plan was also praised for taking the architectural and cultural history of the surrounding area into account. Open spaces were sought to be measured in regard of the actual number of visitors. However, because of design norms, the building efficiency remained lower than that of the old part. The red brick facades were ordered to be laid in place, even though this was during the golden age of element construction. A large number of the houses were designed as rental or Hitas houses, which caused a restriction on the cost of construction. For example parking had to be done on ground level. In the latest buildings completed in 2007 parking is handled underground. ### Harbour The Katajanokka Terminal. In the late 19th century, the southern shore of Katajanokka was built into a cargo traffic harbour, which was part of the South Harbour. The Helsinki harbour rail, leading from the VR warehouses south of the Töölönlahti bay along the city's coastline to the Katajanokka harbour, was built in 1894. The harbour was later changed into a passenger traffic harbour. Rail transport to the South Harbour and Katajanokka ended on 30 April 1980. Traffic on the cargo harbour rail decreased as the South Harbour became mostly a harbour for car ferries. Car ferry traffic started on 9 July 1974 by the ship MS Viking 5 to Stockholm, Sweden. The site of the old harbour rail yard now hosts a wide avenue called Katajanokanlaituri, and many old warehouse buildings along it have been renovated into hotels and conference centres. The last of the fourteen tripodal cranes on Katajanokka were built in 1959. After this, the Katajanokka harbour could at some times use two cranes for each hatch on a cargo ship. One of the cranes was unloading cargo from the SS Niobe when a chain of cargo carriages crashed into one of the crane's legs at a spot where the crane tracks and the railway tracks crossed. The crane fell down and was completely destroyed, but its driver suffered no injuries. The last four harbour cranes in Katajanokka were dismantled in January 1986. Guarding the harbour area in Katajanokka was improved on 3 May 1994 to improve passport control and customs activity. All persons present at the harbour area had to have an identity document with a photograph with them. In early May 1997 the gate control of the entire South Harbour was transferred over to a security company. The harbour activity also had side effects. From the 19th century to the middle 20th century Katajanokka was an area of ill repute, where illegal sales of liquor and prostitution were often practised. For a long time, the image of the northern shore of Katajanokka was dominated by large warehouses belonging to a freight forwarder. These have later been renovated into the use of restaurants and cafés. The northern shore used to also host a garbage pier, where excrement was loaded into barges which took it to the countryside to act as fertiliser for the country fields. However, sometimes garbage transporters dumped their cargo right into the sea. ### Icebreakers Finnish icebreakers at Katajanokka in summer 2004: Sisu, Urho, Kontio, Otso, Apu and Voima. (Apu was sold to Russia as a river icebreaker in 2006.) The Finnish icebreakers, with the exception of the multiple-use icebreakers, still spend their summers at the Katajanokka shore. Multiple-use icebreakers need to use the harbour only for installing and storage of equipment. This service is offered by the Kotka harbour. After the Valmet dock activity in Katajanokka had gradually moved to Vuosaari the old equipment pier was leased for the use of the icebreakers on 24 March 1975. The last ship launched from the dock was the tanker MT Tebostar on 26 April 1974. Individual icebreakers had been spending their summers at the shores of Katajanokka also before this. For example in summer 1971 an old system was kept in force, where two icebreakers were at Jätkäsaari, three at Hietalahti and three near the Valmet dock in Katajanokka. The icebreakers were connected to the city's district heating network on 10 December 1979. Until this they had been generating their own heat and hot water themselves. The current icebreakers are Kontio, Otso, Voima, Urho, Sisu and Polaris. In summertime, the icebreakers spending their summer at Katajanokka can also be rented for private events. ### Plans There was a plan to build a house for architecture and design (Armi) in Katajanokka, with a architecture design competition held in 2001. The building would have been located next to the Stora Enso main office, in place of the Kanavaterminaali building. No funding could be found for the project and the organisations behind it parted ways, so the project was finally abandoned in 2006. In 2007 there was a plan for a hotel at the same site, named after Alvar Aalto and riding on his reputation, with the Swiss architecture bureau Herzog & de Meuron invited to design it. In 2006 there was a plan to build a bridge from Katajanokka to Laajasalo. The bridge would have been taken into use for trams and pedestrian traffic. In later versions the bridge was replaced with a tunnel, and a line going via Tervasaari and Sompasaari was found as an alternative route. Later, the Crown Bridges project was designed to pass through Hakaniemi. There was a plan to build premises for the Helsinki emergency dispatch centre in Katajanokka. However, the rent of the premises was seen as too high, and the emergency dispatch centre was moved to Kerava. A new user for the caves was found, but its identity has not been made public. Explosions during the excavation of the caves caused damage in the properties along Luotsikatu. Architecture ------------ Jugendstil Building, Luotsikatu Katajanokka is principally known for its fine examples of Jugendstil architecture. Other prominent styles apparent on the island are modernism, manifested in Alvar Aalto's Enso-Gutzeit Building, and the red-brick industrial former harbour buildings and prison (now a Best Western hotel). Politics -------- Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Katajanokka: * National Coalition Party 35.0% * Green League 20.1% * Social Democratic Party 13.0% * Swedish People's Party 8.8% * Left Alliance 8.8% * True Finns 8.0% * Centre Party 3.8% * Christian Democrats 1.2% Gallery ------- * The Uspenski Cathedral during the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.The Uspenski Cathedral during the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. * The Merikasarmi building is the site of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs.The Merikasarmi building is the site of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. * The old machinery workshop and armoury buildings have been renovated for the use of the Katajanokka elementary school.The old machinery workshop and armoury buildings have been renovated for the use of the Katajanokka elementary school. * Kauppiaankatu to the west.Kauppiaankatu to the west. * A view of the Katajanokka canal, with restaurant Sipuli in the background on the right.A view of the Katajanokka canal, with restaurant Sipuli in the background on the right. * A view from the northern shore of Katajanokka.A view from the northern shore of Katajanokka. * A row of red brick buildings on the "new side" of Katajanokka.A row of red brick buildings on the "new side" of Katajanokka. Literature ---------- Enso-Gutzeit Building by Alvar Aalto, 1962 * Griffiths, Gareth (1997). The Polemical Aalto. The Enso-Gutzeit Building (1959–62), Datutop 19, Tampere. ISBN 951-722-789-2 (an account of the saga of Aalto's controversial building on Katajanokka.) * Jaatinen, Carina & Lindh, Tommi & Lunkka, Hannu (1998). Helsingin kantakaupungin rakennuskulttuuri. Katajanokan kaupunginosan inventointi. Helsingin kaupunginmuseo. ISBN 951-718-174-4. (An examination of the architectural history of Katajanokka.) * Kervanto Nevanlinna, Anja (2002). Kadonneen kaupungin jäljillä. Teollisuusyhteiskunnan muutoksia Helsingin historiallisessa ytimessä. ("Tracing the lost city. Industrial transformations in the historical heart of Helsinki. With summary and captions in English.") Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. ISBN 951-746-307-3. (Takes a critical look at the 20th Century transformation of the Eteläsatama seafront in Helsinki, with an emphasis on Katajanokka.) * Moorhouse, Jonathan & Carapetian, Michael & Ahtola-Moorhouse, Leena (1987). Helsinki Jugendstil 1895—1915. Otava Verlag. ISBN 951-1-08382-1. (Describes the architecture of Katajanokka, p. 198—228. Also available in Finnish as ISBN 951-1-09018-6.) * Narinkka (1989). Helsinki City Museum. (A detailed exploration of the history of Katajanokka before the 20th Century. Written by Viljo Erkamo and Kerttuli Wessman. Includes an English summary, titled "Katajanokka's humble past. Old drawings and paintings: a documentary record of city ethnography".) ISSN 0355-9106. * Ollila, Kaija & Toppari, Kirsti (1975): Puhvelista Punatulkkuun. Helsingin vanhoja kortteleita. Sanoma Osakeyhtiö. ISBN 951-9134-69-7. (Information and historical anecdotes on the city blocks and buildings of Helsinki. Covers the entire "Old Side" of Katajanokka, among other districts.) Articles in architectural journals ---------------------------------- * Arkkitehti 1931. Frequently cited debate from the early 1930s regarding the state and the future of Katajanokka. * Helander, Vilhelm & Pakkala, Pekka & Sundman, Mikael: Katajanokan kärjen asemakaavaluonnos. ("The draft plan for the 'tip of Katajanokka'"). Arkkitehti 2/1975, p. 32 pp. Early description of the winning plan for the "New Side" by the architects involved. * Pakkala, Pekka: Katajanokan vanhan asuntoalueen asemakaava ("The plan for the old residential area of Katajanokka"). Arkkitehti 4/1981, p. 42 pp. Detailed article on the preservation of the "Old Side".
Wichmann Diesel was a Norwegian diesel engine manufacturer. Once the largest engine producer in Norway, the company was taken over in 1986 by Wärtsilä. Today the site in Rubbestadneset remains the headquarters of Wärtsilä Norway with a repair yard and a museum. History ------- Wichmann Diesel was started by Martines Haldorsen, a local blacksmith in Rubbestadneset on the island of Bømlo in Norway. His son, Haldor Andreas Haldorsen constructed the first engine, a single-cylinder 2 hp two-stroke engine in 1903. The engine was installed in his own boat with a controllable-pitch propeller and proved to be a success. Local people soon gathered around the workshop to have the blacksmith make them one. The company, renamed Haldorsen & Sønner Motorfrabrikk, expanded and by 1913 employed 50 people. The name again changed, to Wichmann Diesel.[when?] A large expansion of the factory between 1974 and 1976 saw staff increasing to 520. However, this coincided with a downturn in the shipping industry, with demand for ship engines dwindling. The company went bankrupt in 1978, but Norwegian public money ensured that production continued without interruption for a time. The LO, a Norwegian labour union, supported the company to develop the new model range. However, they pulled the plug after disagreements and suddenly the renowned manufacturer, which had the biggest engine factory in Norway, was again at the edge of bankruptcy. The factory changed hands and went bankrupt, before being sold to the Finnish group Wärtsilä in 1986. Wärtsilä stopped all development and the production of the new WX16V, a 16-cylinder V engine, that was ready to be built. They built the Wichmann under the name Wärtsilä Wichmann, but stopped production when it proved to be more successful than their own engines. The last engine was built in 1997. Eidesvik Shipping offered to buy the design since Wärtsilä themselves had no interest in building it, but their offer was refused. Engines produced ---------------- The pre-war engines were Glow Head Engines in countless varieties. The first diesel engines were produced in 1938, when the company had 190 employees and an annual production of 160 engines. The engines earned a reputation for being easy to operate and maintain. An engineer once stated that Wichmann were built for morons, but built by geniuses. The AX engine was reliable, but was ready to be replaced by the WX in the 1980s. Like their predecessor, the AC, both were two-stroke engines. Wichmann launched the WX28 engine in 1984. This 2-stroke loop-scavenged trunk piston engine had cylinders with a 280 mm bore and 360 mm stoke. Each cylinder generated 295 kW and the engine was produced in 4, 5 and 6 in-line and V8, V10, V12 and V16 models, giving a choice of power from 1180 to 4735 kW. The factory also produced CP-Propellers and gears. In the 1970s, they made their first electronic propeller control unit. Museum ------ Today, the once proud factory which was building the best medium speed diesels in the world is only doing maintenance, repair and upgrade on their motors, but propellers and gears are still built. It is today named Wärtsilä Norway. On the site is a museum where you can see a variety of engine models including the first one built in 1903.
This article is about transparency in communications. For investigative website, see MediaTransparency. Media transparency, also referred to as transparent media or media opacity, is a concept that explores how and why information subsidies are being produced, distributed and handled by media professionals, including journalists, editors, public relations practitioners, government officials, public affairs specialists, and spokespeople. In short, media transparency reflects the relationship between civilization and journalists, news sources and government. According to a textual analysis of "Information Subsidies and Agenda Building: A Study of Local Radio News", an information subsidy is defined as "any item provided to the media in order to gain time or space" (Burns, 1998). In order to understand media transparency, one must gain an understanding of the different aspects in which media transparency is researched, understood, and explored. The following page will attempt to examine media transparency as it has grown and how it affects the modern world. Overview -------- Media transparency deals with the openness and accountability of the media and can be defined as a transparent exchange of information subsidies based on the ideas of newsworthiness. Media transparency is one of the biggest challenges of contemporary everyday media practices around the world as media outlets and journalists constantly experience pressures from advertisers, information sources, publishers, and other influential groups. News sources may influence what information is published or not published. Sometimes, published information can also be paid for by news sources, but the end media product (an article, a program, a blog post) does not clearly indicate that the message has been paid or influenced in any way. Such media opacity, or media non-transparency, ruins the trust and transparency between the media and the public and have implications for transparency of new forms of advertising and public relations (such as native advertising and brand journalism). Media transparency is defined to be a normative concept and is achieved when: 1. there are many competing sources of information; 2. the method of information delivery is known; and 3. funding of media production is disclosed and publicly available. An important note concerning Media Transparency is the use of ICTs, which can be defined as "Information and Communication Technology". ICTs are the online ways in which communication will be discussed in the following sections of this entry page. The background of ICTs and transparency (Heidegger and McLuhan) --------------------------------------------------------------- Transparency using the Internet has been a large fascination of social scientists, and the research surrounding transparency continues to grow. The basis to understanding transparency and technology is emphasized by Yoni Van Den Eede to be the work of Martin Heidegger and Marshall McLuhan. Eede claims, "In recent years several approaches--philosophical, sociological, psychological-- have been developed to come to grips with our profoundly technologically mediated world" (Eede, 2011). Yet continues to explain that these recent discoveries would have not been made without the work first accomplished concerning media and technology by Heidegger and McLuhan. Martin Heidegger began the studies without using the word transparency, but its relevance is clear within his "Tool Analysis". The "Tool Analysis" argues that one is never aware of the tools they use in their every life until it no longer functions as it should, or as Eede concludes, "the tool is 'transparent' in the sense that we don't notice it "as-tool". The tool in this context is media, and as the study argues we do not notice media and the presence it holds in our life. Eede expands on the Tool Analysis curated by Heidegger as she states there are two ways in which humans use tools, readiness to hand and presence at hand. This separation of readiness and presence is explained further by G. Harman as he argues that the theory proposed by Heidegger can be understood through what we consciously view as helpful versus what is unconsciously helping us (humankind). Harman claims, "If I observe a table and try to describe its appearance, I silently rely on a vast armada of invisible things that recede into a tacit background. The table that hovers visibly before my mind is outnumbered by all the invisible items that sustain my current reality: floor, oxygen, air conditioning, bodily organs" (Harman, 2010). Through understanding this 'table' analogy, one can conclude that the table in this sense is technology, and its use to create transparency and understanding within society concerning social and economic doings of government and the greater power of which governs each nation and entity is the vast background of which is overlooked, just as the surroundings of the table are. Through this understanding of theory, transparency can then be further explored for its major importance in creating ones environment consciously and unconsciously. Another important theorist to consider when researching ICTs and transparency is Marshall McLuhan, who coined the term "the medium is the message". McLuhan conducted his work within the 1960s, with the introduction of the global village and age of technology use in communications. The concept of transparency is heavily explored within McLuhan's media theory which examines the media as the channels of medium in which media is presented (television, radio, etc.) which are then defined to be the real messages of the media themselves, and emphasis is placed upon understanding the means of medium rather than content itself as they "manifest themselves first and foremost in the way we perceive, process and interpret sense data" (Eede, 2011). Through understanding the actual medium to be the message, and as the medium itself creates a greater understanding and transparent view of the world around us, one can conclude that McLuhan's work is essential to then looking to understand why ICTs and a sense of transparency concerning day to day life, government work, and national/ global work is of importance. McLuhan, to summarize, concluded that society must be more involved, and that its participates are actively looking to be more involved as they navigate their social understanding and surrounding. Propaganda and media transparency --------------------------------- Within the study conducted by the Government Information Quarterly, Media Transparency is understood through means of its ability to aid societies with openness and anti-corruption. This unbiased approach at understanding media transparency specifically deals with how media transparency is an important aspect of social and economic development. The article cited explores the four main channels of transparency at the governmental level; proactive dissemination by the government; release of requested materials by the government; public meetings; and leaks from whistleblowers. These four means of communication help to deter any type of negative propaganda posed by governments and officials and work towards complete transparency of which is arguably necessary to create a thriving social and economic system. Propaganda stands to be a threat to accurate distribution and intake of information, of which disrupts all that transparency works to accomplish. The following sections open on greater aspects of Propaganda, and different ways in which transparency is disrupted as well. Media bribery and corruption ---------------------------- Corruption and Media Bribery are large concepts of interest when considering the importance of Media Transparency. The concept of Media Bribery emerged in response to claims of bias within the media. This lack of media transparency can be perceived as a form of corruption. Media transparency is a means to diminish unethical and illegal practices in the relationships between news sources and the media. Within a study conducted by the Government Information Quarterly it is stated that, "The focus on corruption as an economic issue has been part of an overall rise in global interest in transparency. Internationally, corruption has received great attention since 1990 due to fears of increasing opportunities for illicit activity due to globalization (Brown & Cloke, 2005)". There are many areas of concern when it comes to bribery and corruption, specifically law enforcement and government regulation. Corruption of the media and barriers to transparency can be captured through means of propaganda and misinformation. These can be actively be worked against through means of administrative reform, stricter watch and regulation of law enforcement, and through means of social change. Media Transparency and Power (George Gerbner and Cultivation Theory) -------------------------------------------------------------------- Academics at the University of Oxford and Warwick Business School, conducting empirical research on the operation and effects of transparent forms of clinical regulation in practice, describe a form of 'spectacular transparency'. The social scientists suggest that government policy tends to react to high-profile media 'spectacles', leading to regulatory policy decisions that appear to respond to problems exposed in the media have new perverse effects in practice, which are unseen by regulators or the media. The degree to which state agents work to influence video production contradicts the use of those images by news organizations as indexical, objective representations. Because people tend to strongly equate seeing with knowing, video cultivates an inaccurate impression that they are getting the "full picture". It has been said that "what is on the news depends on what can be shown". The case studies (include case studies) for this project demonstrate that what can be shown is often decided in concern with political agents. Essentially, the way the media presents its information can creates an illusion of transparency. The presentation of media is further explored for its interest in the human experience through work done by George Gerbner and his Cultivation Theory. As explained by analyst W. James Potter, Gerbner was "concerned with the influence that a much broader scope of messages gradually exerted on the public as people were exposed to media messages in their everyday lives" (Potter, 2014). Gerbner quenstioned previous theorists attempts to understand media and power over civilization by means of television programs and direct intake. Gerbner asserted that in order to understand the impact of the media, research must be done concerning the environment in which people are living, and studying the world as presented by medium channels. Potter argues that "while Gerbner recognized that there were individual differences in interpretations of messages, cultivation was not concerned about those variations in interpretations; instead, cultivation focused on the dominant meanings that the media presented to the public" (Potter, 2014). Through Gerbner's Cultural Indicators Research Project, power is explored through its presentation in the media, and George argues that to create a transparent environment in which cultural and social norms are unbiased, one must look to understand whether transparency is being held by media sources or if it is being manipulated in order to control civilization and keep power. The work of analyst John A. Lent uncovers Gerbner's understanding of power structure through the control of media and medium channels as he states," viewers came to consider the world as rightly belonging to the power and money elite depicted on television - young, white males, idealized as heroic doctors and other professionals. He warned that women, minorities and the elderly seeing these role models repeatedly were apt to accept their own inferior positions and opportunities as inevitable and deserved, which he said was an indictment of their civil rights" (Lent 2006 p.88). Power, then can be understood with those who control the media outlets, and the level of transparency concerning worldly events, biased opinions, and representation that are conveyed to the citizens who live within the media controlled environment. Power is not within the eye of the beholder, yet within those who project to the greater population. Electronic government --------------------- The creation of an Electronic Government and the use of the internet along with social media is a new way to get information concerning government work and service to citizens. The use of media in all electronic forms is argued to be an "influential factor in the restoration of trust in government because it has the potential to improve government performance and transparency" within the study published by the Public Performance and Management Review (Song and Lee, 2016). The study continues to argue that many studies have reported that through information and transaction services available on government websites, citizens feel a sense of effectiveness, accessibility, responsiveness, and satisfaction, all of which constitute an overall sense of trust in government. These information and transaction services are more specifically categorized as social media sites that connect citizens to their government. Song and Lee conclude that, "social media can be defined as a group of Web 2.0 technologies that facilitate interactions between users [...] By their nature, social media afford easy access to information through convenient devices like cell phones and tablets, enable user-created content, and provide visible social connections" (Song and Lee, 2016). From a citizens perspective, transparency is attained through understanding their local governments actions and movements, along with creating open lines of communication; all of which can be done through social media and other means of online communication. Song and Lee conclude following their experiment concerning media use in relation to government that "social media in government enable citizens to gain easier access to government and be more informed about current events, policies, or programs, heightening their perception of transparency in government" (Song and Lee, 2016). This conclusion argues for social media presence in governmental action and role in order to create transparency; media transparency is needed for a cohesive and close-knit society. Trust in Government and Transparency (Coleman) ---------------------------------------------- The ability to curate trust is essential within the means of transparency and communication. Within the article published by Changsoo Song and Jooho Lee, the two explain trust though work compiled by social theorist J. S Coleman as he looks to simply trust through equivocal explanation. The study states that, "Three essential elements" are used in explaining what leads a potential trustor (e.g. the citizen) to vest trust in a trustee (e.g. the government): p = chance of receiving gain (i.e. the probability that the trustee is trustworthy), L = potential loss (if the trustee is untrustworthy), and G =potential gain (if the trustee is trustworthy) (Coleman, 1990, p. 99)". Song and Lee then apply this framework to governmental context and conclude that role of information is necessary in trust-building as governments must perform or take in action in their citizens interest (and visibly show this action or performance via social media), in order to gain trust in and respect for their work. Further reading and videos -------------------------- * Sakr, Naomi (2010). "News, Transparency and the Effectiveness of Reporting from Inside Arab Dictatorships". International Communication Gazette. 72: 35–50. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1006.7676. doi:10.1177/1748048509350337. S2CID 145010412. * Crow, Deserai Anderson (2010). "Local Media and Experts: Sources of Environmental Policy Initiation?". Policy Studies Journal. 38: 143–164. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.298.1546. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.2009.00348.x. * - YouTube (McLuhan Hot and Cold Theory) \| * v * t * e Media culture \| \| --- \| \| Media \| * 24-hour news cycle * Alternative media * Digital media * Electronic media * Mass media * Mainstream media * New media * News broadcasting * News media * Old media * Social media * State media \| \| Principles \| * Media development * Media policy * Media independence + Freedom of information + Freedom of speech * Media pluralism * Media transparency \| \| Ideology \| * Advanced capitalism * American Dream * Bipartisanship * Consumerism * Pensée unique \| \| Deception \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| Forms \| * Advertising * Propaganda + Fake news * Public relations * Spin * Tabloid journalism \| \| Techniques \| * Cult of personality * Dumbing down * Framing * Media circus * Media event * Narcotizing dysfunction * Recuperation * Sensationalism * Viral phenomenon \| \| Others \| * Catch and kill * Crowd manipulation * Managing the news * Media manipulation \| \| \| Philosophers \| * Theodor W. Adorno * Jean Baudrillard * Edward Bernays * Noam Chomsky * Guy Debord * Walter Lippmann * Marshall McLuhan * Jacques Rancière \| \| Counterculture \| * Boycott * Call-out culture * Cancel culture * Civil disobedience * Culture jamming * Demonstration * Graffiti * Occupation * Political satire * Protest * Punk * Review bomb * Strike action \| \| In academia \| * Influence of mass media * Media studies * Mediatization * Semiotic democracy * The Lonely Crowd \| \| Issues \| * Anonymity * Concentration of media ownership * Exploitation of women * Freedom of speech * Media bias * Privacy * Social influence * Transparency * Violence \| \| Synonyms \| * Advanced capitalism * Culture industry * Mass society * Post-Fordism * Society of the Spectacle \|
Cherokee Nation "National Treasure" Tommy Wildcat, playing the flute at the Cherokee Nation Hard rock Casino CCO - Community Cultural Outreach Cherokee Leaders Conference in Catoosa/Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2013 Tommy Wildcat (born May 3, 1967) is a Native American musician and academic. Background ---------- Cherokee Nation National Treasure Tommy Wildcat is an enrolled citizen of the Cherokee Nation, Tulsa Indian Alliance Lifetime Cultural Achievement Award Recipient, NAMA - Native American MUsic Award Flutist of the Year 2002. His parents are Annie and the late Tom Webber Wildcat Both are Cherokee National Treasures He also has a twin sister named Tammy. Tommy graduated from Sequoyah High School 1985, and he is a 2014 graduate of Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. His Bachelor's Degree included a Major in Cherokee Cultural Studies and a Minor in American Indian Studies. His family appeared in National Geographic magazine's September 2005 issue, where one photo showed Tommy holding his young nephew, Skylar Wildcat. His father Tom Wildcat was designated a Cherokee National Treasure in 1995 for his skill in making turtle shell shakers, Mother Annie Wildcat was Bestowed a Cherokee National Treasure in 2018 for Clay Bead Necklaces.[] Tommy was featured in the American Express commercial Charge Against Hunger 1995, which aired during the Beatles Anthology. Music ----- Turtleshell rattle made by Tommy Wildcat A self-taught composer of flute songs, Tommy has learned traditional vocal songs of his tribe from his father, Tom W. Wildcat. Tommy Wildcat's company, A Warrior's Production, has produced four full-length albums. His first was released in 1995, including Tom Richard's The Real Outdoors on the Nashville Network.
Mansion in Slovakia Svätý Anton Manor House from a distance Courtyard of the manor House from a distance Princess Maria Antoninia Koháry - the last of the family The manor House in winter The south side of the manor House Historical image of the staircase The Svätý Anton manor house (Slovak: Kaštieľ Svätý Anton or Kaštieľ Antol or Koháriovský kaštieľ) is a late baroque-classicist mansion constructed in 1744 with an English landscape garden park in Svätý Anton, Slovakia. It was one of the main residences of the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry family. Both the mansion and park are open to the public. History ------- ### Beginning The village of Svätý Anton (English: Saint Anthony) was mentioned for the first time in 1266. In 1405, the sons of Ladilaslav Kakas acquire the village from the Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxembourg (1368-1437). In 1415, a small castle was erected to protect a profitable toll station. In the second half of the 15th century, the castle came into the possession of the lords of Čabraď Castle. In the 16th century, Cardinal Tamás Bakócz and Peter Pálffy belonged to the owners of the castle. The castle was strongly rebuilt to protect it against the Turkish invasions under the guidance of an architect called Giullio Ferrari. ### Koháry family In 1622, the estates of Čabraď castle and Svätý Anton came in the hands of the House of Koháry family, a family who gained its wealth due to its loyalty to the House of Habsburg. They replaced medieval castle by a two-winged manor during the 17th century. In 1744, count Andrew Kohary (1694-1757) decided to move his ancestral seat from Čabraď castle to Svätý Anton. As part of this move, he reconstructed the manor into a four-winged manor house with an inner courtyard between 1744 and 1750. The baroque interior was finished in 1752. He was succeeded by his sons Nikolaus (1721-1769), Ignac (1726-1777), and Jan. The last Kohary to live at Svätý Anton was Ferenc József (17767-1826), who was elevated to prince by Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1815. ### Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry family Ferenc József's daughter, princess Maria Antonia (1797-1862), inherited all his estates and wealth. She was one of the three largest landowners in the kingdom of Hungary. On 30 November 1815, in Vienna, Maria Antonia married Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1785-1851). He was an elder brother of Prince Leopold, future King of the Belgians but then consort to Princess Charlotte of Wales, who was expected to inherit the crown of Great Britain, and also elder brother of the Duchess of Kent, mother of the future Queen Victoria. They founded the Koháry branch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (the Catholic branch). Until the First World War, they belonged to the three largest landowners in Hungary. The grandson of Ferdinand and Maria Antonia became the first king of Bulgaria, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria. After the first world war, he abdicated and left Bulgaria to live in Svätý Anton, Predná Hora, and the Palais Coburg in Vienna. He was devoted to botany, ornithology, and entomology. Also, he liked to hunt and travel around Slovakia in his Mercedes car. In 1944, the king had to leave Slovakia together with the retreating German Army. He fled to Coburg, where he lived in the 'Bulgaren Schlösschen' until his death in 1948. ### After Second World War After the Second World War, the Communist government confiscated the Kohary estates. In the 1950s, the manor house became the seat of a Forestry, Wood and Hunting Museum, a specialized museum with remarkable collections of natural history, history and art. The exhibition focuses on how the Hungarian nobility lived the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as on the development of forestry and hunting in Slovakia. Architecture and interior ------------------------- The four-story building with a central courtyard has all the features of a representative residence. Most of the rooms, halls and corridors have preserved their original interior from the Baroque, Rococo and Empire periods. They have only been minimally affected by later renovations in 1816 and 1860. In the north wing, an arched underpass with a view into the courtyard leads to a representative staircase, the architecture of which was complemented by paintings and sculptures reflecting the influences of Italian and Austrian art. From there, the first floor is reached leading into the many state rooms and corridors of the mansion. A chapel richly decorated with frescoes of a late-baroque illusionist space with a free view emerges from the southern tract of the mansion. It is dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. The chapel is also highlighted on the outside on the facade, which ends with a fresco connecting the church theme with the motif of the image of the donor. Trivia ------ According to legend, the mansion is constructed such that it symbolizes the calendar year: It has four gates (= seasons), twelve chimneys (= months), 52 rooms (= weeks), seven arcades (= days of the week) and 365 windows (= days). However, today, after many reconstructions, it is no longer possible to confirm this. Garden ------ A park that melts into a forest is part of the manor house estate. The central part is around five hectares, while the forest park consists of 25 hectares. The center was a French regular baroque garden combined with a natural-landscape English section. Currently, remnants of regular baroque type of treatment can be seen on the terraces near the main building. They loosely melt into landscape park and forested park. The preserved water system of the park is supplied with water from the Kolpassky brook through some kilometres long water gang with aqueducts. In a corner of the park there is an artificial grotto, which the locals call 'hell'. Until 1995, the meadow in front of the cage was dominated by an almost-120-year-old Giant Sequoya (Sequoiadendron giganteum). Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha planted it there in 1878 when his only son Leopold was born. In spite of many attempts to save it, the Sequoya dried. A new and healthy tree was then planted at the entrance to the park in 1996. Literature ---------- * Eva Krizanova; Blanka Puskarova (1990). Burgen und Schlösser Slowakei (in German). Vienna/Bratislava: Freytag & Berndt/ Sport. p. 238. ISBN 978-3850849005. * Peter Maráky; Daniel Kollár; Janka Orsulová (2011). Hrady, Zámky a Kastiele na Slovensku (in Slovak). Bratislava: Reader's Digest Vyber Slovensko. pp. 338–347. ISBN 978-8080971014. * Laco Struhár; Stano Bellan (2010). The History of Stone - Castles, Palaces and Manor Houses Slovakia. Bratislava: Spektrum Grafik. ISBN 978-8089189212.
Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York Not to be confused with Empire Building (Manhattan). The Empire State Building is an iconic 102-story Art Deco skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The building was designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and built from 1930 to 1931. Its name is derived from "Empire State", the nickname of the state of New York. The building has a roof height of 1,250 feet (380 m) and stands a total of 1,454 feet (443.2 m) tall, including its antenna. The Empire State Building was the world's tallest building until the first tower of the World Trade Center was topped out in 1970; following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was New York City's tallest building until it was surpassed in 2012 by One World Trade Center. As of 2022[update], the building is the seventh-tallest building in New York City, the ninth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, and the 54th-tallest in the world. The site of the Empire State Building, in Midtown South on the west side of Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets, was developed in 1893 as the Waldorf–Astoria Hotel. In 1929, Empire State Inc. acquired the site and devised plans for a skyscraper there. The design for the Empire State Building was changed fifteen times until it was ensured to be the world's tallest building. Construction started on March 17, 1930, and the building opened thirteen and a half months afterward on May 1, 1931. Despite favorable publicity related to the building's construction, because of the Great Depression and World War II, its owners did not make a profit until the early 1950s. The building's Art Deco architecture, height, and observation decks have made it a popular attraction. Around four million tourists from around the world annually visit the building's 86th- and 102nd-floor observatories; an additional indoor observatory on the 80th floor opened in 2019. The Empire State Building is an international cultural icon: it has been featured in more than 250 television series and films since the film King Kong was released in 1933. The building's size has become the global standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures. A symbol of New York City, the building has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It was ranked first on the American Institute of Architects' List of America's Favorite Architecture in 2007. Additionally, the Empire State Building and its ground-floor interior were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1980, and were added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. Site ---- The Empire State Building is located on the west side of Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, between 33rd Street to the south and 34th Street to the north. Tenants enter the building through the Art Deco lobby located at 350 Fifth Avenue. Visitors to the observatories use an entrance at 20 West 34th Street; prior to August 2018, visitors entered through the Fifth Avenue lobby. Although physically located in South Midtown, a mixed residential and commercial area, the building is so large that it was assigned its own ZIP Code, 10118; as of 2012[update], it is one of 43 buildings in New York City that have their own ZIP codes. The areas surrounding the Empire State Building are home to other major points of interest, including Macy's at Herald Square on Sixth Avenue and 34th Street, and Koreatown on 32nd Street between Madison and Sixth avenues. To the east of the Empire State Building is Murray Hill, a neighborhood with a mix of residential, commercial, and entertainment activity. The block directly to the northeast contains the B. Altman and Company Building, which houses the City University of New York's Graduate Center, while the Demarest Building is directly across Fifth Avenue to the east. The nearest New York City Subway stations are 34th Street–Herald Square, one block west, and 33rd Street at Park Avenue, two blocks east; there is also a PATH station at 33rd Street and Sixth Avenue. Architecture ------------ The Empire State Building was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the Art Deco style. The Empire State Building is 1,250 ft (381 m) tall to its 102nd floor, or 1,453 feet 8+9⁄16 inches (443.092 m) including its 203-foot (61.9 m) pinnacle. It was the first building in the world to be more than 100 stories tall, though only the lowest 86 stories are usable. The first through 85th floors contain 2.158 million square feet (200,500 m2) of commercial and office space, while the 86th floor contains an observatory. The remaining 16 stories are part of the spire, which is capped by an observatory on the 102nd floor; the spire does not contain any intermediate levels and is used mostly for mechanical purposes. Atop the 102nd story is the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, and surmounted with a lightning rod. ### Form The five-story base as seen from Fifth Avenue, with the main entrance at center. The Empire State Building sets back significantly above the base. The Empire State Building has a symmetrical massing because of its large lot and relatively short base. Its articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and capital. The five-story base occupies the entire lot, while the 81-story shaft above it is set back sharply from the base. The setback above the 5th story is 60 feet (18 m) deep on all sides. There are smaller setbacks on the upper stories, allowing sunlight to illuminate the interiors of the top floors while also positioning these floors away from the noisy streets below. The setbacks are located at the 21st, 25th, 30th, 72nd, 81st, and 85th stories. The setbacks correspond to the tops of elevator shafts, allowing interior spaces to be at most 28 feet (8.5 m) deep (see § Interior). The setbacks were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which was intended to allow sunlight to reach the streets as well. Normally, a building of the Empire State's dimensions would be permitted to build up to 12 stories on the Fifth Avenue side, and up to 17 stories on the 33rd Street and 34th Street sides, before it would have to utilize setbacks. However, with the largest setback being located above the base, the tower stories could contain a uniform shape. According to architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern, the building's form contrasted with the nearly contemporary, similarly designed 500 Fifth Avenue eight blocks north, which had an asymmetrical massing on a smaller lot. ### Facade The Empire State Building's Art Deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York City. The facade is clad in Indiana limestone panels made by the Indiana Limestone Company and sourced from a quarry in south-central Indiana; the panels give the building its signature blonde color. According to official fact sheets, the facade uses 200,000 cubic feet (5,700 m3) of limestone and granite, ten million bricks, and 730 short tons (650 long tons) of aluminum and stainless steel. The building also contains 6,514 windows. The decorative features on the facade are largely geometric, in contrast with earlier buildings, whose decorations often were intended to represent a specific narrative. A pair of sculpted concrete eagles above the Fifth Avenue entrance The main entrance, composed of three sets of metal doors, is at the center of the facade's Fifth Avenue elevation, flanked by molded piers that are topped with eagles. Above the main entrance is a transom, a triple-height transom window with geometric patterns, and the golden letters "Empire State" above the fifth-floor windows. There are two entrances each on 33rd and 34th streets, with modernistic, stainless steel canopies projecting from the entrances on 33rd and 34th streets there. Above the secondary entrances are triple windows, less elaborate in design than those on Fifth Avenue. The storefronts on the first floor contain aluminum-framed doors and windows within a black granite cladding. The second through fourth stories consist of windows alternating with wide stone piers and narrower stone mullions. The fifth story contains windows alternating with wide and narrow mullions, and is topped by a horizontal stone sill. The facade of the tower stories is split into several vertical bays on each side, with windows projecting slightly from the limestone cladding. The bays are arranged into sets of one, two, or three windows on each floor. The bays are separated by alternating narrow and wide piers, the inclusion of which may have been influenced by the design of the contemporary Daily News Building. The windows in each bay are separated by vertical nickel-chrome steel mullions and connected by horizontal aluminum spandrels between each floor. The windows are placed within stainless-steel frames, which saved money by eliminating the need to apply a stone finish around the windows. In addition, the use of aluminum spandrels obviated the need for cross-bonding, which would have been required if stone had been used instead. ### Lights The Empire State Building illuminated in red, white, and blue before the 2012 United States presidential electionLights representing the Democratic and Republican parties as results are tabulated in the 2012 presidential election The building was originally equipped with white searchlights at the top. They were first used in November 1932 when they lit up to signal Roosevelt's victory over Hoover in the presidential election of that year. These were later swapped for four "Freedom Lights" in 1956. In February 1964, flood lights were added on the 72nd floor to illuminate the top of the building at night so that the building could be seen from the World Fair later that year. The lights were shut off from November 1973 to July 1974 because of the energy crisis at the time. In 1976, the businessman Douglas Leigh suggested that Wien and Helmsley install 204 metal-halide lights, which were four times as bright as the 1,000 incandescent lights they were to replace. New red, white, and blue metal-halide lights were installed in time for the country's bicentennial that July. After the bicentennial, Helmsley retained the new lights due to the reduced maintenance cost, about $116 a year. Since October 12, 1977, the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal events and holidays. Organizations are allowed to make requests through the building's website. The building is also lit in the colors of New York-based sports teams on nights when they host games: for example, orange, blue, and white for the New York Knicks; red, white, and blue for the New York Rangers. The spire can also be lit to commemorate events including disasters, anniversaries, or deaths, as well as for celebrations such as Pride and Halloween. In 1998, the building was lit in blue after the death of singer Frank Sinatra, who was nicknamed "Ol' Blue Eyes". The Empire State Building illuminated by rainbow-colored lighting at nightThe Empire State Building is bathed annually in rainbow-colored lighting during the Pride Month of June, evoking the international LGBT icon, as seen in this 2015 image. The structure was lit in red, white, and blue for several months after the collapse of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of the NBC program The Today Show. After retired basketball player Kobe Bryant's January 2020 death, the building was lit in purple and gold, signifying the colors of his former team, the Los Angeles Lakers. In addition to lightings, the Empire State Building is able to do immersive visual projections on the building's exterior. Most recently partnering with Netflix in May 2022 to celebrate the return of Stranger Things fourth season by projecting the Upside Down onto the Empire State Building. In 2012, the building's four hundred metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with 1,200 LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. For instance, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard during the 2012 United States presidential election, using red and blue lights to represent Republican and Democratic electoral votes respectively. Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys. Artists such as Eminem and OneRepublic have been featured in later shows, including the building's annual Holiday Music-to-Lights Show. The building's owners adhere to strict standards in using the lights; for instance, they do not use the lights to play advertisements. ### Interior One of several elevator lobbies According to official fact sheets, the Empire State Building weighs 365,000 short tons (331,122 t) and has an internal volume of 37 million cubic feet (1,000,000 m3). The interior required 1,172 miles (1,886 km) of elevator cable and 2 million feet (609,600 m) of electrical wires. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m2), and each of the floors in the base cover 2 acres (1 ha). This gives the building capacity for 20,000 tenants and 15,000 visitors. The riveted steel frame of the building was originally designed to handle all of the building's gravitational stresses and wind loads. The amount of material used in the building's construction resulted in a very stiff structure when compared to other skyscrapers, with a structural stiffness of 42 pounds per square foot (2.0 kPa) versus the Willis Tower's 33 pounds per square foot (1.6 kPa) and the John Hancock Center's 26 pounds per square foot (1.2 kPa). A December 1930 feature in Popular Mechanics estimated that a building with the Empire State's dimensions would still stand even if hit with an impact of 50 short tons (45 long tons). Utilities are grouped in a central shaft. On the 6th through 86th stories, the central shaft is surrounded by a main corridor on all four sides. Per the final specifications of the building, the corridor is surrounded in turn by office space 28 feet (8.5 m) deep, maximizing office space at a time before air conditioning became commonplace. Each of the floors has 210 structural columns that pass through it, which provide structural stability but limits the amount of open space on these floors. The relative dearth of stone in the Empire State Building allows for more space overall, with a 1:200 stone-to-building ratio compared to a 1:50 ratio in similar buildings. #### Lobby Fifth Avenue lobby The original main lobby is accessed from Fifth Avenue, on the building's east side, and is the only place in the building where the design contains narrative motifs. It contains an entrance with one set of double doors between a pair of revolving doors. At the top of each doorway is a bronze motif depicting one of three "crafts or industries" used in the building's construction—Electricity, Masonry, and Heating. The three-story-high space runs parallel to 33rd and 34th Streets. The lobby contains two tiers of marble: a wainscoting of darker marble, topped by lighter marble. There is a pattern of zigzagging terrazzo tiles on the lobby floor, which leads from east to west. To the north and south are storefronts, which are flanked by tubes of dark rounded marble and topped by a vertical band of grooves set into the marble. Until the 1960s, there was a Longchamps restaurant next to the lobby, with six oval murals designed by Winold Reiss; these murals were placed in storage when the Longchamps closed. The western ends of the north and south walls include escalators to a mezzanine level. At the west end of the lobby, behind the security desk, is an aluminum relief of the skyscraper as it was originally built (without the antenna). The relief, which was intended to provide a welcoming effect, contains an embossed outline of the building, with rays radiating from the spire and the sun behind it. In the background is a state map of New York with the building's location marked by a "medallion" in the very southeast portion of the outline. A compass is depicted in the bottom right and a plaque to the building's major developers is on the bottom left. A scale model of the building was also placed south of the security desk. Aluminum relief of the building The plaque at the western end of the lobby is on the eastern interior wall of a one-story-tall rectangular-shaped corridor that surrounds the banks of escalators, with a similar design to the lobby. The rectangular-shaped corridor actually consists of two long hallways on the northern and southern sides of the rectangle, as well as a shorter hallway on the eastern side and another long hallway on the western side. At both ends of the northern and southern corridors, there is a bank of four low-rise elevators in between the corridors. The western side of the rectangular elevator-bank corridor extends north to the 34th Street entrance and south to the 33rd Street entrance. It borders three large storefronts and leads to escalators (originally stairs), which go both to the second floor and to the basement. Going from west to east, there are secondary entrances to 34th and 33rd Streets from the northern and southern corridors, respectively. The side entrances from 33rd and 34th Street lead to two-story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel-and-glass-enclosed bridges at the mezzanine floor. Until the 1960s, an Art Deco mural, inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, was installed in the lobby ceilings. Subsequent damage to these murals, designed by artist Leif Neandross, resulted in reproductions being installed. Renovations to the lobby in 2009, such as replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer and installing two chandeliers intended to be part of the building when it originally opened, revived much of its original grandeur. The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels created in 1963 by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov, in time for the 1964 World's Fair, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World alongside the traditional seven. The building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. Johnson later filed a federal lawsuit, in January 2014, under the Visual Artists Rights Act alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist. As part of the building's 2010 renovation, Denise Amses commissioned a work consisting of 15,000 stars and 5,000 circles, superimposed on a 13-by-5-foot (4.0 by 1.5 m) etched-glass installation, in the lobby. #### Elevators The Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. Its original 64 elevators, built by the Otis Elevator Company, in a central core and are of varying heights, with the longest of these elevators reaching from the lobby to the 80th floor. As originally built, there were four "express" elevators that connected the lobby, 80th floor, and several landings in between; the other 60 "local" elevators connected the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. Of the 64 total elevators, 58 were for passenger use (comprising the four express elevators and 54 local elevators), and eight were for freight deliveries. The elevators were designed to move at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min). At the time of the skyscraper's construction, their practical speed was limited to 700 feet per minute (213 m/min) per city law, but this limit was removed shortly after the building opened. Additional elevators connect the 80th floor to the six floors above it, as the six extra floors were built after the original 80 stories were approved. The elevators were mechanically operated until 2011, when they were replaced with automatic elevators during the $550 million renovation of the building. An additional elevator connects the 86th and 102nd floor observatories, which allows visitors access the 102nd floor observatory after having their tickets scanned. It also allows employees to access the mechanical floors located between the 87th and 101st floors. #### Observation decks 80th floor observation deck The 80th, 86th, and 102nd floors contain observatories. The latter two observatories saw a combined average of four million visitors per year in 2010. Since opening, the observatories have been more popular than similar observatories at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the Chrysler Building, the first One World Trade Center, or the Woolworth Building, despite being more expensive. There are variable charges to enter the observatories; one ticket allows visitors to go as high as the 86th floor, and there is an additional charge to visit the 102nd floor. Other ticket options for visitors include scheduled access to view the sunrise from the observatory, a "premium" guided tour with VIP access, and the "AM/PM" package which allows for two visits in the same day. Interior and exterior observation decks at the 86th floor The 86th floor observatory contains both an enclosed viewing gallery and an open-air outdoor viewing area, allowing for it to remain open 365 days a year regardless of the weather. The 102nd floor observatory is completely enclosed and much smaller in size. The 102nd floor observatory was closed to the public from the late 1990s to 2005 due to limited viewing capacity and long lines. The observation decks were redesigned in mid-1979. The 102nd floor was again redesigned in a project that was completed in 2019, allowing the windows to be extended from floor to ceiling and widening the space in the observatory overall. An observatory on the 80th floor, opened in 2019, includes various exhibits as well as a mural of the skyline drawn by British artist Stephen Wiltshire. An interactive multimedia museum, with multiple hands-on exhibitions about the building's history, was added during this project. The design of the 10,000 sq ft (930 m2) Observatory Experience was inspired by the plans and designs of the original Empire State Building. According to a 2010 report by Concierge.com, the five lines to enter the observation decks are "as legendary as the building itself". Concierge.com stated that there were five lines: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. In 2016, New York City's official tourism website made note of only three lines: the security check line, the ticket purchase line, and the second elevator line. Following renovations completed in 2019, designed to streamline queuing and reduce wait times, guests enter from a single entrance on 34th Street, where they make their way through 10,000-square-foot (930 m2) exhibits on their way up to the observatories. Guests were offered a variety of ticket packages, including a package that enables them to skip the lines throughout the duration of their stay. The Empire State Building garners significant revenue from ticket sales for its observation decks, making more money from ticket sales than it does from renting office space during some years. A 360° panoramic view of New York City from the 86th-floor observation deck in spring 2005. East River is to the left, Hudson River to the right, south is near center. #### New York Skyride In early 1994, a motion simulator attraction was built on the 2nd floor, as a complement to the observation deck. The original cinematic presentation lasted approximately 25 minutes, while the simulation was about eight minutes. The ride had two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the ride was closed. An updated version debuted in mid-2002, featuring actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot, with the new flight also going haywire. This new version served a more informative goal, as opposed to the old version's main purpose of entertainment, and contained details about the 9/11 attacks. The simulator received mixed reviews, with assessments of the ride ranging from "great" to "satisfactory" to "corny". ### Spire #### Above the 102nd floor The final stage of the building was the installation of a hollow mast, a 158-foot (48 m) steel shaft fitted with elevators and utilities, above the 86th floor. At the top would be a conical roof and the 102nd-floor docking station. Inside, the elevators would ascend 167 feet (51 m) from the 86th floor ticket offices to a 33-foot-wide (10 m) 101st-floor waiting room. From there, stairs would lead to the 102nd floor, where passengers would enter the airships. The airships would have been moored to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. As constructed, the mast contains four rectangular tiers topped by a cylindrical shaft with a conical pinnacle. On the 102nd floor (formerly the 101st floor), there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor (formerly the 102nd). This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. It is now an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment, but celebrities and dignitaries may also be given permission to take pictures there. Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work. The mast's 480 windows were all replaced in 2015. The mast serves as the base of the building's broadcasting antenna. #### Broadcast stations Antennas for broadcast stations located at the top of the building Broadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when NBC and RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the mast, with two separate transmitters for the visual and audio data. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there. In 1934, RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna. This setup, which entailed the installation of the world's first FM transmitter, continued only until October of the next year due to disputes between RCA and Armstrong. Specifically, NBC wanted to install more TV equipment in the room where Armstrong's transmitter was located. After some time, the 85th floor became home to RCA's New York television operations initially as experimental station W2XBS channel 1 then, from 1941, as commercial station WNBT channel 1 (now WNBC channel 4). NBC's FM station, W2XDG, began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ordered the exclusive deal be terminated. The FCC directive was based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the seven extant New York-area television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Other television broadcasters would later join RCA at the building on the 81st through 83rd floors, often along with sister FM stations. Construction of a dedicated broadcast tower began on July 27, 1950, with TV, and FM, transmissions starting in 1951. The 200-foot (61 m) broadcast tower was completed in 1953. From 1951, six broadcasters agreed to pay a combined $600,000 per year for the use of the antenna. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennae was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna. The placement of the stations in the Empire State Building became a major issue with the construction of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers in the late 1960s, and early 1970s. The greater height of the Twin Towers would reflect radio waves broadcast from the Empire State Building, eventually resulting in some broadcasters relocating to the newer towers instead of suing the developer, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Even though the nine stations who were broadcasting from the Empire State Building were leasing their broadcast space until 1984, most of these stations moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed in 1971. The broadcasters obtained a court order stipulating that the Port Authority had to build a mast and transmission equipment in the North Tower, as well as pay the broadcasters' leases in the Empire State Building until 1984. Only a few broadcasters renewed their leases in the Empire State Building. The September 11 attacks destroyed the World Trade Center and the broadcast centers atop it, leaving most of the city's stations without a transmitter for ten days until the Armstrong Tower in Alpine, New Jersey, was re-activated temporarily. By October 2001, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) were again transmitting from the top of the Empire State Building. In a report that Congress commissioned about the transition from analog television to digital television, it was stated that the placement of broadcast stations in the Empire State Building was considered "problematic" due to interference from nearby buildings. In comparison, the congressional report stated that the former Twin Towers had very few buildings of comparable height nearby thus signals suffered little interference. In 2003, a few FM stations were relocated to the nearby Condé Nast Building to reduce the number of broadcast stations using the Empire State Building. Eleven television stations and twenty-two FM stations had signed 15-year leases in the building by May 2003. It was expected that a taller broadcast tower in Bayonne, New Jersey, or Governors Island, would be built in the meantime with the Empire State Building being used as a "backup" since signal transmissions from the building were generally of poorer quality. Following the construction of One World Trade Center in the late 2000s and early 2010s, some TV stations began moving their transmitting facilities there. As of 2021[update], the Empire State Building is home to the following stations: * Television: WABC-7, WPIX-11, WXTV-41 Paterson, and WFUT-68 Newark * FM: WINS-92.3, WPAT-93.1 Paterson, WNYC-93.9, WPLJ-95.5, WXNY-96.3, WQHT-97.1, WSKQ-97.9, WEPN-98.7, WHTZ-100.3 Newark, WCBS-101.1, WFAN-101.9, WNEW-FM-102.7, WKTU-103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ-104.3, WWPR-105.1, WQXR-105.9 Newark, WLTW-106.7, and WBLS-107.5 * NOAA Weather Radio station KWO35 broadcasts at a frequency of 162.550 MHz from the National Weather Service in Upton, New York. History ------- The site was previously owned by John Jacob Astor of the prominent Astor family, who had owned the site since the mid-1820s. In 1893, John Jacob Astor Sr.'s grandson William Waldorf Astor opened the Waldorf Hotel on the site. Four years later, his cousin, John Jacob Astor IV, opened the 16-story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site. The two portions of the Waldorf–Astoria hotel had 1,300 bedrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time. After the death of its founding proprietor, George Boldt, in early 1918, the hotel lease was purchased by Thomas Coleman du Pont. By the 1920s, the old Waldorf–Astoria was becoming dated and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north. Additionally, many stores had opened on Fifth Avenue north of 34th Street. The Astor family decided to build a replacement hotel on Park Avenue and sold the hotel to Bethlehem Engineering Corporation in 1928 for $14–16 million. The hotel closed shortly thereafter on May 3, 1929. ### Planning #### Early plans The Waldorf-Astoria in 1901Bethlehem Engineering Corporation originally intended to build a 25-story office building on the Waldorf–Astoria site. The company's president, Floyd De L. Brown, paid $100,000 of the $1 million down payment required to start construction on the building, with the promise that the difference would be paid later. Brown borrowed $900,000 from a bank but defaulted on the loan. After Brown was unable to secure additional funding, the land was resold to Empire State Inc. a group of wealthy investors that included Louis G. Kaufman, Ellis P. Earle, John J. Raskob, Coleman du Pont, and Pierre S. du Pont. The name came from the state nickname for New York. Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and U.S. presidential candidate whose 1928 campaign had been managed by Raskob, was appointed head of the company. The group also purchased nearby land so they would have the 2 acres (1 ha) needed for the base, with the combined plot measuring 425 feet (130 m) wide by 200 feet (61 m) long. The Empire State Inc. consortium was announced to the public in August 1929. Concurrently, Smith announced the construction of an 80-story building on the site, to be taller than any other buildings in existence. Empire State Inc. contracted William F. Lamb, of architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, to create the building design. Lamb produced the initial building design in just two weeks using the firm's earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, as the basis. He had also been inspired by Raymond Hood's design for the Daily News Building, which was being constructed at the same time. Concurrently, Lamb's partner Richmond Shreve created "bug diagrams" of the project requirements. The 1916 Zoning Act forced Lamb to design a structure that incorporated setbacks resulting in the lower floors being larger than the upper floors. Consequently, the building was conceived from the top down, giving it a pencil-like shape. The plans were devised within a budget of $50 million and a stipulation that the building be ready for occupancy within 18 months of the start of construction. Design drawings and construction were concurrent. Steel drawings were completed in mid-January 1930, when foundations were underway. #### Design changes Architectural sketch of heights and allowed building areas The original plan of the building was 50 stories, but was later increased to 60 and then 80 stories. Height restrictions were placed on nearby buildings to ensure that the top fifty floors of the planned 80-story, 1,000-foot-tall (300 m) building would have unobstructed views of the city. The New York Times lauded the site's proximity to mass transit, with the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit's 34th Street station and the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad's 33rd Street terminal one block away, as well as Penn Station two blocks away and Grand Central Terminal nine blocks away at its closest. It also praised the 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m2) of proposed floor space near "one of the busiest sections in the world". The Empire State Building was to be a typical office building, but Raskob intended to build it "better and in a bigger way", according to architectural writer Donald J. Reynolds. While plans for the Empire State Building were being finalized, an intense competition in New York for the title of "world's tallest building" was underway. 40 Wall Street (then the Bank of Manhattan Building) and the Chrysler Building in Manhattan both vied for this distinction and were already under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. The "Race into the Sky", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, fueled by the building boom in major cities. The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The 40 Wall Street tower was revised, in April 1929, from 840 feet (260 m) to 925 feet (282 m) making it the world's tallest. The Chrysler Building added its 185-foot (56 m) steel tip to its roof in October 1929, thus bringing it to a height of 1,046 feet (319 m) and greatly exceeding the height of 40 Wall Street. The Chrysler Building's developer, Walter Chrysler, realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having instructed his architect, William Van Alen, to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to a narrow steel spire. Raskob, wishing to have the Empire State Building be the world's tallest, reviewed the plans and had five floors added as well as a spire; however, the new floors would need to be set back because of projected wind pressure on the extension. On November 18, 1929, Smith acquired a lot at 27–31 West 33rd Street, adding 75 feet (23 m) to the width of the proposed office building's site. Two days later, Smith announced the updated plans for the skyscraper. The plans included an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of 1,050 feet (320 m), higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck. The 1,050-foot Empire State Building would only be 4 feet (1.2 m) taller than the Chrysler Building, and Raskob was afraid that Chrysler might try to "pull a trick like hiding a rod in the spire and then sticking it up at the last minute." The plans were revised one last time in December 1929, to include a 16-story, 200-foot (61 m) metal "crown" and an additional 222-foot (68 m) mooring mast intended for dirigibles. The roof height was now 1,250 feet (380 m), making it the tallest building in the world by far, even without the antenna. The addition of the dirigible station meant that another floor, the now-enclosed 86th floor, would have to be built below the crown; however, unlike the Chrysler's spire, the Empire State's mast would serve a practical purpose. A revised plan was announced to the public in late December 1929, just before the start of construction. The final plan was sketched within two hours, the night before the plan was supposed to be presented to the site's owners in January 1930. The New York Times reported that the spire was facing some "technical problems", but they were "no greater than might be expected under such a novel plan." By this time the blueprints for the building had gone through up to fifteen versions before they were approved. Lamb described the other specifications he was given for the final, approved plan: > The program was short enough—a fixed budget, no space more than 28 feet from window to corridor, as many stories of such space as possible, an exterior of limestone, and completion date of [May 1], 1931, which meant a year and six months from the beginning of sketches. > > ### Construction The contractors were Starrett Brothers and Eken, which were composed of Paul and William A. Starrett and Andrew J. Eken. The project was financed primarily by Raskob and Pierre du Pont, while James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was the construction superintendent of the project, and the structural engineer of the building was Homer G. Balcom. The tight completion schedule necessitated the commencement of construction even though the design had yet to be finalized. #### Hotel demolition Demolition of the old Waldorf–Astoria began on October 1, 1929. Stripping the building down was an arduous process, as the hotel had been constructed using more rigid material than earlier buildings had been. Furthermore, the old hotel's granite, wood chips, and "'precious' metals such as lead, brass, and zinc" were not in high demand, resulting in issues with disposal. Most of the wood was deposited into a woodpile on nearby 30th Street or was burned in a swamp elsewhere. Much of the other materials that made up the old hotel, including the granite and bronze, were dumped into the Atlantic Ocean near Sandy Hook, New Jersey. By the time the hotel's demolition started, Raskob had secured the required funding for the construction of the building. The plan was to start construction later that year but, on October 24, the New York Stock Exchange experienced the major and sudden Wall Street Crash, marking the beginning of the decade-long Great Depression. Despite the economic downturn, Raskob refused to cancel the project because of the progress that had been made up to that point. Neither Raskob, who had ceased speculation in the stock market the previous year, nor Smith, who had no stock investments, suffered financially in the crash. However, most of the investors were affected and as a result, in December 1929, Empire State Inc. obtained a $27.5 million loan from Metropolitan Life Insurance Company so construction could begin. The stock market crash resulted in no demand for new office space; Raskob and Smith nonetheless started construction, as canceling the project would have resulted in greater losses for the investors. #### Steel structure A worker bolts beams in 1930 during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background. A structural steel contract was awarded on January 12, 1930, with excavation of the site beginning ten days later on January 22, before the old hotel had been completely demolished. Two twelve-hour shifts, consisting of 300 men each, worked continuously to dig the 55-foot (17 m) deep foundation. Small pier holes were sunk into the ground to house the concrete footings that would support the steelwork. Excavation was nearly complete by early March, and construction on the building itself started on March 17, with the builders placing the first steel columns on the completed footings before the rest of the footings had been finished. Around this time, Lamb held a press conference on the building plans. He described the reflective steel panels parallel to the windows, the large-block Indiana Limestone facade that was slightly more expensive than smaller bricks, and the building's vertical lines. Four colossal columns, intended for installation in the center of the building site, were delivered; they would support a combined 10,000,000 pounds (4,500,000 kg) when the building was finished. The structural steel was pre-ordered and pre-fabricated in anticipation of a revision to the city's building code that would have allowed the Empire State Building's structural steel to carry 18,000 pounds per square inch (120,000 kPa), up from 16,000 pounds per square inch (110,000 kPa), thus reducing the amount of steel needed for the building. Although the 18,000-psi regulation had been safely enacted in other cities, Mayor Jimmy Walker did not sign the new codes into law until March 26, 1930, just before construction was due to commence. The first steel framework was installed on April 1, 1930. From there, construction proceeded at a rapid pace; during one stretch of 10 working days, the builders erected fourteen floors. This was made possible through precise coordination of the building's planning, as well as the mass production of common materials such as windows and spandrels. On one occasion, when a supplier could not provide timely delivery of dark Hauteville marble, Starrett switched to using Rose Famosa marble from a German quarry that was purchased specifically to provide the project with sufficient marble. The scale of the project was massive, with trucks carrying "16,000 partition tiles, 5,000 bags of cement, 450 cubic yards [340 m3] of sand and 300 bags of lime" arriving at the construction site every day. There were also cafes and concession stands on five of the incomplete floors so workers did not have to descend to the ground level to eat lunch. Temporary water taps were also built so workers did not waste time buying water bottles from the ground level. Additionally, carts running on a small railway system transported materials from the basement storage to elevators that brought the carts to the desired floors where they would then be distributed throughout that level using another set of tracks. The 57,480 short tons (51,320 long tons) of steel ordered for the project was the largest-ever single order of steel at the time, comprising more steel than was ordered for the Chrysler Building and 40 Wall Street combined. According to historian John Tauranac, building materials were sourced from numerous, and distant, sources with "limestone from Indiana, steel girders from Pittsburgh, cement and mortar from upper New York State, marble from Italy, France, and England, wood from northern and Pacific Coast forests, [and] hardware from New England." The facade, too, used a variety of material, most prominently Indiana limestone but also Swedish black granite, terracotta, and brick. By June 20, the skyscraper's supporting steel structure had risen to the 26th floor, and by July 27, half of the steel structure had been completed. Starrett Bros. and Eken endeavored to build one floor a day in order to speed up construction, achieving a pace of four and a half stories per week; prior to this, the fastest pace of construction for a building of similar height had been three and a half stories per week. While construction progressed, the final designs for the floors were being designed from the ground up (as opposed to the general design, which had been from the roof down). Some of the levels were still undergoing final approval, with several orders placed within an hour of a plan being finalized. On September 10, as steelwork was nearing completion, Smith laid the building's cornerstone during a ceremony attended by thousands. The stone contained a box with contemporary artifacts including the previous day's New York Times, a U.S. currency set containing all denominations of notes and coins minted in 1930, a history of the site and building, and photographs of the people involved in construction. The steel structure was topped out at 1,048 feet (319 m) on September 19, twelve days ahead of schedule and 23 weeks after the start of construction. Workers raised a flag atop the 86th floor to signify this milestone. #### Completion and scale During construction in October 1930; the USS Los Angeles, ZMC-2 and a J-class blimp seen overhead Work on the building's interior and crowning mast commenced after the topping out. The mooring mast topped out on November 21, two months after the steelwork had been completed. Meanwhile, work on the walls and interior was progressing at a quick pace, with exterior walls built up to the 75th floor by the time steelwork had been built to the 95th floor. The majority of the facade was already finished by the middle of November. Because of the building's height, it was deemed infeasible to have many elevators or large elevator cabins, so the builders contracted with the Otis Elevator Company to make 66 cars that could speed at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min), which represented the largest-ever elevator order at the time. In addition to the time constraint builders had, there were also space limitations because construction materials had to be delivered quickly, and trucks needed to drop off these materials without congesting traffic. This was solved by creating a temporary driveway for the trucks between 33rd and 34th Streets, and then storing the materials in the building's first floor and basements. Concrete mixers, brick hoppers, and stone hoists inside the building ensured that materials would be able to ascend quickly and without endangering or inconveniencing the public. At one point, over 200 trucks made material deliveries at the building site every day. A series of relay and erection derricks, placed on platforms erected near the building, lifted the steel from the trucks below and installed the beams at the appropriate locations. The Empire State Building was structurally completed on April 11, 1931, twelve days ahead of schedule and 410 days after construction commenced. Al Smith shot the final rivet, which was made of solid gold. A photograph of a cable worker, taken by Lewis Hine as part of his project to document the Empire State Building's constructionPhotograph of a cable worker taken by Lewis Hine The project involved more than 3,500 workers at its peak, including 3,439 on a single day, August 14, 1930. Many of the workers were Irish and Italian immigrants, with a sizable minority of Mohawk ironworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction, although the New York Daily News gave reports of 14 deaths and a headline in the socialist magazine The New Masses spread unfounded rumors of up to 42 deaths. The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build (equivalent to $637 million in 2022), including demolition of the Waldorf–Astoria. This was lower than the $60 million budgeted for construction. Lewis Hine captured many photographs of the construction, documenting not only the work itself but also providing insight into the daily life of workers in that era. Hine's images were used extensively by the media to publish daily press releases. According to the writer Jim Rasenberger, Hine "climbed out onto the steel with the ironworkers and dangled from a derrick cable hundreds of feet above the city to capture, as no one ever had before (or has since), the dizzy work of building skyscrapers". In Rasenberger's words, Hine turned what might have been an assignment of "corporate flak" into "exhilarating art". These images were later organized into their own collection. Onlookers were enraptured by the sheer height at which the steelworkers operated. New York magazine wrote of the steelworkers: "Like little spiders they toiled, spinning a fabric of steel against the sky". ### Opening and early years Aerial view of the Empire State Building in 1932The Empire State Building in 1932. The building's antenna was installed 21 years later, in 1953. The Empire State Building officially opened on May 1, 1931, forty-five days ahead of its projected opening date, and eighteen months from the start of construction. The opening was marked with an event featuring United States President Herbert Hoover, who turned on the building's lights with the ceremonial button push from Washington, D.C. Over 350 guests attended the opening ceremony, and following luncheon, at the 86th floor including Jimmy Walker, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Al Smith. An account from that day stated that the view from the luncheon was obscured by a fog, with other landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty being "lost in the mist" enveloping New York City. The Empire State Building officially opened the next day. Advertisements for the building's observatories were placed in local newspapers, while nearby hotels also capitalized on the events by releasing advertisements that lauded their proximity to the newly opened building. According to The New York Times, builders and real estate speculators predicted that the 1,250-foot-tall (380 m) Empire State Building would be the world's tallest building "for many years", thus ending the great New York City skyscraper rivalry. At the time, most engineers agreed that it would be difficult to build a building taller than 1,200 feet (370 m), even with the hardy Manhattan bedrock as a foundation. Technically, it was believed possible to build a tower of up to 2,000 feet (610 m), but it was deemed uneconomical to do so, especially during the Great Depression. As the tallest building in the world, at that time, and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building became an icon of the city and, ultimately, of the nation. In 1932, the Fifth Avenue Association gave the building its 1931 "gold medal" for architectural excellence, signifying that the Empire State had been the best-designed building on Fifth Avenue to open in 1931. A year later, on March 2, 1933, the movie King Kong was released. The movie, which depicted a large stop motion ape named Kong climbing the Empire State Building, made the still-new building into a cinematic icon. #### Tenants and tourism At the beginning of 1931, Fifth Avenue was experiencing high demand for storefront space, with only 12 of 224 stores being unoccupied. The Empire State Building, along with 500 Fifth Avenue and 608 Fifth Avenue, were expected to add a combined 11 stores. The office space was less successful, as the Empire State Building's opening had coincided with the Great Depression in the United States. In the first year, only 23 percent of the available space was rented, as compared to the early 1920s, where the average building would be 52 percent occupied upon opening and 90 percent occupied within five years. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building" or "Smith's Folly". The earliest tenants in the Empire State Building were large companies, banks, and garment industries. Jack Brod, one of the building's longest resident tenants, co-established the Empire Diamond Corporation with his father in the building in mid-1931 and rented space in the building until he died in 2008. Brod recalled that there were only about 20 tenants at the time of opening, including him, and that Al Smith was the only real tenant in the space above his seventh-floor offices. Generally, during the early 1930s, it was rare for more than a single office space to be rented in the building, despite Smith's and Raskob's aggressive marketing efforts in the newspapers and to anyone they knew. The building's lights were continuously left on, even in the unrented spaces, to give the impression of occupancy. This was exacerbated by competition from Rockefeller Center as well as from buildings on 42nd Street, which, when combined with the Empire State Building, resulted in surplus of office space in a slow market during the 1930s. Aggressive marketing efforts served to reinforce the Empire State Building's status as the world's tallest. The observatory was advertised in local newspapers as well as on railroad tickets. The building became a popular tourist attraction, with one million people each paying one dollar to ride elevators to the observation decks in 1931. In its first year of operation, the observation deck made approximately $2 million in revenue, as much as its owners made in rent that year. By 1936, the observation deck was crowded on a daily basis, with food and drink available for purchase at the top, and by 1944 the building had received its five-millionth visitor. In 1931, NBC took up tenancy, leasing space on the 85th floor for radio broadcasts. From the outset the building was in debt, losing $1 million per year by 1935. Real estate developer Seymour Durst recalled that the building was so underused in 1936 that there was no elevator service above the 45th floor, as the building above the 41st floor was empty except for the NBC offices and the Raskob/Du Pont offices on the 81st floor. #### Other events Per the original plans, the Empire State Building's spire was intended to be an airship docking station. Raskob and Smith had proposed dirigible ticketing offices and passenger waiting rooms on the 86th floor, while the airships themselves would be tied to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. An elevator would ferry passengers from the 86th to the 101st floor after they had checked in on the 86th floor, after which passengers would have climbed steep ladders to board the airship. The idea, however, was impractical and dangerous due to powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, the wind currents across Manhattan, and the spires of nearby skyscrapers. Furthermore, even if the airship were to successfully navigate all these obstacles, its crew would have to jettison some ballast by releasing water onto the streets below in order to maintain stability, and then tie the craft's nose to the spire with no mooring lines securing the tail end of the craft. On September 15, 1931, a small commercial United States Navy airship circled 25 times in 45-mile-per-hour (72 km/h) winds. The airship then attempted to dock at the mast, but its ballast spilled and the craft was rocked by unpredictable eddies. The near-disaster scuttled plans to turn the building's spire into an airship terminal, although one blimp did manage to make a single newspaper delivery afterward. On July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors. One engine completely penetrated the building and landed in a neighboring block, while the other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. Fourteen people were killed in the incident, but the building escaped severe damage and was reopened two days later. ### Profitability A series of setbacks causes the building to taper with height.By the 1940s, the Empire State Building was 98 percent occupied. The structure broke even for the first time in the 1950s. At the time, mass transit options in the building's vicinity were limited compared to the present day. Despite this challenge, the Empire State Building began to attract renters due to its reputation. A 222-foot (68 m) radio antenna was erected on top of the towers starting in 1950, allowing the area's television stations to be broadcast from the building. Despite the turnaround in the building's fortunes, Raskob listed it for sale in 1951, with a minimum asking price of $50 million. The property was purchased by business partners Roger L. Stevens, Henry Crown, Alfred R. Glancy and Ben Tobin. The sale was brokered by the Charles F. Noyes Company, a prominent real estate firm in upper Manhattan, for $51 million, the highest price paid for a single structure at the time. By this time, the Empire State had been fully leased for several years with a waiting list of parties looking to lease space in the building, according to the Cortland Standard. That same year, six news companies formed a partnership to pay a combined annual fee of $600,000 to use the building's antenna, which was completed in 1953. Crown bought out his partners' ownership stakes in 1954, becoming the sole owner. The following year, the American Society of Civil Engineers named the building one of the "Seven Modern Civil Engineering Wonders". In 1961, Lawrence A. Wien signed a contract to purchase the Empire State Building for $65 million, with Harry B. Helmsley acting as partners in the building's operating lease. This became the new highest price for a single structure. Over 3,000 people paid $10,000 for one share each in a company called Empire State Building Associates. The company in turn subleased the building to another company headed by Helmsley and Wien, raising $33 million of the funds needed to pay the purchase price. In a separate transaction, the land underneath the building was sold to Prudential Insurance for $29 million. Helmsley, Wien, and Peter Malkin quickly started a program of minor improvement projects, including the first-ever full-building facade refurbishment and window-washing in 1962, the installation of new flood lights on the 72nd floor in 1964, and replacement of the manually operated elevators with automatic units in 1966. The little-used western end of the second floor was used as a storage space until 1964, at which point it received escalators to the first floor as part of its conversion into a highly sought retail area. ### Loss of "tallest building" title The World Trade Center as seen from the airThe World Trade Center's North Tower surpassed the Empire State Building in height by 1970. In 1961, the same year that Helmsley, Wien, and Malkin had purchased the Empire State Building, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey formally backed plans for a new World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. The plan originally included 66-story twin towers with column-free open spaces. The Empire State's owners and real estate speculators were worried that the twin towers' 7.6 million square feet (710,000 m2) of office space would create a glut of rentable space in Manhattan as well as take away the Empire State Building's profits from lessees. A revision in the World Trade Center's plan brought the twin towers to 1,370 feet (420 m) each or 110 stories, taller than the Empire State. Opponents of the new project included prominent real-estate developer Robert Tishman, as well as Wien's Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center. In response to Wien's opposition, Port Authority executive director Austin J. Tobin said that Wien was only opposing the project because it would overshadow his Empire State Building as the world's tallest building. The World Trade Center's twin towers started construction in 1966. The following year, the Ostankino Tower succeeded the Empire State Building as the tallest freestanding structure in the world. In 1970, the Empire State surrendered its position as the world's tallest building, when the World Trade Center's still-under-construction North Tower surpassed it, on October 19; the North Tower was topped out on December 23, 1970. In December 1975, the observation deck was opened on the 110th floor of the Twin Towers, significantly higher than the 86th floor observatory on the Empire State Building. The latter was also losing revenue during this period, particularly as a number of broadcast stations had moved to the World Trade Center in 1971; although the Port Authority continued to pay the broadcasting leases for the Empire State until 1984. The Empire State Building was still seen as prestigious, having seen its forty-millionth visitor in March 1971. ### 1980s and 1990s By 1980, there were nearly two million annual visitors, although a building official had previously estimated between 1.5 million and 1.75 million annual visitors. The building received its own ZIP code in May 1980 in a roll out of 63 new postal codes in Manhattan. At the time, its tenants collectively received 35,000 pieces of mail daily. The Empire State Building celebrated its 50th anniversary on May 1, 1981, with a much-publicized, but poorly received, laser light show, as well as an "Empire State Building Week" that ran through to May 8. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981, Capital improvements were made to the Empire State Building during the early to mid-1990s at a cost of $55 million. Because all of the building's windows were being replaced at the same time, the LPC mandated a paint-color test for the windows; the test revealed that the Empire State Building's original windows were actually red. The improvements also entailed replacing alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning; making the observation deck compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA); and refurbishing the limestone facade. The observation deck renovation was added after disability rights groups and the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against the building in 1992, in what was the first lawsuit filed by an organization under the new law. A settlement was reached in 1994, in which Empire State Building Associates agreed to add ADA-compliant elements, such as new elevators, ramps, and automatic doors, during the renovation. Prudential sold the land under the building in 1991 for $42 million to a buyer representing hotelier Hideki Yokoi [ja], who was imprisoned at the time in connection with the deadly Hotel New Japan Fire [ja] at the Hotel New Japan [ja] in Tokyo. In 1994, Donald Trump entered into a joint-venture agreement with Yokoi, with a shared goal of breaking the Empire State Building's lease on the land in an effort to gain total ownership of the building so that, if successful, the two could reap the potential profits of merging the ownership of the building with the land beneath it. Having secured a half-ownership of the land, Trump devised plans to take ownership of the building itself so he could renovate it, even though Helmsley and Malkin had already started their refurbishment project. He sued Empire State Building Associates in February 1995, claiming that the latter had caused the building to become a "high-rise slum" and a "second-rate, rodent-infested" office tower. Trump had intended to have Empire State Building Associates evicted for violating the terms of their lease, but was denied. This led to Helmsley's companies countersuing Trump in May. This sparked a series of lawsuits and countersuits that lasted several years, partly arising from Trump's desire to obtain the building's master lease by taking it from Empire State Building Associates. Upon Harry Helmsley's death in 1997, the Malkins sued Helmsley's widow, Leona Helmsley, for control of the building. ### 21st century #### 2000s Following the destruction of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, but was only the second-tallest building in the Americas after the Sears (later Willis) Tower in Chicago. As a result of the attacks, transmissions from nearly all of the city's commercial television and FM radio stations were again broadcast from the Empire State Building. The attacks also led to an increase in security due to persistent terror threats against prominent sites in New York City. In 2002, Trump and Yokoi sold their land claim to the Empire State Building Associates, now headed by Malkin, in a $57.5 million sale. This action merged the building's title and lease for the first time in half a century. Despite the lingering threat posed by the 9/11 attacks, the Empire State Building remained popular with 3.5 million visitors to the observatories in 2004, compared to about 2.8 million in 2003. Even though she maintained her ownership stake in the building until the post-consolidation IPO in October 2013, Leona Helmsley handed over day-to-day operations of the building in 2006 to Peter Malkin's company. In 2008, the building was temporarily "stolen" by the New York Daily News to show how easy it was to transfer the deed on a property, since city clerks were not required to validate the submitted information, as well as to help demonstrate how fraudulent deeds could be used to obtain large mortgages and then have individuals disappear with the money. The paperwork submitted to the city included the names of Fay Wray, the famous star of King Kong, and Willie Sutton, a notorious New York bank robber. The newspaper then transferred the deed back over to the legitimate owners, who at that time were Empire State Land Associates. #### 2010s to present Since 2009, the Empire State Building has been lit blue and white annually for commencement at Columbia University. The current One World Trade Center (seen in the distance) surpassed the Empire State Building's height on April 30, 2012. Starting in 2009, the building's public areas received a $550 million renovation, with improvements to the air conditioning and waterproofing, renovations to the observation deck and main lobby, and relocation of the gift shop to the 80th floor. About $120 million was spent on improving the energy efficiency of the building, with the goal of reducing energy emissions by 38% within five years. For example, all of the windows were refurbished onsite into film-coated "superwindows" which block heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced, saving $17 million of the project's capital cost immediately and partially funding some of the other retrofits. The Empire State Building won the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold for Existing Buildings rating in September 2011, as well as the World Federation of Great Towers' Excellence in Environment Award for 2010. For the LEED Gold certification, the building's energy reduction was considered, as was a large purchase of carbon offsets. Other factors included low-flow bathroom fixtures, green cleaning supplies, and use of recycled paper products. On April 30, 2012, One World Trade Center topped out, taking the Empire State Building's record of tallest in the city. By 2014, the building was owned by the Empire State Realty Trust (ESRT), with Anthony Malkin as chairman, CEO, and president. The ESRT was a public company, having begun trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange the previous year. In August 2016, the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) was issued new fully diluted shares equivalent to 9.9% of the trust; this investment gave them partial ownership of the entirety of the ESRT's portfolio, and as a result, partial ownership of the Empire State Building. The trust's president John Kessler called it an "endorsement of the company's irreplaceable assets". The investment has been described by the real-estate magazine The Real Deal as "an unusual move for a sovereign wealth fund", as these funds typically buy direct stakes in buildings rather than real estate companies. Other foreign entities that have a stake in the ESRT include investors from Norway, Japan, and Australia. A renovation of the Empire State Building was commenced in the 2010s to further improve energy efficiency, public areas, and amenities. In August 2018, to improve the flow of visitor traffic, the main visitor's entrance was shifted to 20 West 34th Street as part of a major renovation of the observatory lobby. The new lobby includes several technological features, including large LED panels, digital ticket kiosks in nine languages, and a two-story architectural model of the building surrounded by two metal staircases. The first phase of the renovation, completed in 2019, features an updated exterior lighting system and digital hosts. The new lobby also features free Wi-Fi provided for those waiting. A 10,000-square-foot (930 m2) exhibit with nine galleries opened in July 2019. The 102nd floor observatory, the third phase of the redesign, reopened to the public on October 12, 2019. That portion of the project included outfitting the space with floor-to-ceiling glass windows and a brand-new glass elevator. The final portion of the renovations to be completed was a new observatory on the 80th floor, which opened on December 2, 2019. In total, the renovation cost $160 million or $165 million and took four years to finish. A comprehensive restoration of the building's mooring and antenna masts also began in June 2019. Antennas on the mooring mast were removed or relocated to the upper mast, while the aluminum panels were cleaned and coated with silver paint. To minimize disruption to the observation decks, the restoration work took place at night. The project was completed by late 2020. Height records -------------- Height comparison of several New York City buildings, with Empire State second from left The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in October 1970. The Empire State Building was also the tallest human-made structure in the world before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954, and the tallest freestanding structure in the world until the completion of the Ostankino Tower in 1967. An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected. With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. The Empire State Building remained the tallest building in New York until the new One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. As of 2022[update], it is the seventh-tallest building in New York City and the tenth-tallest in the United States. The Empire State Building is the 49th-tallest in the world as of February 2021[update]. It is also the eleventh-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas behind the tallest U.S. buildings and the CN Tower. Notable tenants --------------- As of 2013[update], the building houses around 1,000 businesses. Current tenants include: * Air China * Boy Scouts of America, Greater New York Councils * Bulova * Corgan * Coty * Croatian National Tourist Board * Expedia Group * Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation * Global Brands Group * Filipino Reporter * Helios and Matheson * HNTB * Human Rights Foundation * Human Rights Watch * JCDecaux * Kaplan International Center * Li & Fung * LinkedIn * Noven Pharmaceuticals * Palo Alto Networks * People's Daily * Qatar Airways * RaySearch Laboratories * Shutterstock * Skanska * Turkish Airlines * Workday, Inc. * World Monuments Fund Former tenants include: * The National Catholic Welfare Council (now Catholic Relief Services, located in Baltimore) * The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway) * China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue) * National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway) * Nathaniel Branden Institute * Schenley Industries * YWCA of the USA (relocated to Washington, DC) Incidents --------- ### 1945 plane crash Main article: B-25 Empire State Building crash A black-and-white photo of airplane wreckage embedded in the facade, high upWreckage from the 1945 Empire State Building B-25 crash At 9:40 am on July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith Jr. crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors (then the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council). One engine completely penetrated the building, landing on the roof of a nearby building where it started a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft, causing a fire that was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver fell 75 stories and survived, which still holds the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. Despite the damage and loss of life, many floors were open two days later. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident. Also as a result of the crash, the Civil Aeronautics Administration enacted strict regulations regarding flying over New York City, setting a minimum flying altitude of 2,500 feet (760 m) above sea level regardless of the weather conditions. A year later, on July 24, 1946, another airplane narrowly missed striking the building. The unidentified twin-engine plane scraped past the observation deck, frightening the tourists there. ### 2000 elevator plunge On January 24, 2000, an elevator in the building suddenly descended 40 stories after a cable that controlled the cabin's maximum speed was severed. The elevator fell from the 44th floor to the fourth floor, where a narrowed elevator shaft provided a second safety system. Despite the 40-floor fall, both of the passengers in the cabin at the time were only slightly injured. After the fall, building inspectors reviewed all of the building's elevators. ### Suicide attempts Because of the building's iconic status, it and other Midtown landmarks are popular locations for suicide attempts. More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building, with most attempts being successful. The first suicide from the building occurred on April 7, 1931, before it was even completed, when a carpenter who had been laid-off went to the 58th floor and jumped. The first suicide after the building's opening occurred from the 86th floor observatory in February 1935, when Irma P. Eberhardt fell 1,029 feet (314 m) onto a marquee sign. On December 16, 1943, William Lloyd Rambo jumped to his death from the 86th floor, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below. In the early morning of September 27, 1946, shell-shocked Marine Douglas W. Brashear Jr. jumped from the 76th-floor window of the Grant Advertising Agency; police found his shoes 50 feet (15 m) from his body. On May 1, 1947, Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions that she left on the observation deck: "He is much better off without me.... I wouldn't make a good wife for anybody". The photo ran in the May 12, 1947, edition of Life magazine and is often referred to as "The Most Beautiful Suicide". It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body). A 7-foot (2.1 m) mesh fence was put up around the 86th floor terrace in December 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span in October and November of that year. By then, sixteen people had died from suicide jumps. Only one person has jumped from the upper observatory. Frederick Eckert of Astoria ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd-floor gallery on November 3, 1932, and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. He landed and died on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade. Two people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation. ### Shootings Two fatal shootings have occurred in the direct vicinity of the Empire State Building. Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck during the afternoon of February 23, 1997. He killed one person and wounded six others before committing suicide. Kamal reportedly committed the shooting in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel. On the morning of August 24, 2012, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson shot and killed a former co-worker on the building's Fifth Avenue sidewalk. He had been laid off from his job in 2011. Two police officers confronted the gunman, and he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders. Most of the injured were hit by bullet fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets. Impact ------ The Empire State Building, Glenn Odem Coleman, c. 1931 As the tallest building in the world and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building immediately became an icon of the city and of the nation. In 2013, Time magazine noted that the Empire State Building "seems to completely embody the city it has become synonymous with". The historian John Tauranac called it "'the' twentieth-century New York building", despite the existence of taller and more modernist buildings. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981, citing the historic nature of the first and second floors, as well as "the fixtures and interior components" of the upper floors. The New York City Planning Commission endorsed the landmark status. The building became a National Historic Landmark in 1986 in close alignment with the New York City Landmarks report. The Empire State Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places the following year due to its architectural significance. ### Contemporary reception Early architectural critics also focused on the Empire State Building's exterior ornamentation. Architectural critic Talbot Hamlin wrote in 1931, "That it is the world's tallest building is purely incidental." George Shepard Chappell, writing in The New Yorker under the pseudonym "T-Square", wrote the same year that the Empire State Building had a "palpably enormous" appeal to the general public, and that "its difference and distinction [lay] in the extreme sensitiveness of its entire design". Edmund Wilson of The New Republic wrote that the building's neutral color palette made it "New York's handsomest skyscraper". Architectural critics also wrote negatively of the mast, especially in light of its failure to become a real air terminal. Chappell called the mast "a silly gesture", and Lewis Mumford called it "a public comfort station for migratory birds". Nevertheless, architecture critic Douglas Haskell said the Empire State Building's appeal came from the fact that it was "caught at the exact moment of transition—caught between metal and stone, between the idea of 'monumental mass' and that of airy volume, between handicraft and machine design, and in the swing from what was essentially handicraft to what will be essentially industrial methods of fabrication." ### As icon Early in the building's history, travel companies such as Short Line Motor Coach Service and New York Central Railroad used the building as an icon to symbolize the city. In a 1932 survey of 50 American architects, fourteen ranked the Empire State Building as the United States' best building; the Empire State Building received more votes than any building except the Lincoln Memorial. After the construction of the first World Trade Center, architect Paul Goldberger noted that the Empire State Building "is famous for being tall, but it is good enough to be famous for being good." As an icon of the United States, it is also very popular among Americans. In a 2007 survey, the American Institute of Architects found that the Empire State Building was "America's favorite building". The building was originally a symbol of hope in a country devastated by the Depression, as well as a work of accomplishment by newer immigrants. The writer Benjamin Flowers states that the Empire State was "a building intended to celebrate a new America, built by men (both clients and construction workers) who were themselves new Americans." The architectural critic Jonathan Glancey refers to the building as an "icon of American design". Additionally, in 2007, the Empire State Building was first on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture. The Empire State Building has been hailed as an example of a "wonder of the world" due to the massive effort expended during construction. The Washington Star listed it as part of one of the "seven wonders of the modern world" in 1931, while Holiday magazine wrote in 1958 that the Empire State's height would be taller than the combined heights of the Eiffel Tower and the Great Pyramid of Giza. The American Society of Civil Engineers also declared the building "A Modern Civil Engineering Wonder of the United States" in 1958 and one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World in 1994. Ron Miller, in a 2010 book, also described the Empire State Building as one of the "seven wonders of engineering". It has often been called the Eighth Wonder of the World as well, an appellation that it has held since shortly after opening. The panels installed in the lobby in 1963 reflected this, showing the seven original wonders alongside the Empire State Building. The Empire State Building also became the standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures globally, both natural and human-made. The building has also inspired replicas. The New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the "Empire Tower", a 47-story replica of the Empire State Building.In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the "Chrysler Tower", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall. A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Empire State Building's interior. ### In media Main article: Empire State Building in popular culture As an icon of New York City, the Empire State Building has been featured in various films, books, TV shows, and video games. According to the building's official website, more than 250 movies contain depictions of the Empire State Building. In his book about the building, John Tauranac writes that its first documented appearance in popular culture was Swiss Family Manhattan, a 1932 children's story by Christopher Morley. A year later, the film King Kong depicted Kong, a giant stop motion ape that climbs the Empire State Building during the film's climax, bringing the building into the popular imagination. Later movies such as An Affair to Remember (1957), Sleepless in Seattle (1993), and Independence Day (1996) also prominently featured the building. The building has also been featured in other works, such as "Daleks in Manhattan", a 2007 episode of the TV series Doctor Who; and Empire, an eight-hour black-and-white silent film by Andy Warhol, which was later added to the Library of Congress's National Film Registry. Throughout its history, the Empire State Building has welcomed celebrities, royalty, and dignitaries to visit the observation deck. From celebrities like Taylor Swift and Zendaya to royalty such as Prince William, the Empire State Building hosts notable figures every year. ### Empire State Building Run-Up The Empire State Building Run-Up, a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck, has been held annually since 1978. It is organized by NYCRUNS. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 ft (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour. Further reading --------------- * Aaseng, Nathan (1998). Construction: Building the Impossible. The Oliver Press, Inc. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-1-881508-59-5. * Dupré, Judith (2013). Skyscrapers: A History of the World's Most Extraordinary Buildings-Revised and Updated. New York: Hachette/Black Dog & Leventhal. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-57912-942-2. * James, Theodore Jr. (1975). The Empire State Building. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012172-3. * Kingwell, Mark (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10622-0. * Pacelle, Mitchell (2001). Empire: A Tale of Obsession, Betrayal, and the Battle for an American Icon. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-40394-4.
The Academic Library of Tritonia is a library that serves the educational and research needs of three different universities in Vaasa, Finland. These universities include University of Vaasa, Vaasa University of Applied Sciences, and Novia University of Applied Sciences. The library has units in Vaasa and Jakobstad. History and function -------------------- Tritonia started as an collaboration between University of Vaasa, the Vaasa branch of Åbo Akademi University, and Hanken Vaasa. The goal was to pool their educational resources in a joint library that could offer the same material, both digital and printed, to all the students and researchers of the respective universities. The first Tritonia building, which is located in the heart of the campus of University of Vaasa, was completed in 2001. In 2010, Vaasa University of Applied Sciences and Novia University of Applied Sciences joined the collaboration and merged their libraries with Tritonia's. Starting 2021, the Tritonia collaboration includes University of Vaasa, Vaasa University of Applied Sciences, and Novia University of Applied Sciences. In the summer 2022, Tritonia moved to its current location on campus, the renovated Luotsi building. The collections in Tritonia reflect the curricula of the respective universities. The library provides versatile printed and electronic materials. Printed collections are available for everyone, but e-resources are available mainly for students and staff of our universities and universities of applied sciences within the university network and through remote use. The library also has a collection of textbooks for the current courses held at the universities. The library also has a few special collections that are accessible only through special permission due to the collections' historical and rare nature. Tritonia provides courses on information retrieval for the students and researchers of the universities. Education in Information Literacy The universities use both Finnish and Swedish, which means that Tritonia's customer service is bilingual. Because a high number of non-native students study in the respective universities, English is also a commonly used language.
Australian rules footballer Australian rules footballer Lindsay Jacob (24 November 1946 – 8 July 2014) was an Australian rules footballer who played with North Melbourne in the Victorian Football League (VFL). Jacob started his career in the Hume Football League, playing for Walla Walla. In 1966, a premiership year, Jacob was joint winner of the league's best and fairest award, now known as the Azzi Medal. He joined Ovens & Murray Football League side Corowa the following year and in 1968 was a member of their premiership team. A rover, Jacob made two appearances for North Melbourne in the 1969 VFL season. He made his debut in their opening round win over South Melbourne at Arden Street and also played the following week against Melbourne at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Jacob captain-coached Kedron in Queensland from 1970 to 1974. Having already played in NSW, Victoria and Queensland, Jacob made his way to a fourth state in 1975 to play for Tasmanian club Ulverstone. Jacob was back at Kedron in 1976 and 1977, then had a stint with Sherwood, before returning to Kedron to play in the 1980 and 1981 seasons. Over the course of his career in Queensland, he represented the state in 10 interstate games and was state captain in 1970.
The Lengnau mappot; a collection of 218 Torah binders (also called wimpels), were discovered in the 1960s in the women's gallery of the synagogue in Lengnau (Aargau). In 1967, the wimpels were the subject of research by Florence Guggenheim-Grünberg, whose contribution was the first systematic description of this kind of collection. Today the Lengnau mappot belong to the Jewish Museum of Switzerland. The Lengnau mappot span almost three centuries, from 1655 to 1906. The width of the fabric ribbons in the collection ranges from 10 cm to 24 cm. The length is typically between two and three and a half metres. The wimpels are embroidered or painted with decorated Hebrew letters in Ashkenazi square-script. The wimpels from before 1854 are embroidered, after that they are mostly painted. As with all Ashkenazi Torah binders, the inscriptions on the Lengnau mappot follow the same pattern; first naming the son, then the father and then the child's date of birth according to the Jewish calendar. Some mappot additionally name Lengnau as the place of birth. A standardised saying follows; the boy should grow to the chuppa (marriage canopy) and good deeds under the guidance of the Torah. This wish, which originates from a blessing at circumcision, is illustrated by painted or embroidered pictures of Torah scrolls, chuppahs and other Jewish symbols. There are very few collections of Torah binders that come from a well-known community. A few examples are the collections from Bechhofen and Gernsheim am Rhein, but neither is as comprehensive as the Lengnau mappot. The Lengnau mappot bear witness to an unbroken tradition of rural Judaism in Switzerland and are an interesting resource for research into family history. The following Jewish families in Switzerland are frequently mentioned in the Lengnau Torah binders: Bloch Braunschweig Dreyfus Guggenheim Ris Wyler * Painted wimpel from 1886 belonging to Markus Israel GuggenheimPainted wimpel from 1886 belonging to Markus Israel Guggenheim * Embroidered wimpel from the Lengnau collection, Jewish Museum of SwitzerlandEmbroidered wimpel from the Lengnau collection, Jewish Museum of Switzerland * Embroidered wimpel belonging to Samuel, son of Meir, 1744Embroidered wimpel belonging to Samuel, son of Meir, 1744 * Torah scroll with crown, 1831 Torah scroll with crown, 1831 * Chuppah and Torah scroll on a wimpel from 1886 Chuppah and Torah scroll on a wimpel from 1886 * Intricately embroidered wimpel from 1726 Intricately embroidered wimpel from 1726 * Detail of a lion and a crown on a wimpel from 1902 Detail of a lion and a crown on a wimpel from 1902
American manslaughter victim Geraldine "Gerri" Santoro (née Twerdy; August 16, 1935 – June 8, 1964) was an American woman who died after receiving an unsafe abortion in 1964. A police photograph of her dead body, published by Ms., magazine in 1973, became a symbol for the abortion-rights movement in the United States. Biography --------- Santoro was raised, along with 14 siblings, on the farm of a Ukrainian-American family in Coventry, Connecticut. She was described by those who knew her as "fun-loving" and "free-spirited". At age 18 she married Sam Santoro; the couple had two daughters together. Circumstances of death ---------------------- In 1963, her husband's domestic abuse prompted Santoro to leave, and she and her daughters returned to her childhood home. She took a job at Mansfield State Training School, where she met another employee, Clyde Dixon. The two began an extramarital affair and Santoro became pregnant. When Sam Santoro announced he was coming from California to visit his daughters, Gerri Santoro feared for her life. On June 8, 1964, twenty-eight weeks into her pregnancy, she and Dixon checked into the Norwich Motel in Norwich, Connecticut, under aliases. They intended to perform a self-induced abortion, using surgical instruments and information from a textbook which Dixon had obtained from Milton Ray Morgan, a teacher at the Mansfield school. Dixon fled the motel after Santoro began to bleed. She died, and her body was found the following morning by a maid. Dixon and Morgan were arrested three days later. Dixon was charged with manslaughter, and Morgan was charged with conspiring to commit an illegal abortion. Dixon was sentenced to a year and day in prison. Photograph ---------- Police took a photograph of Santoro's body as she was found: naked, kneeling, collapsed upon the floor, with a bloody towel between her legs. The picture was used in placards and famously published in Ms., magazine in April 1973, all without identifying Santoro. The photo has since become an abortion-rights symbol, used to illustrate that access to legal and professionally performed abortion reduces deaths from unsafe abortion. Leona Gordon, Santoro's sister, saw the photo in Ms., magazine and recognized the subject. Santoro's daughters had been told their mother died in a car accident, which they believed until the photo became widely distributed. Of the photo's publication, Santoro's daughter, Joannie Santoro-Griffin, was quoted in 1995 as saying, "How dare they flaunt this? How dare they take my beautiful mom and put this in front of the public eye?" Later, Joannie became an abortion rights activist, attending the March for Women's Lives in 2004 with her teenage daughter Tara and Gerri Santoro's sister Leona, and blogging in memory of her mother. In 1995, Jane Gillooly, an independent filmmaker from Boston, Massachusetts, interviewed Gordon, Santoro's daughters, and others for a documentary about Santoro's life, Leona's Sister Gerri. The film was initially broadcast on the PBS series P.O.V. on June 1, 1995. It was later screened at film festivals, opening in the United States on November 2, 1995. In the documentary, Leona expressed that she was initially shocked by the photograph's publication, but that "as years went by... [she] thought it was good that it was printed."
Nigerian journalist Lola Omolola (born August 1, 1976) is a Nigerian former journalist who founded the Female IN (FIN) group on Facebook. Lola is the first Nigerian woman who created a place where other women can share their untold stories regarding their sexual abuses, and other challenges they are facing. She was featured in the 2018 Facebook F8 Conference. Education --------- Omolola completed her primary and secondary studies in Nigeria. After moving to the United States, she earned a Bachelor's degree in Broadcast journalism from Columbia College in Chicago. Career ------ Omolola is a former journalist, and she owned some TV shows in Nigeria. After earning her degree, she worked at the Community Counseling Centers of Chicago where she assisted people with mental health issues. Also, Omolola worked "for apartments.com but decided to quit when she had children." As a result, she started her own website called spicebaby.com where she was providing recipes for Nigerian food. Then she created FIN which is a Facebook page where women from Nigeria meet and share their stories without embarrassment. The group started as Female in Nigeria, but now changed to "Female IN" to accommodate its increasingly diverse membership. FIN has more than a million women who use this Facebook page. It is a private page that can only be accessed by its members. Omolola's goal is to help women who are struggling with life, but can not tell anyone about their issues because of tradition. In many countries like Nigeria, girls and women are voiceless. "[W]henever a girl shows any sign of self-awareness she gets silenced." So, FIN is for those voiceless women who have nobody to listen and encourage them. Accomplishments --------------- After she created FIN, Omolola met the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg. They discussed how women are getting support from FIN. In an interview with CNN, Mark Zuckerberg praised her for connecting voiceless women and building a safe community for them on Facebook. Lola is now planning to move forward with FIN by "providing centres where women can go to talk about their experiences in a safe space."
\| * v * t * e Bosley Locks \| \| --- \| \| Legend \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| To Macclesfield \| \| \| \| \| \| Bosley Reservoir and feeder \| \| \| \| \| 1 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Daintrys Road Bridge \| \| \| \| \| 2 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 3 \| \| \| \| \| 3 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 4 \| \| \| \| \| 4 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 5 \| \| \| \| \| 5 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Peckerpool Wood Bridge \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 6 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 7 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 8 \| \| \| \| \| 8 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Swindalls Bridge \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 9 \| \| \| \| \| 9 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 10 \| \| \| \| \| 10 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 11 \| \| \| \| \| 11 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| Pound for Lock 12 \| \| \| \| \| \| Dismantled railway bridge \| \| \| \| \| 12 \| Lock \| \| \| \| \| \| to Congleton \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bosley Lock Flight (grid reference SJ904662) is a flight of twelve canal locks, situated on the Macclesfield Canal at Bosley, near Macclesfield, Cheshire, England. The locks are substantially built with stone blocks, and unusually for narrow locks have mitre gates at both ends. They were each built with a side pond, which enabled some of the water to be re-used during a filling and emptying cycle. The side ponds have been disused for many years, but there are plans to reinstate one of them for demonstration purposes. History ------- The Macclesfield Canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained in April 1826, after the civil engineer Thomas Telford had produced two reports and estimated that the canal could be built for £295,000. He also selected which of the contractors who tendered for the job should be awarded the contract, but his involvement then ceased, and the construction was supervised by William Crosley, the resident engineer. The quality of the workmanship was excellent, and by the time the canal opened on 9 November 1831, the total cost was only slightly more than the estimate, at £320,000. Like many of Telford's designs, it used cuttings and embankments to maintain as straight and level a course as possible, and this enabled all the locks to be built as a single flight, although there was also a stop lock where the canal joined the Hall Green Branch of the Trent and Mersey Canal at Hall Green. The contractors who built the locks were called Nowell and Sons. When the canal was opened, there was also a stop lock at Marple Junction where it joined the Peak Forest Canal, but this stop lock has long since been degated, and only a narrow section with remains of the A-frames betrays its former existence. When built, the flight was designed to be operated by two lock keepers. One had a cottage at the top of the flight near lock 1, and the other near lock 11. The top cottage is still there, but the bottom one has been demolished. The locks are built out of large stone blocks, and these were quarried near the bottom of the flight. Although there is no trace of it now, it is thought that a tramway brought the blocks from the quarry to the locks. In the 1950s, a reservoir was built in the disused quarry. Route ----- A hire boat in lock 4. The frame for the side pond paddles can be seen near the back of the boat. From Buglawton, on the northern edge of Congleton, the canal runs along the south bank of the River Dane for 2 miles (3.2 km), before crossing the river on an aqueduct, and then climbing up the side of the valley. The twelve locks are spread over a distance of just 1 mile (1.6 km), and raise the level of the canal by 118 feet (36 m) to the 518-foot (158 m) contour, which it then follows to Marple Junction. The locks are numbered 1 to 12 from the top downwards. A minor road crosses at Daintrys Road Bridge, just below lock 1, the A54 road crosses at Peckerpool Bridge, below lock 5, Swindalls Bridge carries a footpath over the canal below lock 8, and a dismantled railway used to cross above lock 12. The surroundings are rural and partially wooded. There are some secluded moorings by the locks, which are suitable for standard narrow boats, up to a maximum size of 70 by 7 feet (21.3 by 2.1 m). The railway bridge once carried the Churnet Valley Line which left the main line from Stoke to Manchester at North Rode, just to the west of lock 2. Bosley railway station was located by lock 5, and the railway passed through Leek to reach Uttoxeter. Part of it is now preserved as the Churnet Valley Railway. Because of the short distances between the locks, most of the intervening pounds are extended sideways, in order to increase their volume, and lessen the changes in level when a lock full of water is emptied into the pound by a boat descending the flight or removed from the pound to fill the lock below as a boat ascends. The locks are built of rusticated red gritstone, and most are grade II listed structures. The listing includes the ponds to the west of each of the locks. Daintrys Road Bridge has an elliptical arch, and is built of reddish-buff ashlar gritstone, as is Peckerpool Wood Bridge. Both date from the opening of the canal. Swindalls Bridge is a farm accommodation bridge, and is also built of gritstone blocks. The aqueduct that carries the canal over the River Dane below lock 12 is 45 feet (14 m) high and has a semi-circular arch with a span of 35 feet (11 m). Bosley Reservoir, the main source of water for the canal, is situated about 1 mile (1.6 km) to the east of the flight, and a feeder supplies water to the summit pound just above the top lock. Features -------- How a lock with a side pond works The locks are unusual for narrow canals, in that they are fitted with mitre gates at both top and bottom, as opposed to the more usual clapper top gate. The chambers are constructed from large blocks of stone, with mason's marks visible on many of them. The locks were equipped with side ponds to save water, but these were taken out of use many years ago, although they still function as overflow channels. The frames for the paddle gear are still visible at four of them. Lock ponds are ponds which are maintained at an intermediate level between the upper pound and the lower pound. When a lock is emptying, water from the top of the lock fills the pond, and the rest is discharged to the lower pound. When the lock is filling, water from the pond fills the bottom of the lock, and the rest is then drawn from the top pound. By careful design of the size and level of the ponds, those at Bosley managed to re-use about 40 per cent of the water in this way. The bottom of each lock was connected by a culvert to the bottom of its pond, and a paddle controlled the flow of water through the culvert. The paddle had to be capable of sealing the culvert against flow in either direction, since when closed it had to prevent the lock from emptying when it is full, and from filling when it is empty. British Waterways, in conjunction with the Macclesfield Canal Society, are hoping to restore one of the side ponds to enable its operation to be demonstrated, although it is likely that it will only be used for demonstrations, rather than in normal operation of the lock. In 2008 the side pond adjacent to lock 4 was cleared and investigated. Although the paddle gear was beyond repair, enough of it was left to see that it included a counterbalance mechanism, and the stonework of the pond was still in good condition. The culverts are currently bricked up, and the brickwork will have to be removed if the side pond is returned to service. Each of the locks has a stone overflow weir on its towpath side, just above the top gates. A stone culvert runs under the towpath to feed the water into the side pond, which also has an overflow weir at its lower end. Another culvert feeds excess water back into the canal below the bottom gates of the lock. 53°11′30″N 2°08′38″W / 53.1917°N 2.1439°W / 53.1917; -2.1439 Bibliography ------------ * Cumberlidge, Jane (2009). Inland Waterways of Great Britain (8th Ed.). Imray Laurie Norie and Wilson. ISBN 978-1-84623-010-3. * Gilman, Harold (1992). The Macclesfield Canal. M G Publications. ISBN 978-0-9518608-0-9. * Hadfield, Charles (1985). The Canals of the West Midlands. David and Charles. ISBN 978-0-7153-8644-6. * Nicholson (2006). Nicholson Waterways Guide (Vol 5): North West and the Pennines. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-721113-5. * Oxenham; Tunnicliffe (1978). A lake in the hills. Cheshire Conservation Trust. Archived from the original on 12 July 2013. ### References 1. ↑ Hadfield 1985, pp. 211–212 2. ↑ Oxenham & Tunnicliffe 1978 3. ↑ "Bosley Locks". Macclesfield Canal Society. Retrieved 5 March 2012. 4. ↑ Nicholson 2006, pp. 138–141 5. ↑ Cumberlidge 2009, p. 180 6. ↑ Gilman 1992, p. 135 7. ↑ Ordnance Survey, 1:25,000 map 8. ↑ Historic England. "Bosley Lock 11 and Lock Pound (Grade II) (1138914)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 6 March 2012. 9. ↑ Historic England. "Macclesfield Canal bridge no 54 (Grade II) (1138910)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 6 March 2012. 10. ↑ Historic England. "Macclesfield Canal bridge no 55 (Grade II) (1138912)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 6 March 2012. 11. ↑ Historic England. "Macclesfield Canal bridge no 56 (Grade II) (1313042)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 6 March 2012. 12. ↑ Historic England. "Dane Aqueduct Bosley (Grade II) (1135940)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 6 March 2012. 13. ↑ "Reservoirs and feeders". Macclesfield Canal Society. March 2012. 14. ↑ Nicholson 2006, p. 139 15. 1 2 3 "Bosley Side Ponds". Macclesfield Canal Society. 4 January 2011. 16. ↑ Gilman 1992, pp. 128–130
Italian painter The Interior of Vesuvius Odoardo Maria Saverio Fischetti (30 April 1770, Naples - 15 November 1827, Naples) was an Italian painter of landscapes and historical scenes in a Neoclassical style. Life and work ------------- He was born to the fresco painter Fedele Fischetti and his wife Marianna, née Borrelli. His father provided his first lessons in art. His younger brother, Alessandro [it], also became a painter. From 1803 to 1804, he made additions to his father's frescoes at the Palace of Portici. In 1805, he created some vedute in gouache, depicting the interior of Vesuvius. They were commissioned by Duke Ascanio Della Torre, the author of various scientific reports on the volcano's eruptions. With the arrival of the French Napoleonic administration of Joachim Murat in 1808, he painted a series of historical canvases, including Murat Directs the Capture of Capri from Massa Lubrense and its companion piece, Capture of Capri by the French. He became a master of design at the Royal College of the Navy [it] in 1809. During the following years, he would work at the Royal Palace of Caserta and in San Leucio. After the fall of Murat in 1815, he devoted himself almost entirely to religious paintings. These include the Virgin, Saint Blaise, Andrea, Erasmo and Alfonso Maria de Liguori (1821), for the Ccollegiata di San Giovanni Battista in Avella, a Madonna and Child Between Saints Simon and Jude, for the church of Santa Maria della Mercede a Montecalvario, a Transport of the Holy Ark (1823), for the church of San Biagio in Cardito, and Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata, for the Oratorio della Confraternita dei Bianchi dei Santi Francesco e Matteo [it]. The French Capture of Capri He was married twice: to Emilia Catozzi, with whom he had four children, and Maria Giuseppa Milzi, who gave him another five.
\| Politics of Serbia \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| Constitution * Constitutional Court President: Snežana Marković \| \| Executive * President (list) Aleksandar Vučić * Government Prime Minister Ivica Dačić (acting) First Deputy Prime Minister Ivica Dačić \| \| Legislature * National Assembly President: Ana Brnabić Current membership \| \| Judiciary * Supreme Court President: Jasmina Vasović \| \| Elections * Recent elections + Presidential: 2017 + 2022 + Parliamentary: 2022 + 2023 + Provincial: 2020 + 2023 + Local: 2023 + 2024 * Political parties \| \| Administrative divisions * Municipalities and cities * Districts * Regions \| \| Foreign relations * Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister: Ivica Dačić --- * Diplomatic missions of / in Serbia --- * Nationality law * Passport * Visa requirements * Visa policy --- * EU accession * NATO relations * Political status of Kosovo \| \| flag Serbia portal * Other countries \| \| * v * t * e \| The Misdemeanor Appellate Court of Republic of Serbia is a court of law with headquarters in Belgrade. The MAC is composed of three departments located in the cities of Novi Sad, Kragujevac and Niš. The President of the Court is Chief Judge Zoran Pasalic. Court jurisdiction ------------------ The Misdemeanor Appellate Court of the Republic of Serbia it is the court of appellate which reviews and possibly overturns previous rulings made by lower courts. The MAC also decides on the conflict and jurisdiction of lower magistrates' courts and perform other duties, and it can take other legal actions in other legal matters prescribed by law. Also, The Misdemeanor Appellate Court reviews and monitors the work of Magistrates' courts, by obtaining data from the court records and reports required to monitor misdemeanor practice, practical application of laws and regulations, monitoring and analyzing social phenomena and relations, and information on other matters of interest to the exercise of their functions. Misdemeanor Appellate Court has a total of 174 employees, of which 65 Judges including Chief Judge. Jurisdiction of the court departments ------------------------------------- Departments of the Misdemeanor Appellate Court outside the seat of the court, are located in city of Novi Sad, Kragujevac and Nis, and they have same legal authority to decide on appeals against decisions of magistrates' courts, and to take other legal action prescribed by law. Article 7 of Law on Seats and Territories of Courts and Public Prosecutors were identified by the Department of the Higher Magistrates Court as follows: * The MAC department in Kragujevac oversees regional areas for magistrates' courts located in cities of Arandelovac, Milanovac, Jagodina, Kragujevac, Kraljevo, Krusevac, Novi Pazar and Paracic Požegi, Prijepolju, Raska, arbor, Trsteniku and Uzice. * The MAC department in Nis oversees regional areas for magistrates' courts located in cities of Vranje, Zajecar, Leskovac, and Kosovska Mitrovica Negotin, Nis, Pirot, Presevo and Prokuplje. * The MAC department in Novi Sad oversees regional areas for magistrates' courts located in cities of Backa Palanka, Bečej, Vrsac, Zrenjanin, Kikinda, Novi Sad, Šabac, Rumi, Senta, Sombor, Sremska Mitrovica and Subotica. History ------- Legal norms in the field of rights infringement could be found in the Roman private law. Such norms were made for keeping the peace, against violence, arbitrariness, trespass, etc... He brought them to the Edil, and he had, among other things, the task of ensuring order in the streets, markets and other public places. Taking the office Edil issued a proclamation on how to resolve individual cases that come to him. These legal norms were called edicts, and for them are a process quicker and with less formality than it were in criminal and civil proceedings. In the former Yugoslavia offenses were the subject of criminal law and only in Vojvodina was considered a special Law on Minor Offences, which was adopted in 1879. during Austro Hungarian reign. On 10 June 1926. The misdemeanor law was made by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Recitals 1 Misdemeanors are those offenses for which the law prescribes imprisonment of thirty days or a fine of up to nine hundred thousand.) Penal Code that was enacted in 1929 did not provided legal proceedings for misdemeanor offenses, as the same should be regulated by the above-mentioned Act, which was prepared as preliminary draft, however, it was never adopted. The Basic Law on Misdemeanors in FNRJ was passed in 1947. It was a federal law, completely proscribing all postulates regarding misdemeanor offences: the conditions and basis of criminal liability, penalties, statute of limitations, the organization and jurisdiction of the misdemeanor authority, infringement procedure and other provisions, including enforcement of the law. New Basic Law on offenses was adopted in 1951. in the form of the revised text, and the amendments to the Basic Law on offenses committed in 1965. and contains important innovations in the system of criminal proceedings. For prosecution is competent municipal magistrate, and in the second instance is responsible Sresko more misdemeanor, unless the law stipulates that in the second instance proceedings Republican Council for violations. Major innovations consist in the fact that the defendant is allowed to misdemeanor proceedings may be taken counsel, introduced a legal institution of judicial protection and restoration of the institute the proceedings. In the time since 1972. until 1974. was a period of national and provincial adoption of the Law on Minor Offenses. As in most other areas in the field of offenses we got 9 jurisdictions, governed by federal, state and provincial laws. The Socialist Republic of Serbia, out of province, in the first instance misdemeanor proceedings shall be conducted Magistrate or City Magistrate of Belgrade, and in the second instance, the City Council of the City of Belgrade misdemeanor or higher for offenses that are located at the headquarters of the inter-municipal regional communities. In the Autonomous Province of Kosovo constituted courts for offenses, while in the province of Vojvodina in the first instance proceedings will be conducted magistrates, and in the second instance, the province Greater misdemeanor. Finally, in 2005, a new Law on Minor Offenses, published in the "Official Gazette of RS", No. 101 of 25.11.2005. year, which after several delays became effective 01.01.2010. year. Establishment of special magistrates' courts and translation magistrates from the administrative spheres in the justice system, the Law on Judges, the Law on Courts and the Law on Seats and Territories of Courts and Public Prosecutors ("Off. Gazette." No. 116/08) were solved One of the most important and controversial issues of our tort law and thus fulfilled the constitutional and international demand that the rights and duties of citizens, especially their punishment may ultimately be decided by a court. Court Organization ------------------ ### Court administration Court administration perform tasks that support the exercise of judicial power, provides conditions for proper and timely operation and legal matter of the court and include administrative, technical, professional, IT, financial and other related departments relevant to the judicial authority. ### Court registry Administrative and technical work is performed at the court in the court clerk's office, at the seat of the court in Belgrade. ### Archive & Almanac Finally resolved legal documents are archived and stored in the archive, which is a part of the Registry. ### Accounting Material and financial transactions are carried out by the Accounting department, HQ in the seat of the court. ### Department of Information and Communication Technologies Formed for activities related to the establishment and maintenance of ICT and electronic data processing, storage and transmission of information in court and between departments located outside HQ, and with lower misdemeanor courts. ### Office arrangement The President determines the layout of the courthouse, by annual distribution of tasks ### the Distribution of cases In accordance with court rules, the newly items are first sorted by urgency, type of procedure, and the legal field, and then distributed according to the reckoning of receipt, by random determination of the Judge. ### Reception The President or his designee considers the complaints of the parties and other participants in the judicial process who believe the process is delayed, improper, or that there is any influence on the course and outcome, and take certain measures in accordance with the law. ### Jurisprudence In order to monitor and study the case law of the court with a number of judges formed by the Department of case law, and the Head of the Department of case law, and judges appointed by the president of the court. ### Counseling & Legal Training Judges and court staff have the right to professional development and training. ### PR & Press Releases Press release about the court and some cases gives the President, and the person responsible for informing the public (spokesperson, Press Officer, etc.), or a special service for information. ### Reports and statistics The Registry compiles regular and periodic reports of the court, the departments and the judges, according to the prescribed standard methodology. Addresses --------- ### The Misdemeanor Appellate Court HQ Address: Timočka 15, Belgrade President of the Court: Chief Judge Zoran Pasalic Vice President of the Court: Judge Miroslav Janjetović Court Press Officer: mr. Aleksandar Ilic ### The MAC Department in Kragujevac President of the Court department in Kragujevac Judge Miroslav Petrovic Address: Trg Slobode 3, Kragujevac ### The MAC Department in Nis President of the Court department in Nis Judge Address: Vojvode Putnika BB, Niš ### The MAC Department in Novi Sad President of the Court department in Novi Sad Judge Mirjana Tukar Address: Bulevar oslobođenja 58, Novi Sad
CFLAGS and CXXFLAGS are either the name of environment variables or of Makefile variables that can be set to specify additional switches to be passed to a compiler in the process of building computer software. FFLAGS fulfills a similar role. These variables are usually set inside a Makefile and are then appended to the command line when the compiler is invoked. If they are not specified in the Makefile, then they will be read from the environment, if present. Tools like autoconf's ./configure script will usually pick them up from the environment and write them into the generated Makefiles. Some package install scripts, like SDL, allow CFLAGS settings to override their normal settings (instead of append to them), so setting CFLAGS can cause harm in this case. CFLAGS enables the addition of switches for the C compiler, while CXXFLAGS is meant to be used when invoking a C++ compiler. Similarly, a variable CPPFLAGS exists with switches to be passed to the C or C++ preprocessor. Similarly, FFLAGS enables the addition of switches for a Fortran compiler. These variables are most commonly used to specify optimization or debugging switches to a compiler, as for example `-g`, `-O2` or (GCC-specific) `-march=athlon`.
Indian entrepreneur, co-founder Radhe Shyam Goenka (also known as R. S. Goenka) is an Indian entrepreneur, co-founder and whole time Director of Emami, a diversified business conglomerate engaged in the business of FMCG, paper, real estate, edible oil & bio-diesel, health care cement, pharma retail, book & leisure retail, solar power and contemporary art. Radhe is among the top 100 richest Indians and listed on Forbes world's billionaire. Early life ---------- Radhe was born on 19 February 1946 in Kolkata India. Radhe Shyam completed his college education from St. Xavier's College Kolkata. He got his LLB from Calcutta University; and M.Com from Calcutta University. In 1970, Radhe joined K K Birla Group as head of the income tax department. Emami ----- In 1974 Radhe along with his school friend Radhe Shyam Agarwal started a cosmetics company Emami. The company was started with a capital of $2600 borrowed from his father. Emami is now a multiple business global group of companies with a revenue of above $1.3 billions. Criminal charges ---------------- In the early morning of 9 December 2011, an AMRI Hospital in south Kolkata’s Dhakuria district erupted in fire, leading to the deaths of 92 people – mostly critically ill patients, many of them suffocating in their sleep. The following day, the license for the hospital was canceled, and the Chief Minister of West Bengal ordered a judicial inquiry into the incident. Allegedly, the fire was triggered by flammable chemicals that were stored at the site. Rescue efforts were hampered by the narrowness and congestion of the road leading to the hospital, and the allegations that all of the windows and doors were locked and that the fire alarms and sprinklers installed at the hospital did not work during the fire. Seven members of the hospital's board were arrested the same day, including Goenka and Agarwal, who were founders of Emami and directors of the hospital chain; they were remanded to police custody until 20 December by the court of the Chief Judicial Magistrate in Alipore. They were charged with negligently causing the deaths. Ultimately a total of 16 people stood accused in the courts in July 2016, including the board members and several directors of the hospital. Amongst the charges were culpable homicide not amounting to murder under section 304 of the Indian Penal Code, which carries a maximum sentence of 10 years imprisonment in cases where the criminal actions are undertaken knowingly but without the intention to cause death. Additional charges were laid under Section 308 (attempt to commit culpable homicide) and Section 38 (effect caused partly by act and partly by omission). The fire was recorded as the largest hospital tragedy in India at the time. Awards & Recognitions --------------------- * 1. Awarded the Cavalier Cross Order of Merit, the Republic of Poland in 2007 (fifth Indian to receive this award). Associations ------------ Radhe serves as the President of Chemical Division at Gmmco Limited, Advisor of Kemco Chemicals, Executive Chairman at Emami Paper Mills Limited, Joint Chairman of Emami group of companies, Zandu Pharmaceutical Works Limited, Executive Director at Emami Paper Mills, Chairman of South City Project (Kolkata) Limited, Advance Medicare & Research Institute Limited, Suntrack Commerce Private. Limited, Merchant Chamber of Commerce, South City Parivaar Private Limited, Susruta Clinic & Research Institute for Advance Medicines Private Limited, Bhanu Vyapaar Private Limited, Pro-sports Management Limited, Suraj Viniyog Private Limited and Emami Realty Private Limited. Radhe had served as an Independent & Non Executive Director of Khaitan (India) Limited, Director of Zandu Realty Limited. He served as the Honorary Consul of Republic of Poland in Kolkata and was the Co-Chairman of the Indian Cancer Society, Kolkata. Radhe is a Director-Member of the Managing Committee of Merchant Chamber of Commerce & Industry (MCCI). Family ------ Radhe is married and has two sons, Manish Goenka and Mohan Goenka and one daughter Rachna Goenka Bagaria. The entire family manages the business of Emami group and lives in Southern Avenue Kolkata India. Rachna Goenka is married to Rajesh Bagaria.
Danish sociologist Signe Arnfred (born 1944) is a Danish sociologist, feminist and writer who in 1971 became closely involved in Danish feminist activities. A leading figure in the Red Stocking Movement, she organized and participated in meetings and seminars which formed the basis of gender studies in Denmark. In the 1980s. together with her husband she spent four years in Mozambique where she was instrumental in developing a new approach to women in politics. In the late 1980s and early 1990s she was also active in Greenland. Arnfred has published books and articles addressing the place of women in society. Early life, family and education -------------------------------- Born in Nykøbing Sjælland on 22 January 1944, Signe Arnfred is the daughter of the specialist physician Axel Helweg Arnfred (1915–2004) and his wife Asta Julie née Busck, a social worker. In 1989, she married the architect Jan Birket-Smith (born 1945) with whom she has two children: Anne Julie (1977) and Katrine (1980). Raised in closely-knit family, Arnfred completed her high school education at Copenhagen's Akademisk Studenterkursus in 1962. She spent the next two years travelling in Scandinavia, teaching in Jutland and working as a maid in Italy. In 1964, she began to study philosophy at Aarhus University but then moved to the University of Copenhagen where she earned a master's in cultural sociology in 1973. She went on to spend a further period of study at Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda. Career ------ Back in Denmark, in 1971 she became a member of the feminist organization Kvindebevægelsen and helped to arrange the key weekend gathering in Tåstrup in January 1972 which brought together some 250 women from Copenhagen and the Danish provinces. Her resulting contacts with the Red Stocking Movement led to her adopting a Marxist-feminist approach to sociology. During the 1970s, she was instrumental in organizing a series of meetings and seminars in support of the women's movement and women's studies, paving the way for the development of gender studies as a branch of academic study. In this connection, she wrote several books. Together with Karen Syberg, in 1974 she published Kvindesituation og kvindebevægelse under kapitalismen (Women's Situation and Women's Movement under Capitalism). She was appointed an assistant professor at Roskilde University in 1974, becoming an associate professor in 1977. In 1980, she moved with her husband and children to Mozambique where she worked with the women's organization until 1984, bringing about a new approach to women in politics. In 1988, they moved to Greenland where she taught sociology at the University of Greenland, subsequently coordinating the publication of Kvinder i Grønland (Women in Greenland, 1991). Arnfeld has maintained a continued interest in Africa, revisiting Mozambique and working as a consultant in Harare, Zimbabwe. In 2011, she published Sexuality and Gender Politics in Mozambique: Rethinking Gender in Africa, receiving positive reviews.
German Buddhist nun Not to be confused with Ayu Khandro. Ayya Khema (August 25, 1923 – November 2, 1997) was a Buddhist teacher noted for providing opportunities for women to practice Buddhism, founding several centers around the world. In 1987, she helped coordinate the first-ever Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women. Over two dozen books of her transcribed Dhamma talks in English and German have been published. In the last year of her life, she also published her autobiography: I Give You My Life. Biography --------- Born as Ilse Kussel in Berlin, Germany in 1923 to Jewish parents. In 1938, her parents escaped from Germany and traveled to China while plans were made for Khema to join two hundred other children emigrating to Glasgow, Scotland. After two years in Scotland, Khema joined her parents in Shanghai. With the outbreak of the war, Japan conquered Shanghai and the family was moved into the Shanghai Ghetto in Hongkew where her father died five days before the war ended. At age twenty-two, Khema married a man seventeen years her senior named Johannes and they moved to an apartment in the Hongkou District. In 1947, her first child, a daughter named Irene, was born. As the People's Liberation Army were on the cusp of taking Shanghai, Khema and her family fled for San Francisco, California, United States. From San Francisco, Khema moved to Los Angeles and then San Diego where she gave birth to her second child, a son named Jeffrey. Soon, Khema began feeling incomplete and investigated various spiritual paths, an interest her husband didn't share. This led to their divorce. Khema moved with her infant son to Rancho La Puerta in Tecate, Mexico, to study the philosophy of the Essenes with Professor Edmund Skekely. There she married her second husband, Gerd. The whole family soon became vegetarian, a practice Khema continued until her death. The three traveled for years, visiting South America, New Zealand, Australia, Pakistan, then settling in Sydney, Australia, where Khema began to study with Phra Khantipalo. To further her studies, Khema traveled to San Francisco to study Zen at the San Francisco Zen Center and worked at Tassajara Zen Mountain Center for three months. She then spent three weeks in Burma where she studied meditation with students of U Ba Khin. In 1978, Khema founded the Wat Buddha Dhamma forest monastery in New South Wales and installed Phra Khantipalo as abbot. Khema's desire to become a Buddhist nun led her to Thailand where she studied with Tan Ajahn Singtong for three months. Sri Lanka was her next destination where she met Nyanaponika Thera who introduced her to Narada Maha Thera. Narada Thera gave her the name "Ayya Khema". A 1983 return trip to Sri Lanka, led her to meet her teacher, Ven. Matara Sri Ñānarāma of Nissarana Vanaya, who inspired her to teach jhana meditation. As it was not possible at the time to organize an ordination ceremony for bhikkhunis in the Theravada tradition, Ayya Khema then received complete monastic ordination at the newly built Hsi Lai Temple, a Chinese Mahayana temple under the Fo Guang Shan Buddhist Order, in 1988. Khema was one of the organizers of the first International Conference on Buddhist Women in 1987 which led to the foundation of the Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women. In 1989, Khema returned to Germany and began teaching at Buddha Haus in Munich. According to Ayya Khema's own account, she had been suffering from breast cancer since 1983. In 1993, she underwent a mastectomy operation in Germany. During a five-week recovery period in the hospital she almost died, but her condition was expeditiously stabilized by the medics. In an interview she expressed a positive opinion of that experience. > There were two days in the hospital, when I had that feeling, that the energy was leaving, through the feet actually. There was a collapse of the whole system... Losing one's life energy is actually a very pleasant state, because there's less self-assertion, I mean you haven't got the energy to assert yourself. So things are more acceptable, everything is acceptable, it's fine the way it is... One could say that action of dying, if there's no resistance, is extremely pleasant... That seemed to be less and less life energy within the body, and I just was relaxing into that. I was perfectly willing to let it happen, but then these doctors came round... My blood pressure just went way down, waaay down, I mean like almost not happening, and that's when you lose all your energy... It was a very interesting experience and now I can see it's extremely pleasant. It's just letting go and disappearing, and it's very nice. > > Ayya Khema died on November 2, 1997, at Buddha Haus, Uttenbühl (part of the village Oy-Mittelberg) in Germany after fourteen years with breast cancer. Her ashes are kept in a stupa at Buddha Haus. Publications ------------ * Being Nobody, Going Nowhere: Meditations on the Buddhist Path, Wisdom Publications, 1987, ISBN 978-0861711987 * When the Iron Eagle Flies: Buddhism for the West, Wisdom Publications, 1991 ISBN 978-0861711697 * Who is myself? A guide to Buddhist meditation (commentary on the Poṭṭhapāda Sutta), Wisdom Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-0861711277 * I Give You My Life (autobiography), Shambhala Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-1570625718 * Come and See for Yourself: The Buddhist Path to Happiness, Windhorse Publications, 1998, ISBN 978-1899579457 * Be an Island: The Buddhist practice of Inner Peace, Wisdom Publications, 1999, ISBN 978-0861711475 * Visible Here and Now: The Buddhist Teachings on the Rewards of Spiritual Practice (commentary on the Samaññaphala Sutta), Shambhala Publications, 2001, ISBN 978-1570624926 * Know Where You're Going: A Complete Buddhist Guide to Meditation, Faith, and Everyday Transcendence (retitled republication of When the Iron Eagle Flies), Wisdom Publications, 2014, ISBN 978-1614291930 * The Meditative Mind (retitled republication of To Be Seen Here And Now), Buddhist Publication Society, 2012, ISBN 978-9552403859 * Within Our Own Hearts, Buddhist Publication Society, 2012, ISBN 978-9552402906 ### Bodhi Leaf Publications (BPS) * Self-Image and Self-Knowledge (BL105) * Meditating On No-Self (BL95)
Juan Alfonso de Baena (?–c. 1435) was a medieval Castilian poet and scribe in the court of Juan II of Castile. Baena, who was a converso (a Jewish convert to Christianity), is best known for compiling and contributing to the Cancionero de Baena, an important medieval anthology composed between 1426 and 1465 containing the poems of over 55 Spanish poets who wrote during the reigns of Enrique II, Juan I, and Enrique III, and Juan II. Statue of Juan Alfonso de Baena in his hometown of Baena, Córdoba Life ---- ### Early life Not much is known of Juan Alfonso de Baena's life. However, it is known that Baena was born in the late 14th century in the town of Baena in Córdoba, Spain to Jewish parents. According to research by José Manuel Nieto Cumplido, Baena's father was named Pero López and he grew up in the former Jewish quarter of Baena. Other members of Baena's family, including his wife, children and nephew, were also uncovered during this research. Nieto Cumplido discovered that Baena's wife was called Elvira Fernández de Cárdenas, who was the daughter of Lope Ruiz de Cárdenas and María López de Luna. Baena and his wife had at least two children, one also named Juan Alfonso de Baena and the second named Diego de Carmona. Additionally, Baena's nephew (the son of Baena's brother Fernando Alonso de Baena), Antón de Montoro, was a fellow poet. Montoro was a used-clothes dealer called a ropero who also enjoyed wealthy patrons and used his talent at self-deprecating rhymes that highlighted his unfortunate appearance and Jewish blood. Town of Baena Baena's hometown is responsible for his last name, as it was not uncommon for people to take their last names from their home regions. This practice was also sometimes utilized by conversos when they took on Christian names. Baena is said to have converted from Judaism to Christianity as a result of the first pogroms in 1391, making him one of the many conversos who converted during this era. From his own poems documented in the Cancionero de San Román, it can be deduced that Baena was not only born in Baena, but was educated there. In this poem that references his education and upbringing, Baena writes, > Yo leí dentro de Baena, / do[nde] aprendí hacer borrones / y comer alcaparrones/ muchas veces sobre cena. > > — Juan Alfonso de Baena, Cancionero de San Román ### Court Life and Death After his education in Baena (the extent of this education is not known), Baena is said to have worked as a tax collector and bureaucrat during the early years of the 15th century. After this, he appears to have earned a place at the court of Juan II, where he compiled his most well-known work, Cancionero de Baena. At Juan II's court, he was an escribano de cámara, literally a ‘chamber scribe,’ but more accurately, a ‘royal bureaucrat,' and a part-time jester. According to Charles Fraker, this position at court suggests that Baena’s family was traditionally a family of burghers. However, according to the research of Francisco Márquez Villanueva, this role was not held by Baena consistently throughout his life. Because of lapses in output and periods of absence in official court records, de Baena "must have been idle or out of grace for long periods during which" he wrote "many abject petitions to the same high patrons and was also at war" with various other poets defending his own talent and attacking others’, most especially that of the much disliked Daviuelo, with whom the famous Alfonso Álvarez de Villasandino also fought metaphorically in poetic debates. 19th century depiction of Juan II Because of these periods of disgrace, which may have resulted from taking his satirical rhymes, that often critiqued court life, too far, Baena appears never to have risen above the title of court scribe, even though his anthology, his Cancionero, has become the most important literary product of Juan II's court. According to Amador de los Ríos, however, Baena was not simply a royal scribe but a secretary to Juan II. Before working for the king directly, Baena is said to have held the patronage of Diego Fernández de Córdoba. After decades spent in and out of favor, acting as royal scribe and secretary while composing his own court writing, Juan Alfonso de Baena died during the later years of Juan II's reign. While Baena's death date had long been a mystery, in 1979, Nieto Cumplido discovered manuscripts that suggest Baena died in 1435. ### Heritage Baena's Jewish heritage can be deduced from his own writings. In the kind of poems Baena and his fellow court fools wrote, the object was often to be as self-depreciating as possible with the ultimate goal of making the court, especially the royal family, laugh. The trait that Baena mocked about himself most of all was his ‘Jewishness,' which he would emphasize for comedic effect, referencing many Jewish stereotypes of the time. About the Cancionero in its prologue, Baena states more seriously, "El cual dicho libro...hizo y ordenó y compuso y recopiló el [judino] Juan Alfonso de Baena." Here, Baena takes credit for compiling the anthology by calling himself, 'el judino' Juan Alfonso. As judino (spelled indino in the original manuscript) is a pejorative term for Jew in Spanish, it is evident that even Baena himself admitted to and identified with his heritage, even in formal matters. Also customary for jester-poets like Baena were feuds, called poetic debates, performed for court amusement but sometimes in earnest, among the authors, dueled through fixed-rhymed poems requestas that pit poet against poet that became increasingly absurd insults the longer they went on. Insults against Baena also reveal his heritage. These include references to eggplants, a vegetable that had become a stereotypical identifier of Jewish (and Muslim) food during this era. One such insult by Rodrigo de Harana directed specifically at Baena states, "a vos que andades sin obediencia/apóstata hecho con mucha blandura," an insult that accuses Baena of apostasy, suggesting he has converted. These references, and the fact that nearly every court jester writing during this era was a Jewish convert (with the exception of Villasandino, one of Baena's most formidable literary adversaries and perhaps the most famous court fool of the era) make almost certain of Baena's heritage despite a lack of official documentation. Work ---- ### Cancionero de Baena Cancioneros, or songbooks, were compilations of lyrical poetry most popular during the second half of the 14th century and the first half of the 15th century, though they first appeared in Iberia as early as the beginning of the 13th century in Galicia. In Iberia, these songbooks were originally compilations of Galician courtly poems and eventually broadened in both scope and language. According to Yirmiyahu Yovel, the poems contained in the Iberian cancioneros used "unadorned language and simple rhyme, the poems dealt, sometimes irreverently, with current events, people, social habits, and institutions, and they also served their authors to quarrel, flatter, defame, and supplicate." In this way, cancioneros could serve as an insightful or even critical looks into the social and political realities of the royal courts and preserved vast amounts of medieval Iberian court poetry. The Surviving 15th Century Manuscript of Cancionero de Baena The particular Cancionero in question, the one compiled by Baena, consists of 576 poems composed by 56 poets. These poems were written between the beginning of the Trastámara reign in the mid 14th century to the mid 15th century, which included the reigns of Enrique II (1369-1379), Juan I (1379-1390), and Enrique III (1390-1406), and Juan II (1406-1454). Some sources date the Cancionero from 1426 to 1430, while others believe it is from the mid 1440s. If Baena was the only one who added poems to the anthology, this would place its compilation during the earlier dates. However, according to Alberto Blecua’s and Vicente Beltrán’s research, it appears that some poems were added to the Cancionero by other compilers after his death, making later dates a possibility for the completion if not the genesis of the anthology. Therefore, the best compilation dates for the Cancionero are between 1426 and 1430 for Baena’s personal contributions and between 1449 and 1465 for the later additions. The Cancionero was compiled during the reign of Juan II while Baena was working in his court, and, consequently, dedicated the songbook to the king. Cancionero de Baena is the oldest Castilian example of this kind of songbook. The Cancionero contains many of Baena’s own works, including some of his satire and poetical letters, for which he is known. The Cancionero de Baena signals a transition from Galician-Portuguese to Castilian as the prestige language of court poetry in Iberia, as the previous such anthologies had been written in Galician-Portuguese. Baena’s cancionero did more than record Castilian court poems in the style of the Galician-Portuguese troubadours, however. Baena also included poems from less prestigious origins than the royal court and even some more serious "intellectual poetry incorporating symbol, allegory, and classical allusions in the treatment of moral, philosophical, and political themes." Indeed, Baena’s compilation cannot be said to be systemic anyway, as it includes an indiscriminate number of genres and themes. This, in and of itself makes it important as it demonstrates a more complete view of medieval Castilian literature. Canciones de amor, poetic debates, and moralizing texts make up the three main genres of the anthology. Canciones de amor are love poems based on the Provençal canso form. Poetic debates are the poems mentioned previously that pit two poets against each other in "dialogues between two or more poets in which the respondent must follow the meters and rhymes of the initial poem." These poetic debates were represented chiefly by Baena’s inclusion of his own work in the compilation and the inclusion of Villasandino’s. Finally, the moralizing texts are "reflections on mortality, fortune, and the fall of the great, and the vanity of human life apart from God." Baena’s prologue to the Cancionero de Baena, called the Prologus, is also of literary note. It is the first prologue of an anthology to also serve as literary criticism. In fact, Baena’s prologue inspired a tradition of theoretical introductions in Castilian in the following years. In this prologue, Baena asserts that poetry is a courtly pastime with "intellectual and therapeutic significance," a sentiment that harkens back to the 14th century Catalan treatises on "la gaya sciència de trobar" or ‘the gay science of poetry,’ sponsored by the courts of Juan I and Martín the Humane, which established poetry as a "rhetorical display of courtliness" and provided rules for the ideal linguistic and structural composition of courtly poems. In Baena’s own definition in the Prologus, he provides a description of the ideal courtly poet. This poet is "divinely inspired, widely read and travelled, eloquent and witty." Indeed, these traits are typical in defining not only poets but courtiers in general during this era. In fact, these traits are very similar to and can be surmised to have been inspired by Alfonso X’s writing in General Estoria. In addition to adhering to these traits inspired by Alfonso X, Baena’s ideal poet is also a lover and if he is not in love in reality, he engages in the act of pretending to be in love. This attitude about the importance of being in love, or acting as such is evident when Baena states in the prologue, "que sea amadore e que siempre se preçie e se finja de ser enamorado, porque es opinión de muchos sabios que todo omne sea enamorado, conviene a saber," which means, "that one would be a lover and always pride oneself and pretend to be in love, because it is of the opinion of many wise ones that all who are in love are agreeable to knowledge." Here, Baena defines the ideal poet, and therefore the person capable of composing the ideal form of poetry as one who is in love, whether truly or as an affected state to be open to the kind of knowledge that produces worthy poetry. By providing a "theoretical justification in his Prologus, Baena ensures the virtue and prestige of his collection before his patron," by associating himself and poetry in general with courtly behavior. Through this theoretical justification, Baena’s makes his own cancionero an important conservation of courtly knowledge while at the same time contributing to contemporary literary theory about the nature and merit of poetry and the poet. #### Publishing History The only surviving manuscript of the cancionero is housed in the National Library of France in Paris. It is a copy that dates from approximately 1465, 20 to 40 years after the original was composed and presented to Juan II. The surviving manuscript, written on paper, was housed at El Escorial from the middle of the 18th century, according to a detailed description by a man named Rodrigo de Castro during the era. According to Alberto Blecua’s work, in which he attempts to reconstruct the original order, the surviving copy had a different order than the original form of the compilation. Indeed, much of his research concludes that the ''Cancionero'' that readers are familiar with today was altered by compilers other than Baena, most probably after his death, as the latest poems were composed as late as 1449. Blecua deduced that Baena did not include the works of González de Mendoza, Garci Fernández de Jerena, Rodríquez del Padrón, nor those of various other poets. Additionally, Baena’s work was more strictly organized in chronological and thematic order than the present version. In the modern era, the cancionero became more easily accessible in 1851, when it was first published in print form in Madrid in 1851 by the publishers Gayangos and Pidal. ### Other work Many of Baena’s works do not appear in his cancionero. A number of Baena's poems appear in the Cancionero de San Román. In fact, one of his largest and most interesting pieces is found in this particular cancionero. Called Dezir, it is a poem of 218 verses. Unlike the comedic nature of most of his poems found in the Cancionero de Baena, this poem is more serious in topic and tone. Dezir is addressed to Juan II, whom Baena calls "alto rey muy soberano/delos reynos de castilla." After a lengthy address, which goes on to further compliment the king, Baena advises the king of the political actions he ought to take in order to strengthen the country. While this advice shares many similarities with Juan de Mena’s Laberinto, in Dezir, Baena also makes his own more unique contributions. One of these contributions is, using the metaphor of illness, the characterization of Castile as in need of the medicine of the king’s strong rule, a rule that would eliminate the corrupt local governments of the time and further unite the nation, in order to better defeat the threats of Muslim forces. To prove the merit of his advice, Baena uses Alfonso VIII of Castile as an example of what Juan II ought to do and how such a strategy has been successful in the past. According to Baena, Alfonso’s close leadership brought about stronger national unity and the defeat of many Muslims in Spain at that time. Baena’s Dezir shows a side of the author that has largely been unstudied. Baena was not only a gifted compiler, poet, and jester, he also composed political works that showed a greater depth of knowledge and intellect than previously speculated. ### Literary Style Baena’s literary style relied greatly on the use of self-deprecating humor and the ability to mock both himself and others without falling from grace and offending any powerful courtiers. This self-deprecation and other forms of mockery was also customary for his contemporary court poets as well, including Villasandino (the only non converso poet writing in this genre) and Baena’s nephew Montoro. For Baena, this kind of self-mockery included pointing out "his own ugliness and dwarf-like stature." In this era, to be a successful fool in court, Baena had to rely on more than "plain ugliness or a crooked spine." In order to "attain the highest metaphysical level of ‘madness,’" a trait which defined what it was to be a medieval fool and court poet, it was necessary to "open wide the closet and reveal the skeleton within. And this is what Baena and many others did, seizing every opportunity to make fun of their own Jewish blood and former faith." Instead of hiding their Jewish roots, as might be expected during this era of intolerance and even persecution of Jews in Spain, in their writing, converso fools were expected to accentuate their ‘mad’ pasts in order to make the court laugh. Here, Baena’s style worked to diminish the perceived threat of his Jewish Otherness until it was reduced to nothing more than amusing stereotypes about large noses and harmless dietary differences. One such example of Baena’s use of self-deprecation occurs in the Cancionero: > Senior, yo comi salmon e coruina / e otros pescados de grant gentileza, / enpero sepades que pes de vileza / nunca jamas entro en mi cosina. > > — Juan Alfonso de Baena, Cancionero de Baena In this excerpt, Baena mocks the traditional Jewish diet that excludes shellfish and other bottom-feeding fish, calling them ‘pes de vilesa’ or ‘vile fish’ but includes seafood such as salmon (salmon) and sea bass (coruina) which he calls ‘pescados de grant gentileza’ or ‘fish of great charm’. Here, Baena invokes both Jewish stereotypes and courtly distinctions of high and low classes in a way that can be perceived to mock most obviously, himself, but to a degree the court itself. One of the privileges of Baena’s position as both an insider and an outsider in Juan II’s court was to use his position, not only, to subvert his own past through jokes but also to subvert the court reality through caricatures, mockeries, and impersonations that ultimately led to periods out of the king’s favor.
The Monarch Branch was a branch line of the Denver & Rio Grande Western built in the 1880s to serve the Colorado Fuel & Iron limestone quarry at Monarch, Colorado. Originally part of the D&RGW's 3 ft 0 in (914 mm) narrow-gauge system, the 15 mile line connected with the rest of the narrow-gauge network at Poncha Junction, on the Marshall Pass line. The upper part of the Branch was on a 4.5% grade and included both an "S" curve and a double switchback to reach an elevation of over 10,000 ft (3,000 m). The line was converted to standard-gauge in 1956 after the narrow-gauge mainline from Salida to Gunnison was closed in the early 1950s. From that time forward, the line operated as a standard-gauge branch of the D&RGW until the early 1980s when Colorado Fuel & Iron closed its blast furnaces at Pueblo, Colorado. Operations on the Monarch Branch subsequently ceased and the rails were pulled up a short time later. C&FI Feldspar Mine at Monarch Pass Operations ---------- During the later narrow-gauge era, the line was worked with the D&RGW's fleet of K-36 and K-37 2-8-2 steam locomotives. Depending on the direction, trains would run either double headed or with a banker on the steep gradients. Once the switchbacks had been reached, each train was broken up and run in sections. Loaded trains then traveled to the D&RGW's yards at Salida, where the Stone was transferred to standard gauge gondola cars via a purpose built rotating 'barrel'. Once the branch was converted to standard gauge, trains ran double-headed with D&RGW 4-axle EMD GP9s and in later days GP30s, GP35s and GP40s. During this period of operations, each train was broken up before the climb up the steep grades. 6-axle SD9s were tested on the branch but derailed due to the tight curves. Diesels assigned to the branch were given modified dynamic brakes to cope with the 4.5% grades. Dynamic brakes were of no use on the steep grades between Monarch and Maysville, which required the use of retainers (retaining valves on the air brake exhaust line). When making the air brake test (before leaving Monarch) the engineer would set the brakes and release them. The train crew would then ascertain that the brakes were still applied on the cars.
Artificial lake in Rural Municipality of Daly / Rural Municipality of Saskatchewan, Manitoba Lake Wahtopanah, also known as Rivers Reservoir, is a lake on the Little Saskatchewan River near the town of Rivers, Manitoba. Its dam was built by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration in 1960 to supplement water supplies for irrigation. It also provides the water supply for the town of Rivers, stock watering and recreation. The reservoir is about 2,000 feet (610 m) wide and six miles (10 km) long. The deepest point is about 50 feet (15 m). Riparian flows are regulated by a four-foot square gated conduit. High flows pass over a 110-foot (34 m) wide concrete chute spillway. The reservoir stores about 24,500 acre-feet (30,200,000 m3) and covers an area of about 1,580 acres (6.4 km2). The drainage area is about 1,260 square miles (3,300 km2) and extends well into Riding Mountain National Park. The province maintains a park and campground on the west shore. The name is an alternate form of the Native word watopapinah meaning "canoe people". In late June and early July 2020, the area received a 1 in 1000 year runoff event; the flow peaked at about 300 cms (10600 cfs). The area received over 20 inches of rain over a 5-day period causing the lake to flood to the never before seen level of 471.02 meters (1545.35 feet above sea level), 2.85 meters (9.35 feet) above the full supply level. This also caused the Manitoba Government to lose confidence in the dam and to warn everyone down stream of the likelihood of dam failure and catastrophic flooding. It caused nearby municipalities and the City of Brandon to declare states of emergency and the City of Brandon to put over 2000 residents on evacuation notice. Several near by cabins, homes, and campers in seasonal campground were lost. Once the flood waters receded, the province was able to assess the dam and regain confidence in the structure.
Non-profit organization Safe Passage or Camino Seguro is a non-profit organization that provides school enrollment and after-school support for poor children whose families scavenge the Guatemala City Garbage Dump in Guatemala City. Safe Passage was founded in 1999 by the late Hanley Denning. The organization assists over 550 children. History ------- Safe Passage was founded in 1999 by the late Hanley Denning, a teacher from Maine who traveled to Guatemala to learn Spanish. While she was there, the woman with whom she was lodging told her that she wanted her to see the Guatemala City Garbage Dump. After seeing this, Hanley called home and asked her parents to sell her car, computer, and other belongings so that she could start a program to help the people of the dump. With around $5,000, she started a drop-in program in a church outside of the dump. Approximately 40 children showed up in the first week. People gave her a hard time at first, because others had tried to help them but given up. She persevered and about six months later gained people's confidence. Denning was killed on January 18, 2007, aged 36, when a bus with no brakes collided head-on with the car she was riding in. Her driver, a Guatemala native, was also killed. Two volunteers riding in the back seat of the car were injured. She was known by some as "El Angel del Basurero" or "The Angel of the Garbage Dump". One of Safe Passage's most recent additions is the Early Childhood Education, program also known as the Escuelita, which hosts children from ages two through six, enhancing their health and school readiness, and ensuring the well-being of these children while their parents work. Mission ------- Safe Passage works to "combat poverty through education". The families of Safe Passage children scavenge through the Guatemala City Dump for items to resell. The organization works to enroll these children in the public schools. The public schools are technically free, but students must provide their own books, supplies, and uniforms, at a cost that is prohibitive for these poor people. The school day in Guatemala runs a half-day, so Safe Passage runs a support program for the other half of the day. Students come to Safe Passage for the half of the day that they are not in school. There they are separated by class level and do activities that reinforce what they are learning school. They receive a snack and lunch. If students miss less than three days of school a month and less than three days at the program, their family receives a food bag, with the equivalent of what money the child would likely have earned if not in school. [] Fundraising ----------- Safe Passage relies on child sponsorships to keep the program running, and many fundraisers have been held across the country. In November 2006, a fund raiser "Unmasking the Truth" was held at the Children's Museum of Maine, and an event called "La Fiesta" was held in Michigan. A school-supply drive in Maine was organized in December 2006. Many high schools have also held fund raisers for Safe Passage. Events include bottle and coin drives, school dances, badminton tournaments, bake sales, and presentations. In 2005, a 5k roadrace was organized in Cumberland, Maine, to benefit Safe Passage. The third annual was held on April 28, 2007. Over $22,000 has already been raised through this race.[] Volunteering ------------ Many support teams go to Safe Passage during the school breaks. For example, a group of Bowdoin students traveled to Guatemala for their spring break. There are also opportunities to travel to Guatemala as a long-term volunteer. These people stay for a minimum of five weeks, and many of them tend to stay longer.[] Another way to volunteer is becoming an Ambassador for Safe Passage. Ambassadors raise awareness and money for Safe Passage.[] Hanley Denning -------------- Hanley Graham Denning (March 9, 1970 – January 18, 2007) was the founder of Safe Passage. Born in Yarmouth, Maine, Denning graduated from Cumberland Center's Greely High School in 1988 and began attending Bowdoin College in Brunswick. She graduated from Bowdoin in 1992 with a degree in Psychology. After graduating from Bowdoin, she received her master's degree in Education at Wheelock College. After graduating from Wheelock, she began her career as a social worker in North Carolina. Many of Denning's students were Spanish-speaking, leaving her frustrated because she had difficulty understanding them. In 1997, with the hopes of being able to improve her Spanish, Denning traveled to Guatemala to volunteer and visited a Guatemala City garbage dump. At the dump, children were digging through the piles of trash looking for anything they could eat, sell, or use for shelter. None of these kids were going to school because they could not afford the uniforms, supplies, and other miscellaneous costs. Denning sold her car and laptop and used the money to open Safe Passage in a nearby church. Eventually, Safe Passage moved to a safer location. In 2007, First Lady Laura Bush visited Safe Passage and recognized Denning's efforts. On January 18, 2007, aged 36, Denning was killed in a car accident when the vehicle in which she was riding outside Guatemala City was hit head-on by a bus with no brakes. Denning received commendations from the United States Senate and Maine State Senate for her work with the children and families of the Guatemala City garbage dump. Recycled Life documentary film -------------------------------- The Academy-Award nominated short documentary Recycled Life by Leslie Iwerks and Mike Glad focuses on the lives of those who work in the Guatemala City garbage dump. Denning appeared briefly as herself in the film, and the DVD includes a special video tribute to her. The documentary was shown on HBO in late 2007.
Housing inequalities in Ohio relate to the historic and continuing factors that prevent predominantly people of color from accessing safe and affordable housing. It is self evident that income inequality is the single biggest factor that prevents the purchase of a major asset like a house. Restrictive zoning laws, market forces, job insecurity, lack of savings, and the credit ratings of first home buyers, all play pivotal roles in the overall problem of displacement, exclusion and segregation. Ohio retains a large amount of housing specifically in highly concentrated areas such as Cleveland, Cincinnati and Columbus, which rate in the top 21 cities of racial segregation in the U.S. History ------- Black Ohioans has been experiencing housing inequality since the Civil War and responses towards it have greatly varied from the northern and southern parts of the state. Certain ideals challenged the state during this time coinciding with the thought that southern Ohio was a "white mans state" even though the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 under the Articles of Confederation invited the mot Ohio. During the Industrialization period whites ad blacks were pitted against each other when white workers would go on strike they companies would then replace them temporarily with black workers. This escalated tensions allowing for discrimination to not only continue but to prevail and expand exponentially, primarily with housing. During this time there were minority groups who experienced similar discrimination such as Jewish immigrants, though as they became "americanized" and economically inclined they were welcomed into the housing markets. Up until the early 1950s with the Brown v. Board of Education ruling there were very little if any laws protecting minority groups. The Federal government actually supported racial exclusion in its FHA and VA mortgage loan insurance programs for decades. FHA (Fair Housing Administration) manuals spoke of the need to avoid introduction of "inharmonious racial groups" into all-White neighborhoods. ### 1940s and 1950s Shelley. Kramer (1949) upheld the inability to enforce the covenants by the Supreme Court though continued regardless The Federal government explicitly supported racial exclusion in its FHA and VA mortgage loan insurance programs for many years. FHA manuals spoke of the need to avoid introduction of "inharmonious racial groups" into all-White neighborhoods. Thus, there was a strong economic incentive for some real estate agents to engage in \|panic peddling or blockbusting in targeted, usually adjacent White neighborhoods. The Lee-Harvard area of Southeast Cleveland provided many classic examples of these practices with agents facilitating the move of a single Negro purchaser to a block, followed by blanketing the area with phone calls and leaflets offering to buy from edgy homeowners "before it’s too late" though also probably at less than the homes were really wort 1959, the Ohio General Assembly passed legislation prohibiting discrimination in employment and establishing the Ohio Civil Rights Commission. Fair housing in Ohio received a boost when a young representative, Carl B. Stokes, in 1965 pushed through Fair Housing legislation in the Ohio Legislature three years before fair housing legislation became a reality in Washington, D.C. ### 1960s-1980s Unfortunately, the state of Ohio did not have an effective fair housing law for a number of years after the Lysyj decision of 1974 (38 O.S.2d 217, 380.0.2d 287). This Ohio Supreme Court decision pulled the teeth out of the state Fair Housing Act, and it was not until Vernon Sykes (D-Akron) introduced H.B. 5, a state Fair Housing Law, with the support of a Democratic governor, Richard F. Celeste. Ohio had a Fair Housing Law in June 1987. They developed a strong set of parallel economic and social institutions within the ghetto. Chapters of the NAACP and the Urban League were established in many Ohio cities. To this day, the Cleveland area has two real estate bodies: the Cleveland Area Board of Realtors (CABOR-now with multi-racial membership); and the Cleveland Association of Real Estate Brokers (CAREB-a mainly Black trade association). Causes ------ Zoning laws are extremely restrictive in limiting the total amount of housing to be constructed in any given area. Research has shown cities and suburbs with increasingly restrictive zoning laws also have a correlation with increased segregation within those same communities and one of the leading causes for racial segregation still today. Other causes encompass overall affordability and credit ratings of the borrowers looking to buy homes for the first time. This also includes the lack of enough saved for the required down payment which infers on the instability level of the buyer(s) which play a pivotal role in the overall scheme within the housing sector.
Ganamukti Parishad (Bengali for 'Tripura State Indigenous People's Liberation Council') is a left-wing movement working amongst the Tripuri peoples of Tripura, in north-eastern India. It is affiliated with Communist Party of India (Marxist) as its tribal wing. Split ----- In March 1967, the party split into two factions: * Tripura Rajya Ganamukti Parishad, attached to Communist Party of India * Tripura Rajaer Upajati Ganamukti Parishad, attached to Communist Party of India (Marxist) Origins ------- \| \| \| --- \| \| Part of a series on \| \| Communism in India \| \| \| \| Personalities * M.P.T. Acharya * Abani Mukherji * M. N. Roy * Bhagat Singh * P. Krishna Pillai * Puran Chand Joshi * A. K. Gopalan * Ajoy Ghosh * Puchalapalli Sundaraiah * Bhupesh Gupta * B. T. Ranadive * Shripad Amrit Dange * S.K. Limaye * Shibdas Ghosh * E. M. S. Namboodiripad * Charu Majumdar * T. Nagi Reddy * Saroj Dutta * Kondapalli Seetharamaiah * E. K. Nayanar * Geeta Mukherjee * Mohit Sen * Indrajit Gupta * Vinod Mishra * Ganapathy * Harkishan Singh Surjeet * Hare Krishna Konar * Jyoti Basu * Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee * Manik Sarkar * Pinarayi Vijayan * Sitaram Yechury * Biman Bose \| \| Colonial Period and Partition * Labour Kisan Party * Workers and Peasants Party * Comrades Association * Tebhaga movement * Telangana Rebellion * Communist Party of French India * Lal Communist Party * 2nd Party Congress \| \| Cold War years * Naxalbari uprising * Split in the CPI * Srikakulam * CPI(M-L) \| \| Contemporary movements * CPI(M) * CPI(Maoist) * CPI * CPI(ML) Liberation * SUCI(C) \| \| Other articles * Lal Salam * Communism in Kerala * Lal Sena \| \| Communism portal \| \| * v * t * e \| During the 1940s the royal house of Tripura tried its best to maintain its political rule over the state. However, monarchy was challenged by movements that were influenced by the Indian National Congress and the Communist Party of India. These associations proposed democratic reforms, but were met with stern resistance from the royal house. In 1946 members of Janamangal Samiti (People's Welfare Association), Janasiksha Samiti (People's Educational Association), the local cell of the Communist Party and individual left-wingers got together to form the Tripura Rajya Prajamandal (Tripura State Popular Assembly). Prajamandal proposed a form of constitutional monarchy for the state. The Prajamandal included both communists and non-communists. In 1948 a ban on the organisation was proposed, on the ground that the organisation was under the influence of communists in East Pakistan. This spurred the non-communist leaders of Prajamandal to try to expel the communists. However, the ban was enforced before the expulsion had taken place. Leaders of Prajamandal were arrested, and many cadres went into hiding. By not differentiating between communists and non-communists in repressing Prajamandal, the royal government indirectly contributed to increasing the support for the communist within the organisation. On Independence Day Prajamandal took out a militant manifestation in Agartala. Simultaneously, the movement started activating itself in the struggle for Tiprasas land rights. Following the Partition of India, a major wave of Bengali Hindus migrated to Tripura from East Pakistan. On the Tripura countryside Bengali money-lenders started to take over agricultural land from indebted Tiprasas. Prajamandal organised resistance, a struggle that radicalized the movement. On several sites the movement resulted in clashes with the state forces. In October police firing in Bishalgarh killed nine Tiprasa and injured twenty more. The military set up camps in the tribal areas, with the objective of rooting out Prajamandal. The Prajamandal leadership considered that it had no possibility to cope with the increasing repression, and decided to dissolve the association. In the void that emerged after the disappearance of Prajamandal, Tiprasa leaders founded the Tripura Rajaer Mukti Parishad (Tripura State Liberation Council, generally called Mukti Parishad). Mukti Parishad raised demands of withdrawal of the DIR and freedom of expression and association. The slogan of the movement was 'Democratic Rights for the People of Tripura'. Armed struggle -------------- As Tripura was put under military rule in March 1949, the leadership of the Mukti Parishad went underground to escape arrests. In the tribal belts of the state armed resistance was organized by the GMP. Inspired by the advances of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, the Mukti Parishad set up the Shanti Sena (Peace Army), which routed out the troops of the administration from the tribal belt. In the ‘liberated areas’ people's government was in command, with the Village Committees of GMP managing the everyday affairs. The tribals didn't have to pay any taxes to the state, nor would they turn to the courts of the state to express their queries. At the same time, a cultural revolution took place within the tribal society as abolition of child marriages, forced labour, excessive alcohol consumption, oppression of women, etc. were outlawed by the GMP. Entry into mainstream politics ------------------------------ Armed resistance lasted until 1951. Then the strategies changed as a result of the changes in the political climate of the state. The Communist Party had begun to operate over-ground. In the end of 1949 the leaders of GMP had joined CPI. Now the struggle of the GMP was to be taken overground, in cooperation with CPI. In the first parliamentary elections of India in 1952 both seats of the Lok Sabha (2nd chamber of the Indian parliament) were won by the CPI. Both of the elected MPs, Biren Dutta and Dasarth Deb, were stalwarts of the GMP. Deb, the president of GMP, was at the time of election still considered as a guerrilla leader on the run by the police. The cases against him were not dropped until he was pardoned by the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru himself after having reached the parliament premises incognito for his first session. 1967 conference --------------- GMP-TYF election poster in favour of Communist Party of India (Marxist) It should be mentioned that although the bulk of the leadership as well as the common members of the GMP were tribals, the GMP was not an exclusively Tiprasa organization at this time (Biren Dutta, for example was a Bengali). After the end of the armed struggle, an intense debate surged within the CPI concerning the future role of the GMP. Some considered that the GMP, whose membership was overwhelmingly agrarian, should be integrated into the peasant mass organization of the party, AIKS, and that Tiprasas and Bengali peasants should fight together since their class interests were the same. Other, such as Deb, considered that the tribals were not merely peasants but also constituted a separate sub-national entity and that the GMP should be a Tiprasa organization articulating the sub-nationalist consciousness of the tribal community. In the beginning of the 1960s CPI suffered a severe internal division. The party was split into two camps on issues such as the relationship to the Congress party and the Sino-Soviet polemic. In 1964 the split was a fact, as two separate party congresses were held, one by CPI and the other by Communist Party of India (Marxist). The split also came to divide the Tripura unit of the CPI, with the CPI(M) soon having outmanovered the CPI in Tripura. Initially both factions agreed that the GMP ought to stay intact and that it would be spared from the split for the sake of unity of the mass organization movement, but soon competition over control over the organization started. At the GMP conference of 1967 the split had also reached the GMP, and CPI(M) formed Tripura Rajaer Upajati Ganamukti Parishad and its leader within the GMP, Deb, who were able to gather the support of the broad majority of the organization. At the same conference the GMP was re-christened as the Upajati (i.e. Tribal) Ganamukti Parishad. Subsequently, non-tribals were no longer able to obtain GMP membership. Thus Deb's thesis that Tiprasa constituted as separate subnationalist entity and needed a mass organization of their own had been implemented in the organizational practice. Following the 1967 conference CPI formed Tripura Rajya Ganamukti Parishad, led by Aghore Debbarma. ATPLO merger ------------ In 1983 the All Tripura Peoples Liberation Organization of Binanda Jamatya gave up their arms and were integrated into the Ganamukti Parishad. ATPLO had surged as a splinter group of the Tripura National Volunteers, and a turf war between the TNV soon turned into a bloody fight. In the end, ATPLO found no other viable solution than to align with their former enemies and thus merge into GMP. The organisation today ---------------------- Today the Tripura Rajaer Upajati Ganamukti Parishad is affiliated with the All India Kisan Sabha, the peasant mass-organization of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). GMP does, however, maintain its own organizational character as an entirely tribal organization. Similarly, as the GMP is an affiliate to the AIKS, the Tribal Youth Federation is affiliated to the Democratic Youth Federation of India and the Tribal Students Union is affiliated to the Students Federation of India. However at the same time as these organizations belong to different all India structures, they are organizationally interlinked. The general secretary and president of TYF are by tradition elected as members of the secretariat of the GMP. The GMP, TYF and TSU use other flags, symbols and publications than their all India bodies. The leadership of these three organizations are referred to as Central Committees, whereas the state leaderships of the AIKS, DYFI and SFI are referred to as State Committees. By 2000 it claimed a membership of 70 000. It president is Aghore Debbarma and its general secretary is Lok Sabha MP Babujan Riang. Bibliography ------------ * Basu, Pradip Kumar; The Communist Movement in Tripura, Calcutta: Progressive Publishers, 1996 * Deb, Dasarath; Mukti Parishader Itikatha, Kolkata: National Book Agency, 1999
Village in Goa, India Tivim pronounced Thivim, is a village in Nathivim in Bardez, in the North Goa district of Goa, India. It is an important gateway into North Goa as the home to the major railway station in North Goa. Tivim was also the ancestral village of the first global beauty queen of India, Ms. Reita Faria. More recently Prathamesh Maulingkar was crowned Mister Supranational 2018. . Location -------- Tivim is near Mapusa. The Tivim Railway Station at Tivim falls under the jurisdiction of the Konkan Railway. History ------- Tivim is a medieval village. Oral tradition suggests that the villagers had close ties with the villages of Siolim, Cunchelim and Parra, as well as the market town of Mapusa. Writing in 1831 the French priest Rev. Denis L Cottineau regarded Tivim as one of the thirty-six villages and twenty-six parishes of Bardes. In 1834 the forts at Tivim were abandoned In 1878 the population of Tivim was estimated at around 6000 and the village had a school. ### Church In 1623 the Church of St Christopher (São Cristovão) was built in Tivim by the villagers of Tivim, Sirsaim and Assonora. ### Fortresses A fortress was constructed at Tivim in 1635 by the fourth Count of Linhares. An inscription on its gate reads: "Reinando O Catholico Rei D. Fillipe 3° governance este Estado o vigilantissimo D. Miguel de Noronha, Conde de Linhares, for feat established obra no anno de 1635". This Fortress was called Forte Novo de Tivim. In the same village two auxiliary forts were raised by Francisco de Távora the Count of Alvôr, respectively named Forte de Assumpção and Forte de Meio, which were connected with one another and the one at what is now Colvale (Fortaleza de São Sebastião) by a strong wall protected by a deep ditch. These two forts were taken by Sambhaji in 1683 who retained them for a short time. Sambhaji also destroyed the church of St. Christopher, which was subsequently rebuilt. Prominent institutions ---------------------- Some of the prominent institutions in the village are the local church, St Christopher, and the local schools of St. Anne's near the church and the nearby St Clara's, near Assonora. It is known for its football ground, by the main road alongside St Anne's school. One prominent historical site the Colvale Fort (Goa) is in the area. Government and politics ----------------------- Tivim is part of Tivim (Goa Assembly constituency) and North Goa (Lok Sabha constituency). Tivim Train Station ------------------- Tivim Konkan Railway Station, Goa, India One of the main stations for North Goa can be found at Tivim (also called Thivim). It is part of the north–south line and trains from Bombay (Mumbai) and Kerala stop in this small station. Tivim (Thivim) came on the rail route of India, after the building of the Konkan Railway in the 1990s. This station lies at an elevation of 23 m above sea level, and is part of the Konkan Railway/Konkan zone, in the division of Karwar. It is located just off the Mapusa-Bicholim road at Thivim, Bardez, North Goa.
Photo of John Comper Reverend John Comper (1823–1903) was a Priest of the Episcopal Church in Scotland who dedicated his life to helping the street children and prostitutes of Victorian Aberdeen. In 2003 Father Comper was declared a 'Hero of the Faith' by the Scottish Episcopal Church – the equivalent of a saint and the greatest honour the Church can bestow. In the Calendar of the Scottish Episcopal Church he is remembered on 27 July, the day of his death. Origins ------- John Comper was born in Nutbourne, Pulborough in Sussex, on 1 October 1823, where his father farmed a smallholding. John was the youngest of a family of seven. The family name "Comper" is a French surname possibly from Brittany; the Comper forebears being probably sixteenth-century Huguenot refugees though this is disputed by Anthony Symondson who argues the family is more likely of Norman origin. From his earliest years he was very interested in matters spiritual, and fascinated by the liturgy, which he studied throughout his life. At the age of 24 he completed training as a student teacher at a college in Chichester. He was aware that without a university degree he would not be accepted for the priesthood in England, and therefore he turned his attention to Scotland, where the Scottish Episcopal Church was in need of clergy. Career ------ Already an adherent to the principles of the Oxford Movement, he began ecclesiastical life as a lay reader at a church school in Kirriemuir. He moved from Kirriemuir to Crieff to take part in the educational work at St Margaret's College which had been started by the Revd Alexander Lendrum, embarking on a special course of study in preparation for Holy Orders. St Ninian's Cathedral, Perth was consecrated on Tuesday 10 December 1850, and the following day, Comper was ordained deacon in the Cathedral by Bishop Alexander Penrose Forbes on behalf of the aged Diocesan Patrick Torry, then in his 43rd year of his prelacy. The preacher at that service was the Rev. J. M. Neale, the hymn-writer, with whom the young Comper kept up a warm friendship. He was ordained priest at Crieff prior to his appointment at Nairn. In Nairn he was to take charge of a new Mission raised to mitigate the effects of a schism that had arisen within the newly formed congregation of St Ninian's Church built in 1845. This congregation in refusing to accept the authority of the bishop became an "English" episcopal chapel. Comper also opened a school in Nairn and his success soon drew the attention of the Episcopal authorities. Bishop Robert Eden, newly consecrated in Edinburgh on 9 March 1851, recruited Comper to take services in an upper room in Nairn, before appointing him as Diocesan Mission Priest for the Moray Diocese and as Bishop's Chaplain. Whilst based in Inverness Comper opened another day school and a chapel, now represented by St Andrew's Cathedral. Comper was also put in charge of the newly created Mission at Cromarty before returning to the Brechin Diocese to fill the vacancy at Stonehaven in 1857. He took charge of the ancient congregation that originally met at the Stonehaven Tolbooth, but had removed long since the Jacobite rising of 1745 and Duke of Cumberland's occupation of the chapel as a stable for his horses, to the Stonehaven High Street site. This meeting house was demolished on Cumberland's orders in 1746. Services were then held clandestinely for some years in a house in the High Street. Later a "Qualified Chapel" was built in Cameron Street, the two congregations as yet existing as separate entities. The Qualified Congregation joined the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1803, but it took a further twelve years for them to amalgamate in a union whereupon they moved back into the old Qualified Chapel, this time as a full-fledged congregation of the Episcopal Church. It was in this building that Comper ministered from 1857 to 1861. In Aberdeen, the Patrons of St John's Episcopal Church, Dr George Grub and Dr George Ogilvie beseeched Comper to come to the parish. The Rev. Frederick G. Lee had absconded from St John's and his predecessor Patrick Cheyne, had been prosecuted by Bishop Thomas Suther for his Tractarian "Six Sermons". In Comper's own diocese, Bishop Alexander Forbes was then under prosecution from the Episcopal College of Bishops. Comper only left the Brechin Diocese when his Diocesan was out of trouble, and did not make further waves by leaving his charge vacant. Suther began a tirade against Comper. His biographer, "LTA", gives a risible account of the situation thus: "Comper's first act was to initiate the partial use of the Scottish Communion Office — the date being shortly before the General Synod of 1863, and an appeal against Bishop Suther's attempted objections was successful. Here and in another question of ceremonial Dr Grub's unrivalled historical knowledge and genuine Churchmanship were of greatest value". Grub's genial humour came out in the account he gave of the Bishop who bade his presbyter, like a naughty boy, "take off his vestments and put out his lights." In the end the lights were saved, but the vestments surrendered. Two significant events took place during the first years of Comper's incumbency at St John's. Firstly, a day school was built and dedicated to Revd Patrick Cheyne's forty years association with St John's. Secondly, in the year 1863 the first sister arrived from the Society of Saint Margaret, the foundress of St Margaret's Convent, 17 Spital, Aberdeen (closed in 2003). The Gallowgate mission ---------------------- Comper was more interested in the welfare of the poor and resigned the charge at St John's in 1870 to spend more time in the mission he had founded in the Gallowgate slums of Aberdeen in 1867. Wright describes the scene as follows; "The whole area enjoyed an evil reputation. No one ventured out after dark. It was bad enough making your way to church through wet washings, but you also had to hold your nose to prevent smelling the fish barrows parked along one side of the Gallowgate. Often rats were scavenging in the barrows." From this mission, St Margaret's, Gallowgate, emanated the subsequent mission at St Clement's-on-the-Quay, which eventually became an independent congregation erecting a church on the quayside with money bequeathed by Sir George Reid's widow, Margaret Best, one of Comper's ardent admirers. He became the chief motivator in the organisation, eventually raising the Episcopal charge in 1870 dedicated to St Margaret of Scotland. Comper was the first clergyman in Aberdeen to organise a congregation social meeting, which he called a "Refection". His other memorable project, apart from St Margaret's and its Convent, was his work for foreign aid which banded together many of the Church's Women's Organisations in common cause. A kenspeckle figure in Aberdeen city and a veteran clergyman of the Aberdeen Diocese, he enjoyed meritorious respect from all classes of the population. Death ----- The Revd John Comper died suddenly in the Duthie Park on Monday 27 July 1903, where he had gone with his wife. Coincidentally, it was the first visit he had made to the park as he had been tempted to enjoy the fine weather Aberdeen was experiencing at that time. The Press & Journal wrote, "He sat in the park and expressed his admiration for all that he saw, saying how surprised he was that the vicinity of Aberdeen contained a place of such varied beauty. He then went to the refreshment room to get some strawberries for his wife and on his return to the bench where she was seated he was observed to stagger and fall. In a short time he was found to be dead. During the morning we understand he had been in his usual health but complained of drowsiness; otherwise his condition had excited no remark. He was never very strong in health, but was able by an annual tour on the Continent to maintain himself in comparative vigour." Family ------ Anthony Symondson tells that thereafter his eldest son, Ninian Comper, signed all his painted glass windows with a wild strawberry, the leaves and stems entwining the date of execution. The first window to be so signed was his father's own memorial in St Margaret of Scotland, Aberdeen in 1908. John Comper married Ellen Taylor of Hull in 1853; they had five children. Mrs Ellen Comper died on 10 June 1908. Ninian Comper, born in 1864, was to become one of the greatest church architects of the twentieth century, being knighted in 1950 at the age of 84. Ninian's son, Nicholas Comper, became an aeronautical engineer who designed the Comper Swift.
Soviet flying ace (1918–1944) In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Fyodorovich and the family name is Klubov. Aleksandr Fyodorovich Klubov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Клу́бов, 18 January 1918 – 1 November 1944) a Soviet flying ace during the Second World War who was twice awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. During the war he completed 457 sorties, in which he gained at least 31 individual kills, making him one of the highest-scoring Soviet flying aces. Early life ---------- Klubov was born on 18 January 1918 to a working-class Russian family. His father, who died when Aleksandr was a young child, had served on the Aurora. His oldest brother Aleksey was a farmhand, but bore much of the responsibility of raising Aleksandr and his sister. The family left Okishevo in 1931 where Klubov completed his first four years of school; he live in Yarunovo until 1934, after which he moved to Leningrad where he completed his schooling and began working at a steel mill. Later he worked at a carburetor factory and trained at the local aeroclub before joining the military in January 1939. He went on to graduate from the Chuguev Military Aviation School in October 1940, after which he was assigned to the 84th Fighter Aviation Regiment based in Armenia; the unit used the I-153 fighter. World War II ------------ Not long after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Klubov was deployed in August as part of the allied invasion of Iran. He briefly fought in the conflict before returning to his post less than a month later in September. In July 1942 he was deployed to the front of the Battle for the Caucasus as a flight commander. He scored his first aerial victory in August after he shot down a Bf 109 while flying an I-153. He soon increased his tally of victories, but after engaging in one dogfight that resulted in gaining two shared kills of Bf 109s he was shot down. Despite desperately trying to land his I-153, he was forced to parachute out of his stricken plane after suffering serious burns. His face and neck bore scars from the incident long after he was released from the hospital in January 1943. When he returned to his regiment, he began flying missions in the I-16 fighter his regiment had switched to, but he did not score any aerial victories with it. In April his unit was sent away from the warfront for retraining, but in May he and fourteen other pilots from the 84th Fighter Regiments were transferred to the 16th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment. Klubov and several of his colleagues were then assigned to the 1st squadron and underwent training under the supervision of Aleksandr Pokryshkin, one of the highest-scoring aces of the Soviet Union. On 4 September 1943 Klubov was nominated for the title Hero of the Soviet Union for having completed 310 sorties, engaged in 84 dogfights, and personally shot down 14 enemy planes. He received the title on 13 April 1944. Klubov was one shootdown away from becoming an "ace-in-a-day" on 30 May 1944, since he shot down two Ju 87 and two FW-190. Earlier that month he was almost permanently grounded from flying after having gotten into a bad fight with a mechanic from another regiment, who ended up badly injured. He was detained and sent to be tried by a military tribunal, which likely would have resulted in him being sent to an infantry penal battalion with a high mortality rate, but Aleksandr Pokryshkin intervened and requested a more lenient sentence, insisting that losing a flying ace to a penal battalion would be result in many additional losses of Soviet aircraft. Klubov died on 1 November 1944 after experiencing loss of control on a training flight of the new La-7 fighter. He was buried in the Hillov Glory in Lviv until his was reburied in the Vvedensky cemetery of Vologda in 2001. Throughout the war he scored 31 solo victories, gained three shared shootdowns, flew 457 sorties, and engaged in 109 aerial battles. After his death he was nominated for the title Hero of the Soviet Union again and awarded the title for a second time on 27 June 1945. Awards and honors ----------------- * Twice Hero of the Soviet Union (13 April 1944 and 27 June 1945) * Order of Lenin (13 April 1944) * Two Order of the Red Banner (19 October 1942 and 4 November 1943) * Order of Aleksandr Nevsky (2 February 1944) * Order of the Patriotic War 1st Class (2 May 1943)
2008 Japanese film *Be A Man! Samurai School* (魁!!男塾, Sakigake!! Otokojuku, lit "Charge!! Men's Cram School") is a Japanese film released in 2008. It is written, directed by and starring Tak Sakaguchi. This is the first film he has directed. It is based on Akira Miyashita's manga series Sakigake!! Otokojuku. The film's ending theme is "Yaiba" (刃, Blade) by The Back Horn. It premiered at the Fantasia Festival in 2008, and was subsequently screened at the New York Asian Film Festival in 2009. Plot ---- Genji Togashi (Shōei) visits his brother's grave and informs him that he too will be enrolling in Otokojuku. Young Yakuza successor Hidemaro Gokukouji (Hiroyuki Onoue) runs into thugs from Kanto Gogakuren while partying, but is saved by Momotaro Tsurugi (Tak Sakaguchi). As it turns out, Hidemaro's mother (Tomoko Nakajima) already decided to send him to Otokojuku for him to become a man. At the enrollment ceremony, Hidemaro is assaulted by the head instructor Oni-Hige (Shun Sugata) for not getting into line properly. After he finds Momo and meets Togashi, Oni-Hige introduces the principal, Heihachi Edajima (Akaji Maro). Edajima gives his introductory speech. At orientation, 1st years Tazawa (Taketori no Yamaguchi) and Matsuo (Yoshiaki Yoza) are forced by Tange and the 2nd years to perform ridiculous tasks and manly performances. Togashi and Toramaru stand up to Tange (Masaki Miura), a brawl breaks out and Momo gets involved. The fight is interrupted by 2nd year leader Gouji Akashi (Tetsushi Tanaka), who challenges Momo to a sword fight, which itself gets interrupted by Oni-Hige before a true victor can be decided. After finding a pair of underwear, drill instructor Iron Helmet (Kentarō Shimazu) summons all the students for a uniform inspection. He informs the students that all real men wear a fundoshi and that the owner of the briefs will be punished. Togashi can see from his face that they belong to Hidemaro, so he confesses to preferring briefs. He is placed in a tub of oil with a candle on a leaf while wearing just a fundoshi. Togashi perseveres as the oil gets hotter, until finally it out, as a message of manliness to Hidemaro. Hidemaro can't take it anymore so he runs away in the middle of the night. After words of encouragement from Shioya (Tatsuo Yamada), the last remaining member of the Gokukouji clan, he returns to Otokojuku just as Momo is being scolded by Oni-Hige for letting him escape. The two of them are placed in twin cells, one of which has a 500 kilogram collapsible ceiling that Momo must hold up by a chain in the other cell in order to keep Hidemaro from being crushed. One day, Otokojuku is invaded by Kanto Gogakuren, a group of delinquents led by Omito Date (Hideo Sakaki), a former Otokojuku student who was expelled for killing an instructor for forcing him to undergo the twin solitary cells punishment. He and his two right hand men, Hien (Gō Ayano) and Gekko (Shuya Yoshimoto) defeat most of the students. Akashi challenge Date and is nearly killed before being saved by Momo. However, before things can go further, Edajima interrupts and demands they settle things in the 3 Great Astonishing Assaults tournament. Momo, Togashi, and Toramaru are chosen to represent Otokojuku. Togashi again visits his brother's grave, when Oni-Hige suddenly appears. He tells Togashi of how his brother was a real man and gives him his brother's dosu knife. As Momo trains his sword, Toramaru wrestles a bear, and Matsuo practices his ōendan, Hidemaro and Tazawa both wonder what they can do to help. Cast ---- * Tak Sakaguchi as Momotaro Tsurugi * Shōei as Genji Togashi * Hiroyuki Onoue as Hidemaro Gokukouji * Shintaro Yamada as Ryuuji Toramaru * Tetsushi Tanaka as Gouji Akashi * Akaji Maro as Heihachi Edajima * Junkichi Orimoto as Shura (monk) * Hideo Sakaki as Omito Date * Gō Ayano as Hien * Shun Sugata as Oni-Hige
Soviet political officer Mikhail Petrovich Amelin (Russian: Михаи́л Петро́вич Аме́лин; December 4, 1896 – September 8, 1937) was a Soviet political officer. He fought on the side of the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. In 1933, he received the Order of the Red Banner. During the Great Purge, he was arrested on June 19, 1937 and later executed. He was rehabilitated on April 18, 1956. Biography --------- Amelin was born to a poor peasant family in Solomino village, Kursk Governorate. At the age of 13, he went to his older brother in the Donbas, where he worked as a carpenter and a lumberman at a mine. He served in the Russian Imperial Army from 1915 on. He was sent to the Ryazan 69th Infantry Regiment, where he graduated from the training team and, with the rank of non-commissioned officer, was enlisted in the regimental sapper team. fighting on the North-Western Front. Amelin led anti-war propaganda in the regiment, then fled because of the threat of arrest, He was arrested and sentenced to a penal company. He also fled from there, reaching the city of Kyshtym in the Urals. After the February Revolution he returned to the army in May 1917 and was elected a company commander. During the October Revolution he was the head of the sapper detachment. In November 1917 he joined the Bolsheviks ("RSDLP(b)"). He joined the Red Army in early 1918, serving in the Kursk Revolutionary Regiment. In January 1919 he graduated from the three-month training course for military commissars. He was an emergency commissioner for the supply of troops of the Yekaterinoslav sector, deputy chairman of the Odessa military tribunal, authorized by the Revolutionary Military Council of the 3rd Ukrainian Army, commissar of the 30th rifle regiment, and head of the Bobrinsky combat sector. From July 1920, as part of a combined cadet division, he fought against the army of General Wrangel, serving as a detachment commissar, a company political instructor, and a battalion commissar. He graduated from the Higher Military Pedagogical School in Moscow in 1923. From 1930 to 1934 he was a member of the Central Control Commission of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine ("CP(b)U"). In January 1931, he was appointed to the post of deputy chief, and in April 1934, to the post of head of the Political Directorate of the Ukrainian Military District. At the same time, from 1934 he was a member of the Military Council under the People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR, from 1934 - a member of the Central Committee of the CP (b) of Ukraine, in January - June 1934 - a candidate member, from June 1934 - a member of the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee of the CP (b) ) of Ukraine, and since May 1937 - a member of the Military Council of the Kyiv Military District. On June 19, 1937, he was arrested in connection with the testimony of Ilya Shelekhes, deputy chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Ukrainian SSR. During the investigation, Amelin pleaded guilty and named 63 people as "participants in the conspiracy". On September 8, 1937, according to the verdict of the visiting session of the USSR All-Union Military Commission in Kyiv, he was sentenced to death; he was shot the next evening. The burial place is a special object of the NKVD of the Ukrainian SSR "Bykivnya". On April 18, 1956, he was posthumously rehabilitated by the VKVS of the USSR. Amelin's wife Stefania Boleslavovna (1904 -?) was sentenced by a special meeting of the NKVD of the USSR on November 2, 1937 to eight years in the camps. She was rehabilitated on February 17, 1956.
Island in the United States of America Turtle Island is a 1.5-acre (0.61 ha) island in the western portion of Lake Erie in the United States. The island has an unusual political status, as its jurisdiction is divided between the U.S. states of Michigan and Ohio, even though the island has no residents or current use. Turtle Island is located about five miles (8.0 km) northeast of the mouth of the Maumee River in Maumee Bay. Today, the island houses several abandoned structures and the ruins of Turtle Island Light, a lighthouse dating back to 1866. According to the Census Bureau, most of the island physically lies in Jerusalem Township in Lucas County, Ohio with the smaller Michigan portion being part of Erie Township in Monroe County, Michigan. History ------- The Miami tribe was the first to inhabit the small island prior to 1800. They used the island primarily to gather seagull eggs. The island was named after Miami chief Mishikinakwa (c. 1747–1812), who was an influential Native American leader in the Northwest Territory during the American Revolution. Nicknamed Little Turtle, he later became popular among the American people after dissenting from his native tribe in the pursuit of peace negotiations with the Americans. The British operated a small fort on the island around 1794 in defense of the mouth of the Maumee River, but the fort was soon abandoned. There are conflicting accounts as to who maintained control of the island during this time. Local folklore alludes to the belief that the Indians controlled the island and used it as a military fort, while others claim the British held control of it until losing it during the War of 1812. Official accounts of the history of Turtle Island date back to 1827, when the island itself was sold at a federal government auction in nearby Monroe, Michigan. Turtle Island was believed to not even be a true island on its own but rather a former extension of Little Cedar Point Peninsula. The island was bought but sold back to the United States four years later. ### Early 1900s With the completion of the Toledo Harbor Light in 1904, the shallower shipping lane around Turtle Island was rerouted to deeper waters, and the lighthouse on Turtle Island was abandoned. Turtle Island Light was officially decommissioned on May 15, 1904. Federal officials removed the components of the lighthouse but left all the structures in place. The island was sold at an auction to A. H. Merrill for $1,650 in December 1904. The island went unused and was subsequently vandalized over the next 30 years. Most of the original structures were completely stripped of their elements. In the late 1920s, the Toledo Blade reported on the status of the island by saying, "Vandals have wrecked the house, stealing everything that could be salvaged from the structure except the grim, bare walls which stand as a monument to the service this light rendered for nearly half a century." In 1933, A. H. Merrill transferred ownership of the island to George Merrill. He signed a lease with the Associated Yacht Club of Toledo (AYC) for them to build a series of docks and use the island for recreational purposes. However, the AYC ran out of money during the Great Depression and was forced to abandon their plans for rejuvenating Turtle Island. The AYC attempted to work with the state of Ohio to receive funding to revamp the island, but the state determined the cost of restoring the island would exceed its beneficial use by the public since the island was too small and remote. The AYC abandoned the island in 1937, and the island continued to decay with no improvements. The lighthouse keeper's headquarters were demolished, and the island suffered further damage from strong winds and waves during the 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak. ### Border dispute The rough location of the Michigan-Ohio boundary running through Turtle Island. The small strip of land surrounding the mouth of the Maumee River was under the jurisdiction of the Michigan Territory, because the borders originally drawn up for the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 set a territorial boundary as a straight line from the southernmost edge of Lake Michigan. When Ohio became the first in the Northwest Territory to gain statehood in 1803, the state's northern border did not include this important area, which was later given to the Michigan Territory when it was formally organized in 1805. Turtle Island fell under the jurisdiction of the Michigan Territory, and when the first Turtle Island Light was constructed in 1831, it was within the boundaries of the territory. When Toledo was founded in 1833, it was part of the Michigan Territory, and the Port of Toledo operated the lighthouse. Because Ohio disputed Michigan's ownership over this area, it led to the heated Toledo War, a border dispute between the Michigan Territory and the state of Ohio for the area known as the Toledo Strip. In late 1836, President Andrew Jackson intervened on behalf of Ohio and gave the Toledo Strip to Ohio in exchange for Michigan getting a portion of the Upper Peninsula when it became a state soon after on January 26, 1837. The Toledo Strip and the city of Toledo became part of Ohio, but Turtle Island remained part of the Michigan Territory. The lighthouse was still operated by the Port of Toledo, but the island was still claimed and charted as Michigan territory within Monroe County. Control of the island was not disputed by either state, and the political status of the island was forgotten after the lighthouse was decommissioned in 1904. The state boundary of Ohio and Michigan remained unchanged from 1837 until 1973 when the status of Turtle Island was finally recognized and resolved long after tensions over the Toledo War had ended. The Supreme Court of the United States intervened, and on February 22, 1973, an agreement was reached between the two states. The state lines were redrawn for the last time to cut exactly through the center of the tiny island's 190-foot (58 m) diameter sea wall at a 45° angle, while the ruins of the lighthouse itself were included in the Ohio half. The island was divided between Monroe County and Ohio's Lucas County. This was merely an act of politics, as the island had been abandoned and continually decaying for the past 70 years. The Michigan half fell under the jurisdiction of Erie Township, while the city of Toledo assumed full control over the other half. Current status -------------- Construction of new structures on the island was halted by a court order. The island remains privately owned, and Turtle Island only has remnants of structures still standing. In February 2002, the owner of the island attempted to build three new buildings on the island with the reported intent of using them for summer vacation rentals. Authorities in Monroe County issued a decree to stop the construction, because the owner failed to get the building permits to build on the Michigan side of the island. The decree was ignored, but the structures were never completely finished before they were mostly destroyed by large ice packs during the winter of 2009. Erie Township, which has jurisdiction over the Michigan half of Turtle Island, has planned to remove the now-destroyed structures from the island and clean up the remaining debris. This action has not taken place yet, because the cost of doing so would be too expensive. The township has continually debated on what to do with the island. The only thing that remains of the 1866 Turtle Island Light is the tower, although the top of the tower was blown off during a windstorm on Palm Sunday in 1965, exposing the iron spikes that once held the lantern in place. Continued efforts at restoring the lighthouse have been unsuccessful. Portions of the concrete wall constructed to originally protect the lighthouse have also eroded away, further exposing the island. Lighthouse Digest lists the decaying Turtle Island Light as critically endangered on its Doomsday List of threatened lighthouses. Even though the island is remote, it is currently closed to the public, although it is impossible for this to be enforced.
Species of flowering plant in the poppy family Papaveraceae *Fumaria officinalis, the common fumitory, drug fumitory* or earth smoke, is a herbaceous annual flowering plant in the poppy family Papaveraceae. It is the most common species of the genus Fumaria in Western and Central Europe. Description ----------- It is an herbaceous annual plant that grows weakly erect and scrambling, with stalks about 10–50 cm (3.9–19.7 in) long. It has slender green leaves. Its pink 7–9 mm (0.28–0.35 in) flowers appear from April to October in the northern hemisphere, or May to September in the UK. They are two lipped and spurred, with sepals running a quarter the length of the petals. The plant commonly has more than 20 and up to 60 flowers per spike. The fruit is an achene containing one seed. It is approximately globular, slightly wider than high and with an apical notch. It contains alkaloids, potassium salts, and tannins and is also a source of fumaric acid. Taxonomy -------- It was first formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication 'Species Plantarum' on page 700, in 1753. There are 2 known subspecies: * Fumaria officinalis subsp. cilicica (Hausskn.) Lidén * Fumaria officinalis subsp. wirtgenii (Koch) Arcang. Etymology --------- Flower and leaves of Fumaria officinalis The "smoky" or "fumy" origin of its name comes from the translucent color of its flowers, giving them the appearance of smoke or of hanging in smoke, and the slightly gray-blue haze color of its foliage, also resembling smoke coming from the ground, especially after morning dew.[] The plant was already called fūmus terrae (smoke of the earth) in the early 13th century, and two thousand years ago, Dioscorides wrote in De Materia Medica (Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς) and Pliny the Elder in Naturalis Historia that rubbing the eyes with the sap or latex of the plant causes tears, like acrid smoke (fūmus) does to the eyes. Its Greek name is kapnos (καπνός, for smoke) and the name fumewort now applies mostly to the genus Corydalis, especially the similar looking Corydalis solida (formerly Fumaria bulbosa), which was thought to belong to the same genus as fumitory. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ It is native to temperate regions of North Africa, Europe and parts of Western Asia. ### Range It is found in North Africa, within Macaronesia, Canary Islands, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. Within Western Asia it is found in the Caucasus, Cyprus, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, Siberia, Syria and Turkey. In eastern Europe, it is found within Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine. In middle Europe, it is in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. In northern Europe, in Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and United Kingdom. In southeastern Europe, within Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. Also in southwestern Europe, it is found in France, Portugal and Spain. It is common in Australia where it was introduced. Herbalism --------- Storage jar used for fumitory water (water infused with Fumaria officinalis), Italy, mid-17th century Usage of this plant as medicine began in Europe in the late Middle Ages, although it was known since antiquity. In 17th century Europe it was publicised as good for the eyes (due to remarks by Pliny and later Olivier de Serres that rubbing its juice in one's eyes caused excessive tearing). The most common traditional uses were as a digestive aid and a diuretic, but various folk traditions throughout Europe ascribed to it a multitude of uses: constipation, cystitis, arteriosclerosis, rheumatism, arthritis, as a blood purifier, for hypoglycaemia, infections, and possibly to cleanse the kidneys. In Sicily and perhaps elsewhere it was used to treat skin blemishes, and in Britain into the modern era as an eyewash to treat conjunctivitis. Since 1963 it has been marketed as a herbal medicine in France. As of 2011 herbal products made from this plant are legally sold in various forms in Austria, Germany, France and Spain. Products may be legally sold in the British market (it is on the British General Sales List), although no products were sold there as of 2011. In the European Union as a whole marketing of the plant is not necessarily legal: it has been rejected from the Community List by the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products due to the lack of toxicology studies. Products in France and Spain are marketed as a digestive (said to work by increasing bile flow), in Austria it is sold for treatment of dyskinesia of the biliary duct, in Germany it is simply sold as an herbal tea. There is some evidence from animal models that it modifies abnormal bile flow, although it has no effect on normal choleresis. An antispasmodic effect on the upper digestive tract in vitro and in animal studies is considered sufficiently documented. The efficacy of the herbal products in humans is considered plausible but yet unproven in clinical studies. Numerous clinical studies in its amphocholeretic uses in humans have demonstrated the tolerability and safety of dosages used, but there has only been one small double-blind trial with placebos which was inconclusive regarding efficacy. A larger double-blind trial with placebos investigating and comparing its use in the treatment of pain and distension due to irritable bowel syndrome with Curcuma demonstrated no statistically significant differences between treatment groups (although use of either herb appeared to slightly worsen either distension or pain respectively, compared to placebo use). A number of other potential effects or uses for the plant and its major alkaloid protopine have been researched in vitro or in animal models. Howard (1987) warns that fumitory is poisonous and should only be used "under the direction of a medical herbalist", but in Europe, no safety problems with its use have been recorded as of 2011. Large doses of protopine in animal models causes excitation and convulsions. Thorough toxicological research on this plant has not been conducted as of 2011. There have been no studies on its safety or effect on pregnant woman, children or elderly. Chemical constituents --------------------- Protopine Fumaria officinalis The plant contains isoquinoline alkaloids protopine and allocryptopine. Both protopine and allocryptopine increased CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 mRNA levels in human hepatocyte cells. The use of products containing protopine and/or allocryptopine may be considered safe in terms of possible induction of CYP1A enzymes.
Rohidas Singh Nag (5 February 1934 – 30 December 2012) was the inventor of the Mundari Bani script, which is used to write the Mundari language. History ------- Rohidas Singh Nag of Chandua Village in Mayurbhanj district is the inventor of Munda script Mundari bani. Rohidas Singh Nag was born on 5 February 1934 in Chandua village, Mayurbhanj district of Odisha. It was in the year 1949 Rohidas Singh Nag studying at class –III invented Mundari script and wrote the alphabets on the wall of school with the help of clay. In the year 1953, Nag was a student of class –VIII invented 35 alphabets of Mundari script. Further, Nag simplified Mundari script and in the year 1980 total 27 alphabets were selected for use. In 1980 Rohidas Singh Nag brought to the knowledge of the then Chief Minister of Odisha Shri J.B. Pattnaik on the development of Mundari script and submitted a memorandum to recognize Munda language constitutionally. In 1999 Rohidas Singh Nag with others submitted a memorandum to the then president of India and appealed for constitutional recognition of Munda language.
American baseball umpire (born 1953) Baseball player Gerald Sidney Davis (born February 22, 1953) is an American former umpire in Major League Baseball. He worked in the National League from 1982 to 1999 and in Major League Baseball from 2000 to 2021. He was promoted to crew chief in 1999. Davis umpired five World Series, nine League Championship Series and eleven League Division Series. He also worked in the All-Star Game four times. Davis wore uniform number 12 throughout his career. Umpiring career --------------- Davis in 2014 Davis began umpiring in the minor leagues in 1976. He worked in the Midwest League, Eastern League and American Association before being promoted to the majors in 1982. He has officiated in 22 postseasons, including the World Series in 1996, 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2012; the League Championship Series in 1990, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2018; the Division Series in 1996, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2015; and the Wild Card Game in 2013, 2014 and 2018. He also umpired the All-Star Game in 1989, 1997, 2002 and 2012; he called balls and strikes on the last two occasions. Davis was reprimanded by Major League Baseball on September 1, 2014, for making 'crybaby' faces at Oakland A's players. The league statement said, "We expect our umpires to remain professional on the field at all times." Davis opted out of the 2020 season due to concerns from the coronavirus pandemic. He umpired his last game on October 3, 2021 in St. Louis. Davis holds the record for the most postseason games officiated in MLB. ### Notable games Davis was the second base umpire for the perfect game pitched by Randy Johnson on May 18, 2004. On September 19, 2008 at Tropicana Field, instant replay overturned a call on the field for the first time ever in the major leagues. A fly ball hit by Tampa Bay Rays' first baseman Carlos Peña, the umpires ruled, was interfered with by a fan sitting in the front row of the stands, when the ball hit the hands of the fan and fell back onto the field of play. After Joe Maddon requested the umpires hold a conference to discuss the play, the umpires, headed by Gerry Davis, decided to look at instant replay. Just over four minutes later, Davis returned to the field and signaled that the ball was a home run. Davis was the home plate umpire for the last game played at Shea Stadium on September 28, 2008. With his assignment to the 2012 World Series, Davis set an officiating record for most postseason games umpired in major league history with 115 and since then this mark has moved forward to 128 games. On April 23, 2014, Davis ejected New York Yankees starting pitcher Michael Pineda for having pine tar on his neck. On July 26, 2017, Davis asked Texas Rangers third baseman Adrián Beltré to move closer to the on-deck circle. After Beltré jokingly moved the on-deck batting circle, Davis ejected him. Business -------- Davis owns a company, Gerry Davis Sports, which specializes in umpiring equipment and clothing. Gerry Davis Sports sells specially designed leg guards which give a small area at the top for the hands to rest, consistent with Davis's unique umpiring stance. (When umpiring behind the plate, Davis bends down only about three-quarters as far as the conventional stance. He leans his back forward slightly and grabs the top of his leg guards with his extended arms.) These leg guards also eschew the normal straps with metal hooks, in favor of straps with plugs that hook into little notches. Personal life ------------- Davis was diagnosed with atrial fibrillation in 2021, causing him to miss the first four months of the 2021 season. He is married to Linda.
American singer Musical artist Thomas J. Bowers (c. 1823–October 3, 1885), also known as "The Colored Mario", was an American concert artist. He studied voice with African-American concert artist Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield and toured with her troupe for a few years before embarking on his own successful solo career. He was the brother of professional singer Sarah Sedgwick Bowers, known as "the Colored Nightingale", and John C. Bowers, a Philadelphia entrepreneur and church organist. A fictionalized version of Thomas Bowers's life was depicted by actor William Marshall in a 1964 episode of Bonanza titled "Enter Thomas Bowers". Early life ---------- Thomas Bowers was born in 1836 in Philadelphia. His father, John C. Bowers Sr. (1773–1844), was a secondhand clothing dealer, a vestryman and school trustee at St. Thomas African Episcopal Church, and one of the founders of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. His mother's name was Henrietta. As a youngster, Thomas showed a desire to learn music and was taught piano and organ by his older brother John. At the age of 18, he succeeded his brother as organist of St. Thomas African Episcopal Church. He and his brother were trained as tailors and operated a "fashionable merchant tailor shop" catering to upper class gentlemen and businessmen in Philadelphia. Concert artist -------------- Despite his natural aptitude for music and enjoyment of singing, Bowers deferred to his parents' wishes not to perform outside the church. He declined offers to sing with the famous Frank Johnson's Band of Philadelphia, among others. But as more people became acquainted with his singing, he was persuaded to appear at a Philadelphia recital in 1854 with African American concert artist Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield, and became her student in voice. That 1854 appearance met with popular and critical success; the critics began calling him "The Colored Mario" and "The American Mario" for the similarity of his voice to Italian opera tenor Giovanni Mario. Bowers personally disliked the sobriquet, but agreed to be billed as "Mareo". He proceeded to tour with Greenfield's troupe in Philadelphia, the Midwestern United States, New York, and Canada, and afterwards embarked on a successful solo career. Bowers specialised in "romantic ballads and popular arias from well-known operas". His voice was described as having a "wonderful power and beauty" and "extraordinary power, mellowness, and sweetness". His range was nearly two octaves. He was said to be "handsome" and had a strong stage presence. Bowers found the stage an ideal platform from which to espouse his opposition to racial inequality. He was purportedly reluctant to launch a public singing career until he realised: "What induced me more than any thing else to appear in public was to give the lie to 'negro serenaders' (minstrels), and to show to the world that coloured men and women could sing classical music as well as the members of the other race by whom they had been so terribly vilified". He became famous for refusing to perform before segregated or white-only audiences. For an 1855 performance in Hamilton, Ontario, where the theatre manager refused to seat six black patrons who had purchased reserved first-class seats, Bowers refused to perform. Trotter writes: "Mr. Bowers, during his career, has sung in most of the Eastern and Middle States; and at one time he even invaded the slavery-cursed regions of Maryland. He sang in Baltimore, the papers of which city were forced to accord to him high merit as a vocalist." Bowers also appeared at benefit concerts to raise funds for the recruitment of black soldiers to the Union Army training camp at Camp William Penn. Other activities ---------------- Together with other members of his family, Bowers was a national organiser of "black opposition to the fugitive slave laws of the 1850s and a state representative of the Equal Rights Convention. In October 1864 he was a delegate from Philadelphia to the National Convention of Coloured Men in Syracuse, New York. Personal -------- Bowers married Lucretia Turpin, a native of New York, sometime before 1850. They had one daughter, Adelia. At the time of his death in 1885, he possessed "nearly $10,000 in real estate, Pennsylvania Railroad stock, household furnishings and cash in the Farmers and Mechanics Bank". Bonanza episode ----------------- In a 1964 episode of Bonanza titled "Enter Thomas Bowers", Thomas was portrayed as the African American opera singer by actor William Marshall. Further reading --------------- * Cheatham, Wallace (1997). Dialogues on Opera and the African-American Experience. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810831473. * Southern, Eileen (1997). The Music of Black Americans: A History. W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393038432. * Trotter, James M. (1881). Music and Some Highly Musical People. ISBN 9780841100886.
Compact Disc recordings contain two channels of 44.1-kHz 16-bit linear PCM audio. However, creators of the CD originally contemplated a four-channel, or quadraphonic, mode as well. The proprietary Red Book specification, as published by Sony and Philips, briefly mentions a four-channel mode in its June 1980, September 1983, and November 1991 editions. On the first page, it lays out the "Main parameters" of the CD system, including: "Number of channels: 2 and/or 4 simultaneously[\*] sampled." The footnote says, "In the case of more than two channels the encoder and decoder diagrams have to be adapted." The Red Book also reserved the first bit of the so-called Q subchannel "control field" to signal the presence of four-channel audio, but did not specify a method for using four-channel in the CD system. Had it been later specified, this mode might have included four separate channels of linear PCM audio (requiring some combination of faster rotation, a lower sampling rate, fewer bits per sample, or compression). Alternatively, the "four-channel" bit could have been used merely to indicate the presence of a matrix-encoded recording, for example Dolby Pro Logic. In reality, however, the underspecified "four-channel" mode was dropped from the CD standard when it was adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission and became IEC 908:1987, and later IEC 60908:1999. (Various national authorities have also adopted the IEC standard. E.g. it is also European Standard EN 60908:1999.) Neither the 1987 nor the 1999 version of the IEC standard discusses the possibility of four-channel audio. Instead, the IEC document reserves the first bit of the Q subchannel "control field" to a different, although similarly cryptic, purpose—according to clause 17.5 note 2, it is for "Broadcasting use" in "non-audio applications of the Compact Disc." Since the behavior of the "four-channel" or "Broadcasting use" bit was never specified by either CD standard, no mass-marketed discs have attempted to use the Red Book's four-channel mode, and no players have purported to implement it.
Straw doll hung up at carnival This article is about a straw doll in Rhenish carnival. For the municipality, see Nübbel. A nubbel above a pub entrance in Cologne's Südstadt district Nubbel is a name for a dressed straw doll that emerged around 1950 representing the scapegoat in the Rhenish carnival. The Nubbel, also called Zacheies in Cologne carnival, hangs above many pubs during the carnival season and is burned in a ceremony on Ash Wednesday night. The term Nubbel in Colognian was already used independently of the straw doll in the 18th century. It was used when people could not or did not want to give more information, e.g. "Nubbel's Chris" ("somebody"), "he is with the Nubbel" ("he is somewhere"), "that was the Nubbel" ("that was somebody"). Burning the Nubbel ------------------ The death of the Nubbel is mourned in a funeral procession The burning of a figure at the end of Carnival has been historically verifiable in the Rhineland since the beginning of the 19th century. The Cologne author Ernst Weyden writes in his memoirs of the 1820s, when carnival events in Cologne were reorganized, that on Ash Wednesday "the carnival was carried to its grave": "With a solemn funeral procession, a doll was carried through the city on a bier and burned in a square." Weyden also points to an "old festive custom" that "has survived in southern Germany and even in Greece," and also claims to have seen a "pompous funeral celebration of Shrovetide" as a Shrovetide play in 1812 among the Napoleonic troops then stationed in Cologne. The exact sequence of this tradition varies from city to city and from pub to pub. Normally, on Weiberfastnacht, the start of the street carnival, the Nubbel is placed on the facade of the pubs near the door. In a short parade around the block, he is solemnly carried to his grave on Shrove Tuesday at midnight by torchlight or candlelight. The Nubbel is lit collectively Then a charge is recited. This is usually done in dialect and often in rhyme. The accuser is a carnivalist dressed as a cleric. At first, the crowd defends the Nubbel, but eventually they are convinced of his guilt and demand revenge. The accusation then culminates, for example, in rhetorical questions such as: "Who is to blame that we drank away all our money? Who is to blame for cheating on our partners?". The jeering crowd responds to the speaker with a loud "It was the Nubbel!", "The Nubel is to blame, let him burn!" or similar. According to carnival folklore, the burning of the nubbel leads to forgiveness of sins and offenses committed during the carnival period. After the burning the group goes back to the pub and continues the carnival music until Ash Wednesday morning, when the carnival season is finally over. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nubbel.
\| \| \| --- \| \| Part of a series on the \| \| Baháʼí Faith \| \| \| \| Central figures * Baháʼu'lláh * The Báb * ʻAbdu'l-Bahá \| \| Basics * Teachings * Unity of God * Unity of humanity * Unity of religion * Laws * Prayer * Calendar * Nineteen Day Feast \| \| Key scripture * Kitáb-i-Aqdas * Kitáb-i-Íqán * The Hidden Words * Some Answered Questions * Other Texts \| \| Institutions * Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh * Administrative Order * The Guardianship * Universal House of Justice * Spiritual Assemblies \| \| History * Baháʼí history * Timeline * Bábism * Persecution \| \| People * Shoghi Effendi * Hands of the Cause * Apostles * Other Baháʼís * Bábis + Letters of the Living + Mullá Husayn + Táhirih \| \| Places * House of Worship * Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh + Qiblih * Shrine of the Báb * Síyáh-Chál * World Centre * Pilgrimage * Haifa * Acre \| \| Other topics * Socioeconomic development * Progressive revelation * Cosmology * Symbols * Prophecies * Statistics * Orthography \| \| * Category \| \| * v * t * e \| The Baháʼí Faith in Peru begins with references to Peru in Baháʼí literature as early as 1916, with the first Baháʼís visiting as early as 1919. A functioning community wasn't founded in Peru until the 1930s with the beginning of the arrival of coordinated pioneers from the United States which progressed into finding national Peruvian converts and achieved an independent national community in 1961. The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying mostly on the World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated some 41,300 Baháʼís in 2010. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Tablets of the Divine Plan ----------------------------------------- ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the son of the founder of the religion, wrote a series of letters, or tablets, to the followers of the religion in the United States in 1916–1917; these letters were compiled together in the book titled Tablets of the Divine Plan. The sixth of the tablets was the first to mention Latin American regions and was written on 8 April 1916, but was delayed in being presented in the United States until 1919 – after the end of World War I and the Spanish flu. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's sixth tablet was translated and presented by Mirza Ahmad Sohrabon 4 April 1919, and published in Star of the West magazine on 12 December 1919. > "His Holiness Christ says: Travel ye to the East and to the West of the world and summon the people to the Kingdom of God. Hence the mercy of God must encompass all humanity. Therefore do ye not think it permissible to leave that region deprived of the breezes of the Morn of Guidance. Consequently, strive as far as ye are able to send to those parts fluent speakers, who are detached from aught else save God, attracted with the fragrances of God, and sanctified and purified from all desires and temptations. ...Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and the seventh country Belize...The teachers going to those parts must also be familiar with the Spanish language. Attach great importance to the indigenous population of America...Likewise the islands of ... Cuba, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, ... Bahama Islands, even the small Watling Island...Haiti and Santo Domingo...the islands of Bermuda... the republics of the continent of South America – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, the Guianas, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela; also the islands to the north, east and west of South America, such as Falkland Islands, the Galapagòs, Juan Fernandez, Tobago and Trinidad...." > > The first actions on the part of Baháʼí community towards Latin America were that of a few individuals who made trips to Mexico and South America near or before this unavailing in 1919. Foremost was Martha Root. Root's travels included Peru which was reported in October 1920 in an edition of the Star of the West, including making contact with several people through a Dr. Vargas. Seven Year Plan and succeeding decades -------------------------------------- Among the earliest Baháʼís known in Peru were Louis Mathew (1935) and Isabel Stebbins Dodge (1935–38).Shoghi Effendi, who was named ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's successor, wrote a cable on 1 May 1936 to the Baháʼí Annual Convention of the United States and Canada, and asked for the systematic implementation of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's vision to begin. In his cable he wrote: > > "Appeal to assembled delegates ponder historic appeal voiced by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Tablets of the Divine Plan. Urge earnest deliberation with incoming National Assembly to insure its complete fulfillment. First century of Baháʼí Era drawing to a close. Humanity entering outer fringes most perilous stage its existence. Opportunities of present hour unimaginably precious. Would to God every State within American Republic and every Republic in American continent might ere termination of this glorious century embrace the light of the Faith of Baháʼu'lláh and establish structural basis of His World Order." > > > Following the 1 May cable, another cable from Shoghi Effendi came on 19 May calling for permanent pioneers to be established in all the countries of Latin America. The Baháʼí National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada appointed the Inter-America Committee to take charge of the preparations. During the 1937 Baháʼí North American Convention, Shoghi Effendi cabled advising the convention to prolong their deliberations to permit the delegates and the National Assembly to consult on a plan that would enable Baháʼís to go to Latin America as well as to include the completion of the outer structure of the Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois. Following this call Stuart and Nellie S. French (1936) went through Peru. In 1937 the First Seven Year Plan (1937–44), which was an international plan designed by Shoghi Effendi, gave the American Baháʼís the goal of establishing the Baháʼí Faith in every country in Latin America. With the spread of American Baháʼís in Latin American, Baháʼí communities and Local Spiritual Assemblies began to form in 1938 across Latin America. Isabel Stebbins Dodge was joined by her mother, Mrs. Joel Stebbins, the summer of 1937. The first pioneer under the next plan was Eve Nicklin, called the "Spiritual Mother of Peru" who arrived in Peru in 1941. In 1942–3 she was able to coordinate a number of talks by traveling Baháʼí Philip Sprague amounting to several hundred people. In 1943 during the annual Baháʼí convention of the United States, Shoghi Effendi announced a Northern- and Southern-international convention which would include representatives from each state and province from the United States and Canada and each republic of Latin America. During this convention, Isabel Tirada de Barrada and Raymond Betts were the Peruvian delegates. The first South American Baháʼí Congress was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, November 1946. In 1947 the Baháʼí international teaching committee for South America (CEPSA) was appointed and the first members were all from Chile. Retrospectively a stated goal of the committee was to facilitate a shift in the balance of roles from North American guidance and Latin cooperation to Latin guidance and North American cooperation. The process was well underway by 1950 and was to be enforced about 1953. ### Transition to Latin leadership The second South American Baháʼí Congress was celebrated in Santiago, Chile, in January 1948 and was organized and executed by CEPSA. The Peruvian official delegate was Mercedes Sanchez. In 1950, the Baháʼí Faith achieved legal recognition in Chile with the formation of an international Regional Spiritual Assembly for South America whose first members were Edmund Miessler of Brazil, Margot Worley of Brazil, Eve Nicklin of Peru, Gayle Woolson of Colombia, Esteban Canales of Paraguay, Mercedes Sanchez of Peru, Dr. Alexander Reid of Chile, Rangvald Taetz of Uruguay, and Manuel Vera of Peru. In 1957 this Assembly was split into two – basically northern/eastern South America with the Republics of Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, in Lima, Peru and one of the western/southern South America with the Republics of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Horace Holley represented the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States at conventions held in Panama and Lima, Peru when Latin American national Baha'i assemblies were elected. National community ------------------ In 1961, La Asamblea Espiritual Nacional de los Bahais del Peru was elected. By 1963 there were 19 delegates for the convention to elect the National Spiritual Assembly of Peru. For the election of the Universal House of Justice the international head of the religion since its election in 1963, the delegates for the voting were the members of the National Spiritual Assemblies of the world. The Peruvian members of the national assembly were recorded for this first election: Guillermo Aguilar, Fidel Flores, Cesar Loayza, Lester W. Long, Demetrio Molero, Mrs. Jesus Rivera, Josefina Rosas, Mercedes Sanchez, and Dr. Enrique Sanchez. At the same time members of the religion were known to exist among the indigenous near Arequipa, and the Quechua people. Local assemblies were formed in Arequipa, Cajamarca, Callao, Chiclayo, Huancayo, Lima, and two other villages. Groups of Baha'is were in Cuzco, Punto Tongos, and Trujillo and isolated Baha'is in Julcamarca, Talara, and Yurimaguas. ### Indigenous peoples In 1975 Baháʼís attending an All-Quechua Baháʼí Conference were photographed beside a sign, which, translated from the Spanish, reads: "Baháʼu'lláh is the return of Viracocha." In 1975–6 Hand of the Cause Rúhíyyih Khanum travelled by boat through the tributaries of the Amazon River of Brazil and also visiting the high mountain ranges of Peru and Bolivia. Thirty six tribal groups were visited over a period of six months; the trip was called The Green Light Expedition. The first Aymara International Baha'i Conference was held in Juli, Peru, in August 1978. More than 200 Baha'is from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru were present. The entire conference was conducted in the Aymara language. In 1980 two teams of Native American Baha'is from Alaska, Canada and the United States representing 10 tribes under the name Trail of Light traveled from the north to the south starting mid June and taught in Mexico, Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Bolivia, Chile, Peru and finally Ecuador. In 1984 a reprise of the 'Trail of Light' was undertaken when an international team of five Baháʼís spent 17 days in Guatemala; they were a Mapuche Indian from Chile, a Quechua from Peru, a Bribri from Costa Rica, and two Guaymis from Panama as well as other efforts in the region. Projects promulgating the religion in southern Peru were noted in the 1980s among the Aymara people. Recent situation ---------------- ### Socio-economic development Since its inception the religion has had involvement in socio-economic development beginning by giving greater freedom to women, promulgating the promotion of female education as a priority concern, and that involvement was given practical expression by creating schools, agricultural coops, and clinics. The religion entered a new phase of activity when a message of the Universal House of Justice dated 20 October 1983 was released. Baháʼís were urged to seek out ways, compatible with the Baháʼí teachings, in which they could become involved in the social and economic development of the communities in which they lived. World-wide in 1979 there were 129 officially recognized Baháʼí socio-economic development projects. By 1987, the number of officially recognized development projects had increased to 1482. Since 1977 the international Baháʼí community has established several radio stations worldwide, particularly in the Americas. Programmes may include local news, music, topics related to socio-economic and community development, educational programmes focusing on indigenous language and culture, and Baháʼí introductory and deepening material. A project studied these radio stations through faculty from Northwestern University from 1980–1982, and briefly in 1983, and reviewed Baháʼí Radio projects in Peru and Bolivia as well and resulted in a PhD by Kurt John Hein in 1985 following which he took up service at WLGI Radio Baháʼí. A Baháʼí radio station was established in Peru to nurture and preserve the local culture by featuring local story-tellers and music recorded at station-sponsored annual indigenous music festivals. With regular feedback from experienced institutions operating out of the Baháʼí World Centre progress was maintained in developments of the radio stations in communication with the Audio-Visual Department at the Baháʼí administrative offices. In 1980 almost the entire staff of the radio station in Ecuador traveled to Peru to make extensive presentations to the international Baháʼí media conference in Puno where the second Baháʼí Radio station would be set up. Staff for projects in Bolivia, Chile and Peru participated in successive training and Ecuadoran staff traveled to Peru and Bolivia to assist in those projects. In the feedback it was highlighted that: > "The most important and indispensable thing is to maintain a happy, loving, spirited team-family. Try to have as high a percentage as possible of your staff native. At least 75%. It is far better to let a native do something wrong than not to give him the opportunity by having a foreigner do it." > > In Peru one development for the International Youth Year was when about five hundred youth from eighteen countries in Latin America, North America and Europe attended a Youth Conference in Lima in 1985. Among the tribes and native groups represented were the Aymaras and Quechuas (Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru), the Mapuches (Chile) and the Aguarunas (Peru). Forty-seven youth organizations were officially represented on panels. Organized under the guidance of the Baháʼí National Assembly of Peru, the conference was opened by Dr. Angel Degado, acting mayor of Lima. The gathering culminated in the creation of eight national and international youth projects including the planting of some 2000 plants in Lima's Grau Square. #### Other endeavors • In 2000 Peru abstained from a United Nations human rights resolution about concern over the Baháʼís in Iran. • The Baháʼí community of Peru cooperated with the Ministerio Internacional de Desarrollo to promote religious inter-faith understanding aimed at winning wider government recognition for non-Catholic religions, leading to the establishment of a new national Directorate of Interfaith Affairs. 2008 Regional conference ------------------------ Regional conferences were called for by the Universal House of Justice 20 October 2008 to celebrate recent achievements in grassroots community-building and to plan their next steps in organizing in their home areas. Just a month later a regional conference was hosted in Ecuador by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of Ecuador in November 2008 and attracted over 1000 Baháʼís. ### Demographics The US government acknowledged Baha'is in Peru as early as 2005 and the Association of Religion Data Archives (relying mostly on the World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated some 41,300 Baháʼís in 2010.
Picropharmacolite, Ca4Mg(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2·11H2O, is a rare arsenate mineral. It was named in 1819 from the Greek for bitter, in allusion to its magnesium content, and its chemical similarity to pharmacolite. The mineral irhtemite, Ca4Mg(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2·4H2O, has the same composition as picropharmacolite, except that it has only four water molecules per formula unit, instead of eleven. It may be formed by the dehydration of picropharmacolite. Structure --------- Infrared spectra show that picropharmacolite contains water molecules H2O, hydroxyl groups (OH)− co-ordinated with Mg2+ cations, and acid arsenate radicals (HAsO4)2−. There are strong structural similarities with guerinite, Ca5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2.9H2O which indicates a similar formula for the two minerals. X-ray diffraction methods indicate that As, Ca and Mg cations are positioned in corrugated layers parallel to the c axis, the layers being linked by hydrogen bonding only. Four independent water molecules are sandwiched between adjacent layers, and build up hydrogen-bonded chains which are also parallel to the c axis. The ratio of four Ca to one Mg remains fairly steady, and no significant Ca/Mg substitution occurs in any cation site. Hence if the formula of picropharmacolite is written as Ca4Mg(H2O)7(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2.4H2O, it is a better representation of the structure than the more usual formula Ca4Mg(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2.11H2O. Morphology ---------- Picropharmacolite is usually found as small to microscopic pearly white botryoidal aggregates with a radiating foliated structure internally. Less commonly it occurs as silky fibrous aggregates or minute needle-like crystals, that are rectangular prisms elongated along the c axis. Environment ----------- Formed as an oxidation product of arsenic-bearing sulfides in reaction with surrounding calcium-bearing rocks, and as a recent efflorescence in mine workings. Erythrite and pharmacolite are common associated minerals. Type locality ------------- It was first described for samples from ore dumps of the Richelsdorf Smelter, Süss, Richelsdorf District, Hesse, Germany. The type material is stored at the National School of Mines, Paris, France, 95.497.
Marie Tak van Poortvliet (date unknown) The Marie Tak van Poortvliet Museum Joanna Maria Tak van Poortvliet (15 February 1871, The Hague – 8 July 1936, Dornach) was a Dutch collector and patron of modern art and art critic. She is the namesake for the Marie Tak van Poortvliet Museum in Domburg. Biography --------- She was born to Christina Louisa Henrietta Geertruida van Oordt (1850–1897) and Johannes Tak van Poortvliet, a Dutch politician who served as the Dutch Minister of the Interior from 1891 to 1894. Tak van Poortvliet attended the High School for Girls in The Hague. She became wealthy after her father's death in 1904, which left 1,500,000 Florins, equivalent to roughly €18 million ($20 million) in 2013, to be distributed among his four children. Tak van Poortvliet did not marry. After 1906, she spent the summers in Domburg with her life partner, Jacoba van Heemskerck, for whom she set up a studio and acted as a patron. Soon, she began acting as a patron for several other artists; often by purchasing their works. By 1920, she had accumulated over 120 pieces. Later, she sold some to various Dutch museums; leaving a legacy to the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen and the Stedelijk Museum. Tak van Poortvliet and Van Heemskerck were both supporters of the Antroposophy movement of Rudolf Steiner and she translated several of his works into Dutch. With her and Steiner's help, Dr. Willem Zeylmans van Emmichoven was able to establish the Netherlands branch of the Anthroposophical Society in 1923. Three years later she helped to create "N.V. Cultuur Mij Loverendale", which promotes agriculture and animal husbandry in the Biodynamic manner. She also contributed articles about Anthroposophy, music and art to various journals. She died in Dornach; Steiner's home town. The Marie Tak van Poortvliet Museum [nl] in Domburg is named after her. Sources ------- * Nederland's Patriciaat 44 (1958), p. 303. * A.H. Huussen jr. 'Tak van Poortvliet, Joanna Maria (Marie) (1871-1936)', in: Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland 2 (1985) \| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata \| \| --- \| \| International \| * ISNI * VIAF \| \| National \| * Germany * United States * Netherlands \| \| Artists \| * RKD Artists \| \| People \| * Netherlands \|
American politician Margaret Jane Steele Rozsa (March 3, 1867 – October 5, 1949) was an American government official in Butte, Montana who became the first female prohibition investigator for the United States in 1921. A longtime suffragist and women's rights advocate, she was also active in the women's club movement, serving as a member of the Good Government Club, Housewives League, Liberal Culture Club, and the Methodist Women's Missionary Society. Formative years --------------- Born in Logan, Utah on March 3, 1867, Margaret Jane Steele was a daughter of Lemuel Steele (1846–1924) and Iowa native, Ruth Matilda (Foster) Steele (1849–1931). She was reared in Logan with her siblings: Elizabeth Steele (1871–1958), who later wed Andrew J. Reese; Lemuel William Steele, Jr. (1874–1937); George Lee Steele (1876–1884); and David Foster Steele (1879–1964). Circa 1890, she wed blacksmith Joseph William Rozsa (1864–1942). Their daughters Wilma (born in 1894) and Ruth Maxine Rozsa (1899–1967), were both born in Butte. Women's suffrage and other political activities ----------------------------------------------- Public domain image of Margaret Jane (Steele) Rozsa, Butte School Board member, from "The Suffrage Daily News" (Montana State Fair edition), Helena, Montana, September 26, 1914, p. 2. A member of the school board in Butte in 1914, Margaret Rozsa was described in The Suffrage Daily News as "one of the prominent state suffrage workers" who would be marching in the women's suffrage parade in Helena on Friday evening, September 25, 1914. Other prominent suffragists slated to march in the parade, which was being held in conjunction with the Montana State Fair that year, were Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, and Jeannette Rankin, who would later become the first woman elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Rozsa was also slated to speak at events related to the march. Seeking a more active role in local politics, she ran for a seat on the Silver Bow County Commission in 1916, but lost that bid. Active in the Good Government Club, an amalgam of statewide suffrage organizations that joined together following the 1914 passage of women's suffrage in Montana to collaborate further on other key women's rights issues, she became the club's president in January 1917, and immediately joined fellow club members in lobbying the state legislature to appropriate the funds necessary to create an industrial home for girls, enact a measure that would require garnishment of the wages men of who deserted their wives and children in order to provide financial support to those women and children, fund the assessment of living conditions at the home for children with mental illness and learning disabilities to ensure that those children were receiving adequate care, increase the amounts awarded to women via mothers' pensions, and ensure that existing laws were being enforced before passing new legislation. The next month, she delivered the keynote address, "Some Needed Legislation," to the Women's Missionary Society chapter of the Lowell Avenue United Methodist Church. That spring, she served on the Butte Chamber of Commerce's Constitution and Bylaws Committee. She then sought, and obtained a position in 1919 that would change not only her quality of life, but that of Butte's citizens, becoming a food inspector in that city. In July of that year, she alleged that certain government officials were complicit in keeping the cost of living artificially high for city residents, and began actively working for change. According to the July 26 edition of the Great Falls Daily Tribune and the July 30 edition of The River Press: > "Charges of bribery, references to Montana's food administration as a 'fake' and the allegation by witnesses that Butte's food inspector was dismissed because he enforced the law, together with the announcement of master bakers of a 25 percent increase effective at once in the price of bread, were features today of the Montana efficiency commission into the cost of living in Butte. > > > Dr. W. C. Matthews, former city physician, testified that Butte commission men permit carloads of fruit to spoil in order to maintain prices.... > > > > Mrs. Margaret Rosza [sic] said that commission men never permit prices to slump and that some cars of food labeled 'perishable' have been standing on the tracks since July 7. She said a city food inspector was discharged because he tried to enforce the law." > > In August 1919, her lobbying efforts at the state level received significant coverage in The Butte Daily Bulletin, which reported she had formed the opinion, after a week in Helena, that "the legislators of Montana are not knaves but merely well-intentioned children who make many puerile blunders." In addition to lobbying state legislators to reduce the high cost of living for Montana residents, she "was instrumental in getting senate bill No. 19 through the legislature," which ensured that 199 tubercular soldiers who had served in World War I would be given "preference of entry to the Galen hospital," and that the legislature would authorize $20,000 in state funds to build additional dormitories at the hospital to make that care possible since hospital admissions were already at capacity. > "The bill passed the senate, but in the house the $20,000 appropriation was cut off.... Mrs. Rozsa, at the request of Mrs. Morris of Helena, who is in charge of the Red Cross at the capital, took the matter up with Representative Higgins, chairman of the finance committee and floor leader. He explained the house had cut off the appropriation, purely from a heedless misapprehension of the situation, due to lack of attention and study.... But at Mrs. Rozsa's solicitation, the Honorable Higgins recalled senate bill No. 19 and the house members tacked the $20,000 appropriation back on and voted it through. > > > "Mrs. Rozsa was glad to see the governor's pet measure, appointing a state sheriff to enforce prohibition, defeated. The lady thinks we already have enough of those fellows around.... > > > > As for the food bills in which Mrs. Rozsa was so interested ... she says they finally went through in fine shape...." > > In September 1919, she was quoted in The Butte Daily Bulletin as an advocate for the city's involvement in purchasing large quantities of food items wholesale in order to benefit members of the community: > "Mrs. Margaret Rosza [sic], city food inspector, declared that in her opinion the city market would not be at its greatest success until the city itself entered in the retailing business and authorized the market master to purchase food in carload lots and retail it at the market at cost, plus expense of handling.... > > > 'The profiteers cannot undersell the city and put it out of business, as they can the multiplicity of small dealers now on the market. > > > > The city can purchase cheaply and sell cheaply, and the business at the market, instead of being divided among a number of small dealers, none of whose profits are adequate for success, would all go to the one dealer—the city—and in consequence of such concentration could be handled more economically and the saving conveyed to the public through the medium of lower prices.'" > > That same month, The Anaconda Standard reported that she had inspected multiple bakeries across the city and found that, of the fifteen businesses she had visited, "only a few ... fell below the required weight of one pound," and that in several cases, "the weight of the loaves was found ... to be a few ounces above the requirement." > "Mrs. Rosza [sic] stated in explaining the purpose of the tests that it will be the purpose of the food department to acquaint the public as far as possible with the weights they are being offered as well as the sanitary condition of stores and plants." > > The next month, she traveled to Ashton, Idaho in mid-October to attend a family reunion, which was held at the home of her brother, Lemuel. According to a newspaper report, 14 members of the family were present for the event, which also included a birthday party for her 79-year-old mother, Ruth M. Steele. In November 1921, she was appointed as a special prohibition investigator for the federal government of the United States. Assigned to serve under the State of Montana's prohibition commissioner, O. H. P. Shelley, she was the first woman in the nation to be appointed to an investigative position with the prohibition commission. Her duties included the review of physicians' permits, as well as the inspection of drug stores and liquor shipments. Her father, Lemuel Steele, widowed her mother in 1924. Seven years later, her mother, Ruth Matilda (Foster) Steele, died in Utah in August 1931, following a ten-week illness. Sometime around 1940, Margaret Rozsa's daughter, Ruth, wed Frank Ferguson. Residing with her husband in the Los Angeles, California area at the time of the federal census in 1940, Margaret was widowed by him on October 28, 1942. Death and interment ------------------- Margaret J. (Steele) Rozsa died in Oakland, California, on October 5, 1949. She was buried next to her husband at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. External resources ------------------ * "The Montana Suffrage Story," in "Women's History Matters." Helena, Montana: Montana Historical Society.
Greek Catholic church in Lviv, Ukraine Church in Lviv, Ukraine Interior The Dominican Church and Monastery (Ukrainian: Домініканський костел і монастир, romanized: Dominikanskyi kostel i monastyr, Polish: Kościół i klasztor Dominikanów we Lwowie) in Lviv, Ukraine is located in the city's Old Town, east of the market square. It was originally built as the Roman Catholic church of Corpus Christi, and today serves as the Greek Catholic church of the Holy Eucharist. History ------- The Dominican Order first arrived in Lviv during the 13th century and the first wooden church is said to have been built in 1234 within the Low Castle, founded by the wife of Leo I of Halych. That church burned down during a war in 1340. A new Gothic church, resembling the parish church in Kazimierz Dolny, was built on the present site in 1378 and later rebuilt after a fire in 1407 along with the monastery buildings. During the 16th century the complex was ravaged by several fires, nevertheless it continued to gradually rise in prosperity. In the 18th century the church's ceiling started cracking and it was decided in 1745 that the church had to be taken apart and replaced with a new one. In 1749 Józef Potocki laid the cornerstone for the present day Baroque church, commonly attributed to Jan de Witte. Between 1756 and 1761 Mikołaj Bazyli Potocki donated 236,000 złoty to the church and the Dominican monastery in Lviv, where his mother was buried. These donations funded the Potocki chapel in the church. The church was consecrated in 1764 by the Latin archbishop of Lviv Wacław Hieronim Sierakowski. The Dominicans managed to survive the reign of the Austrian emperor Joseph II, who closed many other monasteries. In 1865 a neo-baroque bell tower was added to the complex. In the years 1885–1914 a controversial renovation of the facade and interior was carried out. After World War II, the complex was occupied by the Soviets, used as a warehouse, and in the 1970s changed into a museum of religion and atheism. With the collapse of the Soviet Union the church was given to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and now serves as a parish church. The monastery, however, has not yet been returned and still serves as a museum (renamed The Lviv Museum of History of Religion). The church resembles the Karlskirche. It is built on the plan of the Greek Cross inscribed in an ellipsoid and topped with a monumental dome. Before 1946, the church contained a miraculous icon of the Blessed Virgin Mary, crowned by Pope Benedict XIV in 1751, which can be found today in the Dominican Basilica of St. Nicholas [pl] in Gdańsk, and an alabaster figure brought by St. Hyacinth from Mongol-sacked Kiev to Halych and later to Lviv, which now resides in Church of St. Giles in Kraków. In 2019, the Dominican Church was the location for the Gregorian's music video for their song Viva la Vida.
Albin Théodore Denys Colomb de Daunant (21 November 1922 – 22 March 2006) was a French writer, poet, photographer and filmmaker, best known for his work on the multi-award-winning 1953 short film White Mane. An aristocrat and modern dandy, he was an iconic figure of France's rural Camargue region. Biography --------- The son of Auguste Colomb de Daunant and L. Carenou1, Denys Colomb de Daunant was born into a Protestant family in the Gard department of southern France. The Colomb de Daunants were major landowners and ran a number of traditional mas and factories. During the Second World War, he had to flee France for having insulted a German officer. He attempted to rejoin the Free French Forces in Morocco, but was captured while crossing the Pyrenees and imprisoned. Returning to the Camargue in 1947, at the age of 25, he purchased the Cacharel mas in Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, where he was to live for more than sixty years, transforming it in the process into a rustic horse-riding centre with no running water, electricity, or telephone line. Cacharel became one of the area's best-known manades for both horses and Camargue bulls. Though this remained his base, he travelled a lot and became friends with many of the prominent cultural figures of his time, including Picasso, Chagall, Ernest Hemingway, and Salvador Dalí. He was close to Frédéric Mistral, and contributed to the latter's Occitan language magazine Aïoli. In 1948 he married Monique Bonis, the granddaughter of Colomb de Daunant's spiritual forebear, iconic Camargue pioneer Folco de Baroncelli-Javon. He was the manager of the bullfighting ring at Saintes-Marie-de-la-Mer, and sometimes took part in bullfights himself. With Albert Lamorisse and James Agee, Colomb de Daunant was one of the screenwriters of White Mane, a short film released in 1952 that focused on the wild horses of the Camargue, and much of it was filmed at the mas de Cacharel. With Lamorisse he also co-authored the novel of the same name that appeared in 1953. He spent much of his life fighting to protect the cultural heritage of the Camargue, campaigning for example against the encroachment of electricity pylons. He avoided using electricity himself, and was known in France for perpetuating the image first embodied by Folco de Baroncelli of the Camargue as an area of tough men and wild animals – at times, indeed, he even dressed in traditional clothing from Baroncelli's time. He died on 22 March 2006 at the age of 85, survived by two children, Florian and Sylvie Colomb de Daunant. Works ----- ### Bibliography * La nuit du Sagittaire, 2006, (ISBN 2846261059) * Camargue, 1955 (with Jean Proal) ### Filmography As director: * Corrida interdite (1959) * Le songe des chevaux sauvages (1960) (also screenwriter) * L'abrivade (1963) As actor: * Crin-Blanc : le cheval sauvage (White Mane) (1953) (also screenwriter) * Aux frontières du possible (1974) * Alerte au minotaure (1974)
Union Army infantry regiment Military unit \| \| \| --- \| \| Pennsylvania U.S. Volunteer Infantry Regiments 1861–1865 \| \| \| Previous \| Next \| \| --- \| --- \| \| 26th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment \| 28th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment \| \| The 27th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Service ------- The 27th Pennsylvania Infantry was originally organized in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as a state militia regiment in January 1861 as part of the "Washington Brigade" under the command of Colonel William F. Small. It was reorganized in April 1861 as a light artillery regiment, but rejected by Pennsylvania for state service under the call for three-month service regiments. The regiment left for Washington, D.C. where Colonel Max Einstein offered the regiment to the U.S. Army as infantry on May 5, 1861. It mustered in for a three-year enlistment May 30, 1861. The regiment was attached to 1st Brigade, Miles' Division, McDowell's Army of Northeastern Virginia, to August 1861. Blenker's Brigade, Division of the Potomac, to October 1861. Stahl's Brigade, Blenker's Division, Army of the Potomac, to March 1862. 1st Brigade, Blenker's 2nd Division, II Corps, Army of the Potomac, March 1862. 1st Brigade, Blenker's Division, Department of the Mountains, to June 1862. 1st Brigade, 1st Division, I Corps, Army of Virginia, to September 1862. 1st Brigade, 1st Division, XI Corps, Army of the Potomac, to October 1862. 1st Brigade, 2nd Division, XI Corps, Army of the Potomac, to October 1863, and Army of the Cumberland to April 1864. 2nd Brigade, 2nd Division, XX Corps, Army of the Cumberland, to May 1864. The 27th Pennsylvania Infantry mustered out June 11, 1864. Veterans and recruits were transferred to the 109th Pennsylvania Infantry. Detailed service ---------------- Moved to Baltimore, Md. April 18. Attacked in streets of Baltimore April 19. Returned to Philadelphia and reorganized for three years. Moved to Washington, D.C. June 17-18. Advanced on Manassas, Va. July 16-21, 1861. First Battle of Bull Run July 21. Duty in the defenses of Washington, D.C. until April 1862. Operations in the Shenandoah Valley May to August. Battle of Cross Keys June 8. At Sperryville and Centreville until August. Pope's campaign in northern Virginia August 16-September 2. Battle of Groveton August 29. Second Battle of Bull Run August 30. Duty in the defenses of Washington, D.C. until December. Reconnaissance to Snicker's Ferry and Berryville November 28-30. Marched to Fredericksburg, Va. December 10-15. Duty at Falmouth and Brooks' Station until April, 1863. Operations at Welford's, Kelly's and Beverly Fords April 14-15. Chancellorsville Campaign April 27-May 6. Battle of Chancellorsville May 1-5. Gettysburg Campaign June 11-July 24. Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3. Pursuit of Lee July 5-24. Duty on line of the Rapidan, near Bristoe Station, until September. Movement to Bridgeport, Ala. September 24-October 3. March along Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad to Lookout Valley, Tenn. October 25-28. Reopening Tennessee River October 26-29. Battle of Wauhatchie October 28-29. Battles of Chattanooga November 23-27. Orchard Knob November 23. Tunnel Hill November 23-24. Missionary Ridge November 25. March to relief of Knoxville November 27-December 17. Duty in Lookout Valley until May 1864. Atlanta Campaign May 1-25. Demonstration on Rocky Faced Ridge May 8-11. Dug Gap, or Mill Creek, May 8. Battle of Resaca May 14-15. Near Cassville May 19. Advance on Dallas May 22-25. Left front May 25. Casualties ---------- The regiment lost a total of 134 men during service; 5 officers and 67 enlisted men killed or mortally wounded, 62 enlisted men died of disease. Commanders ---------- * Colonel Max Einstein - mustered out October 2, 1861 * Colonel Adolphus Buschbeck * Lieutenant Colonel Lorenz Cantador * Lieutenant Colonel August Riedt - commanded at the Battle of Missionary Ridge while still at the rank of captain after Maj McAloon was mortally wounded * Major Peter A. McAloon - commanded the regiment at the Battle of Missionary Ridge where he was mortally wounded in action
American baseball player (born 1986) Baseball player Scott Tyler Van Slyke (born July 24, 1986) is an American former professional baseball outfielder and first baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Los Angeles Dodgers and in the KBO League for the Doosan Bears. The son of All-Star outfielder Andy Van Slyke, he was selected by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 14th round of the 2005 MLB Draft out of John Burroughs School in Missouri. Early life ---------- Scott Van Slyke was born in Chesterfield, Missouri, to Andy and Lauri Van Slyke. He is of Dutch ancestry and grew up in St. Louis, where his father, Andy, played with the St. Louis Cardinals from 1983-86. Scott is the second of four children; his older brother, A. J. played in the Cardinals' minor league system from 2005-08. At the age of seven, he rescued his three-year-old brother Jared from drowning in a hot tub near the Pittsburgh Pirates' spring training camp in Bradenton, Florida. Van Slyke began playing baseball at age five. He attended John Burroughs School in Ladue, Missouri, where he was named Missouri Gatorade Player of the Year in 2005. He was drafted by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 14th round of the 2005 amateur draft. Career ------ ### Los Angeles Dodgers Van Slyke made his professional debut with the Gulf Coast Dodgers in 2005, appearing in 24 games and hitting .282. Van Slyke played for the Ogden Raptors in 2006, the Great Lakes Loons in 2007 and 2008 and the Inland Empire 66ers of San Bernardino in 2008–09 before he was promoted to the AAA Albuquerque Isotopes at the end of the 2009 season. He was named to the California League Post-season All-Star team in 2009. He began 2010 with the Chattanooga Lookouts in the Double-A Southern League, and again returned to Albuquerque to finish the season. He started 2011 with Chattanooga, where he began spending more time at first base. He was selected to the mid-season All-Star game, and won the MVP award in the game. He was later also selected as a post-season all-star. In 130 games, he hit .348 with 20 home runs and 92 RBI. He led the Southern League in batting average for the 2011 season, and was selected as the Dodgers "Minor League Player of the Year". He was added to the Dodgers' 40-man roster after the season. Van Slyke in his debut with Dodgers Van Slyke was called up to the Dodgers on May 9, 2012. He made his debut that night as a pinch hitter and recorded an RBI single in his first at-bat. He was the first Dodger to get a pinch RBI in his first at-bat since Carl Warwick on April 11, 1961. Van Slyke hit his first Major League home run on May 20, 2012, as a pinch hitter against St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Marc Rzepczynski when he was given the green light to swing on a 3–0 count. The three-run home run gave the Dodgers the game-winning 6–5 lead. On June 1, 2012, Van Slyke was part of a record-setting Dodgers lineup that featured the sons of five former Major Leaguers (along with Tony Gwynn Jr. Iván DeJesús Jr. Dee Gordon, and Jerry Hairston Jr.). This was the first time in Major League history this had ever occurred and was also the first time for a starting infield of four major league sons: first baseman Van Slyke, second baseman Hairston, third baseman De Jesus and shortstop Gordon. He played in a total of 27 games with the Dodgers and hit .167 with 2 home runs. In 95 games with Albuquerque, he hit .327 with 18 homers and 67 RBI. After the conclusion of the AAA season, he played with the Tiburones de La Guaira in the Venezuelan Winter League. Van Slyke batting Van Slyke was designated for assignment on December 12, 2012, and removed from the 40-man roster. With Albuquerque at the start of 2013, he hit .397 with 9 homers and 30 RBI in 34 games. The Dodgers purchased his contract on May 10, 2013, and brought him back up to the Majors. He wound up splitting time between Albuquerque and Los Angeles the rest of the season. With the Dodgers, he hit .240 with 7 home runs and 19 RBI. His biggest moment was a pinch-hit walk-off home run against the Arizona Diamondbacks on September 10. In 2014, Van Slyke was a backup in a crowded Dodgers outfield that also included Yasiel Puig, Andre Ethier, Matt Kemp, and Carl Crawford. He regularly started against left-handed pitching in a platoon role, first with Ethier and later with Crawford. Van Slyke finished the 2014 regular season hitting .297, with 8 home runs and 29 RBIs in 98 games. He led the team in slugging percentage and on-base plus slugging. In 2015, he hit .239/.317/.383 in 96 games with six homers and 30 RBI. He battled left mid-back and right wrist issues for much of the season, which negatively affected his performance. Following the season, he agreed to a one-year, $1.225 million contract with the Dodgers for 2016, avoiding salary arbitration. Van Slyke again struggled with injuries in 2016 and played in just 52 games, hitting .225./.292/.314 with one home run and seven RBI. A back injury hampered him at the start of the season, and his right wrist injury recurred, ending his season in early August. In late August, he underwent arthroscopic surgery on his wrist in order to resolve the issue. On December 1, 2016, he signed a one-year, $1.325 million contract with the Dodgers to avoid arbitration and remain with the team for 2017. ### Cincinnati Reds Van Slyke was traded to the Cincinnati Reds, along with minor league catcher Hendrik Clementina in exchange for Tony Cingrani on July 31, 2017. On August 9, 2017, he was designated for assignment by the Reds. ### Miami Marlins On January 13, 2018, Van Slyke signed a minor league contract with the Miami Marlins. ### Doosan Bears On June 26, 2018, he signed with the Doosan Bears of the KBO League. He was released on September 20, 2018. ### Acereros de Monclova On July 9, 2021, after several years out of professional baseball, Van Slyke signed with the Acereros de Monclova of the Mexican League. He became a free agent after the 2021 season without appearing in a game. Personal life ------------- Van Slyke and his wife, Audrey, are Christian and are active in Bible study groups. They have one son, Jackson.
1975 Doctor Who serial *Genesis of the Daleks* is the fourth serial of the twelfth season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was written by Terry Nation and directed by David Maloney, and originally broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975 on BBC1. In the serial, the alien time traveller the Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) and his travelling companions Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen) and Harry Sullivan (Ian Marter) are directed by the Time Lords to the planet Skaro at the time of the Daleks' creation to prevent them from becoming the dominant race in the universe. Genesis of the Daleks was originally commissioned under producer Barry Letts and script editor Terrance Dicks, who believed that the outline submitted by Nation was too similar to his previous Dalek adventures, and encouraged him to explore the origin of the Daleks. The story introduces the Daleks' creator Davros (Michael Wisher), who had a unique visual design. The script was handed to Letts and Dicks' successors, producer Philip Hinchcliffe and script editor Robert Holmes, who made changes to the original script which gave it a darker tone. Nation, having intentionally modelled the Daleks on the Nazis, further explored the theme in Genesis. It also addresses the moral issues that come with time travel and genocide. The story was filmed over January and February 1975, with some location filming in a quarry in Betchworth. Genesis of the Daleks premiered with 10.7 million viewers and concluded five weeks later with 9.1 million, with the least-watched episode being Part Three with 8.5 million viewers. Since its broadcast it has been widely praised as one of the series' best. The story was novelised in 1976 by Dicks, and released as a condensed LP in 1979, before being released on VHS in 1991 and DVD in 2006. Plot ---- The Fourth Doctor and his companions Sarah Jane Smith and Harry Sullivan are intercepted by the Time Lords. The Doctor is instructed to interfere with the creation of the Daleks so as to avert a future in which the Daleks rule the universe; he is given a Time Ring to return them to his TARDIS when the mission is complete. The three find themselves on the Dalek planet of Skaro. A generations-long war between the Thals and the Kaleds has left the planet inhospitable, and the two sides have congregated in their own domes for protection and continue the war. A chemical weapon attack forces them to take shelter. Sarah is separated but meets the Mutos, mutated exiles of both sides, who try to help protect her before they are all captured by the Thals and forced to load radioactive material on a missile. The Doctor and Harry are captured by the Kaleds, their possessions confiscated, and are taken to a bunker to meet the scientific and military elite, including the lead scientist Davros, who unveils the "Mark III travel machine", or "Dalek", which the Doctor recognises as his nemesis. Ronson, one of Davros' scientists, secretly tells the Doctor that he knows Davros' experiments are unethical, and the Doctor is able to convince the Kaled leadership to put a halt to Davros' experiments. Davros learns of Ronson's actions, and covertly provides the Thal leaders a chemical formula that can weaken the Kaled dome and make it vulnerable to their missile attack, while preparing twenty more Daleks. The Doctor and Harry make their way to the Thal dome and rescue Sarah. However, the Doctor is captured by the Thals as the missile strikes the Kaled dome, wiping out all but those in the bunker. Davros accuses Ronson of giving the Thals the chemical formula and then orders the Daleks to kill him, and convinces the remaining leaders to let him have his Daleks attack the Thal dome. The Dalek attack kills many of the Thals, and the Doctor, his companions, and the surviving Thals and Mutos make their way to the Kaled bunker. The Doctor instructs the Thals and Mutos to find a way to destroy the bunker while he and his companions go inside to recover the Time Ring. While there, the Doctor is captured by Davros, who discovers the Doctor knows of the future of the Daleks, and forces the Doctor to record all he knows, so that Davros can program the Daleks to avoid failure in the future. Other scientists working for Davros, now aware of his plans, free the Doctor and give him enough time to rig the Dalek incubation room with explosives which would end the threat of the Daleks. As he is about to touch the two exposed wire ends to set them off, he hesitates, questioning whether he has the right to make that decision. He is relieved to learn that Davros has agreed to stop and allow the Kaled leaders to vote on the continuation of the project. As the leaders gather for this vote, the Doctor is able to recover the Time Ring and destroy the recordings he made, while learning that the Thals and Mutos have prepared the means to destroy the bunker. As the vote is called, Davros reveals this was all a decoy, giving the Daleks he sent to destroy the Thals time to return to the bunker and exterminate the remaining Kaleds. Harry and Sarah escape the chaos, while the Doctor returns to set off the incubator room's explosives, but a Dalek inadvertently completes the circuit and sets it off itself. The Doctor escapes before the Thal and Mutos' bomb caves in the bunker, trapping Davros and the Daleks. Inside, Davros realises the Daleks have gained a will of their own when they refuse to take orders from a non-Dalek. He attempts to stop the production line but is seemingly exterminated by his own creations. While he suspects he has only managed to set back Dalek evolution by several centuries, the Doctor considers his mission complete: out of the Daleks' evil, good will always arise to challenge them. He and his companions say goodbye to the surviving Thals and Mutos before using the Time Ring to return to the TARDIS. Production ---------- ### Conception and writing When planning stories for season 12, producer Barry Letts and script editor Terrance Dicks felt that it was time for Terry Nation to return to the series and write another Dalek adventure. Letts and Dicks enjoyed the script Nation sent in, but found it too "reminiscent" of many of his previous Dalek stories. The two suggested that Nation instead write an origin story for the Daleks, originally titled Daleks – Genesis of Terror. The serial was commissioned on 1 April 1974, and the scripts accepted on 22 July. The stories lined up for the season were handed over to Letts and Dicks' successors, producer Philip Hinchcliffe and script editor Robert Holmes, with whom Genesis of the Daleks gained a darker tone. Holmes was not a fan of frequent appearances by the Daleks, and only allowed the story because it explored their origins. In an aim to make the series more adult, Hinchcliffe wanted the story to be "pacy" and make the Daleks appear more powerful. In a 2006 interview, Dicks said that he does not believe the story would have been much different if he and Letts had been in charge, though he remarked he would have added some lighter moments to soften the "grim" tone. Director David Maloney stated that the images of war at the beginning of the serial were intended to create atmosphere, and he had no intention of losing the younger audience. The production of Genesis of the Daleks saw several changes from the script. Maloney altered the opening scene to show the soldiers gunned down by machine guns in slow motion. Nation was displeased with the change, and Maloney later felt that the violent addition was "a bit much". Hinchcliffe and Maloney were not keen on the Doctor's original meeting with the Time Lord, which took place in a lush garden, and changed it to the Skaro war-zone which they felt more appropriate. The Thal soldiers were originally supposed to be boys aged 15 or 16 to illustrate the youth of those fighting in the war, but this was later changed to make them appear more mature. In the Genesis of Terror script, Sarah Jane becomes ill in the third episode from radiation poisoning, and Bettan was a male who was introduced in the fourth episode. Part Five originally had more action in the Dalek incubator room and ended with the Doctor's question of whether he had the right to destroy them. ### Casting and costumes > > The talent on Genesis was extraordinary. David Spode's sets were incredible, Sylvia and Barbara achieved wonders with makeup and costume, and then there were the actors [...] – all excellent. But the star of the show, I have to say, was Michael Wisher. > > > –Elisabeth Sladen on Genesis of the Daleks in her autobiography. Maloney cast John Franklyn-Robbins as the Time Lord because he had worked with him before and intended his character to resemble Death in The Seventh Seal. Hilary Minster, who played a Thal soldier, had also played a Thal in Planet of the Daleks (1973). Minster had been considered for the role of Mogran. Peter Miles previously played Dr. Lawrence in Doctor Who and the Silurians (1970) and Professor Whitaker in Invasion of the Dinosaurs (1974). Stephen Yardley, who played the Muto Sevrin, later appeared in Vengeance on Varos (1985). During filming of Genesis, Yardley walked into the casting department on his lunch break in costume and asked for a job; because of his costume, they assumed he was a tramp from the street. Dennis Chinnery, who played Gharman, had previously been seen in The Chase (1965) and would later appear in The Twin Dilemma (1984). The character of Davros was designed by Nation to have created the Daleks in his image, and to also be a "spokesperson" for the Daleks as he felt it was "boring" listening to Daleks giving speeches. The design was inspired by the Mekon, a comic book character with a small body and a large "green, dome-like head" which Hinchcliffe remembered from his childhood. Davros attracted the attention of BBC prosthetics designer John Friedlander who agreed to come off another show to make Davros' mask. The latex mask was moulded to Michael Wisher's face by make-up artist Sylvia James. Wisher could even eat while wearing the mask. Regular latex instead of the more mouldable foam latex was used because the latter was too expensive. The cast and crew regarded Davros' effects as a great technical achievement considering the budget and time period they worked in. Two children visiting Baker at the BBC studios were scared by Wisher in costume; they thought he was a statue at first. When sitting in Davros' Dalek-like base, Wisher wore knee pads and a kilt because trousers were too uncomfortable. To prepare during rehearsals, Wisher acted in a wheelchair with a paper bag over his head that only had slits cut out for his eyes so he would be used to the "disorienting" situation and be able to express himself without using his whole face. Wisher, a heavy smoker, put two holes in the top of the bag so he could smoke underneath it in rehearsals. Wisher also provided some of the voices for the Daleks with Roy Skelton; in some scenes, he was acting to his own pre-recorded dialogue. Stuntman and actor Terry Walsh appeared uncredited in several roles. ### Filming and effects Genesis of the Daleks was the last serial of the twelfth season to be filmed, after Revenge of the Cybermen. As Sarah Jane had been filmed in Revenge wearing a combat costume, it was added into Genesis that the Doctor would hand her the outfit, into which she changes by the next scene. The story was mainly filmed in January 1975, with some studio recording carried into February. Location filming for the serial took place at Betchworth quarry in Surrey, which represented the landscape of Skaro. Having had trouble with the Daleks on location in Planet of the Daleks (1973), Maloney scheduled shooting so that they only appeared in studio scenes. The three active Dalek props used in the serial were originals from the 1960s, and their wear was covered by new paint. Five "dummy" Daleks which could not be operated were also used. Hinchcliffe wanted the Daleks to appear more powerful, and intended to achieve this through low angles and lighting. Duncan Brown, who was responsible for studio lighting, used colours and dark lighting to make the Daleks seem as if they were "emerging from the shadows" and to suggest rather than show the world created to viewers. The same model was used for both the Kaled and the Thal domes. The gas attack in Part One was achieved through dry ice and green lighting. Some of the Thal guns were re-used props from the First Doctor (William Hartnell) serial Galaxy 4 (1965). The electric trolley used by the Kaleds in Part One worked in tests, but collapsed when Baker and Marter boarded it. The creature Harry and the Doctor glimpse at the end of Part Two was mainly a reused Ice Warrior costume, while the Thal rocket ship was a reused model from The Ambassadors of Death (1970). During the filming of Part Two, Miles and Chinnery had trouble fitting the gun on the Dalek. As a result, the scene had to be filmed in two takes, bridged with a reaction shot of the Doctor. Part Two is unusual in that it is one of the very few episodes not to begin with a reprise, and also the first to end in a freeze frame. A stunt double for Elisabeth Sladen was hired for Sarah's fall from the scaffolding, but Maloney discovered that she would be falling eight feet, while Sladen had fallen ten feet in rehearsals. Maloney ultimately decided to conclude the episode with a freeze frame ending. Maloney would use the freeze frame technique again, most notably with The Deadly Assassin. The third episode overran its 25-minute limit and rather than cut material out the cliffhanger was changed from Davros' speech to the Doctor being electrocuted. The music for the serial was recorded on 3 March 1975 and the dubbing finished the day before Part One aired. Themes and analysis ------------------- German Nazis, on whom the Kaleds in the serial were intentionally based. Nation, who grew up during World War II, intentionally based the Daleks on the Nazis, and this episode contains many deliberate parallels. The Kaleds dress in uniforms reminiscent of the Nazis and display "fascist salutes". The Kaleds look to "keep [their] race pure" by banishing the Thals and Mutos. Cast and crew members described it as a "warning to the world" about the danger of allowing authoritarianism to take over. Davros has been likened to Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler several times, while physical comparisons have also been drawn between the appearance of Nyder and SS chief Heinrich Himmler; aside from the resemblance, both wear insignias and spectacles. As production of the third episode began, the producers decided to play down some of the Nazi symbolism, and took away Nyder's Iron Cross. It briefly reappears in a later scene that was filmed in the first recording block. Ed Webb and Mark Wardecker, in a paper in Doctor Who and Philosophy, interpreted the Dalek history shown in Genesis of the Daleks as a warning that "scientists will be the one to bring about the ultimate destruction, the ultimate evil, and deliberately so". They also commented that the serial showed that the Daleks were evil by design, rather than evolution. Davros represents a mad scientist who creates a monster that then consumes him. Sarah Honeychurch and Niall Burr, in the same book, wrote that the corruption of the Daleks showed that creatures should not be created with "such limited moral reasoning," and that in our world we cannot "impose our own personal human standards on everybody else". Genesis of the Daleks also displays a battle between good and evil. Letts enjoyed the fact that the story did not have clear heroes and villains, but rather a conflict of principle. The discussion between the Doctor and Davros about the hypothetical viral weapon demonstrates this. Hinchcliffe described it as the "hero meets antihero" moment, with the two engaged in "intellectual grappling". The episode also presents the "moral dilemma" of whether the Doctor should destroy the Daleks, resulting in the famous "Have I the right?" scene. The Doctor's comparison to knowingly killing a child who would grow up to be a dictator shows how the Doctor's ethics are influenced by his non-linear experience of time. He considers the good things that may come out of the Daleks, such as that "many future worlds would become allies". The Doctor's conclusion that he does not have the right is an example of utilitarian reasoning, and a "duty-based ethical" position. Sladen recalled that Baker took the scene very seriously, almost "agonising" over the dialogue. Comparisons to other stories have been drawn. The Time Lord who appears at the story's beginning is intentionally costumed to resemble Death in Ingmar Bergman's film The Seventh Seal. Gareth Roberts has compared this character to the ghost of Hamlet's father, setting the protagonist (the Doctor) on a violent mission with which he has moral qualms. Martin Wiggins, senior lecturer and fellow at the Shakespeare Institute at Stratford-upon-Avon, suggests that the Doctor's indecision about destroying the Dalek embryos in the "have I the right?" scene is derived from The Brothers Karamazov. Broadcast and reception ----------------------- \| Episode \| Title \| Run time \| Original air date \| UK viewers(millions) \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1 \| "Part One" \| 24:30 \| 8 March 1975 (1975-03-08) \| 10.7 \| \| 2 \| "Part Two" \| 24:51 \| 15 March 1975 (1975-03-15) \| 10.5 \| \| 3 \| "Part Three" \| 22:38 \| 22 March 1975 (1975-03-22) \| 8.5 \| \| 4 \| "Part Four" \| 23:38 \| 29 March 1975 (1975-03-29) \| 8.8 \| \| 5 \| "Part Five" \| 23:27 \| 5 April 1975 (1975-04-05) \| 9.8 \| \| 6 \| "Part Six" \| 23:30 \| 12 April 1975 (1975-04-12) \| 9.1 \| Genesis of the Daleks was first broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975. Viewership varied from 8 to 10 million; Parts One and Two were watched by audiences of 10.7 and 10.5 million, Parts Three and Four were watched by audiences of 8.5 and 8.8 million, and Parts Five and Six were watched by audiences of 9.8 and 9.1 million. Audience Appreciation Indexes were taken for the second, fourth, fifth, and sixth episodes, scoring 57, 58, 57, and 56 respectively.[] At the time of broadcast, there were some complaints about the level of violence portrayed. Mary Whitehouse, of the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association, complained that Genesis contained "tea-time brutality for tots". Scenes objected to included the depictions of war and Nyder hitting the Doctor. However, David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker, in their Doctor Who: The Television Companion (1998), recorded a positive reaction from fans in regards to creativity and Davros, though one writer noted the ending did not satisfyingly close the story. The BBC's Audience Research Report concluded, "A little more complex than some Doctor Who adventures, perhaps, and with underlying questions of conscience, the serial had been 'different' it was occasionally felt and, although dismissed in some quarters as far-fetched, long drawn-out, confused and/or predictable, had provided acceptable escapist entertainment for the majority." Howe and Walker themselves described the serial as "well-written and full of new ideas, while still remaining true to the Daleks' roots by effectively equating them with the Nazis", and particularly praised the production values, pacing, and moral dilemma. They considered it to have a few minor flaws, namely Harry being attacked by a giant clam, some "duff" cliffhangers, and "many of the scientist characters serve no other purpose than to act as Dalek-fodder". In 2010, Mark Braxton of Radio Times awarded the serial a full five stars and hailed it as "Terry Nation's finest hour for the series", suggesting that Davros was "the greatest villain in Doctor Who history". He was also positive towards Dudley Simpson's score and Davros's allies, who were "impeccably written and played" from Nyder to Gharman, but was disappointed that Harry did not have much to do. The A.V. Club reviewer Christopher Bahn noted that it contradicted some aspects of The Daleks but that it "[hit] the emotional target dead-on". He particularly praised Davros and Skaro, but considered the "major problem" with the portrayal of the Daleks was that "we're not given any choice but to view them as psychopathic murderers", and the Doctor came across as a "catastrophically incompetent secret agent". DVD Talk's Stuart Galbraith gave Genesis of the Daleks four out of five stars, calling it a "real fan-pleaser" and writing that Wisher was "superb" as Davros. While noting that the story "is mostly concerned with action and suspense, which it does rather well", he wrote that it "isn't especially original" as it dealt with common time-travel issues, despite doing it in "intelligent ways". In 2009, SFX listed the scene where the Daleks receive their first blaster as the thirteenth scariest moment of Doctor Who. The magazine also named the scene where Harry is attacked by a giant clam as one of the silliest Doctor Who moments, noting "even the best Doctor Who stories have the occasional dropped stitch". Charlie Jane Anders of io9, in a 2010 article, listed the cliffhanger of Episode Four – in which the Doctor is forced to tell Davros how the Daleks will be defeated in the future – as one of the greatest Doctor Who cliffhangers. Writing for BFI Screenonline, James Donohue thought Genesis of the Daleks "shows the series developing a more complex appreciation of the moral issues surrounding being a monster", but "the plot contrives to prevent the Doctor from having to make the difficult decision himself anyway. He delays Davros' plans, but he does not change the future. Lacking the courage to answer the questions it raises, Genesis shows how challenging, and how infuriating, children's TV can be." ### Legacy Genesis of the Daleks is one of the most widely known serials of the original run as it was repeated often. It was edited into an 85-minute omnibus version and broadcast on BBC1 at 3:00 pm on 27 December 1975, attracting 7.6 million viewers, and also was repeated in two edited 45-minute episodes as part of the "Doctor Who and the Monsters" on 26 July and 2 August 1982, which attracted audiences of 4.9 and 5 million. It was then repeated in its original serial form on BBC Two in 1993 (averaging 2.2 million viewers) and 2000 (averaging 1 to 1.5 million). In a 1998 poll of readers of Doctor Who Magazine, over 2500 voters placed Genesis at the top of a poll to find the greatest Doctor Who stories of all time. In the magazine's 2009 "Mighty 200" poll, asking readers to rank all of the then-made 200 stories, Genesis came in third place, behind The Caves of Androzani (1984) and "Blink" (2007). In a 2014 poll, the magazine's readers again placed the episode in third place. In 2008, The Daily Telegraph named Genesis of the Daleks one of the ten greatest episodes of Doctor Who. Genesis of the Daleks is the first example in the history of Doctor Who of "outright revisionism"; the creation story of the Daleks is very different from that established in The Daleks (1963), where it was said they evolved from creatures known as Dals, who were once similar to the Thals. Here, the Dals from the original story are changed to Kaleds. The Official Doctor Who and the Daleks Book, co-authored by Terry Nation, suggested that The Daleks took place during the Daleks' 1000-year hibernation following Genesis of the Daleks, and that the Daleks seen in that story were the descendants of Kaled mutants who had sought refuge in the destroyed Kaled city and discovered Davros' prototypes and notes. Russell T Davies, who revived Doctor Who in 2005, suggested that the origins of the Time War, a conflict between the Time Lords and the Daleks which contributed to the storyline of the new series, began with the Time Lords' attempted genocide of the Daleks in Genesis. Davros is resurrected in Destiny of the Daleks (1979), played by David Gooderson, and appears in the remaining three Dalek stories of the classic series played by Terry Molloy. He has also appeared in the revived series since "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End" (2008), played by Julian Bleach. In "The Magician's Apprentice" (2015), footage from the episode is used with its plot based on the Fourth Doctor's moral issue if one has the right to kill a child if they knew "that child would grow up totally evil." Davros' early life is additionally covered in the 2006 Big Finish Productions four-part audio series I, Davros, which saw Miles reprising his role as Nyder in the fourth episode, "Guilt". Commercial releases ------------------- ### In print The Target novelisation of this serial, written by Terrance Dicks, was published by Tandem in 1976. It was re-released by Virgin Publishing in 1991, bearing its designated number of 27 in the novelisation range. The Genesis of the Daleks novelisation has the largest print run of any of the original series, selling over 100,000 copies. ### Home media See also: List of Doctor Who DVD releases and List of Doctor Who Blu-ray releases In 1979, the BBC released a condensed audio version of the serial as an LP. In 1988, this recording was reissued on cassette by BBC Audio alongside a later radio play, Slipback. It was subsequently released on CD in a revised and expanded version by BBC Audio paired with Exploration Earth: The Time Machine in 2001. In February 2011, Audio Go reissued the one-hour condensed audio version of the LP as part of their "Vintage Beeb" range. Genesis of the Daleks was released on VHS by BBC Enterprises in 1991 with The Sontaran Experiment, and again as part of a box set of stories featuring Davros in 2001. It was released on DVD as a two-disc special edition in the United Kingdom by BBC Worldwide on 10 April 2006 and in the United States by Warner Home Video on 6 June 2006. This DVD is also available as part of the limited edition 2007 release of The Complete Davros Collection box set along with Destiny of the Daleks, Resurrection of the Daleks, Revelation of the Daleks and Remembrance of the Daleks. A 1080i upscaled remaster of the story was released on Blu-ray in the United Kingdom by BBC Studios as part of the 'Complete Season 12' box set on 11 June 2018, and in the United States by Warner Home Video (as 'Tom Baker: Season One') on 19 June 2018; This release contained both the original 6-episode version and the 85-minute abridged repeat. To promote the release, the repeat version (marketed as a 'Director's Cut') was screened theatrically in the United States via Fathom Events on 11 June 2018. In November 2020, the story was released as part of the Time Lord Victorious: Road to the Dark Times blu-ray, along with Planet of the Daleks, The Deadly Assassin, State of Decay, The Curse of Fenric, "The Runaway Bride" and "The Waters of Mars".
1991 Indian film *Mookilla Rajyathu* (transl. In the country of the noseless) is a 1991 Indian Malayalam-language slapstick comedy film directed by the Ashokan-Thaha duo and written by B. Jayachandran. It stars Mukesh, Thilakan, Jagathy Sreekumar, Siddique, and Vinaya Prasad. The film features music composed by Ouseppachan. The plot revolves around four patients escaped from a mental asylum and the troubles they cause in their attempts to start a new life in a sane society. Thilakan's performance was widely appreciated in the movie and it is considered one of his career best performances in a comical role. The movie is widely regarded as a classic of the golden age of Malayalam comedy (the comedy era started around 1983-1985 and went into decline in the late 1990s). Plot ---- The film starts by displaying an antic of Keshavan who is an inmate of the Kakkanad Mental Hospital. Two other inmates are Benny and Krishnankutty. By profession Benny is an artist, Krishnankutty is an auto-mechanic and Keshavan has retired from military service. The trio chance to come across a newspaper report that the Bollywood film star Amitabh Bachchan is visiting Ernakulam city for a film shooting, which is close to where they stay. They are soon joined by a new inmate Venu, who takes him to the mental hospital. Venu is a good singer but suffers from a compulsive obsession to singing. All the four share a passion for Amitabh Bachchan. Driven by a desire to see Amitabh Bachchan the four manage to escape from the mental hospital that night by outsmarting the cell warden Ameen. They reach Ernakulam city in a bus but are disappointed to learn that Amitabh Bachchan had gone back after the film shooting which was a month ago and that they had in fact seen an old newspaper report. When they wake up the next morning, they find Venu missing. They go searching for him alone. Benny meets his former college mate and lover Leena in the city. Keshavan goes to a politician's rally and undresses in support of the Swadeshi movement, only to be saved by Benny. Krishnankutty drinks at a bar, but finds that he does not have money to pay for it, and is assaulted. Finally, they find Venu having found employment as a singer, and he is chased by Balan, his older brother and Ameen. They decide to live by finding suitable employments. They find shelter in a rented house owned by a young dance teacher, whom Leena mistakes as Benny's new lover. Benny becomes a painter, Krishnankutty a mechanic, and Keshavan a security guard. Leena's father is unwilling to give his daughter in marriage to Benny because of his insanity, and even unsuccessfully hires a goonda Bheem Singh to assault him. Two conmen Vasu and Abdullah who use the pseudonyms Sundaran Pillai and Gireesh Puri, are in the disguise of a TV serial producer and director, respectively. Their intention is to rob a bank near the house rented by the four by making a tunnel through their house while they are busy. They hire the four under the pretext of their TV serial and send them to learn various skills like martial arts, rock climbing, tree climbing and break dance among other things. They manage to keep them away from the house during daytime while the excavation is going on under the supervision of another gang member Bruno. However, a police officer is tracking their activities. In the end, their vicious scheme is busted up by the police officer, assisted by the four who wake up to the reality. The bank robbers end up in police custody. Cast ---- * Mukesh as Benny * Thilakan as Keshavan / Keshu * Jagathy Sreekumar as Krishnankutty * Siddique as Venu * Vinaya Prasad as Leena * Paravoor Bharathan as Oomen, Father of Leena * Kuthiravattam Pappu as Vasu / Sundaran Pillai * Rajan P. Dev as Abdullah * Suchitra Murali as House Owner / Dance Teacher * Jagadish as Santhosh, the Police Inspector * Mala Aravindan as Ameen * N. L. Balakrishnan as Balan * Kunchan as Bruno * Krishnan Kutty Nair as Bheem Singh * Philomina as Insane Lady * Oduvil Unnikrishnan as Dr. V. N. Sharma * Hakim Rawther as Charlie, Inmate at mental hospital Music ----- The soundtrack was composed by Ouseppachan. It features three songs which were sung by M. G. Sreekumar and K. S. Chithra. The lyrics were written by Kaithapram Damodaran and Poovachal Khader. Track listing\| No. \| Title \| Lyrics \| Singer(s) \| Length \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1. \| "Kaashithumbakkavay" \| Kaithapram Damodaran \| M. G. Sreekumar \| 4:09 \| \| 2. \| "Varnam Vaarichoodum" \| Poovachal Khader \| K. S. Chithra \| 4:11 \| \| 3. \| "Break Break Dance" \| Kaithapram Damodaran \| K. S. Chithra \| 3:32 \| \| Total length: \| 11:52 \|
Rugby player Benjamin Hall Blyth FRSE (25 May 1849 – 13 May 1917), often called Benjamin Blyth II, was a Scottish civil engineer. Family ------ Blyth, who was born at 36 Minto Street, Edinburgh, was the eldest of the nine children of Mary Dudgeon Wright and the railway engineer Benjamin Blyth. He was educated at Merchiston Castle School between 1860 and 1864 before studying for a Master of Arts degree from the University of Edinburgh, graduating in 1867. After the death of both parents – Benjamin Blyth in 1866 and Mary Dudgeon Wright in 1868 – Blyth and his siblings were brought up by their mother's sister, Elizabeth Scotland Wright. Rugby Union career ------------------ ### Amateur career Blyth played for Merchistonians. ### Provincial career Blyth played in the world's very first representative provincial match in November 1872. This was the 'Inter-City': the match between Glasgow District and Edinburgh District. Blyth represented the Edinburgh side. ### Administrative career He became the 3rd President of the Scottish Rugby Union, holding the post between 1875 and 1876. Engineering career ------------------ Following his father's death, Blyth entered the family engineering consultancy and became a partner five years later. Blyth served as a consultant to the North British Railway and the Great North of Scotland Railway and served in an advisory capacity to the British Army with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the Engineer and Railway Staff Corps. In 1872, he married Millicent Taylor with whom he had a son, Benjamin Edward, who died in infancy, and a daughter, Elsie Winifred. He became a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1877, being elected to its council in 1900. He served as vice-president in 1911 and in 1914 became the first practising Scottish engineer to serve as president. On 7 February 1898 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Political career ---------------- Blyth's house at 17 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh In later life, Blyth lived in a large Victorian townhouse at 17 Palmerston Place in Edinburgh's West End. Blyth stood as the Unionist candidate for the East Lothian by-election of 1911, but lost to the Liberal candidate, John Deans Hope by 468 votes. One of his policies was opposing giving home rule to Ireland. Death ----- Blyth was widowed on 12 September 1914. He died in North Berwick on 13 May 1917, of "spittielioma of tongue" and was survived by his daughter. His nephew, Benjamin Hall Blyth (sometimes referred to as Benjamin Blyth III) was the son of his brother Francis Creswick Blyth – who was taken on by Blyth and Blyth in 1909, continued the consultancy after his death. The grave of Benjamin Hall Blyth, Dean Cemetery He is buried on the obscured southern terrace of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh, towards the east. His wife, Millicent Taylor (1852-1914) is buried with him. Their infant son, Benjamin Edward Blyth, who died in 1875 aged six weeks lies at their feet. Legacy ------ He trained James Simpson Pirie FRSE (1861-1943), founder of J S Pirie & Sons. Pirie ran Blyth & Blyth from his death until the end of the war.
1977 studio album by Kilburn and the High-Roads Professional ratings\| Review scores \| \| --- \| \| Source \| Rating \| \| AllMusic \| \| *Wotabunch!* was released by WEA in 1977 following the success of Ian Dury as a solo artist. It is technically the 'second album' by Kilburn and the High-Roads. When talking about Kilburn and the High-Roads' output in his track-by-track comments in the booklet for Repertoire Records 2CD Ian Dury & The Blockheads: Reasons to be Cheerful retrospective, Ian Dury said: "The Kilburns made two albums, but they were both the same. The second one was to try and stop the first one coming out! In fact, it didn't prevent them, because Warner Bros. Records waited until I had some success, and then they put out that album called Wotta Bunch." Wotabunch! was recorded in January 1974 at the Beatles' Apple Studios in London shortly after two line-up changes in the band. Two long-term members, bassist Humphrey Ocean and drummer David Newton-Rohoman, were no longer in the band at the time. In fact, new bassist Charlie Sinclair had only just joined the group when the sessions began. Newton-Rohoman had been sacked virtually on the eve of the recording sessions, being replaced by session musician Louis Larose. Charlie Sinclair and Louie Larose had left the Pub Rock band Phoenix (led by Roy St. John), in which David Newton-Rohomon replaced Larose on drums. Though the session went fairly well, with recording interspersed with trips to local pubs, there was a problem with capturing the band's live sound. This was a problem that the Kilburns had suffered before when making demos the previous year and would suffer again when making Handsome. Some blame is given to Larose's conventional drumming style (and later, on the Handsome sessions, to producer Hugh Murphy). Despite the trouble, Wotabunch! is much closer to their live sound than the softer, polished Handsome versions. Dury was not pleased with the release due to a remix featuring the addition of strings. The final remix for the recordings was done more or less behind Dury's back, while on he was on a week-long holiday. However, this was soon to be irrelevant, as shortly after the sessions were over Raft (the record label that had signed the band) folded. The bands on the Raft label were told that they would go to WEA, who owned Raft, but after a visit from WEA's top man, Joe Smith at a concert, Kilburn & The Highroads were dropped. In 1977, following the success of Ian Dury's solo album New Boots and Panties!!, and the good response to "Sex and Drugs and Rock and Roll", Warner Bros. Records issued the Raft recordings as Wotabunch! WEA listed the band as 'Kilburn & The Highroads featuring Ian Dury' in order to capitalize on Dury's success. The cover art, featuring cardboard cut-outs of the band posed with a group of stuffed animals, features a different line-up of the band than the one that recorded the album. As of 2010, the album has not been re-issued on CD. Track listing ------------- All tracks written by Ian Dury and Russell Hardy unless otherwise noted. 1. "The Call Up" - 2:24 2. "Crippled with Nerves" - 3:02 3. "Patience (So What?)" - 2:04 4. "You're More Than Fair" - 3:03 5. "Upminster Kid" - 3:26 6. "Billy Bentley" (Dury, Charlie Hart) - 3:34 7. "Huffety Puff" - 2:13 8. "Rough Kids" - 3:15 9. "The Roadette Song" - 3:05 10. "The Badger and the Rabbit" - 2:39 11. "The Mumble Rumble and the Cocktail Rock" - 3:41 12. "Pam's Moods" - 2:57 Personnel --------- * Ian Dury - lead vocals * Russell Hardy - piano * Keith Lucas - guitar * Charlie Sinclair - bass * Davey Payne - saxophones * Louis Larose - drums Sources ------- * Sex and Drugs and Rock and Roll: The Life of Ian Dury by Richard Balls, first published 2000, Omnibus Press * Ian Dury & the Blockheads: Song by Song by Jim Drury, first published 2003, Sanctuary Publishing * Reasons to Be Cheerful, 2-disc compilation first released 1996, Repertoire Records
James Dallas Burrus (14 October 1846 – 5 December 1928) was an American educator, druggist and philanthropist from Tennessee. He and a brother were among the first three graduates of Fisk University, the first African Americans to graduate from a liberal arts college south of the Mason–Dixon line. After completing graduate work in mathematics at Dartmouth College, Burrus became the first professor of mathematics at Fisk University. He later continued his teaching career at Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College in Mississippi. Life and times -------------- James Dallas Burrus was born into slavery in 1846 at Murfreesboro, Rutherford County, Tennessee, the son of William C. J. Burrus and his enslaved common-law wife, Nancy Burrus. The couple had three mixed-race sons: James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, and Preston Robert Burrus. William C. J. Burrus (WCJ Burrus) (18 December 1815 – 25 May 1859) was a white planter, lawyer, and politician. He had a sister Elizabeth Burrus (1802–1850). Their parents were Joseph Burrus (1762–1821) and Sophia Rucker (1775–1835). Burrus had purchased Nancy at a slave auction in Nashville; she was tri-racial, of mulatto-American Indian ancestry. WCJ Burrus died on 25 May 1859, less than two years before the Civil War broke out. He was buried in Burrus Cemetery on his plantation Cherry Lane Acres, Rutherford County, Tennessee. His will provided for his slave wife Nancy to inherit his estate. The courts of Rutherford County did not recognize this provision or the will at all. The estate, including Nancy Burrus and her three sons, became the property of a nephew by marriage, the son-in-law of Burrus's sister. Civil War period ---------------- After Burrus's nephew, Colonel James Camp Tappan, inherited the four slaves, he took them with him during his service in the Confederate Army. Tappan had married Mary Elizabeth Anderson on 26 June 1854; she was the daughter of Burrus's sister, Elizabeth (Burrus) and her husband Judge Samuel Anderson of Rutherford County, Tennessee. He assigned Nancy Burrus as a cook and the three sons as man servants to officers. Tappan fought in campaigns across Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. In 1865, at the end of the Civil War, the Burrus family was in Marshall, Texas with what remained of Braxton Bragg's Army of Mississippi. The Emancipation Proclamation of President Abraham Lincoln delivered the family into freedom. They made their way to Shreveport, Louisiana, then to New Orleans, and eventually to Memphis, Tennessee. In Memphis, James and John were able to find work. Before long the family moved to Nashville. In Nashville, James and John worked as wait staff in hotels and began to save for college. Training and education ---------------------- To increase his income, James Burrus began teaching in the primary and secondary schools in Goodlettsville, Tennessee and in Arkansas. In 1867, Burrus and his brother John enrolled as part of the first, four-person class at Fisk University. They pursued an academic, classical education. James was to study mathematics and John would study Greek. They needed preparatory classes to supplement their education. In 1875, Fisk University graduated James Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia Eliza Walker and America W. Robinson as the first class of Fisk University. They were the first blacks or people of color to earn a bachelor's degree from a liberal arts college south of the Mason–Dixon line. Fisk's faculty was then majority-white and most also served as missionaries. Recognizing James' promise, they tried to persuade him to enter the ministry. He chose mathematics instead, and the instructors encouraged Burrus to continue his studies. Robinson and Burrus were engaged for a short period, but during much of this time she was touring in Europe with the Fisk Jubilee Singers. They broke it off by 1878, and he never married. Robinson loaned Burrus money to attend graduate school at Dartmouth College, where he enrolled in 1877 to study mathematics. In 1879, he was awarded the Master of Arts in mathematics. This was the first instance of an African American to receive a master of arts degree in the United States. Professional career ------------------- In May 1881, Burrus accepted an appointment at Fisk University as the first professor of mathematics. In 1882, he received an appointment at Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College in Mississippi as professor of mathematics and superintendent of the college farm. Philanthropy ------------ Throughout his life, Burrus was a donor to Fisk University. Beginning around 1915, Burrus donated property worth $7,000 to Fisk University. In 1915, a gift of $600 (~$18,071 in 2023) was made. In 1917, James and Preston Burrus together made a contribution to Fisk in the amount of $112 (~$2,664 in 2023) to the Fisk Endowment Fund. An 85-acre farm was given to the school in 1922 by these two brothers. When Fisk University needed funds in 1926 to remove a debt, during a capital campaign the Burrus brothers donated $1,000 (~$13,785 in 2023). Upon James Burrus's death in 1928, his will stipulated that his estate be left to Fisk University. At the time of his death, his estate consisted of 85 houses, and stocks and bonds, valued at over $120,000. Death ----- In 1928, Burrus died on a streetcar at Nashville, Davidson County, Tennessee. The certificate of death listed the cause as chronic myocarditis and contributory factor as old age. His occupation at the time of death was druggist and he was single. Burrus left $100,000 to Fisk University. The announcement of his death and bequest made the front page of newspapers across the country in the United States. Awards and honors ----------------- Burrus Elementary School * Burrus Hall at Fisk University was built from funds bestowed in his will. * Burrus Elementary School in Houston, Texas was named in his honor. * Burrus Hall, a female dormitory on the campus of Alcorn State University.
British writer This article is about the British writer. For the Australian/New Zealand writer, see Joan Fleming (poet). Joan Margaret Fleming (27 March 1908 – 15 November 1980) was a British writer of crime and thriller novels. Her novel The Deeds of Dr Deadcert was made into the film Rx Murder (1958), and she won the Gold Dagger award twice, for When I Grow Rich (1962) and Young Man I Think You're Dying (1970). Family background and early life -------------------------------- She was born at Horwich, Lancashire to Elizabeth and David Gibson, her father being then managing director of the Horwich Locomotive Works. She attended the Brighthelmstone School for Girls, but left without qualifications and moved to London at the age of 18 when her father was promoted as a marine engineer, although he died a year later. She was later educated at the City Literary Institute and the University of Lausanne. She married Norman Bell Beattie Fleming, a Harley Street ophthalmic surgeon, in 1932, and had four children. One of them died as a child, but Penelope, Rowan and David Fleming survived her. Her death in 1980 was registered in the Barnet district of North London. Writing career -------------- Her writing originally grew out of telling bed-time stories to her children, and she wrote five children's books before her first adult crime novel, Two Lovers Too Many (1949). She went on to write over thirty crime novels, earning a significant readership and winning the Gold Dagger award twice, as well as penning a guide book, Shakespeare's Country (1962) and her later Gothic novels, such as Dirty Butter for Servants (1972). Perhaps her best-loved character, the Turkish philosopher detective Nuri Bey Izkirlak, features in two of her books, When I Grow Rich (1962) and Nothing is the Number When You Die (1965). Bibliography ------------ * Two Lovers Too Many (1949) * A Daisy Chain for Satan (1950) * The Gallows in My Garden (1951) * The Man Who Looked Back (1951); also published as A Cup of Cold Poison * Polly Put the Kettle On (1952) * The Good and the Bad (1953) * He Ought To Be Shot (1955) * The Deeds of Dr Deadcert (1955); also published as The Merry Widower * You Can't Believe Your Eyes (1957) * Maiden's Prayer (1957) * Malice Matrimonial (1959) * Miss Bones (1959) * The Man from Nowhere (1960) * In the Red (1961) * Shakespeare's Country (1962) * When I Grow Rich (1962); Gold Dagger Award * Death of a Sardine (1963) * The Chill and the Kill (1964) * Nothing is the Number When You Die (1965) * Midnight Hag (1966) * No Bones About It (1967) * Kill or Cure (1968) * Hell's Belle (1968) * Young Man I Think You're Dying (1970); Gold Dagger Award * Screams From a Penny Dreadful (1971) * Grim Death and the Barrow Boys (1971) * Dirty Butter for Servants (1972) * Alas, Poor Father (1973) * You Won't Let Me Finish (1973) * How to Live Dangerously (1974) * Too Late! Too Late! the Maiden Cried (1975) * ...To Make an Underworld (1976) * Every Inch a Lady (1977) * The Day of the Donkey Derby (1978)
The qualification for the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship in Mexico was held as early as 2013 until 2014. There are several stages of qualification for some teams. Aside from the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship, the tournaments also doubled as qualifiers for basketball at the 2015 Pan-American Games. Qualification format -------------------- Each FIBA Americas subzone has a specific number of berths, generally based on the relative strengths of its member national teams. For the 2013 FIBA Americas Championship, the berths distribution is: \| Zone \| Total berths \| \| --- \| --- \| \| North America \| 2 \| \| Central America and Caribbean \| 4 \| \| South America \| 3 \| \| Host team \| 1 \| \| Total \| 10 \| ### North America For the North American zone, since there are only 2 member teams (Canada and the United States) and there are 2 berths, no qualification games are necessary. Furthermore, since the United States won the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup and automatically qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics, they withdrew from the FIBA Americas Championship. Their non-participation opened up an extra berth, which was awarded to the fourth placed team in the South American Basketball Championship 2014. ### Central America and Caribbean Some teams from the Central America and Caribbean Commission Zone had to qualify for the 2014 Centrobasket. The qualifying tournament was the 2014 FIBA CBC Championship for Caribbean teams, and the 2013 FIBA COCABA Championship for teams from Mexico and Central America. The top four teams from the 2014 Centrobasket advance to the FIBA Americas Championship; host country Mexico automatically qualified. ### South America The 2014 South American Basketball Championship determined the teams that will qualify for 2015 FIBA Americas Championship. Since the USA is skipping this tournament, this opened up an additional berth for South American teams, increasing the number of berths from three to four. 2013 FIBA COCABA Championship ----------------------------- Main article: 2013 FIBA COCABA Championship The 2013 FIBA COCABA Championship in El Salvador serves as the qualifier for the 2014 Centrobasket for Central American national teams. The top three advance to the Centrobasket. ### Results \| Pos \| Team \| Pld \| W \| L \| PF \| PA \| PD \| Pts \| Qualification \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1st place, gold medalist(s) \| Mexico \| 3 \| 3 \| 0 \| 232 \| 138 \| +94 \| 6 \| Qualification to 2014 Centrobasket \| \| 2nd place, silver medalist(s) \| El Salvador \| 3 \| 2 \| 1 \| 166 \| 167 \| −1 \| 5 \| \| 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) \| Costa Rica \| 3 \| 1 \| 2 \| 153 \| 193 \| −40 \| 4 \| \| 4 \| Honduras \| 3 \| 0 \| 3 \| 166 \| 219 \| −53 \| 3 \| \| Source: FIBA Archive \| \| \| --- \| \| 26 July 2013 \| \| \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Mexico \| 82–45 \| Costa Rica \| \| \| \| --- \| \| Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda, San Salvador \| \| \| \| --- \| \| 26 July 2013 \| \| \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| El Salvador \| 67–61 \| Honduras \| \| \| \| --- \| \| Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda, San Salvador \| \| \| \| --- \| \| 27 July 2013 \| \| \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Honduras \| 46–90 \| Mexico \| \| \| \| --- \| \| Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda, San Salvador \| \| \| \| --- \| \| 27 July 2013 \| \| \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Costa Rica \| 46–52 \| El Salvador \| \| \| \| --- \| \| Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda, San Salvador \| \| \| \| --- \| \| 28 July 2013 \| \| \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Honduras \| 59–62 \| Costa Rica \| \| \| \| --- \| \| Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda, San Salvador \| \| \| \| --- \| \| 28 July 2013 \| \| \| \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| El Salvador \| 47–60 \| Mexico \| \| \| \| --- \| \| Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda, San Salvador \| ### Final ranking These were the final rankings. The top 3 teams qualify for the 2014 Centrobasket. \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| \| Qualifies to the 2014 Centrobasket \| \| Rank \| Team \| \| --- \| --- \| \| 1st place, gold medalist(s) \| Mexico \| \| 2nd place, silver medalist(s) \| El Salvador \| \| 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) \| Costa Rica \| \| 4 \| Honduras \| 2014 FIBA CBC Championship -------------------------- Main article: 2014 FIBA CBC Championship The 2014 FIBA CBC Championship in the British Virgin Islands serves as the qualifier for the 2014 Centrobasket for Caribbean national teams. The top three advance to the Centrobasket. ### Final ranking These were the final rankings. The top 3 teams qualify for the 2014 Centrobasket. \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| \| Qualifies to the 2014 Centrobasket \| \| Rank \| Team \| \| --- \| --- \| \| 1st place, gold medalist(s) \| Bahamas \| \| 2nd place, silver medalist(s) \| Cuba \| \| 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) \| Virgin Islands \| \| 4 \| British Virgin Islands \| \| 5 \| Guyana \| \| 6 \| Barbados \| \| 7 \| Antigua and Barbuda \| \| 8 \| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines \| 2014 Centrobasket ----------------- Main article: 2014 CentrobasketThe 2014 Centrobasket in Mexico serves as the qualifier to the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship for teams from the Caribbean and Central America. The top four outside of Mexico, who were named final tournament hosts on the day of the final, advance to the FIBA Americas Championship. ### Final ranking \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| \| Qualifies to the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship \| \| Rank \| Team \| \| --- \| --- \| \| 1st place, gold medalist(s) \| Mexico \| \| 2nd place, silver medalist(s) \| Puerto Rico \| \| 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) \| Dominican Republic \| \| 4 \| Cuba \| \| 5 \| Panama \| \| 6 \| Virgin Islands \| \| 7 \| Bahamas \| \| 8 \| Jamaica \| \| 9 \| Costa Rica \| \| 10 \| El Salvador \| 2014 South American Basketball Championship ------------------------------------------- Main article: 2014 South American Basketball ChampionshipThe 2014 South American Basketball Championship in Venezuela serves as the qualifier to the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship for teams from South America. The top four advance to the FIBA Americas Championship. ### Final ranking This is the final ranking for the participating teams The top three teams, but with the non-participation of the United States, the fourth-best team was also included. \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| \| Qualifies to the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship \| \| Rank \| Team \| \| --- \| --- \| \| 1st place, gold medalist(s) \| Venezuela \| \| 2nd place, silver medalist(s) \| Argentina \| \| 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) \| Brazil \| \| 4 \| Uruguay \| \| 5 \| Paraguay \| \| 6 \| Chile \| \| 7 \| Ecuador \| \| 8 \| Peru \|
For other uses, see Return address (disambiguation). Envelope with return address in top left corner In postal mail, a return address is an explicit inclusion of the address of the person sending the message. It provides the recipient (and sometimes authorized intermediaries) with a means to determine how to respond to the sender of the message if needed. The return address should include an address or P.O. box details in the same way as the delivery address should. In most countries such as United States, Canada, Australia, France, the return address is located in the upper left-hand corner of the envelope, card, or label, which is also recommended by the Universal Postal Union. In the United Kingdom, the return address is usually placed on the reverse of the envelope, after the words "Return address". Businesses often use envelopes preprinted with a return address. Many individuals have sheets of adhesive labels preprinted with their home address to affix to their correspondence. Charities sometimes include such sheets in mailshots. Rolls of return address labels can be purchased from companies that sell personalized labels to provide individuals an easy way to peel and stick return address labels to their envelopes. The return address is not required on postal mail. However, lack of a return address prevents the postal service from being able to return the item if it proves undeliverable; such as from damage, postage due, or invalid destination. Such mail may otherwise become dead letter mail. History ------- The return address has been used on U. S. postage since the 1880s. As pressure printing became more commonplace during the early 1900s, labels became cheaper and more easily distributed. The profession involved with producing these labels was known as lithography. During the 1950s in the United States, more and more mail was not arriving at intended recipients, and as a result of the lack of a return address, said mail ended up in the dead letter office. With this rise in dead mail, the post office pleaded for people to use a return address. Even after this, the public still tended to neglect to add a return address. This prompted the postmaster to inform the public that mail without a return address would be less of a priority than mail with a return address. Still, the public did not widely use a return address until the 1960s when companies began to offer deals for preprinted return labels such as 2,500 labels for $2.00. They became more popular with the invention of label dispensers. With the invention of the personal computer, software enabled people to print their own labels. As email began to overtake written mail, the return address became automatic in an e-mail.
Root of a quadratic polynomial with a unit leading coefficient In number theory, quadratic integers are a generalization of the usual integers to quadratic fields. Quadratic integers are algebraic integers of degree two, that is, solutions of equations of the form x2 + bx + c = 0 with b and c (usual) integers. When algebraic integers are considered, the usual integers are often called rational integers. Common examples of quadratic integers are the square roots of rational integers, such as √2, and the complex number i = √−1, which generates the Gaussian integers. Another common example is the non-real cubic root of unity −1 + √−3/2, which generates the Eisenstein integers. Quadratic integers occur in the solutions of many Diophantine equations, such as Pell's equations, and other questions related to integral quadratic forms. The study of rings of quadratic integers is basic for many questions of algebraic number theory. History ------- Medieval Indian mathematicians had already discovered a multiplication of quadratic integers of the same D, which allowed them to solve some cases of Pell's equation.[] The characterization given in § Explicit representation of the quadratic integers was first given by Richard Dedekind in 1871. Definition ---------- A quadratic integer is an algebraic integer of degree two. More explicitly, it is a complex number {\displaystyle x=(-b\pm {\sqrt {b^{2}-4c}})/2}, which solves an equation of the form x2 + bx + c = 0, with b and c integers. Each quadratic integer that is not an integer is not rational – namely, it's a real irrational number if b2 − 4c > 0 and non-real if b2 − 4c < 0 – and lies in a uniquely determined quadratic field {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}, the extension of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } generated by the square root of the unique square-free integer D that satisfies b2 − 4c = De2 for some integer e. If D is positive, the quadratic integer is real. If D < 0, it is imaginary (that is, complex and non-real). The quadratic integers (including the ordinary integers) that belong to a quadratic field {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} form an integral domain called the ring of integers of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,).} Although the quadratic integers belonging to a given quadratic field form a ring, the set of all quadratic integers is not a ring because it is not closed under addition or multiplication. For example, {\displaystyle 1+{\sqrt {2}}} and {\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}}} are quadratic integers, but {\displaystyle 1+{\sqrt {2}}+{\sqrt {3}}} and {\displaystyle (1+{\sqrt {2}})\cdot {\sqrt {3}}} are not, as their minimal polynomials have degree four. Explicit representation ----------------------- Here and in the following, the quadratic integers that are considered belong to a quadratic field {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,),} where D is a square-free integer. This does not restrict the generality, as the equality √a2D = a √D (for any positive integer a) implies {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)=\mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {a^{2}D}}\,).} An element x of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} is a quadratic integer if and only if there are two integers a and b such that either {\displaystyle x=a+b{\sqrt {D}},} or, if D − 1 is a multiple of 4 {\displaystyle x={\frac {a}{2}}+{\frac {b}{2}}{\sqrt {D}},} with a and b both odd In other words, every quadratic integer may be written a + ωb , where a and b are integers, and where ω is defined by {\displaystyle \omega ={\begin{cases}{\sqrt {D}}&{\mbox{if }}D\equiv 2,3{\pmod {4}}\\{{1+{\sqrt {D}}} \over 2}&{\mbox{if }}D\equiv 1{\pmod {4}}\end{cases}}} (as D has been supposed square-free the case {\textstyle D\equiv 0{\pmod {4}}} is impossible, since it would imply that D is divisible by the square 4). Norm and conjugation -------------------- A quadratic integer in {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} may be written a + b√D, where a and b are either both integers, or, only if D ≡ 1 (mod 4), both halves of odd integers. The norm of such a quadratic integer is N (a + b√D ) = a2 − Db2. The norm of a quadratic integer is always an integer. If D < 0, the norm of a quadratic integer is the square of its absolute value as a complex number (this is false if D > 0). The norm is a completely multiplicative function, which means that the norm of a product of quadratic integers is always the product of their norms. Every quadratic integer a + b√D has a conjugate {\displaystyle {\overline {a+b{\sqrt {D}}}}=a-b{\sqrt {D}}.} A quadratic integer has the same norm as its conjugate, and this norm is the product of the quadratic integer and its conjugate. The conjugate of a sum or a product of quadratic integers is the sum or the product (respectively) of the conjugates. This means that the conjugation is an automorphism of the ring of the integers of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} – see § Quadratic integer rings, below. Quadratic integer rings ----------------------- Every square-free integer (different from 0 and 1) D defines a quadratic integer ring, which is the integral domain consisting of the algebraic integers contained in {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,).} It is the set Z[ω] = {a + ωb : a, b ∈ Z}, where {\displaystyle \omega ={\tfrac {1+{\sqrt {D}}}{2}}} if D = 4k + 1, and ω = √D otherwise. It is often denoted {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}}, because it is the ring of integers of {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}, which is the integral closure of Z in {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,).} The ring Z[ω] consists of all roots of all equations x2 + Bx + C = 0 whose discriminant B2 − 4C is the product of D by the square of an integer. In particular √D belongs to Z[ω], being a root of the equation x2 − D = 0, which has 4D as its discriminant. The square root of any integer is a quadratic integer, as every integer can be written n = m2D, where D is a square-free integer, and its square root is a root of x2 − m2D = 0. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic is not true in many rings of quadratic integers. However, there is a unique factorization for ideals, which is expressed by the fact that every ring of algebraic integers is a Dedekind domain. Being the simplest examples of algebraic integers, quadratic integers are commonly the starting examples of most studies of algebraic number theory. The quadratic integer rings divide in two classes depending on the sign of D. If D > 0, all elements of {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}} are real, and the ring is a real quadratic integer ring. If D < 0, the only real elements of {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}} are the ordinary integers, and the ring is a complex quadratic integer ring. For real quadratic integer rings, the class number – which measures the failure of unique factorization – is given in OEIS A003649; for the imaginary case, they are given in OEIS A000924. ### Units A quadratic integer is a unit in the ring of the integers of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} if and only if its norm is 1 or −1. In the first case its multiplicative inverse is its conjugate. It is the negation of its conjugate in the second case. If D < 0, the ring of the integers of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} has at most six units. In the case of the Gaussian integers (D = −1), the four units are 1, −1, √−1, −√−1. In the case of the Eisenstein integers (D = −3), the six units are ±1, ±1 ± √−3/2. For all other negative D, there are only two units, which are 1 and −1. If D > 0, the ring of the integers of {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)} has infinitely many units that are equal to ± ui, where i is an arbitrary integer, and u is a particular unit called a fundamental unit. Given a fundamental unit u, there are three other fundamental units, its conjugate {\displaystyle {\overline {u}},} and also {\displaystyle -u} and {\displaystyle -{\overline {u}}.} Commonly, one calls "the fundamental unit" the unique one which has an absolute value greater than 1 (as a real number). It is the unique fundamental unit that may be written as a + b√D, with a and b positive (integers or halves of integers). The fundamental units for the 10 smallest positive square-free D are 1 + √2, 2 + √3, 1 + √5/2 (the golden ratio), 5 + 2√6, 8 + 3√7, 3 + √10, 10 + 3√11, 3 + √13/2, 15 + 4√14, 4 + √15. For larger D, the coefficients of the fundamental unit may be very large. For example, for D = 19, 31, 43, the fundamental units are respectively 170 + 39√19, 1520 + 273√31 and 3482 + 531√43. ### Examples of complex quadratic integer rings Gaussian integers Eisenstein primes For D < 0, ω is a complex (imaginary or otherwise non-real) number. Therefore, it is natural to treat a quadratic integer ring as a set of algebraic complex numbers. * A classic example is {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} [{\sqrt {-1}}\,]}, the Gaussian integers, which was introduced by Carl Gauss around 1800 to state his biquadratic reciprocity law. * The elements in {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {-3}}\,)}=\mathbf {Z} \left[{{1+{\sqrt {-3}}} \over 2}\right]} are called Eisenstein integers. Both rings mentioned above are rings of integers of cyclotomic fields Q(ζ4) and Q(ζ3) correspondingly. In contrast, Z[√−3] is not even a Dedekind domain. Both above examples are principal ideal rings and also Euclidean domains for the norm. This is not the case for {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {-5}}\,)}=\mathbf {Z} \left[{\sqrt {-5}}\,\right],} which is not even a unique factorization domain. This can be shown as follows. In {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {-5}}\,)},} we have {\displaystyle 9=3\cdot 3=(2+{\sqrt {-5}})(2-{\sqrt {-5}}).} The factors 3, {\displaystyle 2+{\sqrt {-5}}} and {\displaystyle 2-{\sqrt {-5}}} are irreducible, as they have all a norm of 9, and if they were not irreducible, they would have a factor of norm 3, which is impossible, the norm of an element different of ±1 being at least 4. Thus the factorization of 9 into irreducible factors is not unique. The ideals {\displaystyle \langle 3,1+{\sqrt {-5}}\,\rangle } and {\displaystyle \langle 3,1-{\sqrt {-5}}\,\rangle } are not principal, as a simple computation shows that their product is the ideal generated by 3, and, if they were principal, this would imply that 3 would not be irreducible. ### Examples of real quadratic integer rings Powers of the golden ratio For D > 0, ω is a positive irrational real number, and the corresponding quadratic integer ring is a set of algebraic real numbers. The solutions of the Pell's equation X2 − DY2 = 1, a Diophantine equation that has been widely studied, are the units of these rings, for D ≡ 2, 3 (mod 4). * For D = 5, ω = 1+√5/2 is the golden ratio. This ring was studied by Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet. Its units have the form ±ωn, where n is an arbitrary integer. This ring also arises from studying 5-fold rotational symmetry on Euclidean plane, for example, Penrose tilings. * Indian mathematician Brahmagupta treated the Pell's equation X2 − 61Y2 = 1, corresponding to the ring is Z[√61]. Some results were presented to European community by Pierre Fermat in 1657.[which?] ### Principal rings of quadratic integers The unique factorization property is not always verified for rings of quadratic integers, as seen above for the case of Z[√−5]. However, as for every Dedekind domain, a ring of quadratic integers is a unique factorization domain if and only if it is a principal ideal domain. This occurs if and only if the class number of the corresponding quadratic field is one. The imaginary rings of quadratic integers that are principal ideal rings have been completely determined. These are {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}} for D = −1, −2, −3, −7, −11, −19, −43, −67, −163. This result was first conjectured by Gauss and proven by Kurt Heegner, although Heegner's proof was not believed until Harold Stark gave a later proof in 1967 (see Stark–Heegner theorem). This is a special case of the famous class number problem. There are many known positive integers D > 0, for which the ring of quadratic integers is a principal ideal ring. However, the complete list is not known; it is not even known if the number of these principal ideal rings is finite or not. ### Euclidean rings of quadratic integers See also: Euclidean domain § Norm-Euclidean fields When a ring of quadratic integers is a principal ideal domain, it is interesting to know whether it is a Euclidean domain. This problem has been completely solved as follows. Equipped with the norm {\displaystyle N(a+b{\sqrt {D}}\,)=\|a^{2}-Db^{2}\|} as a Euclidean function, {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\_{\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,)}} is a Euclidean domain for negative D when D = −1, −2, −3, −7, −11, and, for positive D, when D = 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 29, 33, 37, 41, 57, 73 (sequence A048981 in the OEIS). There is no other ring of quadratic integers that is Euclidean with the norm as a Euclidean function. For negative D, a ring of quadratic integers is Euclidean if and only if the norm is a Euclidean function for it. It follows that, for D = −19, −43, −67, −163, the four corresponding rings of quadratic integers are among the rare known examples of principal ideal domains that are not Euclidean domains. On the other hand, the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that a ring of real quadratic integers that is a principal ideal domain is also a Euclidean domain for some Euclidean function, which can indeed differ from the usual norm. The values D = 14, 69 were the first for which the ring of quadratic integers was proven to be Euclidean, but not norm-Euclidean. Further reading --------------- * J.S. Milne. Algebraic Number Theory, Version 3.01, September 28, 2008. online lecture notes
Swedish child-psychiatrist Elsa-Brita Nordlund (29 April 1903 – 16 April 1987) was the first Swedish child psychiatrist. Her most notable work focused on the humanization of care in children's hospitals. Early life and education ------------------------ Nordlund was born on 29 April 1903, in the Katarina Parish in Stockholm, Sweden. Her father was Karl Nordlund who was a senior lecturer at Uppsala University and her mother was Elsa Augusta Nordqvist. Nordlund showed interest in becoming a doctor at a young age. At 16, Nordlund transported Austrian children who were affected by war from Sassnitz, Germany, to Swedish homes as a medical scout. After graduating from high school in Stockholm in 1922, Nordlund pursued a Bachelor's in Medicine at the Karolinska Institute which she completed in 1928. From 1929 to 1930, she studied child psychiatry in Vienna because child and adolescent psychiatry had yet to be established as a medical discipline in Sweden. Nordlund received her medical license in 1938 from the Karolinska Institute in 1938. Career ------ After returning from her studies in Vienna, Nordlund became the first child psychiatrist in Sweden. She was the acting doctor at the Mellansjö School for nervous and maladapted children in Täby, Sweden, until 1934 (she later returned to this position from 1940 to 1946) and a school doctor and part-time teacher at the Highland School in Stockholm for four years. Nordlund also served as a member of Stockholm City's Sex Education Committee and Permanent Abortion Committee. In 1950, she was appointed as chief physician at Norrtull Hospital's counseling office and child psychiatric ward and chief physician at Karolinska Hospital's child psychiatric ward from 1952 to 1969. From 1961 to 1973, Nordlund was the special rapporteur of the Swedish National Board of Medicine (now the National Board of Health and Welfare) for matters in child psychiatry. During this time, she was also a visiting professor at the University of Minnesota Medical School. While she chiefly worked as a practicing doctor and physician, Nordlund used her extensive clinical knowledge to advocate for the humanization of the care of children in hospitals and clinics. Her efforts emphasized the important effect of external factors on the individual. Nordlund believed that understanding context, relationships and socio-economic status was vital to providing the proper care for a child's symptoms or behavioral problems. Notably, she applied this contextualization aspect of clinical care in the treatment of adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Nordlund went against typical treatments of the time such as routine weight checks and instead sought to understand the emotional functions of symptoms and the contexts in which they arose. ### Positions held Nordlund held the following positions: * Acting Doctor at Mellansjö (School for nervous and maladapted children) in Täby 1930-34 and 1940-46 * Acting Doctor at Beckomberga Hospital 1938-40 * School Doctor and Part-time Teacher at Highland School in Stockholm 1940-44 * Acting Doctor at Serafimer Hospital's Neurology Clinic 1941-43 * Volunteer Assistant at Norrtull Hospital's Pediatric Clinic 1943-44 * Member of Stockholm City's Sex Education Committee 1943-46 * Assistant Physician at Stockholm City Advisory Bureau for Educational Issues 1944-47 * Assistant Physician at Norrtull Hospital's Pediatric Clinic 1944, Outpatient assistant 1944–46, member of Criminal Law Committee 1944-1956 * Chairman of the Board of Viggbyholmsskolan, Täby 1945 * Member of Stockholm City Permanent Abortion Committee 1946 * Acting Doctor at Norrtull Hospital's counseling office and child psychiatric ward in 1946, Chief Physician 1950 * Chief Physician at Karolinska Hospital's child psychiatric ward 1952-69 * Special Rapporteur of the Medical Board in child psychiatric matters 1961-73 * Visiting Professor at University of Minnesota Medical School in 1960s Selected publications --------------------- * Nordlund, E.B. (1943) The children and the sexual enlightenment. Hertha * Nordlund, E.B. (1949). How a Child Guidance Clinic Works. Acta Paediatrica Vol. 38, No 1 * Nordlund, E.B. (1952) Upbringing Problems in a Children's Hospital 1. Acta Paediatrica Vol. 41, No 2 * Wallgren, A. Klackenberg, G. & Nordlund, E.B. (1959) .Child care and pediatric care: a textbook for pediatric nurses. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell * Stern, E.M. Castendyck, E. Junker, K.S. & Nordlund, E.B. (1957) Children with disabilities: Their upbringing and care: 2 edition. Lund
Japanese AV actress An Nanba (Japanese: 南波杏, Hepburn: Nanba An) also known as Ann Nanba is a former Japanese adult video (AV) actress who had a long and prolific career in the adult entertainment industry. At the beginning of 2009, the DMM and Amazon sites both listed more than 250 DVDs available under her name. She retired from AV work in 2008. Life and career --------------- ### AV debut and Moodyz An Nanba was born in Tokyo on March 7, 1984. She says she was very outgoing as a high-school student and looked much older than her age. She had met scouts from the AV industry often but only decided to begin an AV career after she was robbed and needed the money. She had done some gravure model work for Bejean a few months before and she thought she was again doing photographs for a magazine and was shocked when she realized it was a video shoot. The title of her debut video, Number.1!, released in October 2002 by Moodyz when she was 18, is a play on her name (in Japanese name order, Nanba An sounds close to English "Number One"). Her contract with Moodyz was an exclusive one and she is credited with being a driving force in that studio's success. She continued making movies with Moodyz for the rest of her career at the rate of one or often two videos per month. Although she started in AV work for the money to pay debts, she says she stayed because "I realized that my work turned into something of substance". She also occasionally made non-AV videos - her non-sex gravure title for Shuffle, Naked / An Nanba, released in July 2003, was filmed in Okinawa. Moodyz is known for its extreme videos and Nanba participated in the various porn genres popular at the studio: bukkake (including two videos with the creator of the genre, Kazuhiko Matsumoto), anal sex, bondage, interracial sex with black actors, urination and simulated rape. The videos took their toll on Nanba, she reports that at one time she collapsed from exhaustion and had to take time off. Nanba was the most celebrated actress at Moodyz during her long career with the studio - she was given the Best Actress Award at the Moodyz Awards three years running, in 2003, 2004 and 2005. Her 2003 videos Digital Mosaic Vol. 11 and Dream School 7 respectively won the top prize Moodyz Award and the Best Sales Award that year and her 2004 work Bukkake Nakadashi Anal Fuck was the recipient of a Special Award. At the 2005 Adult Broadcasting Awards ceremony for adult TV programming in 2004, Nanba took one of the Channel Actress Performance Awards for her work on the Queen Bee channel, ### Later career Starting in October 2005, after more than 50 straight original videos for one company, Nanba began to appear for the first time in videos for other AV studios beginning with start-up companies Opera and Cross. She also worked with Attackers, a studio specializing in the S&M and simulated rape genres. Nanba has been called the "Queen of Hardcore" for her many extreme videos with one director claiming "She’ll do absolutely anything" after Nanba won 11 awards at Weekly Playboy's "stupidest adult movie awards" in March 2006. Nanba has declared her dedication to her profession: "I will work my best to bring the fans the best movies". Nanba received one of the Best Actress Awards for Excellence at the 2006 AV Actress Grand Prix. In 2006 and 2007, Nanba also starred in a number of erotic softcore V-cinema productions. In May 2006, she was the subject of a documentary along with three other AV actresses. The DVD, under girl puraido to honne to eibui joyū (under girl プライドと本音とＡＶ女優), was directed by Kazuyuki Watanabe (ワタナベカズユキ) and published by Orustak Pictures. Nanba also appeared on TV in Episode 31 on the third series of the TV Asahi crime drama Tokumei Kakarichō Tadano Hitoshi. Nanba was also popular in China, in part due to commercials she made for a Taiwan lemon vodka drink. ### Retirement Nanba's retirement was an elaborate and epic affair called the Ann-Project by Moodyz. She filmed a series of 8 videos for 8 different studios over a period of several weeks beginning at the end of 2007. The studios involved included S1 No. 1 Style, IdeaPocket and Animaljo, companies she had not previously worked with. The videos were released starting February 1, 2008, with the last one appropriately being a virtual sex work for Moodyz, My Eternal Girlfriend, An Nanba, released on March 1, 2008. The retirement project also included a memorial book and DVD which additionally served to introduce the new generation of actresses at Moodyz. When the major Japanese adult video distributor DMM held a poll of its customers in 2012 to choose the 100 all-time best AV actresses to celebrate the 30th anniversary of adult videos in Japan, Nanba finished in 11th place. ### Video games Described as "Japan's geekiest adult video actress", Nanba is an ardent fan of video games and owns several game consoles - a Sony PS2, PS3 and PSP, a Microsoft Xbox 360, as well as a Nintendo Wii and DS. The Wii console was bought in New York City on launch day. Her favorite games have included Ninety-Nine Nights, Final Fantasy XII, Dragon Quest IV and Wii Fit. Nanba also has her own game blog on Beside Games, a site featuring well-known Japanese celebrities talking about the games they are playing. Nanba's interest in video games also extended to the other side of the game console with the release on July 21, 2006 of An Nanba Cosplay Yakyuken from Gebet. This two hour UMD format PSP game and video featured Nanba in a game of "yakyuken", a version of the venerable "rock-paper-scissors" game. In this strip variant, if the player wins the round, Nanba takes off an article of clothing. This format was repeated in a December 13, 2006 entry from Gebet, All Star Yakyuken Battle which teamed up Nanba with AV Idols Akiho Yoshizawa, Kaho Kasumi, Kaede Matsushima, Mihiro Taniguchi, Ran Asakawa, Rei Amami, Sora Aoi and Yua Aida. The game and video were released for the PSP and in Blu-ray for the PS3.
\| Friends of Hue Foundation \| \| --- \| \| Type: 501(c)(3) Founded: 2000 Location: San Jose, California Area served: Huế, Vietnam \| \| Leadership \| \| Children's Shelter at Xuan Phu \| \| HIPE Teaches Proper Sanitation Habits \| \| Thriive lends to local businesses \| The Friends of Hue Foundation (FHF) is a 501(c)(3) charitable, non-profit tax-exempt, non-governmental organization officially created in May 2000 in response to the destruction caused by the 1999 Vietnamese floods. Because of its extreme climate and its location directly between the two main cities of the country, Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, the Thừa Thiên–Huế Province never flourished much economically and was thus particularly devastated in the event of these floods. Co-founded officially by James M. Freeman and Lieu Thi Dang, FHF's chief goals were to uplift and empower the Huế Province community in both the short and long term through economic, medical, and educational initiatives. FHF continues to be the only registered American non-governmental organization in Huế, Vietnam. Initiatives ----------- FHF is a multifaceted and flexible NGO that has three main initiatives, each focusing on a different aspect of the foundation's chief goals: Socioeconomic Initiative, Health Initiative and Children's Shelter Socioeconomic Initiative ------------------------ ### Alternative Microfinance FHF is partnered with Thriive, an initiative originally known as the Social Microenterprise Initiative (SMI) under the Arthur B. Schultz Foundation and that is now an independent organization with close ties to its parent foundation. One of the main goals of the Arthur B Schultz Foundation is "improving the quality of life […] through supporting small business entrepreneurs". Reflecting this objective of the Arthur B. Schultz Foundation, Thriive offers a unique sort of microfinance that not only economically assists small businesses, but also encourages social responsibility. In this type of microfinance no monetary exchange actually takes place. Rather, capital is provided to small businesses in the form of manufacturing equipment. The value of the capital, in turn, is paid for in the form of goods or services to the local community instead of monetarily to the lending organization. As a result, the company can give back to the community both short-term goods and services, as well as long-term employment. Specifically in the ThriiveCapital Loan Program conducted under the partnership between FHF and Thriive, machinery is provided to budding companies in the city of Huế. The repayments have been in the form of services and goods to other members of the community in need. One of the main recipients of these repayment plans has been the students of poor schools in or around Huế, who were provided with new uniforms, furniture, and school materials. ### Mending Communities One Stitch at a Time This program is a program in the making, designed to create sustainable economic improvements and promote Vietnamese culture. In order to guarantee long-term success for local businesses and their employees, this program will oversee practices that occur beyond the mere buying and selling processes: 1. Generate a sound business plan 2. Educate the employees responsible for instructing the artisans in a Train the Trainer 3. Encourage product quality standards 4. Sell and advertise products online 5. Promote saving money for the future in the Match Savings Program 6. Make uniquely Vietnamese style goods 7. Advocate and assist aspiring entrepreneurs Health Initiative ----------------- FHF's health initiative is twofold in that it addresses both immediate medical need and education about healthy habits to ensure improved sanitary standards in the future: * Health Initiative through Peer Education * Mobile Clinic Program ### Health Initiative through Peer Education (HIPE) Financed by the NVIDIA Foundation's High Impact Grant Program, the Health Initiative through Peer Education program aims at educating the people of remote villages in Central Vietnam on personal and environmental sanitation habits, while instilling leadership skills in the children of these communities. In this program, young members of these villages are selected to be trained by FHF staff in order to become HIPE representatives. During the training process, they are taught disease and bacteria prevention methods, as well as the leadership techniques. The representatives then return to their homes to pass on this knowledge and lead the sanitation movement within their respective villages. So far, HIPE has trained 18 health educators and reached 837 students, who were able to score an average of 80% on a basic health questions test. ### Mobile Clinic Program (MCP) The Mobile Clinic Program provides free medical services for people in poor and distant regions of Huế province. FHF carries out one trip per month, utilizing the medical staff from Huế Central Hospital and Huế Hospital. Each medical mission costs around $350 and serves 250 people on average. Thus far, the MCP has succeeded in seeing more than 26,000 patients and has mobile health clinics in three locations: the Duong Hoa commune, the Huong Phong commune, and the Quang Thanh commune. Children's Shelter ------------------ FHF's Children's Shelter in Xuan Phu, Huế was founded in 2003 for disadvantaged youth and orphans in the Huế province. There are currently 25 children at the shelter who have either been abandoned or whose parents could not afford to provide for them. The children range from ages 7 to 21, and all attend either academic schools or vocational training. They are given the resources and support they need to break out of the cycle of poverty and become contributing members of society. The shelter also puts a great emphasis on the children's development as human beings by providing them with a staff that emotionally supports the children, extracurricular activities, and contact with English speaking volunteers all year round. The volunteers recruited by the Global Volunteers Program work mainly at the shelter and have come from a variety of groups, including volunteers from Monta Vista High School, the French Boy Scouts, Stanford University, Vietnamese Medical Outreach from UC Berkeley, Volunteers in Asia, and Occidental University of Sydney. To date, there have been 20 graduates since the shelter's founding. Board members ------------- There are five board members, led by chairwoman Jenny Do and executive director Ai Vuong. The other members are Dan Do, Michel Lopez and Linh Vu.
The Kondakov Plateau (Russian: Кондаковское плоскогорье; Yakut: Кондаков хаптал хайалаах сирэ) is a mountain plateau in the Sakha Republic, Far Eastern Federal District, Russia. The town of Chokurdakh is located on the other bank of the Indigirka, facing the plateau. The nearest airport is Chokurdakh Airport. The Shandrin mammoth was discovered in 1974 at the feet of a steep slope in the eastern side of the Kondakov Plateau by geologist B. S. Rusanov of the Yakutsk Institute of Geology. Geography --------- The Kondakov Plateau is located in eastern Yakutia, rising above the right banks of the lower course of the Indigirka and gradually decreasing in elevation to the east. Slopes are generally smooth and gentle and the average height of the plateau surface is between 150 meters (490 ft) and 300 meters (980 ft). There are slightly higher ridges cutting across the plateau area, the Bonga-Taga ridge in the north and the Mokholukan in the south. The highest point is 498 metres (1,634 ft) high Punga Khaya located in the western part. The plateau is limited by the Yana-Indigirka Lowland to the west, with the delta of the Indigirka to the north. To the south it is bound by the Ulakhan-Sis Range and by the Kolyma Lowland to the east. ### Hydrography The Kondakov Plateau is crossed by rivers Shandrin to the east and the Sundrun with some of its upper course tributaries, as well as by the Bolshaya Ercha, a tributary of the Indigirka. The Malaya Ercha —the largest tributary of the Bolshaya Ercha, the Keremesit, as well as the Okhotnya and Barn-Yuryakh —tributaries of the Sakhartymay, have their sources in the plateau. \| \| \| --- \| \| The Kondakov Plateau north of the Ulakhan-Sis Range. \| Flora and fauna --------------- Permafrost prevails in the area of the Kondakov Plateau. The surface of the uplands is markedly dissected by river valleys in which there are forests of larch and forest tundra, especially in the southern part. Its higher elevations are covered with mountain tundra vegetation. The Kondakov Plateau area is part of the migration corridor of the Sundrun reindeer population, which includes the adjoining Suor Uyata to the southeast, and the forest tundra of the Rossokha River basin to the east. Climate ------- The plateau has a harsh subarctic climate. The average temperature is −12 °C (10 °F). The coldest temperatures, down to −30 °C (−22 °F), have been recorded in February. In summer the average July temperature in the valleys does not exceed 14 °C (57 °F). Geology ------- Geologically the plateau is composed of sandstones, siltstones and schists of the Upper Jurassic. Andesites and basalts are present in some exposed crust parts of the plateau, where the local type of agate with a parallel-layered pattern can also be found.
American-Australian basketball player This article is about the basketball player. For the Irish author, see Benny Lewis. Bennie Lewis III (born June 29, 1987) is an American-Australian professional basketball player for the Waverley Falcons of the NBL1 South. He played college basketball for Benedict College before beginning a successful four-year stint with the Melbourne Tigers in 2009. He later played in the NBA Development League and the British Basketball League. Early life and high school -------------------------- Lewis was born in Melbourne, Australia while his father, Bennie Lewis Jr. was playing in the National Basketball League for the North Melbourne Giants. He is the grandson of the legendary Illinois Hall of Fame basketball coach Bennie Lewis Sr. who coached the likes of LaPhonso Ellis, Cuonzo Martin and Darius Miles. Although born in Australia, Lewis was raised in Fort Wayne, Indiana and moved to East St. Louis, Illinois the beginning of his junior year in high school. As a junior at East St. Louis in 2003–04, Lewis led the team in free throw percentage (81.3) while only committing 10 turnovers and 14 fouls in 27 games for the Flyers, averaging 3.7 points and 1.2 rebounds per game. As a senior in 2004–05, Lewis averaged 10.5 points, 4.5 rebounds, 2.7 assists and 1.4 steals in 27 games for the Flyers. He had a season-best game against Cahokia, recording 23 points and 8 rebounds. For his performance at the Thanksgiving Holiday Tournament, he earned All-Tournament Team honors. College career -------------- As a freshman at Benedict College in 2005–06, Lewis helped the Tigers go 22–7 on the season and helped them win the conference championship. They earned a spot in the NCAA Division II Tournament where they were knocked out in the first round. In 29 games (7 starts), he averaged 5.2 points and 2.0 rebounds in 12.5 minutes per game. As a sophomore in 2006–07, Lewis helped the Tigers go 25–5 on the season and helped them win the conference championship for a second straight year. They earned a spot in the NCAA Division II Tournament where they were again knocked out in the first round. In 30 games (3 starts), he averaged 6.6 points and 2.3 rebounds in 14.5 minutes per game. As a junior in 2007–08, Lewis earned second-team All-SIAC, Paine Classic Tournament MVP, and NCAA D2 South Region All-Tournament Team honors. He helped the Tigers go 28–5 on the season and helped them win the conference championship for a third straight year. The Tigers went on to win the SIAC Tournament and booked themselves a spot in the NCAA Division II Tournament, making their way through to the third round. In 32 games (14 starts), he averaged 11.3 points, 3.8 rebounds and 1.5 assists in 29.6 minutes per game. As a senior in 2008–09, Lewis helped the Tigers go 24–6 on the season and helped them earn conference runners-up honors. They also earned a spot in the NCAA Division II Tournament where they were knocked out in the first round for the third time in four years. In 30 games (16 starts), he averaged 11.3 points, 4.1 rebounds and 1.7 assists in 32.0 minutes per game. Lewis finished his career having played in 121 games with 1,051 career points. He also recorded 173 career three-pointer, 369 career rebounds, and 128 career assists. As a junior and senior, he earned All-SIAC Academic Team honors, while also earning NABC Academic Honor Roll honors as a senior. Professional career ------------------- ### Decatur Court Kings After graduating from Benedict College, Lewis joined the Decatur Court Kings of the World Basketball Association (WBA). Over his three-month stint with the Kings, he led the team to the semi-finals and averaged over 20 points per game. He subsequently earned All-WBA First Team honors and was named the 2009 WBA Rookie of the Year. ### Melbourne Tigers In September 2009, Lewis signed with the Melbourne Tigers as a development player for the 2009–10 NBL season. During the season, he shared court time with fellow rookie Ryan Bathie. He appeared in 13 games for the Tigers in 2009–10, averaging 1.4 points per game. Following the conclusion of the NBL season, Lewis joined the Tigers' junior affiliate team in the Big V. In 20 games for the junior squad during the 2010 Big V season, he averaged 20.9 points, 7.0 rebounds, 1.9 assists, 1.2 steals and 1.1 blocks per game. On April 8, 2010, Lewis signed with the Melbourne Tigers on a full-time contract. He appeared in all 28 games for the Tigers in 2010–11, averaging a serviceable 4.3 points and 1.2 rebounds per game. He again played for the Tigers' junior squad during the 2011 Big V season, averaging 17.2 points, 7.0 rebounds, 1.7 assists, 1.3 steals and 1.3 blocks in 18 games. Lewis returned to the Melbourne Tigers for the 2011–12 NBL season, and averaged 3.1 points in 26 games. For the 2012 Big V season, he joined the Waverley Falcons and attempted to guide the team to a third-straight championship. He was unsuccessful in doing so, but still had a solid season for the Falcons as he averaged 16.0 points, 6.5 rebounds, 2.1 assists, 1.2 steals and 2.1 blocks in 20 games. Lewis continued on with the Tigers during the 2012–13 NBL season, and on December 22, he won the 2012 All-Star Slam Dunk Competition. In 27 games for the Tigers in 2012–13, he averaged 3.7 points and 1.0 rebounds per game. ### Perth Redbacks On April 4, 2013, Lewis signed with the Perth Redbacks for the rest of the 2013 State Basketball League season. In 25 games for the Redbacks, he averaged 22.9 points, 6.4 rebounds, 4.1 assists and 1.2 steals per game. ### Fort Wayne Mad Ants and Geraldton Buccaneers On December 5, 2013, Lewis was acquired by the Fort Wayne Mad Ants of the NBA Development League. He made his debut for the Mad Ants two days later, scoring nine points in 21 minutes off the bench against the Sioux Falls Skyforce. On December 15, he scored a season-high 19 points in the Mad Ants' 108–100 win over the Delaware 87ers. On February 17, 2014, he was waived by the Mad Ants. In 11 games for Fort Wayne in 2013–14, he averaged 7.4 points, 1.5 rebounds and 1.4 assists per game. Following his release from the Mad Ants, Lewis returned to Western Australia and joined the Geraldton Buccaneers for the 2014 State Basketball League season. He made his debut for the Buccaneers in the team's season opener, and went on to lead his team to the minor premiership with a 19–7 record. The Buccaneers reached the SBL Grand Final, where they lost to the East Perth Eagles. Lewis appeared in all 31 games for the Buccaneers in 2014, averaging 26.0 points, 4.7 rebounds and 2.9 assists per game. In October 2014, Lewis participated in Mad Ants' try-outs and earned himself a spot on the 2014–15 season roster. However, his second stint with the team lasted just three games, as he was waived by the Mad Ants on November 28. Lewis subsequently returned to Geraldton and re-joined the Buccaneers for the 2015 season. He was selected to play in the 2015 SBL All-Star Game for the North Stars, scoring a team-high 19 points in a 143–135 loss to the South Stars. The Buccs finished in second place in 2015 with a 20–6 record, but were knocked out in the quarter-finals by the Goldfields Giants. Lewis earned SBL All-Star Five honors, and in 28 games on the season, he averaged 29.3 points, 5.7 rebounds and 4.0 assists per game. ### Plymouth Raiders On May 8, 2015, Lewis signed with the Plymouth Raiders for the 2015–16 British Basketball League season. He played in the Raiders' first two games of the season before travelling to Fort Wayne in mid-October to try out for the Mad Ants again. Upon completing the try-outs, he returned to Plymouth after missing two straight games. He appeared in Plymouth's October 30 match-up against the Leicester Riders before departing the team for good and joining the Mad Ants on November 2 for the start of training camp. However, he was waived by the Mad Ants on November 11 prior to the start of the regular season. ### Frankston Blues On December 10, 2015, Lewis signed with the Frankston Blues for the 2016 SEABL season. He made his debut for the Blues in the team's season opener on April 3, scoring 15 points in 38 minutes of action as a starter in an 81–76 win over the Albury Wodonga Bandits. In the team's second game of the season on April 9, he recorded team highs of 24 points and 9 rebounds in an 84–72 loss to the Kilsyth Cobras. On April 29, Lewis scored a game-high 20 points in an 85–55 loss to the Hobart Chargers. On June 18, he scored a season-high 29 points in a 92–88 win over the Bandits. On June 26, he set a new season high with 31 points in an 81–75 loss to the Chargers. He surpassed that mark on July 10, scoring 35 points on 15-of-26 shooting from the field (with only one made three-pointer) in a 108–97 loss to the Ballarat Miners. The Blues finished last out of eight teams in the SEABL South Conference (third last overall) with a 6–18 record. Lewis appeared in all 24 games for the Blues, averaging 19.9 points, 4.7 rebounds and 2.9 assists per game. ### Melbourne United On October 7, 2016, Lewis joined Melbourne United as a short-term injury replacement for David Barlow. He made his debut for United on November 4, missing his only three-point attempt in just under three minutes off the bench in a 98–92 loss to the New Zealand Breakers. Two days later, he recorded three points, one rebound, one assist and one steal in just under seven minutes off the bench in an 82–73 loss to the Illawarra Hawks. With Barlow's return to the squad in mid-November, Lewis was removed from United's active roster. On January 12, 2017, he was elevated to the active roster following a number of injuries to key players. That night, he scored three points in five minutes against the Adelaide 36ers. ### Return to Frankston On February 6, 2017, Lewis re-signed with the Frankston Blues on a two-year deal. In Frankston's season opener on March 25, 2017, Lewis scored 16 points in a 77–67 loss to the Kilsyth Cobras. On April 29, he scored a season-high 25 points in an 87–84 win over the NW Tasmania Thunder. On July 14, he set a new season high with 28 points in a 102–95 overtime win over the Bendigo Braves. The Blues finished last out of seven teams in the SEABL South Conference with a 7–17 record. Lewis appeared in all 24 games for the Blues, averaging 15.6 points, 4.4 rebounds and 3.4 assists per game. In Frankston's 2018 season opener on April 7, Lewis played all 40 minutes and scored a game-high 29 points in an 82–72 loss to the Albury Wodonga Bandits. On June 30, he recorded 21 points and 14 rebounds off the bench in a 101–75 win over the Bandits. The Blues finished the season second from the bottom with a 4–16 record. In 18 games, Lewis averaged 18.9 points, 7.1 rebounds and 2.9 assists per game. ### Return to Waverley On December 20, 2018, Lewis signed with the Waverley Falcons of the newly-established NBL1 competition for the 2019 season, returning to the team for a second stint. In 20 games, he averaged 15.2 points, 5.0 rebounds, 3.5 assists and 1.6 steals per game. On October 29, 2019, Lewis re-signed with the Falcons on a two-year deal. However, he did not play in 2020 after the NBL1 season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He renewed his two-year contract with the Falcons in March 2021 ahead of the NBL1 South season. In March 2023, Lewis re-signed with the Falcons for the 2023 NBL1 South season. Personal -------- Lewis' father, Bennie Jr. played 10 seasons in the NBL between 1981 and 1990.
In Hebrew morphology, the *paragogic nun*** (from paragoge 'addition at the end of a word') is a nun letter (נ‎) added at the end of certain verb forms, without changing the general meaning of the conjugation. Its function is debated and may involve a modal change to the meaning of the verb. Occurrences ----------- It occurs most commonly in the plural 2nd and 3rd persons of imperfect forms. Examples include: 'you shall live' as תִּחְיוּן‎ instead of תִּחְיוּ‎, 'you shall inherit' as תִּירָשׁוּן‎ instead of תִּירָשׁוּ‎ (Deuteronomy 5:33). It is a common phenomenon, appearing 106 times in the Pentateuch, but has unequal distribution: 58 occurrences in Deuteronomy, none in Leviticus. Explanation ----------- The general meaning of the verb form is not altered by the added nun, and grammarians have proposed various explanations for the phenomenon: an archaism preserved as a matter of style, a syntactic or phonological rule that is not consistently applied because of hypercorrection, etc. Recent inquiries suggest that the paragogic nun conveys the dependent quality of a subordinate statement, whether the subordinate has a modal function (purposive, obligation/permission, temporal), as in the following sentence where the nun conjugation does not appear in the first verb, and does appear in the next verbs conjugated in the same tense and persons: > « בְּכָל הַדֶּרֶךְ ... תֵּלֵכוּ ... לְמַעַן תִּחְיוּן ... בָּאָרֶץ אֲשֶׁר תִּירָשׁוּן‎ » (Deut 5:33) > > « In this way ... you shall walk main clause: regular conjugation 'go' without nun תֵּלֵכוּ‎, so that you may live* subordinate clause: 'live' and 'possess' with nun תִּחְיוּן, תִּירָשׁוּן‎ ... in the land which you shall possess* » > > or: > « וְלֹ֥א תִגְּע֖וּ בּ֑וֹ פֶּן־תְּמֻתֽוּן‎ » (Gen 3:3) > > « nor shall you touchregular conjugation it, lest you dieconjugation with final nun » > > or, in a simple temporal clause, as in the following sentence where the same verb in the same tense and person receives the nun inside the clause, and does not outside the clause: > « וְהָיָה כִּי תֵלֵכוּן לֹא תֵלְכוּ רֵיקָם‎ » (Ex 3:21) > > « and when you go** subordinate clause: 'go' with nun תֵלֵכוּן‎, you shall not go empty main clause: regular conjugation 'go' without nun תֵלְכוּ‎ » > > However, some instances are difficult to explain, which is why some researchers mention the randomness or stylistic quality of the phenomenon: it does not appear in Ex. 4:8 וְהָיָה אִם לֹא יַאֲמִינוּ לָךְ וְלֹא יִשְׁמְעוּ‎ but does appear in the next verse (יִשְׁמְעוּן‎), which has almost identical meaning and structure: Ex. 4:9 וְהָיָה אִם לֹא יַאֲמִינוּ גַּם לִשְׁנֵי הָאֹתוֹת הָאֵלֶּה וְלֹא יִשְׁמְעוּן‎. Other languages --------------- In Phoenician Arabic and Aramaic, contrary to Hebrew, the imperfect forms in plural 2nd and 3rd persons always display the final nun. Removing this final nun creates the jussive modal forms, in Phoenician and in Aramaic, In Classical Arabic the forms without "nun" are used also for the subjunctive. So that a similar modal shift between the forms with and without final nun may explain the phenomenon in Hebrew.
English obstetric physician Joseph Griffiths Swayne Joseph Griffiths Swayne (1819–1903) was an English obstetric physician. He is now known for investigations on cholera, which may have anticipated the discovery of the responsible micro-organism by Robert Koch Life ---- Born on 18 October 1819 in Bristol, he was the second son of John Champeny Swayne, a lecturer on midwifery in the Bristol medical school; his mother was the eldest daughter of Thomas Griffiths, an apothecary in Bristol. After education at Bristol college, where one of his teachers was Francis William Newman, he was apprenticed to his father and at the same time studied at the medical school and the Bristol Royal Infirmary. Swayne went on to Guy's Hospital and became M.R.C.S. and a licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries in 1841. He also studied in Paris, and in 1842 graduated M.B. at the University of London, obtaining the gold medal in obstetric medicine and being bracketed with Alfred Baring Garrod for the gold medal in medicine. In 1845 he proceeded M.D. at London and joined his father as lecturer on midwifery in the Bristol medical school; he was sole lecturer from 1850 until 1895, when he was appointed emeritus professor. In 1853 he was elected physician accoucheur to the Bristol General Hospital, one of the first appointments of the kind out of London; he held this post until 1875, when he became consulting obstetric physician. As a reputed consultant, Swayne had a large practice in the west of England. He was ahead of his time in stressing asepsis, and deprecated long hair or beards for those involved surgery or midwifery. He died suddenly on 1 August 1903, and was buried at Arno's Vale cemetery, Bristol. Works ----- By 1843 Swayne was investigating cholera. In autumn 1849 the Second Cholera pandemic was threatening the city of Bristol, and the Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Society appointed a "microscopic committee" to look into the disease: it included Frederick Brittan, William Budd and others, as well as Swayne. He described a micro-organism that some have suggested was the "comma bacillus" which Robert Koch proved to be the cause of the disease in 1884. He took it to be a "fungus cell", and solicited help with verifying his research from microscopists including Arthur Hill Hassall and Edwin Lankester. George Busk, however, argued that the observation was of a uredo, that is, a fungal plant pathogen. The Royal College of Physicians shortly declared the matter closed. Swayne published papers in medical journals, and Obstetric Aphorisms for the Use of Students (1856; 10th edit. 1893), which was translated into eight languages. Family ------ Swayne married Georgina (died 1865), daughter of the Rev. George Gunning of Deeping. They had one son and one daughter.
ViBe is a background subtraction algorithm which has been presented at the IEEE ICASSP 2009 conference and was refined in later publications. More precisely, it is a software module for extracting background information from moving images. It has been developed by Oliver Barnich and Marc Van Droogenbroeck of the Montefiore Institute, University of Liège, Belgium. ViBe is patented: the patent covers various aspects such as stochastic replacement, spatial diffusion, and non-chronological handling. ViBe is written in the programming language C, and has been implemented on CPU, GPU and FPGA. Technical description --------------------- ### Pixel model and classification process Many advanced techniques are used to provide an estimate of the temporal probability density function (pdf) of a pixel x. ViBe's approach is different, as it imposes the influence of a value in the polychromatic space to be limited to the local neighborhood. In practice, ViBe does not estimate the pdf, but uses a set of previously observed sample values as a pixel model. To classify a value pt(x), it is compared to its closest values among the set of samples. ### Model update: Sample values lifespan policy ViBe ensures a smooth exponentially decaying lifespan for the sample values that constitute the pixel models. This makes ViBe able to successfully deal with concomitant events with a single model of a reasonable size for each pixel. This is achieved by choosing, randomly, which sample to replace when updating a pixel model. Once the sample to be discarded has been chosen, the new value replaces the discarded sample. The pixel model that would result from the update of a given pixel model with a given pixel sample cannot be predicted since the value to be discarded is chosen at random. ### Model update: Spatial Consistency To ensure the spatial consistency of the whole image model and handle practical situations such as small camera movements or slowly evolving background objects, ViBe uses a technique similar to that developed for the updating process in which it chooses at random and update a pixel model in the neighborhood of the current pixel. By denoting NG(x) and p(x) respectively the spatial neighborhood of a pixel x and its value, and assuming that it was decided to update the set of samples of x by inserting p(x), then ViBe also use this value p(x) to update the set of samples of one of the pixels in the neighborhood NG(x), chosen at random. As a result, ViBe is able to produce spatially coherent results directly without the use of any post-processing method. ### Model initialization Although the model could easily recover from any type of initialization, for example by choosing a set of random values, it is convenient to get an accurate background estimate as soon as possible. Ideally a segmentation algorithm would like to be able to segment the video sequences starting from the second frame, the first frame being used to initialize the model. Since no temporal information is available prior to the second frame, ViBe populates the pixel models with values found in the spatial neighborhood of each pixel; more precisely, it initializes the background model with values taken randomly in each pixel neighborhood of the first frame. The background estimate is therefore valid starting from the second frame of a video sequence.
Public and Research University in Pondicherry Puducherry Technological University (PTU, French: Université technologique de Pondichéry), is a GFTI under central government and MHRD , Public technical and research university of the Union Territory of Puducherry which has been constituted by upgrading Pondicherry Engineering College (PEC) with the approval of University Grants Commission (India). PTU was inaugurated by Hon'ble Vice President of India, on 13.09.2021. The University was established as a Government Funded Technical institute(Gfti's) in 1984 by The Ministry of Education(MoE), Government of India under the Seventh Five Year Plan to meet the requirement of an engineering institution in the Union Territory of Puducherry. Nine UG and Thirteen PG programs in core engineering disciplines besides MCA and Ph.D. programs in all engineering disciplines and basic sciences are currently offered in the university. The college enjoys significant autonomy for administration. Location -------- The campus is situated at Pillaichavady, which is about 12kms from the railway station and bus-stand in Pondicherry. It is about 150km south of Chennai (Madras) on the shores of Bay of Bengal. Electrical & Electronics Engineering department Campus ------ The 240 acres (0.97 km2) of the campus has departmental buildings, an auditorium, library, hostels, students' amenities centre, open-air theatre, residential quarters for staff and laid out with roads, lawns and gardens. A central library with over 48000 books, 72 national journals, 98 international journals and INDEST (Indian National Digital Library of Science and Technology) facility is available for the use of staff and students. Besides this there is a well furnished guest house and a well equipped dispensary are available. a well planned fibre-optical campus network with 12 Mbit/s leased line internet connectivity is available in the campus. The institute has 2 basketball courts, one football ground and one cricket ground. Departments ----------- Chemical Engineering Department There are 12 departments: * Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering * Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering * Department of Computer Science and Engineering * Department of Information Technology * Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering * Department of Chemical Engineering * Department of Mechanical Engineering * Department of Civil Engineering * Department of Mathematics * Department of Physics * Department of Chemistry * Department of Humanities and Social Sciences * Department of Mechatronics * Department of Management studies Innovation Entrepreneurship and Venture and International Business Constituent and Affiliated Colleges ----------------------------------- * Perunthalaivar Kamarajar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Karaikal * Women’s Engineering College, Puducherry Student life ------------ Festivals and functions center of PEC ### Students' Councils Each department has its own students' council organising various conferences, workshops and seminars on the cutting-edge technologies, to teach students the latest trends in their field. The councils also encourage students to conduct various online and offline events to help them network with staff and fellow students.[] ### Cybyrus Cybyrus is a symposium conducted by student's council of the computer science department. Cybyrus 2k20 was conducted with the participation of more than 1000 students from different colleges.[] ### Revelation Revelation is a Quadrennial Technical festival of the department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, managed by the student council of EIE, fusion. It showcased various creative and technical ideas of students from all over India.[] ### Genesis Genesis is a Quadrennial technical festival organised by students of the electronics and communication engineering department of PEC. A wide range of competitions, workshops and events are organised once every 4 years to familiarize students with new technologies. The latest version of Genesis was named Genesis 2K19 featured a paper presentation competition, robot wars, a technical quiz, a poster presentation, and a design competition. It also hosted a technical workshop on Robotics which was a grand workshop in which students from all over Tamil Nadu participated.[] ### Intronix Intronix is an annual inter collegiate technical festival organised by students of the electronics and instrumentation engineering department of PEC. The fest was launched to encourage interest in robotics and technology. A wide range of competitions, workshops and events are organised every year to familiarize students with new technologies.[] ### Marakriti Marakriti (robot in Sanskrit), the school's robotics club, was started on the year 2009. The goal of Marakrithi is to boost interest in the cross discipline areas of robotics, including mechanical engineering, electronics, and software development.[] ### Mechnium Mechnium is a Quadrennial Technical festival organised by the students of the Mechanical Engineering department on behalf of the Department of Mechanical Engineering. The latest version of Mechnium was named Mechnium 2K18. It hosted more than 500 participants from more than 100 colleges. MECHNIUM 2K18 featured a paper presentation competition, robo wars, a technical quiz, a poster presentation, and a design competition. It also hosted a technical workshop on the latest topics of mechanical engineering.[] Training and Placement Centre (TNP) ----------------------------------- Training and Placement Centre of PTU actively involved in preparing the students to fit them according to the needs of companies. 1 year extensive training in Aptitude, Technical and Coding (Basic and Advanced) are provided to all the students.[] PEC Alumni Association (PECAA) ------------------------------ The Alumni Association is formed to provide a forum for the students who have graduated to keep in touch with each other and with the Alma Mater. The membership is open to all graduates. It is obligatory for every student to become a life member of the association by payment of Rs.100 at the time of admission. The faculty is its honorary members. An Executive Committee elected by the General Body at its annual meeting manages the office of the Alumni Association.[] Rankings -------- Pondicherry Engineering College was ranked 122 among engineering colleges by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2020.but it reduced to 150 in 2022 to 183 in 2023
Gerhard Rohner (born Nieder-Heiduk 23 May 1895: died Bonn 7 March 1971) was a politician in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, which later became the German Democratic Republic. He became a leading member of the moderately right-wing CDU (party) which was not the party favored by the Soviet administrators and the new Moscow trained political establishment. After sustained violent attacks from the new country's ruling SED (party) he abandoned his political career and, in February 1952, fled the country. Life ---- After attending the Royal Upper School in Königsberg, Rohner undertook a commercial apprenticeship. By the time he was 26 he was managing a sales department and, from 1923, a technical office. Between 1925 and 1945 he worked as a self-employed commercial agent for the Flick conglomerate in Dresden, Chemnitz and Berlin. Since 1933 Germany had been a one-party state, but following the end of the war in May 1945, with Nazi-ism defeated and Germany under foreign occupation, a return to multi-party democracy seemed to be the way ahead for many people. In July 1945 Gerhard Rohner was one of the founders of the new Christian Democratic Union (CDU party) in Dresden which, along with the entire central portion of what had been Germany, now found itself under Soviet Military Administration in what was now designated the Soviet Occupation Zone. Rohner had been a co-signatory of the CDU's "founding proclamation" of 26 June 1945 Between 1946 and January 1950 he was a member of the CDU regional leadership in Saxony. Between 3 July 1945 and the first regional election, which took place in October 1946, Rohner was vice-president of the Regional Administration in Saxony, and Head of Finance and Taxation. In the regional elections in Saxony the officially disparaged "bourgeois" parties, the CDU and the Liberal Democrats (LDP) together out-polled the newly created Socialist Unity Party (SED) which was contrary to the plans of the Soviet administrators who had taken various measures to disadvantage the CDU and the LDPD in the regional elections. Future elections in the German Democratic Republic would be operated on a single list basis which would ensure acceptable levels of support for the ruling SED (party), but in the meantime Gerhard Rohner (whose CDU had obtained 21.8% of the vote while the LDP had achieved 29.9%) was appointed Regional Finance Minister for Saxony. He also sat as a CDU member of the Regional Legislature (Landtag) from October 1946 till February 1950. Although the German Democratic Republic was formally created only in October 1949, by that time the basis had already been created, in April 1946, for a return to one-party government, with the contentious merger of the old Communist Party with the Moderate-left SPD. The model to be followed was now the Soviet model, and although this was not universally apparent in 1946, by 1949 it was clear that the "Bourgeois" parties were expected to operate, if at all, only to the extent they were prepared to become creatures of the ruling SED. A pressing issue for Saxony involved the expulsion of Germans from parts of what had before 1945 been in Germany, but which were east of the Oder-Neisse line, and which were now incorporated (primarily) into Poland and the Soviet Union. The westward shift of the borders on both sides of Poland had been agreed by Stalin with his British and American allies at the Potsdam conference, and it created Europe's largest refugee crisis to date. Approximately one million of the refugees ended up in Saxony, where the brutality accompanying their expulsion from their former homes was very soon communicated to the indigenous population. The ruling SED accepted uncritically the Soviet line that the horrors inflicted by Nazi Germany in Poland and the Soviet Union meant that Germans now had no reason to complain where the price paid included similar brutality inflicted on them. The "Bourgeois" parties accepted the war guilt concept but the extent to which they were nevertheless prepared to protest at the barbarous approach taken has become more apparent following the opening up of Soviet archives at the end of the twentieth century. Applying a widely applied analogy, Rohner pointed out that the Potsdam Agreement had provided for the humane relocation of refugees from Poland and Czechoslovakia, but that what was being observed was refugees being flung out of these states and transported like cattle. None of this was calculated to persuade the Soviets and their proxies in positions of power in East Germany to favour a multi-party constitution incorporating power or influence for the "bourgeois" parties. For the German People's Council (the forerunner of the East German National Legislature) convened in March 1948, adequate steps were taken to ensure an overall majority of the seats went to the SED, but the CDU nevertheless received 55 seats, and Gerhard Rohner was elected to one of these. In October 1949, when the People's Council was reconstituted as the National Legislature / (Volkskammer), Rohner became leader of the CDU group in the chamber. In this capacity he became known for unusually forthright speeches in the chamber. For instance, he spoke against the party decision to so away with regional finance ministers. However, he came under intense pressure as the ruling party prepared for the elections in October 1950 by spelling out and extending the powers of the National Front organisation over the non-ruling parties. He was also deeply affected by the treatment being meted out to his party colleague Hugo Hickmann. In February 1952 Gerhard Rohner fled to Düsseldorf where he settled and built a new life, taking a job as a sales director for the Maxhütte steel works. (Maxhütte had been part of the Flick conglomerate since 1929.)
American librarian Mildred Leona Batchelder (September 7, 1901 – August 25, 1998) was an American librarian, named by American Libraries in December 1999 as among "100 of the most important leaders we had in the 20th century". "In the mid-twentieth century, her forceful advocacy pushed children’s services to the forefront of the profession and brought the best library materials and services to generations of young people." She is the namesake of the Mildred L. Batchelder Award for outstanding children's books. Biography --------- ### Early life Mildred Batchelder was born in Lynn, Massachusetts, on September 7, 1901, to George P. and Blanche E. Batchelder. George was a businessman, Blanche, a school teacher and Mildred was the oldest of their three daughters. The family spent their summers at "Camp", which was an island surrounded by marshlands that Mildred's father owned. Mildred called camp the "most exciting place in the world!" She spent those summers exploring and playing in the natural surroundings that would instill in her a lifelong appreciation of nature. Evenings at camp ended with the girls listening to their mother read to them as they washed the dishes. Mildred's mother provided the "cultural and literary stimulus" for Mildred and her sisters. They would travel to Boston where they experienced theatre and films and would stock up on books before leaving the city. Mildred was considered the academic child but wouldn't start school until she was seven years old. She was a "small and sickly child" who suffered with allergies, asthma, eczema and a suspected thyroid condition however, she seemed to adopt her mother's stoic strength despite her physical challenges. Mildred left for college when she was seventeen years old. ### Education Mildred L. Batchelder received her B.A. from Mt. Holyoke College in 1922 and her B.L.S. from New York State Library School, Albany, in 1924. As a library student at New York State Library School, Batchelder chose to go on a month-long "practice work" assignment assisting Effie L. Power in the children's department of the Cleveland Public Library. She had not previously planned on going into children's work however; this month birthed in her an excitement for children's library services, was one of the highlights of her schooling and the "crossroad" of her career. Career ------ Batchelder's long and productive career within the library profession began in 1924, when the inexperienced, 23-year-old held her first professional position as the Head of Children's at the Omaha Public Library in Nebraska. There, she was responsible for children's library services for 5 branches and 32 schools. After 3 years of experience and many accomplishments, she took a job as the Children's Librarian at State Teachers College in Saint Cloud, Minnesota however; her forcefulness was not well received by her boss and she was fired after only a year. In 1928, Evanston, IL became her permanent home when she accepted a position as the librarian at Haven Middle School, which doubled as a community library in the evenings. This new role afforded her the chance to work with the public librarians and she did so enthusiastically, as it became part of her lifelong vision to see schools and public libraries working alongside one another. The American Library Association (ALA) was close in proximity to Evanston and she began building professional relationships with some of the important people at ALA. Batchelder became part of the ALA staff in 1936, serving as the newly created School Library Specialist. She was then, after just one year, appointed chief of the School and Children's Library Division. She was extremely driven and had a special ability to motivate those around her. Because her focus was the school library initially, she discovered inadequate library facilities in more than half of the schools across the country –which put her in high gear. The field of library services to children was at a "critical time" when Batchelder began her ALA career and the profession needed strong leadership to realize the vision of the fields’ former pioneers. She had a fierce temperament that was considered "tyrannical and tactless" to some and the "embodiment of professional excellence to many". "She had an unshakeable sense of herself as being ‘right’, and she was not afraid of being disliked. The cause itself was paramount". One of her first goals at ALA was to get the public librarians working with the schools and she accomplished that on many levels. Batchelder traveled around the country meeting and making connections with librarians and with many national leaders in Washington, D.C. These contacts would serve her well over the next 30 years at ALA and she wasn't reluctant to use those contacts to achieve her goals. Batchelder was said to be a "catalyst of magical proportions". Racism was an issue that Batchelder was very passionate about. It outraged her that African American children weren't provided the same privileges that were afforded to white children. She fought hard for the rights of minorities and women and was enraged when the keynote speaker of an ALA meeting was asked to use the service elevator because she was black. She was instrumental in bringing this racism to light and in keeping the ALA conferences from taking place in Southern states for 20 years. In 1937, Batchelder teamed up with Carl Milam and Herbert Putnam to create what now might be considered a prophetic prediction of the "Library of Tomorrow." Batchelder predicted films, microfilm and other mediums as well as the use of interlibrary loans for such materials. Peggy Sullivan, who was the Executive Director of the ALA, said, "She led the way in incorporating nonprint materials into libraries". She took these predictions and spent her career bringing them to fruition. Batchelder was appointed as staff liaison to the visual methods committee and asked the State Department for any leftover WWII A/V equipment for library use. In the midst of her hard work and dedication, she suffered with chronic and painful arthritis but she was determined to not let her pain distract her from her goals. Batchelder pioneered multiculturalism in children's literature. In her mind, books were essential to a democracy and to global peace efforts, hence, in 1937, she began her first international effort called the Latin American Project. This project would reveal a great need for literature in Central America and Batchelder believed that by providing translated books to and from all over the world, understanding on the international level would increase. She wanted to make sure that good books from all over the world were accessible to children in their own language. The Mildred L. Batchelder Award was created in 1966, in her honor. It recognizes an American publisher that translates an outstanding book from another language into English. Batchelder retired in 1966 at the age of 65. Her lifelong companion was Margaret Nicholsen. Mildred Batchelder died on August 25, 1998, as a resident of the Swedish Retirement Association home in Evanston, IL. She was 96 years old. Works ----- A selection of some of Batchelder's written works include: * 1939. The library of tomorrow. Emily Miller Danton (Ed.), School library service: 1970 (pp. 133–141). Chicago: American Library Association. * 1946. Library extension. Carleton B. Joeckel (Ed.), Rural schools and the public library (pp. 108–125). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * 1969. Public library trustees in the nineteen-sixties. Chicago: American Library Trustee Association * 1984. Stepping Away from Tradition: Children's Books of the Twenties and Thirties. Sybille A. Jagusch (Ed.), The leadership network in children's librarianship: a remembrance (pp. 71–120). New York: Young Scott Books. Awards ------ * Grolier award, ALA 1966 * Batchelder Award established in 1966 recognizing an outstanding book in a foreign language that had been translated into English by an American publisher. * Constance Lindsay Skinner Award of the Women's National Book Association, 1967
The telecommunication systems in Vanuatu provides voice and data services to the island nation. Telephone --------- Further information: Telephone numbers in VanuatuThe country calling code is 678. The mobile phone system had 137,000 connections as of 2012. The operators are Vodafone – (GSM) (EDGE) and Digicel – (GSM) (HSPA+/3G) (EDGE). The fixed-line telephone system included 5,800 connections as of that year. It is operated by Vodafone. The system is served by copper wire on the main island aided by radio links in outer islands. Satellite service is provided by Intelsat (Pacific Ocean). Radio ----- The nation has 2 AM, 4 FM, and 1 shortwave stations as of 2004. The count of radios was 62,000 in 1997. Television ---------- The two television broadcast stations are 1NOMO TV Channel (Terrestrial- & web-distributed, English & Bislama content) and Television Blong Vanuatu (Terrestrial-distributed, Bislama & French content) Three Pay-TV (local) providers offered service as of 2011: * Telsat Pacific (Terrestrial-distributed, English content) * CanalSat (Satellite-distributed, French content) * Servicom (Satellite-distributed, English content) Internet -------- Vanuatu's country code (Top level domain) is .vu. It is managed by Telecom Vanuatu Limited (Vodafone Vanuatu) as "VUNIC". ### Internet Service Providers (ISPs) Digicel Vanuatu Limited – Provides WIMAX (1Mbit/s - 20Mbit/s), 3G & GPRS mobile internet services. Off-island connectivity is provided via fibre optic cable. The minimum speed offered for fixed internet is 1Mbit/s on residential packages. Business packages are offered in speeds of 1Mbit/s to 20Mbit/s and can be tailored to individual requirements. Business internet packages can be either shared or dedicated bandwidth. WAN, IPLC & other business data services are offered. Digicel has the widest coverage of any operator in Vanuatu and is the only operator capable of providing fixed internet services in many outer island locations. Telecom Vanuatu Limited (TVL) – Provides WIMAX (256kb – 1Mb), ADSL (128kb – 1Mb), Wireless (limited to downtown Port Vila) and various fixed and leased line services. VSAT is available for rural Vanuatu. Prepaid and Postpaid options are available. Telsat Broadband Limited – Provides Carrier-Grade Wireless coverage to Port Vila and surrounds via their own independent network. Telsat also supplies and maintains VSAT systems for the other remote parts of Vanuatu. The minimum speed offered is 256kbit/s up to 2Mbit/s but can tailor plans. Pre-Paid and Subscription options are available. Telsat Broadband has data caps in effect on all standard accounts but does not have lock-in contracts. Wantok Network Limited provides wireless 4G internet in Port Vila and surrounding areas. The minimum speed offered is 1Mbit/s with plans starting from Vt2,300 per month with no lock-in contracts. Interchange Limited, has constructed the Interchange Cable Network which connects Port Vila, Vanuatu to Suva, Fiji via a fiber optic cable. The capacity of the cable is over 200 times Vanuatu's previous capacity, with the ability to upgrade the capacity in the future should more bandwidth be required. Interchange plans to construct two more cables, one will connect Port Vila to the Solomon Islands (with a spur to the Vanuatu island of Espiritu Santo). The other will connect Vanuatu to New Caledonia (with a spur to the Vanuatu island of Tanna).
Clan in Abia State, Nigeria Ibere is a clan located in the eastern part of Ikwuano Local Government Area, Abia State, Nigeria. It borders Oboro to the west, Bende to the north, the Isuogu (Ariam/Usaka and Oloko) to the south, Itumbauzo and Nkari (a clan in Ini LGA, Akwa Ibom State) to the east. It is one of 18 Igbo clans of the Old Bende Division. Ibere was classified in the Ohuhu-Ngwa cluster of the Southern Igbo area by Forde and Jones. Origin ------ It is generally agreed that the founders of the community in its present situation came from a place called Okwa Ankasi, but no one can say where it is located. It is always indicated by a wave of the hand towards the West and South and it seems probable that the ancestors of most of the Ibere villages migrated from the same direction and at approximately the same time as the Ngwa, namely, from the south-west across the Imo River. On the other hand, it is said that Okwa Ankasi was "a big tree" and there are none to the south-west. Information gleaned from the neighbouring Oboro can indicate that Okwa Ankasi was to the east or south-east. The Isuogu, Oboro and Eastern Ngwa are collectively referred to as Okwa by other Igbo communities. Although nothing definite is known of Ibere in the past, it seems clear that they moved to their present site after severe fighting in which they were driven from their former abode. The earliest arrivals settled near the present Orie Market (Ahia Orie). From there, they scattered and founded the present villages. It is agreed by every village in the clan that Obinyang is the eldest village. The founder of Obinyang was Okenye, who moved to the present site of the village from Ahia Orie soon after his arrival there. The migration from Okwa Ankasi took some time and it is also probable that the founder of some of the villages themselves came from larger villages in the clan. If the accounts given by the Oboro people are accurate, it would appear that Okwa Ankasi lies somewhere south of Oloko and that the earliest Ibere came from Oboro villages as follows; Mbinyang (Isiala Ibere), Umuemenike from Mbiopong (Isiala Oboro), Iyialu, Ihim and Umuru from Amawom, Nkalunta and Iberenta from Ndoro, Inyila and Obuohia from Umugbalu, Amuru from Amaoba, Elemaga from Okwe, Mbubo from Nnono and Ekebedi. The origin of Itunta and Obuoru is partly of Asaga and partly Ibibio (Itu). This version of the history of Ibere people is supported by the fact that the customs of Ibere and Oboro are similar, and they agree that they have a common origin. Soon after the earliest settlers had established themselves in the vicinity of Ahia Orie, they were much harassed by Abam raiders whose disturbing activities hastened the dispersion of the Ibere people. The Ahia Orie continued to be widely attended until one market day, an Abam raid inflicted heavy losses of lives and property that the market was abandoned. It was re-opened after the advent of the colonial government but on a much smaller scale. The large markets at Obuohia and Ndoro replaced it. Almost as soon as the clan was established, there was a heavy infiltration of Aro to whom this rich area with river transport to the Inyang Creek held out an inviting prospect in two villages, Nkalunta and Obuoru, two of which are the nearest villages to the Inyang Stream, the Aro population was greater than the indigene's and there was a considerable colony of Aro in every village. The main Aro trade was cocoa which was extensively seen in the rich haw-lying land between Itunta and Obuoru. Transport cost drastically nothing and the trade, though not large, was a lucrative one. Culture ------- Like her neighbouring groups, the Ibere mark the Ekpe festival by January yearly. They dress like other Igbo groups. They speak Igbo language but with a sharp difference. Their delicacies aren't much different from the Igbo and Ibibio people and like the Igbo people in other areas, they are an acephalous community. Localities ---------- • Amuru • Elemaga • Iberenta • Ihim • Inyila • Isiala • Itunta • Iyalu • Nkalunta • Ngwugwo • Obuohia • Obuoru • Umuemenike • Umulu
Indian revolutionary Buli Mahato was a revolutionary leader of the Bhumij Rebellion and Kol Rebellion. He was a zamindar of the Kudmi community of Karadih village in Sonahatu Thana, Jharkhand. Overview -------- He revolted in 1831 against the exploitation of British rule to avenge the exploitation of the British. He joined the Kol Rebellion as a prominent revolutionary leader in the eastern frontier Silli, Tamar, Sonahatu and then Jangalmahal areas, Ranchi district of Jharkhand and Barabhum, Jhalda, Manbazar, Hura, Jaipur, Baghmundi etc. in Manbhum. Govardhan Bhumij who captured and killed the envoy sent to negotiate with Ganga Narain. Bauri Naya, one of the Ghatwals, who was associated with Ganga Narain's party to attack the troops at Barabazar in May, while Buli Mahato and Jardre Bhumij who helped kill Madhav Singh. Which is known in the pages of history as Bhumij Rebellion or Ganga Narain Hungama. Later again, there was a Kol rebellion involving tribals and non-tribals in that area of Chotanagpur plateau region. Then the Barabhum Kudmali folk songs also mention revolutionary rebel leaders such as Jagannath Dhal, Lal Singh, Ganga Narain, Buli Mahato etc. Buli Mahato was instrumental in igniting the rebellion in the plateau region of Chotanagpur to reclaim lands of the exploited, deprived, revenue expropriation and abuse of moneylenders. He played a role. He tired the British and the landlords with his bravery and solidarity. Buli Mahato was arrested by the British police at village Jhunjhka in Purulia district and deported to the Andaman Nicobar Jail, where he died on 14 June 1834.
The following is a list of episodes from the fourth season of the PBS series, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, which aired in 1971. It is the first season to premiere on PBS after the 1970 renaming from NET. Episode 1 --------- King Friday feels that babies are getting too much attention and on Prince Tuesday, he tries to limit such attention to one hour a day. Picture Picture shows us how construction paper is made. * Aired on February 15, 1971. * This is the first series episode to use the "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood" title. The previous three seasons had it spelled as "Misterogers' Neighborhood". The title was changed out of concern for children's spelling skills.[] * This is the first episode to use "The Weekend Song" on Friday episodes as the closing song. By Season 6, the first four lines of "The Weekend Song" would later become a part of the will-be-rewritten song "It's Such a Good Feeling". The two closing songs would stay until the end of the series in 2001. * Although National Educational Television ceased to exist as a public television network, the series was copyrighted by and distributed for NET until the end of the fourth season. The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) succeeded NET on October 5, 1970, and inherited everything that NET had. Episode 2 --------- Mister Rogers and Mr McFeeley make a puppet using paper mache. Meghan Sweenie has her routine check-up. Dr. Mermelstein tells Rogers the basics of this physical operation. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Prince Tuesday's crying prompts some neighbors to take action. * Aired on February 16, 1971. * First episode with the new neighborhood model Episode 3 --------- Rogers and Bob Trow make some popsicle-stick crafts. * Aired on February 17, 1971. Episode 4 --------- Rogers discusses the about string quartet (e.g. violins, banjos, guitars) and hears each instrument at Negri's Music Shop. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Mr. McFeely delivers a bass fiddle to King Friday. * Aired on February 18, 1971. Episode 5 --------- Rogers demonstrates how music is written as well as performed. Those in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe try to play the bass fiddle, then offer their opinions on the Machine That Plays The Bass. * Aired on February 19, 1971. Episode 6 (Castle Waterfall) ---------------------------- When King Friday wants to have a waterfall for his Castle garden, Donkey Hodie suggests that they install new plumbing. * Aired on February 22, 1971. Episode 7 (Castle Waterfall) ---------------------------- While gymnasts perform in the Castle gymnasium, water begins to leak inside. It is revealed that one of the pipes for the Castle garden waterfall is clogged. * Aired on February 23, 1971. Episode 8 (Castle Waterfall) ---------------------------- Handyman Negri and Donkey Hodie finish the Castle garden waterfall. François Clemmons visits as waterfall singer. * Aired on February 24, 1971. Episode 9 (Castle Waterfall) ---------------------------- Rogers needs a washer for a fountain he wants to assemble. Instead of taking one from Bob Trow's workshop, he merely leaves him a note. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, the Castle fountain works only to a small extent. Lady Elaine has taken the windmill at Someplace Else apart for unknown reasons. * Aired on February 25, 1971. Episode 10 (Dr Platypus training trip) -------------------------------------- Lady Elaine wants her Museum-Go-Round to turn, so she harnesses X to the Museum. He doesn't want to spend all hours turning the Museum, but he does get it moving in another way. * Aired on February 26, 1971. Episode 11 (Breaking and Fixing) -------------------------------- Miss Paulifficate bumps into Daniel's toy tiger and rips it, but she glues it back together. They give a letter to Dr. Bill Platypus. * Aired on March 1, 1971. Episode 12 (Different types of dolls) ------------------------------------- Mrs. Lawver, a doll collector, presents to Rogers her collection of antique dolls. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Dr. Bill Platypus receives his lesson toward a pediatrician's license. He is to borrow a doll for the practice. * Aired on March 2, 1971. Episode 13 (Paper Problems) --------------------------- Bob Dog accidentally rips Dr. Bill's second pediatrician lesson and hides. Lady Elaine magically reverses the damage. She also gets a lesson on child care from Dr. Bill. * Aired on March 3, 1971. Episode 14 (Learning by Playing) -------------------------------- After he shows some children's drawings, Rogers visits Mrs. Saunders school, talks with the children and watches them play. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Mr. McFeely delivers a package from the pediatrician school to Dr. Bill. The letter says he will continue his training in Australia. Thus, the Platypus family will be leaving tomorrow. * Aired on March 4, 1971. Episode 15 (Dr Platypus training trip) -------------------------------------- Don Williamson visits the television house to demonstrate his radio-controlled model airplane. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, King Friday still doesn't want the Platypus family to visit Australia. But then he is given the right to start their flying machine. * Aired on March 5, 1971. Episode 16 (Looking at Lights) ------------------------------ Rogers talks of light bulbs and replaces one of the bulbs on the traffic signal inside the television house. Two boys also discuss bird-watching with Rogers. * Aired on March 8, 1971. Episode 17 (Puzzles within puzzles) ----------------------------------- Rogers shows a hidden object in a drawing of the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The neighborhood discovers an old toy that Corny used to manufacture: a toy horse in the Chatty-Cathy mold. * Aired on March 9, 1971. Episode 18 (Entertainment and Camels) ------------------------------------- Rogers sacrifices NOM for a visit to Betty's Little Theater. When the planned guests aren't able to appear, Betty Aberlin improvises a play with Bob Trow, Joe Negri and Audrey Roth. * Aired on March 10, 1971. Episode 19 (Upside Down) ------------------------ When the name "upside-down cake" offends King Friday, he affronts everyone with a short-lived rule that they should say what he doesn't mean. * Aired on March 11, 1971. Episode 20 (Dog and Bob Dog) ---------------------------- Queen Sara asks Bob Dog to send a note asking if Henrietta Pussycat can babysit for Prince Tuesday. Bob Dog is distracted with a new rocking chair, but he finds a way to help the Royal Family. * Aired on March 12, 1971. Episode 21 ---------- Bob Dog wants to wear shoes so Queen Sara will like him as much as she likes Prince Tuesday. * Aired on March 15, 1971. Episode 22 ---------- Joe Negri displays musical instruments that are made out of junk. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Lady Elaine borrows Corny's hammer without asking first. * Aired on March 16, 1971. Episode 23 ---------- Children act out various nursery rhymes at Betty's Little Theater. The Neighborhood of Make-Believe acts out Old King Cole. * Aired on March 17, 1971. Episode 24 ---------- Rogers draws a song, using paint brushes to visualize the Japanese records he plays. Later Mr. McFeely brings in a big St. Bernard dog. In between, Yoshi Ito enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. * Aired on March 18, 1971. Episode 25 ---------- Rogers builds a go-kart with spare parts. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Grand-père begins to make French-fried potatoes. * Aired on March 19, 1971. Episode 26 ---------- Rogers and visitor Mary Sweenie talk of crafts such as needlepoint. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Handyman Negri wants to have Henrietta's eyes checked. * Aired on March 22, 1971. Episode 27 ---------- Rogers has his eyes examined. An accident also occurs in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, when the Trolley runs into a toy car Lady Aberlin and Corny left parked on the tracks. * Aired on March 23, 1971. Episode 28 ---------- Rogers plays an audio cassette that hints to a package containing a magnifying glass. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, King Friday gets the impression that a magnifying glass will make Prince Tuesday grow. * Aired on March 24, 1971. Episode 29 ---------- Rogers puts on an opera costume that includes a turban. He invites Betty Aberlin to a costume party set for the next day. Those in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe agree to a costume party to allay the doldrums. * Aired on March 25, 1971. Episode 30 ---------- Rogers dresses as an airplane pilot for the costume party while Betty Aberlin and Joe Negri team up to dress as a horse. The Neighborhood of Make-Believe holds its own costume party, and only the toy Horse has no costume. * Aired on March 26, 1971. Episode 31 ---------- Those in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe react in different ways to the presents the Platypus family, returned from Australia, had given them. * Aired on March 29, 1971. Episode 32 ---------- Dr. Bill Platypus invites those in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe to see his home movies about Australia. Joining them are Captain Kangaroo and all his puppet friends. * Aired on March 30, 1971. Episode 33 ---------- Rogers has a sign made for Bob and Judy Brown, the marionette-puppeteers who are moving in just a few doors down. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Dr. Platypus moves his office to the Eiffel Tower. * Aired on March 31, 1971. Episode 34 ---------- Ezra Jack Keats visits Rogers to read his book "Hi, Cat!". In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, a book editor visits Grand-père at the Eiffel Tower. * Aired on April 1, 1971. Episode 35 (Jack and The Beanstalk) ----------------------------------- Rogers sees Bob and Judy Brown's production of Jack and the Beanstalk. * Aired on April 2, 1971. Episode 36 ---------- John Reardon comes to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe dressed as an organ grinder. But hardly anybody recognizes him. * Aired on April 5, 1971. Episode 37 ---------- Rogers tries on various moustaches. Betty Aberlin visits to put on wigs. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, King Friday commissions a new opera. * Aired on April 6, 1971. Episode 38 ---------- John Reardon gives opera roles to Daniel and his toy, Ino A. Horse. Chef Brockett displays the monkey costume he will wear. * Aired on April 7, 1971. Episode 39 (The Monkey's Uncle) ------------------------------- The Neighborhood of Make-Believe holds its opera. King Friday plays his bass for this opera, in which a zookeeper must console a down-on-his-luck organ grinder. * Aired on April 8, 1971. Episode 40 ---------- Rogers shows photos from yesterday's opera. At Brockett's Bakery, Rogers discusses Chef Brockett's opera role. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Henrietta mopes since she didn't have a part in the opera. * Aired on April 9, 1971. Episode 41 ---------- Rogers and Bob Trow repair child seats and a rocking chair. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Cornflake S. Pecially and Robert Troll build an infant seat for Prince Tuesday. Lady Elaine discovers how good a father King Friday is. * Aired on April 12, 1971. Episode 42 ---------- Susan Linn helps Rogers discussing how puppets can be used to express feelings. Her Audrey Duck character appears in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, and scares Baby Ana Platypus. * Aired on April 13, 1971. Episode 43 ---------- Twins Barry Nelson and Garry Nelson visit the television house. Rogers helps Betty Aberlin play a marble game. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, the Nelsons help Daniel play with a ball. * Aired on April 14, 1971. Episode 44 ---------- Rogers talks about how things look different at night. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Bob Dog and Daniel share their fears with Miss Paulifficate. * Aired on April 15, 1971. Episode 45 ---------- Richard Kvistad plays a kettle drum at Negri's Music Shop. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Lady Elaine and Bob Dog scare King Friday. * Aired on April 16, 1971. Episode 46 (Jealousy) --------------------- Grand-père receives a picture from his granddaughter Collette. This hurts Henrietta, who feels she is not as fancy. Note: This is the first episode ever to be filmed in color. * Aired on April 19, 1971. Episode 47 (Jealousy) --------------------- Susan Linn returns to Rogers' Television House, bringing her puppets Audrey Duck and Cat-a-Lion. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Handyman Negri helps ease Henrietta's tangled emotions. * Aired on April 20, 1971. Episode 48 (Jealousy) --------------------- King Friday gives Collette a key to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Henrietta is afraid that the key will open the door to her house. * Aired on April 21, 1971. Episode 49 (Jealousy) --------------------- Rogers shows cake-decorating tools and sees a man decorate a cake at Brockett's Bakery. Chef Brockett takes a cake to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe for Collette. Henrietta is in the center of what happens. * Aired on April 22, 1971. Episode 50 (Jealousy) --------------------- Rogers explains that it isn't always possible to understand what goes on in the world. He and his son make hats out of newspapers. Grand-père introduces Collette to everyone in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. * Aired on April 23, 1971. Episode 51 ---------- François Clemmons is going to teach a driver's education course. To help him, Clemmons borrows the traffic signal from Rogers' television house. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, Daniel is instructed to wait for Mr. McFeely to deliver groceries intended for the Castle. King Friday asks Daniel to fetch his robes, which causes a quandary for Mr. McFeely. * Aired on April 26, 1971. Episode 52 ---------- François Clemmons returns the traffic signal to Rogers. Nurse Miller and Dr. Bill Platypus help X after he hurts one of his wings. * Aired on April 27, 1971. Episode 53 ---------- Cornflake S. Pecially is impatiently waiting for his new lathe. In his rush to work the lathe, Corny injures his finger in it. Nurse Miller consoles him. Rogers goes to Bob Trow's workshop to see his lathe. * Aired on April 28, 1971. Episode 54 ---------- The Castle is organizing a Jazz festival, and King Friday wants the best jazz musicians. Handyman Negri brings in a blind saxophonist named Eric Kloss. Dr. Bill tells all that they were not responsible for Kloss' condition. * Aired on April 29, 1971. Episode 55 ---------- Rogers draws a song based on a recording of jazz and classical music. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, King Friday is still trying to shortcut his way to playing the bass fiddle. A gold bass may be the answer. * Aired on April 30, 1971. Episode 56 ---------- Bob Brown, the puppeteer, shows Rogers how to make puppets from detergent bottles. * Aired on May 3, 1971. Episode 57 (Babies) ------------------- King Friday and Queen Sara implore Lady Aberlin to baby-sit Prince Tuesday. Lady Elaine misinterprets the instructions and assigns Daniel the baby-sitting duties. * Aired on May 4, 1971. Episode 58 (Babies) ------------------- Mr. McFeely delivers the book "Fur, Feathers, and Hair" to Rogers. Later McFeely brings in an English sheepdog. In between, King Friday is upset that baby Prince Tuesday will not smile at him. * Aired on May 5, 1971. Episode 59 (Babies) ------------------- Rogers makes ice cream by hand-cranking. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, some are wondering about baby Ana Platypus's behavior. * Aired on May 6, 1971. Episode 60 ---------- Morrie Turner, author of the Wee Pals comic strip, visits Rogers. In the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, X begins his printing business. * Aired on May 7, 1971. Episode 61 (Lady Elaine Wants Attention) ---------------------------------------- Lady Elaine wants people to come to her book show in the Museum-Go-Round, not to the Castle to see a chameleon. * Aired on May 10, 1971. Episode 62 (Lady Elaine Wants Attention) ---------------------------------------- Lady Aberlin asks Van Cliburn to wear a costume for his visit to the Castle. The King and Queen are fooled until the disguised Van Cliburn plays the piano. * Aired on May 11, 1971. Episode 63 (Lady Elaine Wants Attention) ---------------------------------------- Collette is worried that Grand-père will be lonely when she leaves for Paris. After she leaves, Lady Elaine hears Van Cliburn performing at her Museum-Go-Round. * Aired on May 12, 1971. Episode 64 (Lady Elaine Wants Attention) ---------------------------------------- Lady Elaine wants company, but everyone is too busy for her. She is so adamant that she takes Mr. McFeely's bicycle and refuses to return it. * Aired on May 13, 1971. Episode 65 (Lady Elaine Wants Attention) ---------------------------------------- Rogers decorates some eggs, as do the residents in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. * Aired on May 14, 1971. \| * v * t * e Fred Rogers and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood \| \| --- \| \| * Neighborhood of Make-Believe \| \| Seasons \| * 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5 * 6 * 7 * 8 * 9 * 10 * 11 * 12 * 13 * 14 * 15 * 16 * 17 * 18 * 19 * 20 * 21 * 22 * 23 * 24 * 25 * 26 * 27 * 28 * 29 * 30 * 31 \| \| Films \| * Speedy Delivery * Won't You Be My Neighbor? * Mister Rogers: It's You I Like * A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood \| \| Other \| * Fred Rogers Productions * Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood (episodes) * Donkey Hodie (episodes) * Children's Museum of Pittsburgh * Idlewild and Soak Zone * 26858 Misterrogers * Jeff Erlanger * "What Do You Do with the Mad that You Feel?" \|
Species of shrub endemic to Western Australia *Petrophile rigida* is a species of flowering plant in the family Proteaceae and is endemic to southwestern Western Australia. It is a shrub with rigid, branched, needle-shaped, sharply-pointed leaves, and more or less spherical heads of hairy yellow flowers. Description ----------- Petrophile rigida is a widely-branched shrub that typically grows to a height of 0.3–1.5 m (1 ft 0 in – 4 ft 11 in) and has glabrous branchlets. The leaves are pinnately-divided, 30–85 mm (1.2–3.3 in) long on a petiole 12–34 mm (0.47–1.34 in) long, with mostly sixteen to eighteen needle-shaped, sharply-pointed lobes usually 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) long but sometimes up to 25 mm (0.98 in) long. The flowers are arranged on the ends of branchlets and in leaf axils in sessile, more or less spherical heads about 25 mm (0.98 in) in diameter, with lance-shaped involucral bracts at the base. The flowers are about 15 mm (0.59 in) long, cream-coloured with a yellow tip and hairy. Flowering mainly occurs from September to October and the fruit is a nut, fused with others in a spherical head up to about 20 mm (0.79 in) in diameter. Taxonomy -------- Petrophile rigida was first formally described in 1810 by Robert Brown in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. The specific epithet (rigida) refers to the leaves. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Petrophile rigida grows in sandy heath with Banksia and Nuytsia species in scattered populations between Regans Ford, the Stirling Range and the Fitzgerald River National Park. Conservation status ------------------- This petrophile is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.
Village in Scotts Bluff County, Nebraska, United States Village in Nebraska, United States Melbeta is a village in Scotts Bluff County, Nebraska, United States. It is part of the Scottsbluff, Nebraska Micropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 112 at the 2010 census. History ------- Melbeta was established as a town in 1911 when the railroad was extended to that point. Melbeta is said to be derived from a German word meaning "sugar beet". Geography --------- According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.09 square miles (0.23 km2), all land. Demographics ------------ Historical population\| Census \| Pop. \| Note \| %± \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1920 \| 129 \| \| — \| \| 1930 \| 138 \| \| 7.0% \| \| 1940 \| 145 \| \| 5.1% \| \| 1950 \| 138 \| \| −4.8% \| \| 1960 \| 118 \| \| −14.5% \| \| 1970 \| 124 \| \| 5.1% \| \| 1980 \| 151 \| \| 21.8% \| \| 1990 \| 116 \| \| −23.2% \| \| 2000 \| 138 \| \| 19.0% \| \| 2010 \| 112 \| \| −18.8% \| \| 2020 \| 108 \| \| −3.6% \| \| U.S. Decennial Census \| ### 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 112 people, 46 households, and 30 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,244.4 inhabitants per square mile (480.5/km2). There were 58 housing units at an average density of 644.4 per square mile (248.8/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.2% White and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.5% of the population. There were 46 households, of which 39.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.8% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.10. The median age in the village was 37 years. 31.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 16.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.8% male and 48.2% female. ### 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 138 people, 57 households, and 44 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,452.2 inhabitants per square mile (560.7/km2). There were 65 housing units at an average density of 684.0 per square mile (264.1/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 100.00% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.97% of the population. There were 57 households, out of which 21.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.2% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.1% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.76. In the village, the population was spread out, with 20.3% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 22.5% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 22.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 112.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.7 males. As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $33,750, and the median income for a family was $36,875. Males had a median income of $26,389 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,268. None of the population and none of the families were below the poverty line.
16th-century Franciscan friar and missionary in colonial Mexico Bernardino de Sahagún OFM (c. 1499 – 5 February 1590) was a Franciscan friar, missionary priest and pioneering ethnographer who participated in the Catholic evangelization of colonial New Spain (now Mexico). Born in Sahagún, Spain, in 1499, he journeyed to New Spain in 1529. He learned Nahuatl and spent more than 50 years in the study of Aztec beliefs, culture and history. Though he was primarily devoted to his missionary task, his extraordinary work documenting indigenous worldview and culture has earned him the title as "the first anthropologist." He also contributed to the description of Nahuatl, the imperial language of the Aztec Empire. He translated the Psalms, the Gospels, and a catechism into Nahuatl. Sahagún is perhaps best known as the compiler of the Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva España—in English, General History of the Things of New Spain—(hereinafter referred to as Historia general). The most famous extant manuscript of the Historia general is the Florentine Codex. It is a codex consisting of 2,400 pages organized into twelve books, with approximately 2,500 illustrations drawn by native artists using both native and European techniques. The alphabetic text is bilingual in Spanish and Nahuatl on opposing folios, and the pictorials should be considered a third kind of text. It documents the culture, religious cosmology (worldview), ritual practices, society, economics, and history of the Aztec people, and in Book 12 gives an account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire from the Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco point of view. In the process of putting together the Historia general, Sahagún pioneered new methods for gathering ethnographic information and validating its accuracy. The Historia general has been called "one of the most remarkable accounts of a non-Western culture ever composed," and Sahagún has been called the father of American ethnography. In 2015, his work was declared a World Heritage by the UNESCO. Education in Spain ------------------ Fray Bernardino de SahagúnFray Bernardino was born Bernardino de Rivera (Ribera, Ribeira) 1499 in Sahagún, Spain. He attended the University of Salamanca, where he was exposed to the currents of Renaissance humanism. During this period, the university at Salamanca was strongly influenced by Erasmus, and was a center for Spanish Franciscan intellectual life. It was there that he joined the Order of Friars Minor or Franciscans. He was probably ordained around 1527. Entering the order he followed the Franciscan custom of changing his family name for the name of his birth town, becoming Bernardino de Sahagún. Spanish conquistadores led by Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (on the site of present-day Mexico City) in 1521, and Franciscan missionaries followed shortly thereafter in 1524. Sahagún was not in this first group of twelve friars, which arrived in New Spain in 1524. An account, in both Spanish and Nahuatl, of the disputation that these Franciscan friars held in Tenochtitlan soon after their arrival was made by Sahagún in 1564, in order to provide a model for future missionaries. Thanks to his own academic and religious reputation, Sahagún was recruited in 1529 to join the missionary effort in New Spain. He would spend the next 61 years there. Evangelization of New Spain --------------------------- Evangeliario en lengua mexicana: "Catecism in Mexican language" (Nahuatl) During the Age of Discovery, 1450–1700, Iberian rulers took a great interest in the missionary evangelization of indigenous peoples encountered in newly discovered lands. In Catholic Spain and Portugal, the missionary project was funded by Catholic monarchs under the patronato real issued by the pope to ensure Catholic missionary work was part of a broader project of conquest and colonization. The decades after the Spanish conquest witnessed a dramatic transformation of indigenous culture, a transformation with a religious dimension that contributed to the creation of Mexican culture. People from both the Spanish and indigenous cultures held a wide range of opinions and views about what was happening in this transformation. The evangelization of New Spain was led by Franciscan, Dominican and Augustinian friars. These religious orders established the Catholic Church in colonial New Spain, and directed it during most of the 16th century. The Franciscans in particular were enthusiastic about the new land and its people. Franciscan friars who went to the New World were motivated by a desire to preach the Gospel to new peoples. Many Franciscans were convinced that there was great religious meaning in the discovery and evangelization of these new peoples. They were astonished that such new peoples existed and believed that preaching to them would bring about the return of Christ and the end of time, a set of beliefs called millenarianism. Concurrently, many of the friars were discontent with the corruption of European society, including, at times, the leadership of the Catholic Church. They believed that New Spain was the opportunity to revive the pure spirit of primitive Christianity. During the first decades of the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica, many indigenous people converted to Christianity, at least superficially. The friars employed a large number of natives for the construction of churches and monasteries, not only for the construction itself, but also as artists, painters and sculptors, and their works were used for decoration and evangelization. In this process, the native artists added many references to their customs and beliefs: flowers, birds or geometric symbols. Friars thought the images were decorative, but the Natives recognized their strong religious connotation. The mixture of Christian and Indian symbols has been described as Indocristiano or Indochristian art. Inspired by their Franciscan spirituality and Catholic humanism, the friars organized the indigenous peoples into utopian communities. There were massive waves of indigenous peoples converting to Catholicism, as measured by hundreds of thousands of baptisms in massive evangelization centers set up by the friars. In its initial stages, the colonial evangelization project appeared quite successful, despite the sometimes antagonizing behavior of the conquistadores. However, the indigenous people did not express their Christian faith the ways expected by the missionary friars. Many still practiced their pre-European contact religious rituals and maintained their ancestral beliefs, much as they had for hundreds or thousands of years, while also participating in Catholic worship. The friars had disagreements over how best to approach this problem, as well as disagreements about their mission, and how to determine success. At the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco ------------------------------------------ Main article: Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco Sahagún helped found the first European school of higher education in the Americas, the Colegio Imperial de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536, in what is now Mexico City. This later served as a base for his own research activities, as he recruited former students to work with him. The college contributed to the blending of Spanish and indigenous cultures in what is now Mexico. It became a vehicle for evangelization of students, as well as the recruiting and training of native men to the Catholic clergy; it was a center for the study of native languages, especially Nahuatl. The college contributed to the establishment of Catholic Christianity in New Spain and became an important institution for cultural exchange. Sahagún taught Latin and other subjects during its initial years. Other friars taught grammar, history, religion, scripture, and philosophy. Native leaders were recruited to teach about native history and traditions, leading to controversy among colonial officials who were concerned with controlling the indigenous populations. During this period, Franciscans who affirmed the full humanity and capacity of indigenous people were perceived as suspect by colonial officials and the Dominican Order. Some of the latter competitors hinted that the Friars were endorsing idolatry. The friars had to be careful in pursuing and defining their interactions with indigenous people. Sahagún was one of several friars at the school who wrote notable accounts of indigenous life and culture. Two notable products of the scholarship at the college are the first New World "herbal," and a map of what is now the Mexico City region. An "herbal" is a catalog of plants and their uses, including descriptions and their medicinal applications. Such an herbal, the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis, was written in Latin by Juan Badianus de la Cruz, an Aztec teacher at the college, perhaps with help from students or other teachers. In this document, the plants are drawn, named and presented according to the Aztec system of organization. The text describes where the plants grow and how herbal medicines can be made from them. This "herbal" may have been used to teach indigenous medicine at the college. The Mapa de Santa Cruz shows the urban areas, networks of roads and canals, pictures of activities such as fishing and farming, and the broader landscape context. The herbal and the map show the influence of both the Spanish and the Aztec cultures, and by their structure and style convey the blending of these cultures. Work as a missionary -------------------- Title page, Psalmodia Christiana, 1583 In addition to teaching, Sahagún spent several extended periods outside of Mexico City, including in Tlalmanalco (1530–32); Xochimilco (1535), where he is known to have performed a marriage; Tepepulco (1559–61), Huexotzinco, and also evangelized, led religious services, and provided religious instruction. He was first and foremost a missionary, whose goal was to bring the peoples of the New World to the Catholic faith. He spent much time with the indigenous people in remote rural villages, as a Catholic priest, teacher, and missionary. Sahagún was a gifted linguist, one of several Franciscans. As an Order, the Franciscans emphasized evangelization of the indigenous peoples in their own languages. Sahagún began his study of Nahuatl while traveling across the Atlantic, learning from indigenous nobles who were returning to the New World from Spain. Later he was recognized as one of the Spaniards most proficient in this language. Most of his writings reflect his Catholic missionary interests, and were designed to help churchmen preach in Nahuatl, or translate the Bible into Nahuatl, or provide religious instruction to indigenous peoples. Among his works in Nahuatl was a translation of the Psalms and a catechism. He likely composed his Psalmodia Christiana in Tepepolco when he was gathering material for the Primeros Memoriales. It was published in 1583 by Pedro Ocharte, but circulated in New Spain prior to that in order to replace with Christian texts the songs and poetry of the Nahuas. His curiosity drew him to learn more about the worldview of the Aztecs, and his linguistic skills enabled him to do so. Thus, Sahagún had the motivation, skills and disposition to study the people and their culture. He conducted field research in the indigenous language of Nahuatl. In 1547, he collected and recorded huehuetlatolli (Nahuatl: "Words of the old men"), Aztec formal orations given by elders for moral instruction, education of youth, and cultural construction of meaning. Between 1553 and 1555 he interviewed indigenous leaders in order to gain their perspective on the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. In 1585 he wrote a revision of the conquest narrative, published as Book 12 of the Florentine Codex, one of his last works before his death in 1590. Field research -------------- After the fervor of the early mass conversions in Mexico had subsided, Franciscan missionaries came to realize that they needed a better understanding of indigenous peoples in order effectively to pursue their work. Sahagún's life changed dramatically in 1558 when the new provincial of New Spain, Fray Francisco de Toral, commissioned him to write in Nahuatl about topics he considered useful for the missionary project. The provincial wanted Sahagún to formalize his study of native language and culture, so that he could share it with others. The priest had a free hand to conduct his investigations. He conducted research for about twenty-five years, and spent the last fifteen or so editing, translating and copying. His field research activities can be grouped into an earlier period (1558–1561) and a later period (1561–1575). Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex. From his early research, Sahagún wrote the text known as Primeros Memoriales. This served as the basis for his subsequent, larger Historia general. He conducted his research at Tepeapulco, approximately 50 miles northeast of Mexico City, near present-day Hidalgo. There he spent two years interviewing approximately a dozen village elders in Nahuatl, assisted by native graduates of the college at Tlatelolco. Sahagún questioned the elders about the religious rituals and calendar, family, economic and political customs, and natural history. He interviewed them individually and in groups, and was thus able to evaluate the reliability of the information shared with him. His assistants spoke three languages (Nahuatl, Latin and Spanish). They participated in research and documentation, translation and interpretation, and they also painted illustrations. He published their names, described their work, and gave them credit. The pictures in the Primeros Memoriales convey a blend of indigenous and European artistic elements and influences. Analysis of Sahagún's research activities in this earlier period indicates that he was developing and evaluating his own methods for gathering and verifying this information. During the period 1561–1575, Sahagún returned to Tlatelolco. He interviewed and consulted more elders and cultural authorities. He edited his prior work. He expanded the scope of his earlier research, and further developed his interviewing methods. He recast his project along the lines of the medieval encyclopedias. These were not encyclopedias in the contemporary sense, and can be better described as worldbooks, for they attempt to provide a relatively complete presentation of knowledge about the world. Methodologies ------------- Sahagún was among the first to develop methods and strategies for gathering and validating knowledge of indigenous New World cultures. Much later, the scientific discipline of anthropology would formalize the methods of ethnography as a scientific research strategy for documenting the beliefs, behavior, social roles and relationships, and worldview of another culture, and for explaining these factors with reference to the logic of that culture. His research methods and strategies for validating information provided by his informants are precursors of the methods and strategies of modern ethnography. He systematically gathered knowledge from a range of diverse informants, including women, who were recognized as having knowledge of indigenous culture and tradition. He compared the answers obtained from his various sources. Some passages in his writings appear to be transcriptions of informants' statements about religious beliefs, society or nature. Other passages clearly reflect a consistent set of questions presented to different informants with the aim of eliciting information on specific topics. Some passages reflect Sahagún's own narration of events or commentary. Significance ------------ During the period in which Sahagún conducted his research, the conquering Spaniards were greatly outnumbered by the conquered Aztecs, and were concerned about the threat of a native uprising. Some colonial authorities perceived his writings as potentially dangerous, since they lent credibility to native voices and perspectives. Sahagún was aware of the need to avoid running afoul of the Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1570. Sahagún's work was originally conducted only in Nahuatl. To fend off suspicion and criticism, he translated sections of it into Spanish, submitted it to some fellow Franciscans for their review, and sent it to the King of Spain with some Friars returning home. His last years were difficult, because the utopian idealism of the first Franciscans in New Spain was fading while the Spanish colonial project continued as brutal and exploitative. In addition, millions of indigenous people died from repeated epidemics, as they had no immunity to Eurasian diseases. Some of his final writings express feelings of despair. The Crown replaced the religious orders with secular clergy, giving friars a much smaller role in the Catholic life of the colony. Franciscans newly arrived in the colony did not share the earlier Franciscans' faith and zeal about the capacity of the Indians. The pro-indigenous approach of the Franciscans and Sahagún became marginalized with passing years. The use of the Nahuatl Bible was banned, reflecting the broader global retrenchment of Catholicism under the Council of Trent. In 1575 the Council of the Indies banned all scriptures in the indigenous languages and forced Sahagún to hand over all of his documents about the Aztec culture and the results of his research. The respectful study of the local traditions has probably been seen as a possible obstacle to the Christian mission. Despite this ban, Sahagún made two more copies of his Historia general. Sahagún's Historia general was unknown outside Spain for about two centuries. In 1793, a bibliographer catalogued the Florentine Codex in the Laurentian Library in Florence. The work is now carefully rebound in three volumes. A scholarly community of historians, anthropologists, art historians, and linguists has been investigating Sahagún's work, its subtleties and mysteries, for more than 200 years. The Historia general is the product of one of the most remarkable social-science research projects ever conducted. It is not unique as a chronicle of encounters with the New World and its people, but it stands out due to Sahagún's effort to gather information about a foreign culture by interviewing people and gathering perspectives from within that culture. As Nicholson has stated, "the scope of the Historia’s coverage of contact-period Central Mexico indigenous culture is remarkable, unmatched by any other sixteenth-century works that attempted to describe the native way of life." Although in his own mind Sahagún was a Franciscan missionary, he has also been referred to by scholars as the "father of American Ethnography". As a Franciscan Friar --------------------- Sahagún has been described as a missionary, ethnographer, linguist, folklorist, Renaissance humanist, historian and pro-indigenous. Scholars have explained these roles as emerging from his identity as a missionary priest, a participant in the Spanish evangelical fervor for converting newly encountered peoples, and as a part of the broader Franciscan millenarian project. Founded by Francis of Assisi in the early 13th century, the Franciscan Friars emphasized devotion to the Incarnation, the humanity of Jesus Christ. Saint Francis developed and articulated this devotion based on his experiences of contemplative prayer in front the San Damiano Crucifix and the practice of compassion among lepers and social outcasts. Franciscan prayer includes the conscious remembering of the human life of Jesus and the practice of care for the poor and marginalized. Saint Francis’ intuitive approach was elaborated into a philosophical vision by subsequent Franciscan theologians, such as Bonaventure of Bagnoregio and John Duns Scotus, leading figures in the Franciscan intellectual tradition. The philosophy of Scotus is founded upon the primacy of the Incarnation, and may have been a particularly important influence on Sahagún, since Scotus's philosophy was taught in Spain at this time. Scotus absorbed the intuitive insights of St. Francis of Assisi and his devotion to Jesus Christ as a human being, and expressed them in a broader vision of humanity. A religious philosophical anthropology — a vision of humanity — may shape a missionary's vision of human beings, and in turn the missionary's behavior on a cultural frontier. The pro-indigenous approach of the Franciscan missionaries in New Spain is consistent with the philosophy of Franciscan John Duns Scotus. In particular, he outlined a philosophical anthropology that reflects a Franciscan spirit. Several specific dimensions of Sahagún's work (and that of other Franciscans in New Spain) reflect this philosophical anthropology. The native peoples were believed to have dignity and merited respect as human beings. The friars were, for the most part, deeply disturbed by the conquistadores' abuse of the native peoples. In Sahagún's collaborative approach, in which he consistently gave credit to his collaborators, especially Antonio Valeriano, the Franciscan value of community is expressed. In his five decades of research, he practiced a Franciscan philosophy of knowledge in action. He was not content to speculate about these new peoples, but met with, interviewed and interpreted them and their worldview as an expression of his faith. While others – in Europe and New Spain – were debating whether or not the indigenous peoples were human and had souls, Sahagún was interviewing them, seeking to understand who they were, how they loved each other, what they believed, and how they made sense of the world. Even as he expressed disgust at their continuing practice of human sacrifice and what he perceived as their idolatries, he spent five decades investigating Aztec culture. Disillusionment with the "spiritual conquest" --------------------------------------------- Learning more about Aztec culture, Sahagún grew increasingly skeptical of the depth of the mass conversions in Mexico. He thought that many if not most of the conversions were superficial. He also became concerned about the tendency of his fellow Franciscan missionaries to misunderstand basic elements of traditional Aztec religious beliefs and cosmology. He became convinced that only by mastering native languages and worldviews could missionaries be effective in dealing with the Aztec people. He began informal studies of indigenous peoples, their beliefs, and religious practices. In the Florentine Codex, Sahagún wrote numerous introductions, addresses "to the reader", and interpolations in which he expresses his own views in Spanish. In Book XI, The Earthly Things, he replaces a Spanish translation of Nahuatl entries on mountains and rocks to describe current idolatrous practices among the people. "Having discussed the springs, waters, and mountains, this seemed to me to be the opportune place to discuss the principal idolatries which were practiced and are still practiced in the waters and mountains." In this section, Sahagún denounces the association of the Virgin of Guadalupe with a pagan Meso-American deity. The Franciscans were then particularly hostile to this cult because of its potential for idolatrous practice, as it conflated the Virgin Mary with an ancient goddess. > At this place [Tepeyac], [the Indians] had a temple dedicated to the mother of the gods, whom they called Tonantzin, which means Our Mother. There they performed many sacrifices in honor of this goddess...And now that a church of Our Lady of Guadalupe is built there, they also call her Tonantzin, being motivated by the preachers who called Our Lady, the Mother of God, Tonantzin. It is not known for certain where the beginning of this Tonantzin may have originated, but this we know for certain, that, from its first usage, the word means that ancient Tonantzin. And it is something that should be remedied, for the correct [native] name of the Mother of God, Holy Mary, is not Tonantzin, but Dios inantzin [Nahuatl for: the Mother of God]. It appears to be a Satanic invention to cloak idolatry under the confusion of this name, Tonantzin. And they now come to visit from very far away, as far away as before, which is also suspicious, because everywhere there are many churches of Our Lady and they do not go to them. They come from distant lands to this Tonantzin as in olden times. > > Sahagún explains that a church of Santa Ana has become a pilgrimage site for Toci (Nahuatl: "our grandmother"). He acknowledges that Saint Ann is the mother of the Virgin Mary, and therefore literally the grandmother of Jesus, but Sahagún writes: > All the people who come, as in times past, to the feast of Toci, come on the pretext of Saint Ann, but since the word [grandmother] is ambiguous, and they respect the olden ways, it is believable that they come more for the ancient than the modern. And thus, also in this place, idolatry appears to be cloaked because so many people come from such distant lands without Saint Ann's ever having performed any miracles there. It is more apparent that it is the ancient Toci rather than Saint Ann [whom they worship]. > > But in this same section, Sahagún expressed his profound doubt that the Christian evangelization of the Indians would last in New Spain, particularly since the devastating plague of 1576 decimated the indigenous population and tested the survivors. > [A]s regards the Catholic Faith, [Mexico] is a sterile land and very laborious to cultivate, where the Catholic Faith has very shallow roots, and with much labor little fruit is produced, and from little cause that which is planted and cultivated withers. It seems to me the Catholic Faith can endure little time in these parts...And now, in the time of this plague, having tested the faith of those who come to confess, very few respond properly prior to the confession; thus we can be certain that, though preached to more than fifty years, if they were now left alone, if the Spanish nation were not to intercede, I am certain that in less than fifty years there would be no trace of the preaching which has been done for them. > > Sahagún's histories of the conquest ----------------------------------- Sahagún wrote two versions of the conquest of the Aztec Empire, the first is Book 12 of the General History (1576) and the second is a revision completed in 1585. The version in the Historia general is the only narration of historical events, as opposed to information on general topics such as religious beliefs and practices and social structure. The 1576 text is exclusively from an indigenous, largely Tlatelolcan viewpoint. He revised the account in 1585 in important ways, adding passages praising the Spanish, especially the conqueror Hernan Cortés, rather than adhering to the indigenous viewpoint. The original of the 1585 manuscript is lost. In the late 20th century, a handwritten copy in Spanish was found by John B. Glass in the Boston Public Library, and has been published in facsimile and English translation, with comparisons to Book 12 of the General History. In his introduction ("To the reader") to Book 12 of the Historia general, Sahagún claimed the history of the conquest was a linguistic tool so that friars would know the language of warfare and weapons. Since compiling a history of the conquest from the point of view of the defeated Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolcan could be controversial for the Spanish crown, Sahagún may have been prudent in trying to shape how the history was perceived. Sahagún's 1585 revision of the conquest narrative, which included praise for Cortés and the Spanish conquest, was completed in a period when work on indigenous texts was under attack. Sahagún likely wrote this version with that political situation well in mind, when a narrative of the conquest entirely from the defeated Mexicans' viewpoint was suspect. Works ----- * Coloquios y Doctrina Christiana con que los doce frailes de San Francisco enviados por el papa Adriano VI y por el emperador Carlos V, convirtieron a los indios de la Nueva España. Facsimile edition. Introduction and notes by Miguel León-Portilla. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1986. * The Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 12 volumes; translated by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble; University of Utah Press (January 7, 2002), hardcover, ISBN 087480082X ISBN 978-0874800821 * The Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision. translated by Howard F. Cline, notes and an introduction by S.L. Cline. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1989 * Primeros Memoriales. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1996. * Psalmodia Christiana (1583). English translation by Arthur J.O. Anderson. Norman: University of Utah Press 1993. * Psalmodia Christiana (1583). Complete digital facsimile of the first edition from the John Carter Brown Library Further reading --------------- * Edmonson, Munro S. ed. Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series 6. Albuquerque 1976. * Glass, John B. Sahagún: Reorganization of the Manuscrito de Tlatelolco, 1566-1569, part 1. Conemex Associates, Contributions to the Ethnohistory of Mexico 7. Lincoln Center MA 1978. * Nicolau d'Olwer, Luis and Howard F. Cline, "Bernardino de Sahagún, 1499-1590. A Sahagún and his Works," in Handbook of Middle America Indians, vol. 13. Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Howard F. Cline, editor. Austin: University of Texas Press 1973, pp. 186–207. * Klor de Alva, J. Jorge, et al. eds. The Work of Bernardino de Sahagún: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Mexico. Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies SUNY, vol. 2. Austin 1988. * León-Portilla, Miguel, Bernardino de Sahagún: First Anthropologist, trans. Mauricio J. Mixco. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2002. * Nicholson, H.B. "Fray Bernardino De Sahagún: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590," in Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of Sahagún, ed. Eloise Quiñones Keber. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2002. * Schwaller, John Frederick, ed. Sahagún at 500: Essays on the Quincentenary of the Birth of Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún, OFM. Berkeley: Academy of American Franciscan History, 2003.
Fingers Inc. was an American music group hailing from Chicago, Illinois, comprising the producer Larry Heard and vocalists Robert Owens and Ron Wilson. Renowned for their pioneering deep house records, they emerged in the mid-1980s, notably with the release of the 1988 album 'Another Side' and hit singles like "Mystery Of Love" and the iconic "Can You Feel It?". AllMusic called it the "top early Chicago house group". History ------- Fingers Inc.'s history mirrors the low-profile approach of its creator, Larry Heard. In 1992, Kris Needs wrote an article titled "Larry Heard: House Music's Most Mysterious Pioneer" for Rock's Backpages, emphasizing Larry's status as one of the most enigmatic among the original house music pioneers. Despite a few interviews and critics' analyses, Fingers Inc.'s history exudes a mysterious vibe, a curious quality given the significant and enduring impact of their songs. Fingers Inc. and Larry Heard, also known as Mr. Fingers, sometimes share an identity. The group originated in Chicago, Illinois, in 1985, initially formed by Larry Heard and Robert Owens, later officially completing its lineup with Ron Wilson's inclusion. The overlap occurred because Larry released some songs under the Fingers Inc. moniker, although he was the sole member working on those tracks. John Bush from AllMusic used to say that at their best they rivaled Ten City with expressive club hits. While Owens primarily contributed as a vocalist to Fingers Inc. he also collaborated in producing and writing some tracks, fostering a strong bond with Larry. Kris Needs described Owens as someone who "exudes the larger-than-life charisma of the house diva" and Larry as "a shy, gentle man with an easy laugh," providing insight into their close relationship. Larry stated, "I suppose Robert (Owens) has been one of the most consistent and reliable I've met, and that's why we've worked together for so long". Ron Wilson, who joined the group as a vocalist, played an essential role in Fingers Inc. leading vocals alongside Owens and contributing to the conceptualization of the sleeve cover for their only studio album, 'Another Side,' released in 1988. In a 2016 NPR interview titled "Classic Dose: Larry Heard," Larry mentioned that a second Fingers Inc. album never materialized, partly due to Owens relocating to New York City. He shared, "For every song you heard from me and Robert, there's another 5-10 more that didn't get released." Larry expressed his intention to release this intriguing unreleased material through his label, Alleviated Records. An example of this is the track with Ron called "Chains," which was released in 2021 under Larry Heard's name and not as part of Fingers Inc. 'Another Side' ended up being considered among music critics as one of house music's greatest full-length albums of all time, often referred to as the gold standard of house LPs. This remarkable album and collaboration also marked the end of the group as they decided to continue their journey as solo artists. Both Larry and Robert are still alive and active. Robert (Instagram, Bandcamp, SoundCloud) continues his career as a producer and DJ. In 2023 he collaborated on an album titled "The Wave" with Axe Syndicate. Larry (Instagram, SoundCloud) on the other hand, maintains a mysterious, low-profile presence but remains involved in relevant work. He contributed to projects like Dua Lipa's Club Future Nostalgia remix album and in 2023 released his album titled "Around the Sun Pt.12" under the moniker Mr. Fingers. Ron Wilson's life post-1990 is quite unknown. Despite being the son of Paul Wilson, a renowned baritone singer and original member of The Flamingos, and releasing a single - Prove it to me - produced by Larry under Alleviated Records in 1990, there is no official information, articles, interviews, or even social media available about his whereabouts. Curiously, his name has become entangled on Spotify and Apple Music with another Ron Wilson, a producer and DJ based in Berlin. Although both profiles share the same name, a more thorough investigation reveals that the new releases displayed on these platforms do not belong to Ron Wilson from Fingers Inc. but rather to the Ron Wilson based in Berlin. The older releases, however, can be attributed to Alleviated Records, unmistakably representing Ron Wilson from Fingers Inc. Discography ----------- ### Studio albums * 1988 – Another Side (Label: Jack Trax - 2017 Alleviated Records) ### Singles * 1985 – Bring Down the Walls (Label: Alleviated Records, Select Records) * 1986 – A Path (Label: D.J. International Records) * 1986 – It's Over (Label: Underground) * 1986 – Mystery of Love (Label: Alleviated Records) * 1987 – A Love of My Own (Label: Alleviated Records) * 1987 – Distant Planet (Label: Jack Trax) * 1987 – I'm Strong (Label: Alleviated Records) * 1988 – Can You Feel It (Label: Jack Trax) * 1988 – So Glad (Label: Jack Trax) * 1989 – Never No More Lonely (Label: Jack Trax) * 1996 – Washing Machine (Label: Trax Records)
Former railway line in Scotland \| * v * t * e Portpatrick andWigtownshireJoint Railway \| \| --- \| \| Legend \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Up arrow \| \| \| --- \| \| Castle Douglas and \| \| Dumfries Railway \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Castle Douglas \| \| \| \| \| \| Portpatrick Line Junction \| \| \| \| \| \| \| LowerRight arrow Kirkcudbright Railway \| \| \| \| \| \| Crossmichael \| \| \| \| \| \| Parton \| \| \| \| \| \| Loch Ken Viaduct \| \| \| \| \| \| New Galloway \| \| \| \| \| \| Stroan Viaduct \| \| \| \| \| \| Loch Skerrow Halt \| \| \| \| \| \| Water of Fleet Viaduct \| \| \| \| \| \| Gatehouse of Fleet \| \| \| \| \| \| Creetown \| \| \| \| \| \| Palnure \| \| \| \| \| \| Newton Stewart \| \| \| \| \| \| Newton Stewart Junction \| \| \| \| \| \| Mains of Penninghame \| \| \| \| \| \| Causeway End \| \| \| \| \| \| Wigtown \| \| \| \| \| \| Kirkinner \| \| \| \| \| \| Whauphill \| \| \| \| \| \| Sorbie \| \| \| \| \| \| Millisle \| \| \| \| \| \| Millisle Junction \| \| \| \| \| \| Garlieston \| \| \| \| \| \| Broughton Skeog \| \| \| \| \| \| Whithorn \| \| \| \| \| \| Kirkcowan \| \| \| \| \| \| Glenluce \| \| \| \| \| \| Water of Luce Viaduct \| \| \| \| \| \| \| UpperLeft arrow \| \| \| --- \| \| Girvan and Portpatrick \| \| Junction Railway \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Challoch Junction \| \| \| \| \| \| Dunragit \| \| \| \| \| \| Castle Kennedy \| \| \| \| \| \| Cairnryan Junction \| \| \| \| \| \| \| LowerLeft arrow Cairnryan Military Railway \| \| \| \| \| \| Stranraer Harbour Junction \| \| \| \| \| \| Stranraer Harbour \| \| \| \| \| \| Stranraer Town \| \| \| \| \| \| Colfin \| \| \| \| \| \| Portpatrick \| \| \| \| \| \| Portpatrick Harbour \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| The Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railways was a network of railway lines serving sparsely populated areas of south-west Scotland. The title appeared in 1885 when the previously independent Portpatrick Railway (PPR) and Wigtownshire Railway (WR) companies were amalgamated by Act of Parliament into a new company jointly owned by the Caledonian Railway, Glasgow & South Western Railway, Midland Railway and the London & North Western Railway and managed by a committee called the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Committee. The Portpatrick Railway connected Castle Douglas and Portpatrick, opened in 1861 and 1862 and was intended to revive the transit to the north of Ireland through Portpatrick, although Stranraer actually became the dominant port. The line became known as the Paddy because of its connection to Ireland. The Wigtownshire Railway, which ran from a connection with the PPR at Newton Stewart to Whithorn, opened from 1875. The PPR route often known as the Port Road, linked Dumfries, via Castle Douglas, with the port towns of Portpatrick and Stranraer. It also formed part of a route by rail and sea from England and Scotland to the north of Ireland.[page needed] The line was single track throughout, serving a region of very low population density, but it achieved significance by carrying heavy traffic, both passenger and goods, to and from northern Irish destinations through Portpatrick and Stranraer. The line closed in 1965 apart from the short section from Stranraer Harbour to Challoch Junction, which continues in use as part of the Glasgow - Ayr - Stranraer route.[page needed] History: beginnings ------------------- As early as 1620 Portpatrick had been established as the port for the short sea route between south-west Scotland and the north of Ireland, at Donaghadee in County Down. Irish cattle and horses were a dominant traffic early on, and Post Office mails developed later: by 1838 8,000 to 10,000 letters passed through the port daily, brought by road coach from Dumfries, and from Glasgow. A barracks was erected in the town to facilitate troop movements. However, the limitations of the little harbour became serious disadvantages as other more efficient rail-connected routes, via Liverpool, and later Holyhead became dominant. Portpatrick's nearest railhead was Ayr, 60 miles (96 km) away, and the Post Office discontinued use of Portpatrick for mails from 30 September 1849; much of the livestock traffic had already moved to other routes.[page needed][page needed] The Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway --------------------------------------- The Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR) was formed by amalgamation in 1850, on the opening of the main line which ran from Glasgow via Kilmarnock and Dumfries to Carlisle. When local interests promoted a railway branching from it at Dumfries and running to Castle Douglas, the G&SWR actively supported it, in fact subscribing £60,000 towards the little Company's capital. The G&SWR motives appear to have been a desire to secure the territory from their rival, the Caledonian Railway, as well as the formation of a first section of a route to Portpatrick. The Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway (CD&DR) opened on 7 November 1859 and was worked from the outset by the G&SWR. The larger Company soon made advances to take over the CD&DR, and did so (formally on the basis of an amalgamation) on 1 August 1865.[page needed][page needed] Plans for a railway in Wigtownshire and Kirkcudbright ----------------------------------------------------- On 30 April 1856, before the CD&DR obtained its authorising Act of Parliament, a meeting was held in Wigtown at which it was agreed that Wigtownshire and Kirkcudbrightshire needed a railway connection, and on 26 May 1856 it was decided to build a railway to Dumfries; the intention included connecting Portpatrick to the national railway network, with a view to reviving the Donaghadee route. The Government indicated tentative support for such a sea connection, and for improving the harbour at Portpatrick, so the Committee proceeded ; on 19 September 1856 plans for the route of the British and Irish Grand Junction Railway were tabled. By now the CD&DR had obtained its authorising Act and the Portpatrick line would join it at Castle Douglas instead of going independently to Dumfries. The route east of Newton Stewart took a markedly northerly course through bleak terrain, and this may have been to avoid competing with coastal steamers on a more southerly alignment.[page needed] While there was much enthusiasm locally for the new venture, it was important to obtain financial support from investors elsewhere. For a while the Great Northern Railway (GNR) was leading, offering £160,000. At the time the GNR was no closer than Bradford, but it sought alliances and for a time had hopes of forming its own trunk route to Scotland and the north of Ireland. This was ended when the G&SWR made it clear it would refuse running powers between Gretna Junction and Castle Douglas.[page needed][page needed] The Portpatrick Railway: formation and construction --------------------------------------------------- The Bill for the new line went to Parliament in the 1857 session, but the grand title was changed to the more modest Portpatrick Railway (PPR). With little opposition, it obtained its authorising Act on 10 August 1857. Capital was to be £460,000 with borrowing powers of £150,000, and three railways were required to subscribe funds: the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway (£40,000), the G&SWR (£60,000), and the Belfast and County Down Railway (£15,000). (Those three railways had the option of subscribing more in addition.) The main line was to be 60 miles 60 chains (98 km) in length from Castle Douglas to Portpatrick, with two short branches: to the west quay at Stranraer, and to the north pier at Portpatrick. The construction process was put in hand, but the available funds were not sufficient to complete the line, and the PPR approached the other railways for further financial support; the Lancaster and Carlisle was reluctant but was urged by its sponsoring company, the London and North Western Railway to do so. The G&SWR subscribed an additional £40,000. Towards the end of the construction period the PR gave consideration to the working arrangements. The G&SWR were authorised to work the line by the original Act, and had offered to do so for 72% of gross receipts. This charge was considered excessive and negotiations took place which the PPR board considered unsatisfactory. On 28 March 1860, they decided that "the board should retain the working of the line under their own management" Evidently this had been foreseen, and provisional arrangements for the supply of locomotives had already been made, and this was quickly followed by contracts for rolling stock and for signalling equipment. The G&SWR had been confident that its terms for working the line would have to be accepted, and it was now angry at the emerging decision. It had subscribed £60,000 to the PPR on the assumption that the little Company would effectively belong to it, and had promised a further £40,000: it now made that sum conditional on an impossible contribution by the Belfast and County Down Railway. The breach was irreconcilable, made more so by the fact that the acid correspondence between the two companies was published as a pamphlet. Dalrymple, as Chairman, told his shareholders that the loss of the £40,000, though "attended with great inconvenience" need not "make any material, or at least, permanent, financial embarrassment".[page needed] Portpatrick Railway: operation to 1863 -------------------------------------- The Portpatrick Railway system, 1861-2So the PPR made its own arrangements, and early in 1861 Captain H W Tyler made the formal inspection of the line over a three-day period. His only significant adverse comment was that the rail joints were not fished. The line was single throughout, worked by telegraph order; crossing stations were at Castle Douglas, New Galloway, Creetown, Newton Stewart, Glenluce and Stranraer. A shareholders' special train ran on 11 March 1861 and a full public service started the following day, consisting of two passenger trains each way between Stranraer and Castle Douglas, and probably one goods train. The line had not yet opened to Portpatrick itself. The passenger trains conveyed three classes of passenger. In November the passenger service was augmented to three trains each way, possibly by converting the goods train to mixed operation. At this time the motive power fleet consisted of three 0-4-2 mixed traffic tender locomotives and an 0-6-0 locomotive loaned by the LNWR.[page needed] Railways within PortpatrickIn the Parliamentary Act authorising the PPR, a clause had been entered penalising the Company if the short branch to the north pier at Portpatrick was not completed by August 1862. The Company had accepted this obligation on the understanding that the Government would improve the little harbour to enable efficient working of mail and other shipping. This work was essential also to railway operation, as the available land for a terminal was very cramped. A change of Government policy began to suggest that the harbour improvement works might not be funded, and the PPR, with limited funds for building its line, was alarmed that their obligation might be to build an unusable branch line; accordingly they had not built any of the main line from Stranraer. However, in 1861 the Government did in fact put the work in hand, and the PPR now accelerated the completion of their lines, and the line opened on 28 August 1862, after a Board of Trade inspection on 1 August 1862.[page needed] The line ran to a town terminus at Portpatrick. To reach the harbour itself, a headshunt was provided beyond the station; a backshunt from there led to the harbour; due to the cramped site the headshunt was only sufficient for an engine and two coaches. The ordinary Portpatrick station was informally referred to as "the high station"; the line to the harbour descended very steeply, and was a plain single line without sidings.[page needed][page needed] The harbour improvement works seemed to have been suspended and there was no sign of the transfer of the Post Office mail traffic—the original motivation for the entire PPR—to the route. There is no evidence of any passenger or goods terminal building on the harbour branch and it seems likely that the PPR was doing the minimum to comply with the legal obligation, having realised that the Government-funded harbour improvements were now in doubt. There were two daily trains in each direction between Stranraer and Portpatrick, one each way conveying goods also, but in October an express, not conveying Parliamentary (third class) passengers, was put on between Castle Douglas and Stranraer, making connection there with an Irish ferry. The burgh of Stranraer had constructed a "north landing place" and the PPR had built a deviation to the original Stranraer Pier branch to serve it. Although the sea passage from Stranraer to Irish destinations was longer than from Portpatrick, Stranraer was naturally sheltered and there was much more space for pier and railway accommodation. The Belfast and County Down Railway was extending its line to Larne on the north side of Belfast Lough and it appeared likely that a Stranraer - Larne ferry service would be more advantageous than a Portpatrick - Donaghadee one. The "north landing place" became known as the East Pier and rail connection with it was established, boat trains to and from Castle Douglas (with connections for Carlisle) started on 1 October 1862. This was in advance of the Board of Trade inspection by Captain Tyler, on 2 December 1862, when he reported "that the opening of this branch would be attended with danger to the public using it by reason of the incompleteness of the works". The PPR continued to operate the short branch nonetheless. However, the ferry service was loss-making, and was discontinued (together with the boat trains) from 31 December 1863. The PPR itself was losing money too; the 1862 - 1863 revenue account showed a loss of £1,073 on turnover of £9,464.[page needed][page needed] The Kirkcudbright Railway ------------------------- The town of Kirkcudbright was some way from the growing railway network, and in 1861 local interests presented a bill to Parliament for a line from Castle Douglas; the Kirkcudbright Railway was authorised by Act of 1 August 1861. It was to run from Castle Douglas to Kirkcudbright. It opened for goods traffic on 17 February 1864, and to passengers on 15 August 1864. It was absorbed by the G&SWR the following year, on 1 August 1865.[page needed] Finding a sponsor for the Portpatrick Railway --------------------------------------------- The PPR was now (in 1863) in the position of having expended all its capital on building the line (and having been deprived of some promised funds from the G&SWR); losing money on revenue account; finding that the promised boom in mail traffic through Portpatrick was illusory; and observing that the Stranraer - Larne ferry was on the point of closing down. Moreover, the business of operating the railway directly had proven more complex and expensive than had been anticipated. At this time the G&SWR approached the PPR, offering to subscribe the denied £40,000 after all. It did so on 15 December 1863. Its motivation for this change of heart was alarm that the Dumfries, Lochmaben and Lockerbie Railway had opened (on 1 September); that company was worked by the Caledonian Railway (CR), which therefore had access to Dumfries, and the PPR had asked the G&SWR for running powers over the CD&DR line, clearly intending to link with the CR. (The facility had been refused.) The G&SWR now hoped to acquire the PPR to fend off its rival. The PPR Directors were aggrieved at the bad faith of the G&SWR over the £40,000 subscription, and negotiated with the CR, who offered generous terms including the subscription of £40,000, matching the G&SWR offer. Provisional agreement to the working arrangement with the CR was finalised, and a Parliamentary Bill was prepared by the PPR, seeking running powers over the CD&DR line (and the short section of G&SWR at Dumfries); the Bill also sought to regularise the Stranraer East Pier, and to substantially increase authorised share capital. The Bill was passed by Parliament and became the Portpatrick Railway Act (No. 1) on 29 July 1864. The running powers had been secured. The working arrangement with the CR took effect on 4 December 1864. Worked by the Caledonian ------------------------ The Caledonian Railway lost no time in imposing its presence; through traffic to Glasgow and Edinburgh was routed via Lockerbie and the CR. The CR was responsible for maintaining the PPR line, but soon requested additional facilities, such as siding accommodation at Stranraer and additional crossing places. The actual intermediate passing places were New Galloway, Dromore, Creetown, Newton Stewart and Glenluce. The CR wanted to add Crossmichael, Loch Skerrow, Kirkcowan and Dunragit.[page needed] The PPR had imagined that signing the Working Agreement would release it from expenses like this, and in any case, hardly had any money to extend its facilities.[page needed] In this period the line was operated by train despatcher (rather than by a train staff system) until the late 1880s.[page needed] Smith describes an incident illustrating the primitive state of Portpatrick Railway resources: > Portpatrick was a brute of a place to get out of—a great grinding curve, and an up-grade of 1 in 57, the whole in full track of the westerly gales, even in the rock cutting where the blow hole up at the Tailor's Peak let the salt spray in to coat the rails. The old single [probably 2-2-2 no. 7] was coming up, and, not unusually, stuck. "Get back an' half yer train" instructed the driver. "H'ye a saaa?" inquired the fireman. Truly a saw would have been necessary, for they had only one coach on!" > > The Girvan and Portpatrick Junction Railway ------------------------------------------- The Portpatrick Railway gave ready access from Portpatrick and Stranraer to Dumfries and English locations, but the connection from the City of Glasgow was ill-served. On 5 July 1865 an Act authorising the Girvan and Portpatrick Junction Railway (G&PJR) received the Royal Assent; it would join with existing routes via Ayr, and connect in to the PPR at Challoch Junction, about 6½ miles (10½ km) east of Stranraer. At first, this was treated amicably by the PPR as it would shoulder a share of the costs of the port facilities at Stranraer and bring in mileage fees for the through running, but when the G&PJR agreed with the G&SWR to work its line, the Caledonian Railway, working the PPR line, became defensive. The G&PJR started public operation on 5 October 1877 in the face of CR obstruction. Heavy expenditure on enhanced signalling and other works were incurred by the PPR, to be paid for by the G&PJR. However that Company was in deep financial difficulties, even more so than the PPR, and the matter went to the Court of Session. Notice of Interdict was served on 1 February 1882 and from 7 February G&PJR trains were not allowed to run over the PPR. The G&PJR terminated both passenger and goods trains at New Luce and the gap was covered by road transport. The G&PJR managed to raise some money and cleared most of the indebtedness, and through train running resumed from 1 August 1883.[page needed] Shipping services ----------------- Convinced that Irish traffic would be profitable, the CR acquired two small paddle steamers and operated a service between Stranraer and Belfast from 4 December 1865. The PPR was prevailed upon to support this venture financially; but Irish traffic suffered a severe decline at this time and when one of the steamers suffered damage during a crossing on 21 January 1868, the decision was taken to suspend the ferry operation. Once again the purpose of the PPR—to connect with Ireland—was frustrated. An independent company, the Donaghadee and Portpatrick Steam Packet Company now started a service, with a single vessel making at first two-round trips daily from 13 July 1868, cut back to one daily round trip from 21 September, but then discontinued from 31 October 1868. It appears likely that connecting trains used the ordinary Portpatrick station, not the Harbour terminal. During this period the Government's intentions regarding the use of Portpatrick as a mail terminal clarified: there was now no prospect of this happening, and when the Government offered compensation of £20,000 and the transfer of ownership of the harbour at Portpatrick to the PPR, these terms were accepted as the best that could be obtained. The Caledonian Railway proposed that this be regarded as income of the line, to which they would be entitled. As they had accepted the commercial risk of revenue income which was now lacking, this might seem reasonable; but the PPR successfully argued that this was not provided for in the Working Agreement, and they refused to share the money. From 18 August 1871 another independent operator started a service between Donaghadee and Portpatrick. On 29 August the vessel, named Aber, was rammed in thick fog by an Atlantic steamer and sank in five minutes; the new service had lasted 12 days. As a visible indication of the decline of the port, the Portpatrick lighthouse was dismantled in 1871 and shipped to, and erected in Colombo in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). A final attempt at a regular service started on 7 June 1873, but there was little patronage and it ceased five days later, on 12 July 1873. £500,000 had been expended on the harbour. In October 1874 the rails were lifted and moved to Newton Stewart to be used in the extension of siding accommodation there.[page needed] If the Post Office was unwilling to support Portpatrick, they were not opposed to taking advantage of a route that did not need massive capital expenditure, and from March 1871 they agreed to pay £1,500 annually for the carriage of mail over the PPR, on the basis of trains running in direct connection with night mail trains on the main line. This encouraged the PPR to support a Larne and Stranraer Steamboat Company in running a daily return crossing on that route, from 1 July 1872; the vessel was the Princess Louise. This improved the finances of the PPR considerably, and the Company agreed to the use of a small shunting engine to take passenger coaches on to the East Pier at Stranraer; the flimsy structure had not previously been used and passengers had to walk along the unsheltered jetty to the ships. Late in 1875 a second, similar, steamer was commissioned, named Princess Beatrice. The East Pier at Stranraer was owned and maintained by the Town Council. It had never been robust, and subsidence and other difficulties demanded urgent repairs in May 1876. The Council was unwilling to execute the work, costed at £6,000, and after considerable wrangling, the PPR obtained Parliamentary authorisation to take over the pier, by Act of 28 June 1877.[page needed] The Wigtownshire Railway: first construction -------------------------------------------- System map of the Wigtownshire RailwayThe area of Galloway known as the Machars lies south of Newton Stewart between Luce Bay and Wigtown Bay. The agricultural land is the most productive in the area and the several ports served coastal and international shipping. Proposals were made in 1863 for a railway to be built in the area, but it was not until 1871 that sufficient interest in a railway scheme was generated. The proposed line was from Newton Stewart on the PPR southwards to Wigtown and nearly to Garliestown, then turning away to Whithorn. The divergence was due to the hostility of the 9th Earl of Galloway who owned extensive lands in the area. The harbour of Garliestown was to be reached by a short horse-operated tramway branch, running partly along the road. The Wigtownshire Railway (WR) was authorised by Act of 18 July 1872, with capital of £96,000 and the usual one-third borrowing powers, only to be accessible if a certain proportion of shares had been subscribed. The 1½-mile (2 km) tramway could not be operated by locomotives, nor by stationary engine or as an "atmospheric railway". The main line was to be just over 19 miles (31 km) long. Construction proceeded, although share subscription was not as full as hoped, and the Company started to consider working arrangements. The obvious sponsor was the Caledonian Railway, but the CR had lost money working the PPR and declined. The WR decided to work the line itself, and were pleasantly surprised to receive a letter dated 7 January 1875 from Thomas Wheatley, who had (it transpired) recently resigned under a cloud from the North British Railway, where he had been locomotive superintendent. Wheatley offered to do everything necessary to work and maintain the line for 65% of gross receipts. This seemed too good to be true but, taking Wheatley's misdemeanour into account, everything seemed in order, and Wheatley was given the working contract for five years from 31 July 1875. The section from Newton Stewart to Wigtown was ready for goods operation on 1 March 1875 and locomotive no. 1, a 2-2-2 well tank obtained by Wheatley from the NBR (their no. 32) arrived to take up its duties. Goods traffic started on 3 March 1875 and a passenger service to Wigtown was begun on 7 April 1875 with some four-wheel coaches, thought to be second-hand from the LNWR. There were four journeys each way daily. There were no intermediate stations until May when platforms at Causewayend and Mains of Penninghame were ordered to be installed.[page needed] There was not a frequent service here: the 10.20 a.m. and 4.20 p.m. trains called on Fridays only, Newton Stewart market day.[page needed] At this time the planned construction of the line was to extend to Sorbie, as the available share subscriptions would only reach that far. However, Sorbie was a poor location for a terminal, and thoughts turned to reaching Garliestown, another two miles (3 km) further. Certain directors agreed to subscribe further funds, amounting to £7,000 and the work was quickly put in hand. The line was opened throughout from Newton Stewart to a Garliestown station on 2 August 1875. Wheatley procured a second engine, no. 2, an 0-4-2 pannier tank, formerly an 0-4-2 tender engine, no. 146 of the NBR. The station called Garliestown was at the point of junction of the projected Whithorn line, but it was some distance from Garliestown itself. It was now decided to build a railway extension to Garliestown, and this was laid out on the north side of the road, whereas the authorised tramway would have been in the road. This line was not authorised by Parliament, and it was paid for by separate subscriptions by the Directors. It opened on 3 April 1876, and four trains daily ran from Newton Stewart to the new Garliestown station; the earlier one was renamed Millisle and downgraded to goods service only. The track layout there involved a backshunt to reach Garliestown.[page needed] The line between Garliestown and Wigtown may have closed to passengers briefly in August 1876.[page needed] Wheatley now obtained two more locomotives: no. 3 was an 0-4-2 tender engine, Addison from the Fleetwood, Preston and West Riding Junction Railway, and Gardner, an 0-4-0 tender engine converted from an 0-4-2 saddle tank from the same line became no. 4.[page needed] Wigtownshire Railway: completion of the line -------------------------------------------- So Wigtown and Garliestown had been reached, the latter by an unauthorised railway branch; but Whithorn interests had subscribed money to the railway, and it was still four miles (6 km) from their town. Energetic canvassing for share subscription proved to be successful, and enough money came in to let a contract to complete the line. Fresh Parliamentary authority was obtained in the 1877 session to extend the share capital and to legalise the Garliestown branch. The Whithorn extension was ready for a ceremonial opening on 7 July 1877 and it was opened to the public on 9 July; a fifth engine, another 2-2-2 well tank, was obtained by Wheatley; formerly no. 31A of the NBR, it became WR no. 5. The Garliestown section was now operated as a shuttle branch line from a new Millisle station, 7 chains (140 m) north of the original Garliestown station. In December 1877 a platform was provided at Broughton Skeog level crossing. There were four passenger (or mixed) trains each way daily on the Whithorn main line, and seven shuttle services on the Garliestown branch. As well as passengers, cattle were a dominant traffic from the agricultural activity in the area, and imports from the harbours also. Excursion steamers ran from Garliestown to the Isle of Man, and excursion trains ran in connection from Stranraer and Dumfries. Wheatley's operating contract expired on 31 July 1880 and in the absence of offers from the CR and G&SWR, the WR board negotiated a renewal with Wheatley, on slightly less favourable (to him) terms. Wheatley now brought another engine, no. 6, into the fleet he operated: an 0-6-0 saddle tank Bradby that he had been using elsewhere on contract work. At about this time, the 2-2-2 no. 1 was rebuilt as a 2-4-0. The 0-4-0 no. 4 seems to have been unsatisfactory and after a period laid up, was converted to an 0-4-2 saddle tank; after the conversion this locomotive proved much more useful. On 13 March 1883 Wheatley died suddenly. His son, W T Wheatley had for several years been assisting him on the line, and took over the working contract until the end of the Wigtownshire Railway's independent existence. The Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railways were vested on 1 August 1885 and the independent existence of the Wigtownshire Railway took effect on 31 December 1885. The Wheatleys had served the little Company well in operating the line with the barest of financial resources.[page needed] David L. Smith gives two references to the use of tender-cab locomotives on the Whithorn line, at unspecified dates. In Tales of the Glasgow and South Western Railway (photograph before page 41) he reproduces a photograph of an 0-4-2; the caption reads "No. 17029, at one period no. 114. Fitted with tender cab for working Whithorn branch. In Legends he refers to "that old Millisle stalwart, No. 17440, with the tender cab". Formation of the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railways ------------------------------------------------------------ From 1873 the Midland Railway (MR) was nearing completion of its line to Carlisle—the Settle and Carlisle line—and it needed a Scottish partner: the G&SWR. The Midland was thinking strategically, wishing to recoup the expense of its long new trunk line, and it energised the G&SWR to do the same. The two companies formed a powerful Anglo-Scottish alliance. The rival Caledonian Railway was working the Portpatrick Railway line, and the Portpatrick Railway itself had become much more profitable in later years, paying a peak dividend of 4¾%. The CR working contract was due to expire in 1885 and the MR and G&SWR began to consider the implications. The CR and its English partner, the London and North Western Railway (LNWR) naturally wished to retain control, and the power struggle reached a stalemate. The outcome was that all four parties offered to acquire the railway jointly, guaranteeing Portpatrick Railway shareholders 3½% on their holdings. This was an attractive offer, and after some negotiation on matters of detail, the arrangement was agreed upon, with the addition that the Wigtownshire Railway was to be included. The P&WJ Railways system in 1885A Parliamentary Bill was presented, proposing a vesting date of 1 August 1885. The Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Railways (Sale and Transfer) Act was actually passed on 6 August 1885. 3½% guaranteed stock was issued, one for one to Portpatrick Railway shareholders, and one for two to Wigtownshire Railway shareholders. The sale value was £491,980, which included £10,000 of stock in the Larne and Stranraer Steamboat Company. The four owning railways: LNWR, MR, CR and G&SWR were to form a Joint Committee to manage the line, and the Portpatrick Railway Company and the Wigtownshire Railway Company were to be dissolved on 1 January 1886. The LNWR was granted running powers over the G&SWR between Dumfries and Castle Douglas, and the MR acquired running powers between Carlisle and Gretna Junction. The "Stranraer Section" Joint Committee would continue to administer the section between Challoch Junction and Stranraer, accessed by trains from the Girvan line, although these were worked entirely by the G&SWR. The two Scottish companies were to share the operational control between them, although Joint Committee meetings seem to have taken place in London. Wheatley's rolling stock fleet was purchased at valuation (£6,400).[page needed] P&WJR operation --------------- Domestic operation did not change much at first; but the London trains ran from Dumfries to Carlisle via Annan rather than via Lockerbie, with a significant time saving. The MR put on a six-wheel Pullman sleeping car.[page needed] The G&SWR now got a share of the working; their train crews had no familiarity with the route at first, and the Caledonian Railway refused to provide conductors. Smith recounts an early trip: > Shankland and McGill were coming from Dumfries to Stranraer with the evening train. It was dark when they left Creetown—an' Jock says t'me, "Well, that's Newton Stewart noo". But as they descended the long bank, doubts assailed McGill. "Canny on, man, Jock" says I. Is there no a station aboot here?" "Whitna station?" says he. "Dod," says I, "I think they ca' it Palnyowr or something". So we stoppit, an gor, we were half a mile by it! So we backit up. There were nae signals, only a caun'le in the winda. Naebody gaed oot or got in, so we just gaed on tae Newton Stewart again." > > It emerged that the Wigtownshire line was in a very run-down state and engine power was frequently inadequate. The permanent way needed to be completely renewed (except on the Garliestown branch) in 1886. Signalling was upgraded on the Portpatrick line in 1886-1887, with electric train tablet instruments, and this was extended to the Challoch Junction - Stranraer section in 1887 - 1888.[page needed] In the 1895 public passenger timetable, the former Portpatrick Railway main line had four trains each way daily; the first down and last up were fast trains, with "Sleeping Saloon between Euston and Stranraer Harbour". The other trains ran only to or from Stranraer (Town), three each way continuing to Portpatrick. There was an additional short working from Newton Stewart to Stranraer (Town) and back. The Whithorn line had four trains each way, most of them having a connection both to and from Garliestown.[page needed] At this time there were eight short workings each way between Stranraer and Dunragit, calling at Castle Kennedy. There were four G&SWR workings to and from Stranraer over the Challoch to Stranraer section.[page needed] The Portpatrick Railway in the twentieth century ------------------------------------------------ In the first years of the century, the Manson tablet exchange apparatus (referred to as Manson's travelling tablet catcher) was installed on the line, enabling exchange of the single-line tablets at signal boxes at a higher speed than with manual exchange. Acceleration of the fast trains was planned, and the Traffic Manager, Hutchinson, asked of the Engineer, Melville, "I assume that there can be no objection to the inclusive speed of one of our trains being increased from 36 to 40 mph. The road, I take it, is as good as can be found anywhere." Melville replied "There can be no objection at all to the express trains running at the inclusive speed you refer to ..." The acceleration was applied from July 1901. At this period loadings on the express trains was increasing, leading to operating difficulties, and from March 1904 it was indicated that the mail train would run in duplicate.[page needed] Regular passenger services ceased on the Garliestown branch on 1 March 1903; Millisle was then renamed Millisle for Garlieston and trains reverted to calling at the original Garliestown station.[page needed][page needed][page needed] The railway continued to provide excursion trains to Garliestown in connection with steamer excursions until 1935.[page needed] In 1922 there was a bad derailment near Palnure. When the state of the permanent way was assessed, "the Ministry of Transport was a bit shocked ... so the entire PP&W main line was put under a 45 mph restriction till it could be reballasted and relaid. This was carried out in the next two years." In the 1921 grouping the line became part of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS). As locomotive designs developed, the difficult route of the Portpatrick an Wigtownshire line was unable to take advantage of large locomotive traction. Smith records that "At the end of March 1939 there came momentous news—official sanction for a 60 ft [18 m]; 4-6-0s to work to Stranraer". On 23 March 1939, a trial run was made with a 4-6-0, with the locomotive and tender separated at Stranraer to turn them. "There was no prospect of the 60 ft turntable being ready before late summer, so they laid longer rails, projecting at each end, on the existing 50 ft turntable. This allowed them to turn a Class 5 4-6-0. The class 5s began to work from Glasgow to Stranraer on 16 April 1939. It was about October that the new 60 ft turntable was ready at Stranraer. Class 5X 4-6-0s were drafted in, and were the mainstay of the Stranraer road throughout the war. World War II brought exceptional amounts of traffic to the line. Smith records that 36 troop trains traversed the line in April 1940 as British forces were built up in Northern Ireland against the possibility of an enemy invasion of the Republic of Ireland. By the end of the year, > Large numbers of troops were now stationed in Northern Ireland, and the ordinary passenger [train] service proved quite inadequate for men going on leave to England and Wales. A special sailing had to be provided, with two large trains in connection. A train from London and one from Cardiff worked into Stranraer in the early morning, returning in the evening about 6.30 p.m. These were made up eventually to 16 coaches, each with a buffet car. Siding accommodation at Stranraer was terribly inadequate. They could service only one of those huge trains, so the Cardiff train had to be hauled to Ayr and back each day for servicing. Two Caley [Caledonian Railway] Class 3F 0-6-0s were put on this job. > > Cairnryan Military Railway systemLater in the war it was decided that an emergency west coast port should be established, to continue transatlantic trade in the event that Glasgow or Liverpool docks were disabled by enemy action. A new harbour facility was developed on Loch Ryan, called Cairnryan Harbour, and it was served by the Cairnryan Military Railway. This was a considerable undertaking. The new railway joined the Stranraer to Challoch line at Cairnryan Junction, about two miles (about 1 km) east of Stranraer, facing for trains approaching from the east. The point of junction was later moved closer to Stranraer, at Aird. The line opened in July 1942. In the event the port was not needed, and only eighteen fully laden ocean-going vessels used the port during its lifetime. The port was closed after the war and the railway's last movement was a dismantling train in 1967. Smith speculates that if the port had been needed at full capacity, the limited rail access over difficult single lines (from Dumfries and from Ayr) would have been challenging.[page needed][page needed] Goods services ran from Newton Stewart to Whithorn until the line closed on 5 October 1964. By the 1960s, these services ran three days per week; with conditional working on the Garlieston branch, when required.[page needed] The section from Colfin to Portpatrick also closed in 1950; although Colfin to Stranraer remained open until 1959 for milk traffic.[page needed] After that trains ran only to the north-western termini: Stranraer Town and Stranraer Harbour. The former Wigtownshire Railway closed completely to passengers on 29 September 1950;[page needed] and the Portpatrick to Stranraer Town section closed in stages in the 1950s. The main line closed on 12 June 1965 in consequence of the Beeching review.[page needed] Loch Ken Viaduct Glenluce Viaduct Major structures on the route include the Loch Ken viaduct, across the Dee, the Gatehouse viaduct across the Big Water of Fleet, and the Glenluce viaduct, over the Water of Luce. Topography ---------- The Portpatrick Railway opened between Castle Douglas and Stranraer (later Town station) on 12 March 1861; from Stranraer to Portpatrick on 28 August 1862; and the East Pier branch at Stranraer (later Stranraer Harbour) on 1 October 1862. The Portpatrick Harbour section opened on 11 September 1868; it is likely that passenger use ceased in November 1868, but the short line remained open until 1870.[page needed] However Portpatrick railway station, which opened on 28 August 1862, remained open until 6 February 1950.[page needed][page needed] The line closed from Castle Douglas to Challoch Junction on 14 June 1965. The Challoch Junction to Stranraer (Harbour) section remains in use for trains from Ayr via Girvan. In Kirkcudbrightshire: * (Castle Douglas; CD&DR station; also junction for the Kirkcudbright Railway;) * Crossmichael; * Parton; * New Galloway * Loch Skerrow; opened after June 1861; renamed Lochskerrow 13 June 1955; * Gatehouse of Fleet; opened as Dromore September 1861; renamed Gatehouse 1 July 1863; renamed Dromore for Gatehouse 1 June 1865; renamed Gatehouse 1 September 1866; renamed Dromore 1 June 1871; renamed Gatehouse of Fleet 1 January 1912; closed 5 December 1949; reopened 20 May 1950; * Creetown; * Palnure; opened 1 July 1861; closed 7 May 1951; and in Wigtownshire: * Newton Stewart; junction station for Whithorn; * Kirkcowan; * Glenluce; * Dunragit; * Castle Kennedy; opened 1 July 1861; * Stranraer Harbour; originally "East Pier"; remaining open and reverted to "Stranraer" in 1993; * Stranraer; renamed Stranraer Town 2 March 1953; closed to passengers 7 March 1966, and completely in 1994; * Colfin; closed 6 February 1950; * Portpatrick; closed 6 February 1950; * Portpatrick Harbour; passenger use started 11 September 1868; and ceased November 1868; the line remained available for goods movements until 1870. The Wigtownshire Railway opened as far as Wigtown to goods traffic on 3 March 1875 and to passengers on 7 April 1875; it was extended to the first "Garliestown" station on 2 August 1875, and again to the second Garliestown on 3 April 1876. The extension to Whithorn opened on 9 July 1877. The entire line closed on 25 September 1950. Locations on the Wigtownshire Railway main line were: * (Newton Stewart: Portpatrick Railway station) * Mains of Penninghame; opened May 1875; closed 6 August 1885; * Causewayend; opened May 1875; closed 6 August 1885; * Wigtown; * Kirkinner * Whauphill; opened 2 August 1875; * Sorbie; opened 2 August 1875; * Millisle; opened 3 April 1876; moved a short distance south and renamed Millisle for Garliestown 1 March 1903; * Garliestown (first station); opened 2 August 1875; also known as Garliestown Upper from February 1876, and Garliestown Junction "later in 1876";[page needed] closed 3 April 1876; * Broughton Skeog; opened December 1877; closed 6 August 1885; * Whithorn; and on the Garliestown branch: * Garliestown (second station); opened 3 April 1876; closed 1 March 1903;[page needed] also known as Garliestown New from February 1876, and later that year Garliestown Village.[page needed] A remarkable engineering structure on the line is the Big Water of Fleet Viaduct, about a mile (2 km) north-east of the former Dromore station. It was the largest structure on the Portpatrick Railway, being a stone viaduct of twenty spans. In the early years of the twentieth century, it was in danger of failing and extensive repair work was carried out from 1926, including sheathing the piers in heavy brickwork and spandrel strengthening using old rails; the repairs considerably degraded its aesthetic appearance. It is class B listed. Its nearby sister ‘Little Water of Fleet viaduct’ was demolished for a RAF exercise ordered by Winston Churchill in 1946. [page needed][page needed][page needed] On the Stranraer to Portpatrick section, a three-span viaduct was necessary to cross the Piltanton Burn near Lochans; it had 36 ft 9in (11 m) spans with a height of 73 feet (22 m).[page needed] The gradients on the Portpatrick Railway main line were severe: gently undulating from Castle Douglas to New Galloway, they then formed a stiff climb at 1 in 80 to Loch Skerrow, the alternately falling and rising at 1 in 76 to the summit at agethouse[clarification needed] of Fleet. There was then an unbroken descent of 6½ miles (10½ km) at 1 in 80 to near Palnure. A less constant climb then led to a summit near the 40 milepost between Kirkcowan and Glenluce, then falling at a ruling gradient of 1 in 80 nearly to Challoch Junction. From Stranraer there was a stiff continuous climb at 1 in 72 to a summit at Colfin, at an elevation of 326 feet (99 m) above sea level, then a descent at 1 in 80 to Portpatrick.[page needed][page needed] The line today -------------- Only the Stranraer Harbour to Challoch Junction section is open; and is now served by services on the Glasgow South Western Line. Connections to other lines -------------------------- * At Castle Douglas to the Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway * At Castle Douglas to the Kirkcudbright Railway * At Challoch Junction to the Girvan and Portpatrick Junction Railway
American professional wrestler For the Australian rules footballer, see Steven Armstrong. Steven James (born March 16, 1965), better known by his ring name Steve Armstrong, is an American professional wrestler. He is the son of fellow wrestler "Bullet" Bob Armstrong, and has three brothers who also wrestled: Scott, Brad, and Brian. Professional wrestling career ----------------------------- ### Early career (1983–1987) Steve Armstrong started wrestling in 1983 in the Alabama-based Southeast Championship Wrestling promotion. He formed a team called the "Rat Patrol" with Johnny Rich and they feuded with Ron Fuller's Stud Stable (Jerry Stubbs and Super Olympia). ### Championship Wrestling from Florida (1987) See also: Wild-Eyed Southern Boys After Tracy Smothers joined Championship Wrestling from Florida in February 1987 he was immediately paired with Steve Armstrong as the "Wild-Eyed Southern Boys". Their first match came on February 17 in Tampa, Florida, where they lost to The New Breed. However four days later The Southern Boys defeated The New Breed to gain their first ever championship, the NWA Florida Tag Team Championship. Smothers and Armstrong held the belts until March 15, when they were defeated by The MOD Squad. In June they unsuccessfully challenged for the NWA United States Tag Team Championship, losing to The Midnight Express (Stan Lane & Bobby Eaton). ### Continental Wrestling Association (1987) See also: Southern Boys The Southern Boys would make a stop in the CWA, where they faced Rough & Ready in October 1987. During this time they feuded with The Stud Stable. ### New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1988–1989) See also: Southern Boys After a brief stop again in the CWA without Armstrong, the Southern Boys went on tour in New Japan Pro-Wrestling. Smothers first match for the promotion was as a singles wrestler, where he defeated Osamu Kido on July 15, 1988 at the NJPW Summer Fight Series 1988 event. As a team the Southern Boys experienced success, beating Kantaro Hoshino and Osamu Kido, Kuniaki Kobayashi & Norio Honaga, Kensuke Sasaki and Norio Honaga, and Seiji Sakaguchi and Tatsutoshi Goto. Their final match came on December 9, 1988 at the NJPW Japan Cup Series 1988 – Tag 21 television show, where they lost to Kotetsu Yamamoto and Yoshinari Tsuji. During the tour they worked in the main event against the legendary Antonio Inoki. ### World Championship Wrestling (1990-1992) See also: Wild-Eyed Southern Boys Following a January 1990 tour of New Japan Pro-Wrestling, Smothers reunited with Steve Armstrong. The duo made their national debuts for World Championship Wrestling on April 23, 1990 in a dark match at a Main Event/WCW WorldWide taping in Marietta, GA. Wrestling as "The Wild-Eyed Southern Boys", their first television appearance came on May 12 at a World Championship Wrestling taping where they defeated Kevin Sullivan and Cactus Jack via disqualification. On May 20 on the Main Event the new team upset WCW United States Tag Team Champions The Midnight Express in a non-title match. Later that month they entered a house show series against WCW World Tag Team Champions Doom, but were unsuccessful in their efforts. On June 13, 1990, they faced off against The Fabulous Freebirds at the Clash of the Champions XI "Coastal Crush" show and were victorious. Jimmy Garvin and Michael Hayes were able to gain a measure of revenge by defeating them on the June 16, 1990 episode of WCW Worldwide after holding the tights. An appearance by the Midnight Express' manager Jim Cornette would transition the Southern Boys to their first feud. This led to the first PPV showing for Smothers and Armstrong, as they fell to The Midnight Express on July 13, 1990 at the Great American Bash 1990. Smothers and Armstrong would continue to feud with the Midnight Express before transitioning to a series against the self-declared "Southern Champions" The Fabulous Freebirds. In August they engaged in a "best of three" series against The Freebirds, and on September 5, 1990, they defeated Hayes and Garvin at Clash of the Champions XII "Fall Brawl: Mountain Madness". On the September 22, 1990 episode of World Championship Wrestling the Southern Boys fell once more to The Midnight Express in a match where the winner received a United States Tag Team Championship shot. On the October 6 episode of The Main Event, the duo fell to the newly arrived Nasty Boys. Their televised slump continued at the Halloween Havoc 1990, where they were defeated by The Master Blasters after Jim Cornette interfered in the match. Cornette and Stan Lane departed from the promotion immediately afterwards, and there was no resolution to the Southern Boys/Midnight Express storyline. They moved instead to a house show series with the Blasters (Al Green and a rookie Kevin Nash). 1991 saw an immediate reversal of fortunes for the young team. In January they opened the year with several wins over The Master Blasters, and on February 24, 1991 at WrestleWar 1991 they beat The Royal Family (Jack Victory and Rip Morgan). A few days earlier at TV taping in Montgomery, Alabama they were renamed The Young Pistols. In March they began a house show series against Moondog Rex and Dutch Mantell, the latter who would ultimately become The Desperados. On May 19, 1991, their televised win streak came to an end when they were defeated by The Freebirds at SuperBrawl I in a match to claim the vacated United States Tag Team Championship after "Badstreet" (a masked Brad Armstrong) interfered. This began a renewed feud with the Freebirds, and on June 12, 1991, they teamed with Tom Zenk to defeat Michael Hayes, Jimmy Garvin, and Badstreet at Clash of the Champions XV. That summer an injury to Scott Steiner led to the WCW World Tag Team Championship being vacated. On August 3, 1991, the Young Pistols participated in a tournament to crown new champions; they were defeated by The York Foundation. On September 21, 1991, they received a non-title match against the eventual winners of that tournament, The Enforcers (Arn Anderson and Larry Zybysko but were unsuccessful. That fall, the Pistols continued to face The York Foundation on the house show circuit. At Halloween Havoc 1991 the Pistols began to show the first signs of an attitude change, stating that they did not care who was the "WCW Phantom" (eventually revealed that night as Rick Rude), but were instead waiting for a United States Tag Team Championship title shot against The WCW Patriots (Firebreaker Chip and Todd Champion). On the December 8, 1991 episode of The Main Event they finally received their shot. After initially being declared the winners, the match was restarted and the Patriots won. The following week they declared that they were unconcerned with what the fans thought, confirming a heel turn. Later that night the Pistols defeated the WCW Patriots to win the United States Tag Team Championship. The Young Pistols entered 1992 as champions and defeated The Patriots in another rematch in the January 18 episode of WCW Pro. On January 25 on WCW Worldwide they beat former champions Tom Zenk and Brian Pillman. However, their run with the titles ended on the February 16 episode of WCW Pro where they lost the championship to Ron Simmons and Big Josh. In February the Young Pistols moved to a house show series against The Steiner Brothers. They were scheduled to team with The Vegas Connection (Vinnie Vegas and Dallas Page) in an eight-man tag team match against El Gigante, Big Josh, Johnny B. Badd, and Mike Graham at SuperBrawl II on February 29; however, the match was cancelled. In April 1992, Armstrong departed WCW, leaving Smothers as a singles competitor. ### World Wrestling Federation (1992-1993) In 1992, Steve came to the World Wrestling Federation as "Lance Cassidy" under a babyface cowboy gimmick. He made his TV debut on the October 10, 1992 episode of Superstars, beating Tom Stone. The run proved to be short, as after only a few TV appearances and some house show victories over Skinner and Terry Taylor, he left the WWF in January 1993. ### Smoky Mountain Wrestling (1993-1995) In 1993, he started to work for Jim Cornette's Smoky Mountain Wrestling. He worked in Smoky Mountain for two years and mainly worked in tag team competition with his brother Scott. In his last year with Smoky he was in a feud with Buddy Landel for the SMW Heavyweight Championship. ### World Championship Wrestling (1995-2000) On April 25, 1995, Armstrong returned to work for WCW and wrestled Craig Pittman at a WCW Saturday Night episode. In July he began teaming with his brother Scott as The James Boys. At the July 10 taping of WCW Pro, WCW World Tag Team Champions Bunkhouse Buck and Dick Slater defeated the duo in the debut match. A month later on the August 5 edition they fell to Arn Anderson and Ric Flair. On August 22 they faced Men at Work but were again unsuccessful. Steve made his return to PPV when he appeared at World War 3 on November 26, 1995, when he competed in the three-ring battle royal. Although back as a performer in WCW, he was mainly used as a jobber working with his brother Scott as The Armstrongs or James Brothers on Saturday Night, WorldWide and on rare occasions on Monday Nitro. On the February 17 edition of WCW Saturday Night they again fell to Men at Work. In June 1996 they were defeated by Public Enemy, and on the July 1 edition they were defeated again by Arn Anderson and Ric Flair. On the July 28, 1996 edition of WCW Worldwide they fell to Lord Steven Regal and Squire Dave Taylor. On the August 22 taping of WCW Pro, The Armstrong Brothers would finally gain their first WCW victory when they defeated Bill Payne and Rick Thames. They would go on to face The Amazing French Canadians and The Faces of Fear during the remainder of 1996. The Armstrong Brothers would continue teaming in 1997 and faced The Amazing French Canadians and The Steiner Brothers. On the April 13 edition of WCW Worldwide they defeated The Southern Posse. After this they moved on to a brief series of matches with Harlem Heat, and in May 1997 defeated the new duo of Jim Powers and Bobby Walker, the latter put together by Teddy Long. After this they were winless for the rest of 1997 in matches with Mortis and Wrath, as well as The Public Enemy. Their pairing continued into 1998 but again saw little success. They were winless against High Voltage in multiple encounters. On the September 13 pay-per-view Fall Brawl '98 they were involved in an angle when WCW Worldwide announcer Mike Tenay attempted to interview them, only to be interrupted by Ernest Miller who then attacked both brothers. Thirteen days later they would defeat The Power Company on WCW Saturday Night. On November 30, 1998, the duo enjoyed the biggest victory of their WCW tenure when they upset Raven and Kanyon on WCW Monday Nitro. Success continued for The Armstrong Brothers in 1999. On January 6, they upset Alex Wright and Disco Inferno in Mobile, Alabama. On the January 9 edition of WCW Saturday Night they defeated Nick Dinsmore and Mike Sullivan. The winning streak was stopped in April on WCW Saturday Night when they were defeated by Disorderly Conduct. On April 27, at a television taping in Bismarck, North Dakota they faced the NWO for the first time and defeated Vincent and Stevie Ray. On April 29, on WCW Monday Nitro the team faced Raven in a handicap match and were victorious. Scott's teaming with Steve finally came to an end on March 1, 2000, when The James Brothers faced WCW World Tag-Team Champions Big Vito and Johnny The Bull at a WCW Saturday Night taping. On March 29, 2000, Steve made his last televised appearance for the promotion as he lost to Hugh Morrus on Saturday Night. ### Late career (2000–present) After his run with WCW, he made a few appearances for the resurrected Continental Championship Wrestling from 2002 to 2005. In August 2002 he worked under The Bullet mask for TNA Wrestling, having a match with Jeff Jarrett. In October 2005 he had match with Elix Skipper for the NWA Wrestle Birmingham in the Boutwell Memorial Auditorium. In December 2008 he had a tag team match alongside his father against Aaron James and Michael Patrick for the Great American Wrestling Federation. Championships and accomplishments --------------------------------- * Championship Wrestling from Florida + NWA Florida Bahamian Championship (1 time) + NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Tracy Smothers * Global Championship Wrestling + GCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Bob Armstrong * Southeastern Championship Wrestling + NWA Southeastern Tag Team Championship (8 times) - with Johnny Rich (4 times), Tracy Smothers (2 times), Tommy Rich (1 time), and Bob Armstrong (1 time) * Ohio Valley Wrestling + OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Tracy Smothers * World Championship Wrestling + WCW United States Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Tracy Smothers
Bridge in Shanghai, China Songpu Bridge, first known as Huangpu River Bridge, Cheting Bridge, is the first bridge built across the Huangpu River in Shanghai, China. It is a double-layer steel truss bridge for highway and railway across the Huangpu River in Songjiang District. The Songpu Bridge Railway Bridge and Highway Bridge were opened to traffic on September 11, 1975 and June 29, 1976, respectively. For a long time after its completion, it was also the only bridge on the upper reaches of the Huangpu River until the opening of the Huangpu River Bridge on the G15 Shenhai Expressway in 2006. The Songpu Bridge is located between Chedun Town and Yexie Town in Songjiang District. It takes about 5 minutes to cross this 4-kilometer bridge. The bridge is divided into two layers. The upper road bridge is part of the 320 National Road Cheting Highway. The lower railway bridge was originally used for the Jinshan branch of the Shanghai-Hangzhou Railway. The railway line is a single line. The railway has been abandoned. History ------- ### Construction In June 1972, the Central State Council approved the construction of Shanghai Jinshan Petrochemical Complex, which was selected as the Hangzhou Bay in the Jinshanwei area in the southern part of Jinshan District. The first phase of the project was started in the same year and was completed in 1976. At the same time, in order to meet the transportation needs after the completion of the alloy mountain petrochemical plant, new roads and railways need to be built for cargo transportation. Songpu Bridge is one of the key projects for the construction of Jinshan Petrochemical General Plant. The bridge spans the Huangpu River. The Jinshan Railway branch line and the Cheting Highway passing through the bridge play an important role in Jinshan Petrochemical's external transportation. The bridge was started on July 26, 1974. It was invested by Shanghai Jinshan Petrochemical General Plant and the Survey and Design Department of the Ministry of Railways Bridge Bureau was responsible for the main project design of the bridge. The railway bridge was completed and opened to traffic on September 11, 1975. The highway bridge was completed and opened to traffic on June 29, 1976. The bridge was named Huangpu River Bridge. ### Operation In November 1977, the bridge passed the inspection and acceptance of the Huangpu River Bridge Acceptance and Transfer Team. From December 1 of the same year, the railway part of the bridge was handed over to the Huangpu River Bridge Management Office of the Shanghai Railway Bureau. The upper section of the bridge is managed by the Songjiang County Highway Management Office. From December 1, 1980, the railway was partially transferred to the Shanghai Municipal Railway Administration for management. Since January 1, 1987, Songpu Bridge began to collect motor vehicle bridge fees, and then canceled the charges in the mid-to-late 1990s. In 1989, the Huangpu River Bridge was renamed the Cheting Bridge. In the 1990s, the newly built trans-Huangpu River Bridge in Shanghai was named after the Puxi area name and Jiapu Bridge (such as Nanpu Bridge and Yangpu Bridge ). Therefore, in 1995, the Cheting Bridge was renamed Songpu Bridge with the word "Pu" after the first name of Songjiang County (now Songjiang District) and it is still used today. On October 22, 2007, the Songpu Bridge was completely overhauled. The motor vehicle was changed to the A5 road (now known as the G15 Shenhai Expressway ). The project was completed on August 1, 2008, and the bridge was restored to traffic. Structure --------- The upper section of the Songpu Bridge upper bridge (including the approach bridge) is 1854.45 meters, of which the main bridge is 420 meters long. The bridge deck is equipped with two motorways with two widths of 9 meters. There are 1.5 meters wide sidewalks on both sides; the lower railway bridge is Shanghai. The Jinshan branch of the Hangzhou-Hangzhou Railway is used. The total length (including the approach bridge) is 3047.6 meters, of which the bridge is 420 meters long and the pier is 28 meters high. The railway line of the bridge is a single-track railway, and the electrification implementation conditions are not reserved. The bridge is a continuous steel truss structure. The upper structure is a riveted triangular steel truss continuous beam with a length of 419.6 meters; the lower structure has three piers in the middle of the river. The navigation clearance under the bridge is 10 meters. The railway and highway approach bridges have 74 and 38 bridge piers respectively. There is a tower at the junction of the two bridges and the approach bridge, the north bank tower is located in the west of the bridge; the south bank tower is located in the east of the bridge. Status ------ The Songpu Bridge Highway Bridge section is part of the 320 National Highway. Due to the early construction of the Songpu Bridge, there are only two motor vehicle lanes in the two directions. Many bus lines from Shanghai and Songjiang and south to Jinshan need to cross the river through the bridge. The traffic congestion on weekdays is more serious, affecting travel. The bridge is currently undergoing widening operations to ease congestion. The railway bridge is part of the Jinshan Railway branch line, which is the freight railway to the Jinshan Petrochemical Plant. It also has a passenger transportation service. The railway originally had a passenger train of Shanghai South ( Meilong Station ) -Jin Weidong, but the train was on September 28, 2002. It will be suspended from the day. After that, there were still two pairs of K8351/8352 and K8353/8354 trains from Shanghai South - Luchao Port passing through the Songpu Bridge, and a small number of freight trains crossing the bridge. At present, the Jinshan Railway branch line of the railway bridge section has been rebuilt. The Huangpu River Bridge on the Jinshan Railway was built in the east of the bridge for the rail transit line 22. The bridge was completed on March 22, 2011. After the completion of the Huangpu River Bridge of Jinshan Railway, the K8351/8352, K8353/8354 trains were changed to the Xinqiao River, and the Songpu Bridge Railway Bridge was partially abandoned. At present, the railroad tracks on the bridge have been demolished and it is planned to be converted into pedestrians and bicycle lanes. Other ----- ### Jinshan Branch Railway The design standard of the Jinshan railway branch line of the Songpu Bridge railway section is Grade II branch line, which is a single-track railway. The two-line and electrified railway implementation conditions are not reserved. The railway started construction on December 25, 1973, and was partially opened to traffic on May 31, 1974. On September 11, 1975, the Songpu Bridge railway bridge was partially opened to traffic. On September 15, 1975, the Jinshan branch was delivered to the Shanghai Railway Bureau, and the entire railway was opened to traffic. All located: Minhang West, of Terrace, Nguyen Lane, Sanyo, Jin Weidong, Golden Meditech West six stations. At present, some of the functions of the Songpu Bridge railway have been moved to the newly built Jinshan Railway Huangpu River Bridge. ### Cheting Highway Matsuura Bridge Road that is part of State Road 320 bus shelters Road, Songjiang Chedun after the bridge crossing the river leading to Jinshan Town Pavilion. The road in March 1974 started construction on June 29, 1976, and the bridge was opened to traffic synchronization. \| * v * t * e Primary bridges and tunnels in Shanghai \| \| --- \| \| Over the Yangtze River \| * Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel and Bridge * Chongqi Bridge * Chonghai Bridge \| \| \| Over Hangzhou Bay \| * Donghai Bridge \| \| Over the Huangpu River \| \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| \| Bridges \| * Songpu Bridge * Fengpu Bridge * Minpu Bridge * Xupu Bridge * Lupu Bridge * Nanpu Bridge * Yangpu Bridge \| \| Tunnels \| * Shangzhong Road Tunnel * Longyao Road Tunnel * Dapu Road Tunnel * South Xizang Road Tunnel * East Fuxing Road Tunnel * Renmin Road Tunnel * East Yan'an Road Tunnel * Xinjian Road Tunnel * Dalian Road Tunnel * Jungong Road Tunnel * Xiangyin Road Tunnel * Outer Ring Tunnel \| \| \| Other \| * Waibaidu Bridge * Bund Tunnel \|
Military unitThe Victorian Scottish Regiment (VSR) was an infantry regiment of the Australian Army. Formed in 1898 as a volunteer unit of the colonial Victorian Military Forces, the unit went through a number of changes in name over the course of its 62-year history. During World War I many of its members volunteered for overseas service and saw action at Gallipoli and on the Western Front in France. Following the end of the war, the regiment was reorganised to perpetuate the honours of the 5th Battalion, AIF. During World War II the battalion was employed on garrison duties in Australia, although many of its members volunteered for overseas service and fought in campaigns in North Africa, the Middle East and New Guinea. Following the war, the battalion was re-raised as part of the Citizen Military Forces and undertook the training of national servicemen until 1960 when the unit was disbanded and absorbed into the 1st Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment. Today, the regiment's traditions are maintained by 'B' Company, 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment. History ------- The Victorian Scottish Regiment (VSR) was first raised on 29 August 1898, following representations by members of the local Scottish Community and Caledonian association for several years, for the establishment of Scottish unit. Notable members of this group were Sir John McIntyre, Sir Malcolm McEachren, Colonel Otter, Richard Linton, W. B. Jarvie and W. J. McKirdie. The regiment was formed at Albert Park, with a parade ground at Victoria Barracks, and was originally raised as a corps of unpaid volunteers as part of the colonial Victorian Military Forces. Initially the regiment was only issued with a limited about of equipment and had to parade in plain clothes for almost a year until uniforms could be provided. In 1902, the volunteer system was changed to a system of partially paid militia and the military forces of the former independent colonies became part of the Commonwealth Military Forces. In 1911 a compulsory training scheme was introduced, which required all able-bodied men between the ages of 18 and 21 to undertake a period of military training. At this time, the regiment was redesignated as the 52nd Australian Infantry Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment), and voluntary enlistment was restricted to officers and senior non-commissioned officers. Members of the 52nd Australian Infantry Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment) in Melbourne, c. 1914. AWM Image # P00591.017 Upon the outbreak of World War I the decision was made not to deploy the previously existing militia units to the fighting overseas due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 which precluded sending conscripts outside of Australia. An all-volunteer force, known as the First Australian Imperial Force was raised instead and many members of the militia volunteered for overseas service. One of the units raised for overseas service was the 5th Battalion, and many members of the 52nd Australian Infantry Battalion joined this unit, including the battalion's commanding officer, Colonel David Stanley Wanliss, who would later become Chief Justice of New Guinea. This battalion fought at during the Gallipoli campaign and on the Western Front and many of the men continued to wear the VSR's distinctive Glengarry caps. During the war, the militia units remained in Australia on home service, providing security at ports, defence installations and other facilities of importance to the war effort, however, due to the large numbers of militiamen that volunteered for service with the AIF many of these units were greatly depleted and it was not until after the war, in 1919, that the compulsory training scheme began again. In 1921 the AIF was officially disbanded and the following month it was decided to reorganise the militia units and to redesignate them in order to perpetuate the identity of the AIF units that had fought in the war. As a result of this decision, and due to the links that the regiment had with the 5th Battalion, AIF, the regiment was redesignated as the 5th Battalion and inherited that unit's battle honours. In 1925 permission was granted for the unit to adopt the traditional title of the regiment. In 1929, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, the compulsory training scheme was suspended again and a period of austerity followed as the impact of the Great Depression meant that there were few volunteers and few training opportunities as funding for defence was greatly reduced. Members of the 5th Battalion, VSR on parade in April 1940. In early 1940 the battalion was called up for a three-month period of continuous service as part of nation's mobilisation during World War II. AWM Image # 001246 Following the outbreak of World War II the battalion was called up for a three-month period of compulsory training in early 1940, before later being sent to Western Australia and then Darwin, Northern Territory where they carried out garrison duties throughout the war. Many members of the battalion also volunteered for service overseas with the Second Australian Imperial Force, serving with the 2/5th Battalion, which fought in Libya, Greece, Crete, Syria and New Guinea. In 1948, the 5th Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment) was re-raised as part of the Citizen Military Forces (CMF), which was the forerunner to the Australian Army Reserve. Commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel George Warfe, a highly decorated officer that had previously served with a number of commando units during the war, the battalion was headquartered at Hawthorn and had depots at Dandenong, Kew, Armadale and Surrey Hills. National service was reintroduced in 1951 and following this the battalion took on the responsibility of training national servicemen under this scheme. This continued until 1960, when the national service scheme was suspended and the Australian Army was reorganised around the Pentropic division. As a result of this reorganisation the CMF was greatly reduced, as fourteen infantry battalions were disbanded altogether, while the seventeen that remained gave up their old regional regimental ties and were reformed as part of the six newly raised State-based regiments. As a result of this, it was decided that the 5th Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment) would be disbanded and its members be absorbed into the newly raised Royal Victoria Regiment, being used to form two companies—'B' and Support—of the 1st Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment. In 1965, when the decision was made to reintroduce national service and abandon the Pentropic division, the CMF was reorganised again. At the same time the decision was made to reintroduce the designations of the old militia units by splitting the two Pentropic battalions of the Royal Victoria Regiment to form four full battalions and one independent company. As a result, the 5th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment was formed in May 1965, although with the end of national service in 1972 the battalion's numbers began to decline and by 1975 the decision was made to amalgamate the unit into the 1st Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment. In 1982, the 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment (5/6 RVR) was raised in Melbourne, Victoria. Today, 'B' Coy, 5/6 RVR maintains the traditions of the Victorian Scottish Regiment. Colours laid up in Scots' Church -------------------------------- In light of the long association between the Victorian Scottish Regiment and Scots' Church, Melbourne the colours reside in the church, identified by three plaques. As such, the centennial of the raising of the Victorian Scottish Regiment was marked by a church parade attended by former members of the regiment and 'B' Company, 5th/6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment. Pipes and Drums --------------- Formed in 1899 as part of the Victorian Scottish Regiment, the 5/6RVR Pipes and Drums is now the band for all battalions of the Royal Victoria Regiment. Lineage ------- 1898–1911 – Victorian Scottish Regiment 1911–1919 – 52nd Australian Infantry Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment) 1919–1921 – 2nd/5th Infantry 1921–1925 – 5th Battalion 1925–1946 – 5th Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment) 1948–1960 – 5th Battalion (Victorian Scottish Regiment). Alliances --------- * United Kingdom — once The Gordon Highlanders, then Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons), now Royal Regiment of Scotland * Canada — The Toronto Scottish Regiment, via Gordon Alliance * Canada — 48th Highlanders of Canada, via Gordon Alliance * South Africa — Cape Town Highlanders Regiment, via Gordon Alliance.[] Further reading --------------- * Speed, Frank (1988). Esprit de corps: The History of the Victorian Scottish Regiment and the 5th Infantry Battalion. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-302007-4.
South African politician Millicent Ntombizodwa Sibongile Manana is a South African politician from Mpumalanga. She represented the African National Congress (ANC) as a legislator from 1994 to 2019, most proximately in the National Assembly from 2014 to 2019 and 2004 to 2009. She also sat in the Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature, where she served on the Mpumalanga Executive Council from 1999 to 2004 and 2009 to 2014. Manana is best known for her tenure as Mpumalanga's Member of the Executive Council (MEC) for Health from 1999 to 2003 during the HIV/AIDS epidemic; she staunchly resisted the rollout of antiretroviral drugs in the province's public health facilities. She was a member of the ANC's National Executive Committee from 2007 to 2012. Legislative career ------------------ ### 1994–1999: Provincial backbenches Manana worked as a nurse during apartheid and was elected to represent the ANC in the Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature in the 1994 general election, South Africa's first under universal suffrage. She subsequently chaired the legislature's Standing Committee on Health until she was appointed chairperson and then whip of the ANC caucus. ### 1999–2004: Executive Council Pursuant to the next general election in 1999, Manana was appointed to the Mpumalanga Executive Council by Premier Ndaweni Mahlangu, who named her as Member of the Executive Council (MEC) for Health. Her tenure in that office was extremely controversial. IOL said she was "reviled" and "disastrous", the Mail & Guardian said had "a reputation as Mpumalanga's own Nurse Ratched", and the Treatment Action Campaign said she was "a disaster". Her tenure coincided with the peak of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa, which was especially severe in Mpumalanga, but she adhered to the AIDS-skepticism propagated by the national government under President Thabo Mbeki and Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang and she actively resisted the roll-out of antiretroviral drugs in public health facilities in the province. #### Battle with GRIP From 2001, Manana engaged in a prolonged battle with the Greater Nelspruit Rape Intervention Project (GRIP), a non-profit organisation whose volunteers provided counselling and information to rape victims in public hospitals and police stations. Among GRIP's services was access to antiretroviral drugs, subsidised by private donations. Manana said that the provision of antiretrovirals constituted an attempt to undermine the government's policy and ordered GRIP to leave the public hospitals where they worked. She said that GRIP was > abusing hospital facilities, staff and patients for unethical research purposes. There's no cure here. What about the patients? What are they giving them, how much of it, what are the protocols and who is monitoring follow up? > > Manana obstructed the group's antiretroviral access programme by instructing that GRIP could not have access to the HIV testing results of its clients, some of them children, and fired the medical superintendent at one of the hospitals for having allowed GRIP to operate in the facility. When doctors and administrators in public hospitals objected, they faced reprisal: at least five senior administrators were charged with gross misconduct for advocating for GRIP to remain in their facilities, while at least three doctors were fired from public hospitals in the province for having signed memoranda in support of the prescription of post-exposure prophylaxis for rape victims; the Labour Court later found that they had been dismissed unfairly. In February 2003, the Public Protector, Lawrence Mushwana, publicly appealed to Manana to abandon her campaign against GRIP, saying that it was an unjustifiable expense to taxpayers. #### ARV rollout and spending At the same time, after the Constitutional Court ordered in 2002 that public hospitals had to provide access to mother-to-child transmission prevention drugs, Manana was viewed as "the worst offender" in failing to implement this directive. Both the Treatment Action Campaign and the AIDS Law Project sued her for defying the court order, and the South African Human Rights Commission investigated her department for possible human rights violations. Responding to the possibility that Manana would be held in contempt of court for failing to obey the Constitutional Court, national Health Minister Tshabalala-Msimang famously said that "they'll have to jail me as well". The opposition United Democratic Movement said that "going to jail in solidarity with her MEC is the first constructive proposal she has ever made in her entire term of office". By 2003, Manana's department was also under investigation for alleged financial mismanagement at senior levels: among other things, there was evidence that the department had spent millions of rands from its HIV/AIDS budget on recreational events, despite the severe lack of capacity in the health system. While the investigation was ongoing, Manana's head of department alleged that Manana had been bullying and threatening her staff. In late August 2003, Premier Mahlangu announced that two forensic audits into the department had "revealed issues of management and aspects of gross negligence in the procurement of medical equipment and the use of the HIV/Aids budget". He therefore reshuffled the Executive Council, appointing Manana as MEC for Sports, Recreation, Arts and Culture; she remained in that portfolio until the 2004 general election. ### 2004–2009: National Assembly backbenches In the 2004 election, Manana was elected to an ANC seat in the National Assembly, the lower house of the South African Parliament; she represented the Mpumalanga constituency. She served a full legislative term in the seat. During that time, at the ANC's 52nd National Conference in December 2007, she was elected to a five-year term on the ANC's National Executive Committee; by number of votes received, she was ranked 64th of the 80 ordinary members elected. ### 2009–2014: Return to the Executive Council Pursuant to the next general election in May 2009, Manana returned to the Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature, where newly elected Premier David Mabuza appointed her as MEC for Community Safety, Security and Liaison. She remained in that portfolio until Mabuza's first reshuffle on 3 November 2010, in which she swopped portfolios with Vusi Shongwe and became MEC for Culture, Sport and Recreation. ### 2014–2019: Return to the National Assembly After four years as Culture MEC, Manana was listed 100th on the ANC's national party list in the 2014 general election and returned to the National Assembly backbenches. She served another full term and left the seat after the 2019 general election. Personal life ------------- Her son is national politician Mduduzi Manana.
British anthropologist Jack Herbert Driberg (April 1888 – 5 February 1946) was a British anthropologist. He was a part of the Uganda Protectorate and published The Lango: A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda in 1923. Personal life and education --------------------------- Driberg was born in April 1888. He attended Lancing College. He also attended Hertford College. He died on 5 February 1946. Professional work ----------------- Driberg became involved in the Uganda Protectorate in 1912. In 1921 he became involved in service in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. He wrote The Lango: A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda in 1923. He left Sudan in 1925. He moved back to London, England and attended the London School of Economics. He became faculty in the anthropology department at the University of Cambridge. In 1939 he began serving during World War II. ### The Lango: A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda While in the Uganda Protectorate, Driberg lived with the Langi people in Uganda. In 1923, he wrote The Lango: A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda about his experience. The book is an ethnographic look at the Langi. It includes fables and a Lango-English dictionary. Further reading --------------- * People of the Small Arrow. Charlottesville: University of Virginia (1930). ISBN 0836941462. * The Savage as He Really is. London: G. Routledge & Sons (1929).
American artist Peter Buchanan-Smith (born April 7, 1972) is a designer, teacher, entrepreneur, and the founder of Best Made Co. Biography --------- Peter Buchanan-Smith was born on April 7, 1972, in Canada. He attended the School of Visual Arts in New York City in the MFA Designer as Author program and received his master's degree in 2001. His M.F.A. thesis in graphic design was developed into a book published in 2001 by Princeton Architectural Press entitled Speck: A Curious Collection of Uncommon Things. After graduation, Buchanan-Smith worked at The New York Times, where he was art director of the Op-Ed page for September 11, 2001, and Paper magazine, where he was creative director from 2005 to 2008. He has been the design director for Isaac Mizrahi's fashion house and has collaborated with Maira Kalman, with whom he designed the illustrated re-issue of Strunk & White's classic grammar text, The Elements of Style. In 2005, he was awarded a Grammy for the design of Wilco’s best-selling album A Ghost is Born. In 2009, Buchanan-Smith founded New York City-based design firm Buchanan-Smith LLC, which produces branding, packaging, and identities. In 2009, he founded Best Made Co. a company that develops artisanal tools and adventure products after moving to South Orange, New Jersey and started building things. The first product he designed for Best Made Co. was a collection of functional axes decorated in a scheme of colorful spots and stripes; acquired by foresters and collectors (including David Lynch), the axes have been exhibited at the Saatchi Gallery in London. He left the company in 2019. In 2023 he bought Best Made Co. back from Duluth Trading, following Duluth's acquisition of the company in 2020. ### Style and themes Clear and expressive, Buchanan-Smith's work has often been referenced by other designers, and has been featured in The New York Times, I.D. magazine and the AIGA's Fresh Dialogue Four: New Voices in Graphic Design. In his work, Buchanan-Smith has often explored the relationships between people and objects, also drawing attention to the value of the everyday and the nature of luxury. Bibliography ------------ * Speck: A Curious Collection of Uncommon Things, Princeton Architectural Press, 2001.
For the Albanian swimmer, see Kledi Kadiu (swimmer). Kledi Kadiu (born 7 April 1974) is an Albanian-born, naturalized Italian dancer, choreographer, dance teacher, and television personality. He is a regular dancer on the popular talent show Amici di Maria De Filippi (Friends of Maria De Filippi), which is presented by Maria De Filippi on Mediaset's Canale 5. He starred in his first film Passa a Due in 2005. He is the founder of the Kledi Dance school in Rome. In 2008, Kadiu became an Italian citizen. Career ------ Kledi Kadiu was born in Tirana, Albania, the son of Fisnik Kadiu, an engineer, and Lindita Kadiu, a pharmacist. He grew up in an apartment in the centre of Tirana, along with his parents, sister Ada, and grandparents Xhavit and Kimete. Kadiu attended the National Academy of Dance [it], where he graduated in 1992. He soon began working as a ballet dancer in the National Theatre of Opera and Ballet, where he became the principal dancer, performing in ballets such as Giselle, The Nutcracker Suite, Don Quixote and Daphnis et Chloé. In 1993, at the age of nineteen, he moved to Italy. Three years later, he made his television debut as a dancer on the Canale 5 programme Quizzone. From 1997 to 2003, Kadiu was a regular dancer on the Buona Domenica variety show. This was followed by work on two popular programmes hosted by Maria De Filippi on Canale 5, C'e Posta Per Te and the Fame-based talent show Amici di Maria De Filippi. Kadiu posed for the 2003 Calendar of the men's magazine Max. In 2004, Kadiu founded the Kledi Dance school in Rome. The following year, he starred in his first film Passo a Due, a semi-biographical movie directed by Andrea Barzini, where Kadiu portrays Beni, a young Albanian who arrives in Italy seeking fame and fortune as a dancer. He starred in another cinematographic film, La cura del gorilla, as well as a television mini-series which was broadcast by Rai Uno in 2007. That same year, he performed in the ballet Romeo and Juliet, which was produced by the dance company Balletto di Roma. Kadiu has won two awards. In 2004, he received the Premio Gino Tani Award for Best Artist of the Year, and in 2006, he received the Ginestra d'Oro Award for Best Dancer of the Year. In January 2009, Kadiu returned to Amici di Maria De Filippi where he is one of the regular dancers on the programme. On 27 January 2009, Kadiu's autobiography, Meglio di una Favola (Better Than a Fairy-Tale), published by Mondadori, went on sale in Italy. On 2 September 2022, it was announced that Kadiu would be a judge on the eighth season of the Albanian version of Dancing with the Stars on Top Channel. In November 2023, he was announced as one of the hosts of the 62nd edition of the Albanian song contest Festivali i Këngës. Personal life ------------- In 2005, Kadiu began dating Desy Luccini, who was elected Miss Deborah Toscana 2005, and also a finalist in the 2005 edition of the Miss Italy Beauty Pageant. The relationship ended in 2007. In May 2008, Kadiu was physically assaulted and verbally-abused by a group of three men in a xenophobic attack which took place inside his dance school in the Appio district of Rome. Although Kadiu was not seriously hurt, the attack was condemned by the city's mayor Gianni Alemanno. At an official ceremony in the Palazzo del Quirinale presided over by Italian president Giorgio Napolitano, Kadiu became an Italian citizen in November 2008. However, he remains proud of his Albanian origins, is a prominent member of the Albanian community in Italy, and was chosen as the face of the "Italian-Albanian Friendship Day" organized by the Italian Foreign Ministry in Tirana, Albania. Filmography ----------- ### As an actor \| Year \| Title \| Role \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 2005 \| Passo a due \| Beni \| \| 2006 \| The Bodyguard's Cure \| Adrian \| \| 2007 \| Ma chi l'avrebbe mai detto \| Yassin \| ### As himself \| Year \| Title \| Notes \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 2001–2017 \| Amici di Maria De Filippi \| Talent show: professional dancer and member of the dance crew (seasons 1–2, 4–9); contemporary dance teacher (seasons 13–17) \| \| 2005 \| Striscia la notizia \| Variety show: guest host (season 17) alongside Maria De Filippi and Garrison Rochelle \| \| 2016 \| Pequeños gigantes \| Children's talent show: coach (season 1) \| \| 2017 \| Just Dance World Cup \| Special: judge (Just Dance talent show) \| \| 2022–2023 \| Dancing with the Stars \| Judge season 8 \| \| 2023 \| Festivali i Këngës 62 \| Host \|
Youth in Arts is a non-profit organization that provides visual and performing arts instruction to public and private school students and enriches the community with cultural events. Youth in Arts has been providing arts education to students in the San Francisco Bay Area since 1970. It is based in San Rafael, Ca. The Artists in Schools program brings artists into classrooms to teach visual and performing arts in extended residencies or shorter workshop programs and also provides training for teachers and parents in supporting students' learning and development through the arts. Youth in Arts also houses the only children's art gallery in the Northern Bay Area. Youth in Arts reaches over 30,000 youth annually. Youth in Arts creates interactive public art works at the Marin County Fair. During July 2013, Youth in Arts worked with over 600 youth and professional artists to create the world's biggest pop up book spanning 48' long and 6' high. An independent evaluation of the Artists in Schools program, funded by a grant from the California Arts Council, found that three-quarters of the students participating showed a more positive attitude toward learning in an arts-inclusive classroom. Some schools pay Youth in Arts for programming. The agency also fundraises to offset costs and to provide free programs to schools that cannot afford to pay. In addition to the Artists in Schools program, Youth in Arts Presents offers live performances to thousands of local students through Theater Shows and Assemblies; VSA arts and "Arts Unite Us" provide tailored programs to special needs students and bring together students of differing abilities through the arts and 'Til Dawn is a teen a cappella program for advanced young vocalists. Youth in Arts founded the Italian Street Painting Festival in downtown San Rafael and ran that event for 17 years, that event is now being continued by a separate organization, Italian Street Painting Marin.
Australian bishop (1944–2021) This article is about the religious leader. For the Australian writer and editor of Nation Review, see John Hepworth (writer). John Anthony Hepworth (23 March 1944 – 1 December 2021) was an Australian bishop. He was the ordinary of the Anglican Catholic Church in Australia and the archbishop and primate of the Traditional Anglican Communion, an international body of continuing Anglican churches, from 2003 to 2012. Life ---- Hepworth began his seminary studies in 1960 at St Francis Xavier Seminary in Adelaide. In 1968 he was ordained to the priesthood in the Roman Catholic Church for the Archdiocese of Adelaide. In 1972 he moved to Britain. After returning to Australia in 1976 he was received into the Anglican Church of Australia as a priest. From 1976 to 1977 he had permission to officiate in the Anglican Diocese of Ballarat. From 1977 to 1978 he was the assistant priest in the Colac parish and, from 1978 to 1980, was the rector of the South Ballarat parish based in Sebastopol. In 1992 Hepworth joined the Anglican Catholic Church in Australia (ACCA). On 29 June 1996 he was consecrated as a bishop, together with Robert John Friend, in the Pro-Cathedral of the Resurrection, Brisbane, by bishops Albert N. Haley (then diocesan bishop of the ACCA), Robert C. Crawley (Anglican Catholic Church of Canada), Wellborn Hudson (Anglican Church in America) and John Hazlewood (retired Bishop of Ballarat in the Anglican Church of Australia). Hepworth served as an assistant bishop until April 1998 when Bishop Friend (who had succeeded Haley as diocesan) resigned. From then until November 1999, Hepworth acted as bishop administrator. At the national synod of the ACCA, held from 25 to 29 November 1999, he was elected as the new diocesan bishop. In 2002 he was elected as primate of the Traditional Anglican Communion (TAC) in succession to Louis Falk. Hepworth was involved in a process to create an Australian ordinariate for former Anglicans in the Roman Catholic Church. His personal history complicated the situation. He was not raised Anglican, but had left the Roman Catholic Church and then married twice and had three children. On 1 March 2012, the TAC bishops voted against union with the Roman Catholic Church. They also voted to accept Hepworth's already announced resignation as TAC primate with immediate effect. On 16 May 2012, the TAC College of Bishops suspended Hepworth, meaning that he ceased to be the TAC Bishop Ordinary of Australia. Hepworth had a degree in political science and received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Adelaide in 1982 with a thesis about Catholic Action entitled "The Movement Revisited: A South Australian Perspective". For five years he was a lecturer in politics at the Northern Territory University before becoming co-ordinator of international studies at the University of South Australia. In 1998 he was elected to the Australian Constitutional Convention as a member of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy. He formerly chaired the Australia-Vietnam Human Rights Committee in South Australia. Hepworth was formerly heard regularly on Adelaide's 5AA radio station where he acted as a political commentator on the conservative Leon Byner Show. Hepworth said that he was a victim of sexual abuse in the Roman Catholic Church in Australia during the 1960s and 1970s. He has alleged that he was raped on numerous occasions by three priests during his seminary studies and that the Catholic Church had failed to follow due process. Hepworth was active in Liberal Party of Australia politics and was chair of the Boothby Liberal Federal Electorate Council from which role he resigned in 2021 after being diagnosed with motor neurone disease. Hepworth died on 1 December 2021 in Adelaide. Two days before his death he was reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church and also recognised as a priest in good standing. He died of complications arising from motor neuron disease.
Austrian inventor David Gestetner (31 March 1854 – 8 March 1939) was the inventor of the Gestetner stencil duplicator, the first piece of office equipment that allowed production of numerous copies of documents quickly and inexpensively. He also invented a new kind of nail clipper. Gestetner was awarded the John Scott Medal by The Franklin Institute in 1888. On 12 March 2011 a Blue Plaque was placed on his home at 124 Highbury New Park in north London. Early life ---------- The devoutly Jewish David Gestetner left Hungary to work in Vienna in the 1870s, where he began work at the stock exchange. One of his tasks was to make copies of the activity at the end of the day by repeatedly handwriting the results. He decided to try to find a better method, and his experiments eventually led him to invent the first method of reproducing documents by use of a stencil. He went on to work in Chicago, making kites out of Chinese paper. Gestetner allegedly perceived the idea of the duplicating method after an ink-spill accident whilst vending kites in Chicago. After a pot of ink spilled over a pile of kites, he found that the same ink pattern remained throughout the pile. This inspired him to find a way to replicate the process for commercial use. Gestetner then moved to London, United Kingdom to produce his inventions and went on to achieve great commercial success. The device ---------- See main article Gestetner Cyclograph The stencil method used a thin sheet of paper coated with wax (originally kite paper was used), which was written upon with a special stylus that left a broken line through the stencil – breaking the paper and removing the wax covering. Ink was forced through the stencil – originally by an ink roller – and it left its impression on a white sheet of paper below. This was repeated again and again until sufficient copies were produced. Until this time, any "short copy runs" which were needed for the conduct of a business (e.g. for the production of 10–50 copies of contracts, agreements, or letters) had to be copied by hand. (If more were needed, the document would have to go to the printers.) After the run had been copied, business partners had to read each one to ensure that they were all exactly the same, and that human error or tiredness had not introduced an error into one copy. The process was time consuming and frustrating for all. The stencil copy method meant that only one copy had to be read, as all copies were mechanically identical. David Gestetner eventually moved to London, England and in 1881 established the Gestetner Cyclograph Company to produce stencils, styli and ink rollers. He guarded his invention through patents. He also invented other notable devices such as the nail-clipper and a type of ball-point pen. The Gestetner works opened in 1906 at Tottenham Hale, north London, and employed tens of thousands of people until the 1990s. His invention became an overnight international success, and he soon established an international chain of branches that sold and serviced his products. During the ensuing years he further developed his invention, with the stencil eventually being placed on a screen wrapped around a pair of revolving drums, onto which ink was placed. The drums were revolved and ink, spread evenly across the surface of the screen by a pair of cloth-covered rollers, was forced through the cuts made in the stencil and transferred onto a sheet of paper which was fed through the duplicator and pressed by pressure rollers against the lower drum. Each complete rotation of the screen fed and printed one sheet. After the first typewriter was invented, a stencil was created which could be typed on, thus creating copies similar to printed newspapers and books, instead of handwritten material. Social effects -------------- The stencil duplicator provided individuals with a means to produce their own uncensored and uncontrolled ideas and distribute them in public places (near factories, churches, government offices, parks etc.). Previously, producing mass numbers of copies required the co-operation of owners of printing presses, which required a large amount of capital. Owners of presses would not agree to publish opinions contrary to their own interest.[] The Gestetner Company expanded quickly during the start and middle of the 20th century. Management was passed on to David Gestetner's son, Sigmund Gestetner, and from him to his sons, David and Jonathan. Gestetner acquired other companies during the years: Nashua (later changed to Nashuatec), Rex Rotary, Hanimex and Savin. Eventually a holding company was set up called NRG (N=Nashuatec, R= Rex Rotary, G= Gestetner). In 1996, the international Gestetner Company was acquired by the Ricoh company of Japan. The company was renamed NRG Group, and markets and services Ricoh products under its three main brand names, primarily in Europe, South Africa and the Middle East, but also through dealers throughout the world. Blue Plaque ----------- On 12 March 2011 a Blue Plaque was placed on Gestetner's home at 124 Highbury New Park. It was presented by Gestetner's grandson, Jonathan, and great-great grandchildren Harry Gestetner, aged 11, and Henrietta Hodgson, 13, accompanied by various relatives and descendants. Sources ------- * Biographical Dictionary of Management, Thoemmes Continuum (for life dates). * "Before Copies", Graphic Com Central. * Proudfoot, W. B. The Origin of Stencil Duplicating, Hutchinson of London, 1972. * Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. \| Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata \| \| --- \| \| International \| * ISNI * VIAF \| \| National \| * Germany \| \| Other \| * SNAC \|
\| Life in Ireland \| \| --- \| \| Culture \| \| * Christianity * Cuisine * Culture * Holidays (ROI) * Holidays (NI) * Music * Religion * Sport * Tourism (ROI) \| \| Economy \| \| * Communications (ROI) * Economy * Taxation (ROI) * Transport \| \| General \| \| * Architecture * Geography * History * Military (ROI) * Recycling (ROI) * Recycling (NI) \| \| Society \| \| * Demographics * Education * Healthcare * Languages * Media \| \| Politics \| \| * Government (ROI) * Government (NI) * Law * Law enforcement * Politics * Foreign relations (ROI) \| \| Policies \| \| * Abortion * Same-sex marriage (ROI) * Same-sex marriage (NI) \| \| * v * t * e \| The education system in Northern Ireland differs from elsewhere in the United Kingdom (although it is relatively similar to Wales), but is similar to the Republic of Ireland in sharing in the development of the national school system and serving a similar society with a relatively rural population. A child's age on 1 July determines the point of entry into the relevant stage of education in the region, whereas the relevant date in England and Wales is 1 September. Overview -------- As with the island of Ireland as a whole, Northern Ireland has one of the youngest populations in Europe and, among the four UK nations, it has the highest proportion of children aged under 16 years (21% in mid-2019). In the most recent full academic year (2021–2022), the region's school education system comprised 1,124 schools (of all types) and around 346,000 pupils, including: * 796 primary schools with 172,000 pupils; * 192 post-primary schools with 152,000 pupils; * 126 non-grammar post-primary schools with 86,000 pupils; * 66 grammar schools with 65,000 pupils; * 94 nursery schools with 5,800 pupils; * 39 special schools with 6,600 pupils (specifically for children with special educational needs); and * 14 independent schools with 700 children. Enrolments in further and higher education were as follows (in 2019–2020) before disruption to enrolments and classes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic: * six regional further education colleges with 132,000 students; * two universities – Queen's University Belfast and Ulster University – with 53,000 students; * two teacher training colleges – Stranmillis University College and St Mary's University College, Belfast – with 2,200 students; * the College of Agriculture, Food and Rural Enterprise with 1,700 students on three campuses; and * the Open University with 4,200 students. Statistics on education in Northern Ireland are published by the Department of Education and the Department for the Economy. History ------- Pupils attending St Joseph's Boys' High School, an all boys school in Newry For the history prior to the partition of Ireland in the 1920s, see History of education in Ireland. Administration -------------- Education is devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly and the government departments which are mainly responsible for education policy are assigned responsibilities according to the different levels of the education system. The Department of Education is responsible for pre-school, primary, post-primary and special education, youth work policy, the promotion of good community relations within and between schools, and teacher education and salaries. Further and higher education sits within the remit of the Department for the Economy and the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs as young people and adults at that stage are either employed or being prepared for entering employment. The Education Authority (EA) is responsible for ensuring that nursery, primary and post-primary education services are available to meet the needs of children and young people and for providing support for youth services. The authority was established in 2015 and its services, in relation to education, were previously delivered by the five education and library boards (ELBs) from the 1970s onwards and by county councils before that time. Each of the former ELBs is now a sub-region of the Education Authority: \| \| Sub region of the Education Authority \| Area covered \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1. \| Belfast (formerly BELB) \| \| \| 2. \| North Eastern (formerly NEELB) \| Antrim, Ballymena, Ballymoney, Carrickfergus, Coleraine, Larne, Magherafelt, Moyle, Newtownabbey \| \| 3. \| South Eastern (formerly SEELB) \| Ards, Castlereagh, Down, Lisburn and North Down \| \| 4. \| Southern (formerly SELB) \| Armagh, Banbridge, Cookstown, Craigavon, Dungannon and South Tyrone, Newry and Mourne \| \| 5. \| Western (formerly WELB) \| Derry, Fermanagh, Limavady, Omagh, Strabane \| Curriculum ---------- The majority of examinations sat, and education plans followed, in Northern Irish schools are set by the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment. All schools in Northern Ireland follow the Northern Ireland Curriculum which is based on the National Curriculum used in England and Wales. At age 11, on entering secondary education, all pupils study a broad base of subjects from the nine 'Areas of Learning': Language and Literacy, Mathematics and Numeracy, Modern Languages, The Arts, Environment and Society, Science and Technology, Learning for Life and Work, Physical Education, and Religious Education. Areas of Learning\| Area of Learning \| Compulsory subjects strands \| \| --- \| --- \| \| Language and Literacy \| English,Irish,Media Education \| \| Mathematics and Numeracy \| Mathematics, Financial Capability \| \| Modern Languages \| An official language of the EU \| \| The Arts \| Art and Design, Drama, Music \| \| Environment and Society \| History, Geography \| \| Science and Technology \| Science, Technology and Design \| \| Learning for Life and Work \| Employability, Home Economics, Local and Global Citizenship, Personal Development \| \| Physical Education \| Physical Education \| \| Religious Education \| Religious Education \| \| Non-compulsory subjects offered in some schools \| ICTA second official language of the European UnionArabic, Latin, Mandarin Chinese or another non-EU language \| At age 14, pupils select which subjects to continue to study for General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examinations. Currently, it is compulsory to study English Language and Mathematics, although subjects such as English Literature, French, Learning for Life and Work, Religious Studies and Science (single-, double- or triple-award) may also be compulsory in certain schools. In addition, pupils usually choose to continue with other subjects and many study for eight or nine GCSEs, and possibly up to ten or eleven. GCSEs mark the end of compulsory education in Northern Ireland. At age 16, some pupils stay at school and choose to study A-Level – AS and A2 – level subjects or more vocational qualifications such as Applied Advanced Levels; many also take up vocational courses at further education colleges on leaving school. Those choosing AS and A2 levels normally pick three or four subjects and success in these can determine acceptance into higher education courses at university. Levels of education ------------------- Pre-primary education is optional in Northern Ireland with preschool stage for children aged 3 and 4. In some pre-schools, pupils can leave when they turn 4 and enter into an optional Reception class in their local primary school. (This is entirely optional in most schools which provide these classes.) Primary education covers three stages – Foundation, Key Stage 1, and Key Stage 2. * Foundation Stage + Reception, age 4 (optional; see above note) + Primary 1, age 4 to 5 (equivalent to Reception in England and Wales) + Primary 2, age 5 to 6 * Key Stage 1 + Primary 3, age 6 to 7 + Primary 4, age 7 to 8 * Key Stage 2 + Primary 5, age 8 to 9 + Primary 6, age 9 to 10 + Primary 7, age 10 to 11 Post-primary (or secondary) education covers up to three stages – Key Stage 3, Key Stage 4, and Key Stage 5: * Key Stage 3 + Year 8, age 11 to 12 (equivalent to Year 7 in England and Wales) + Year 9, age 12 to 13 + Year 10, age 13 to 14 * Key Stage 4 + Year 11, age 14 to 15 + Year 12, age 15 to 16 (including GCSE examinations) * Key Stage 5 + Year 13, age 16 to 17 (including AS-level examinations) + Year 14, age 17 to 18 (including A-level A2 examinations) Although the Department of Education uses Year 8 to Year 14 for post-primary education, the traditional First to Fifth Form, Lower Sixth and Upper Sixth are still used, at least informally, by some schools. Young people may continue their education at a post-primary school (often a grammar school) or at a further education college after Key Stage 4. A range of tertiary education qualifications are available through further education colleges, universities and other institutions, including at bachelor's degree, master's degree and doctorate levels. Post-primary transfer --------------------- Most primary school children will transfer to non-grammar post-primary schools. However, issues around post-primary transfer and academic selection receive a high level of media coverage, as many parents regard a place for their child in a grammar school as a form of social mobility. In 2021–2022, 57% of young people in post-primary education (87,000 pupils) attended non-grammar schools and 43% attended grammar schools (65,000 pupils). The Education Act (Northern Ireland) 1947 introduced a school system which included a government-run eleven-plus post-primary transfer test as an entrance exam for grammar schools; this had previously been introduced in England and Wales in 1944. The test, a form of academic selection, was retained in Northern Ireland whereas England and Wales moved towards a comprehensive school system, which is also in place in Scotland. The differences in political opinion regarding academic selection, with unionists generally in favour and nationalists and the Alliance Party broadly opposed, reflect differences between Conservative and Labour in Great Britain; a Conservative government introduced the eleven-plus in the 1940s and a Labour government introduced comprehensive schooling in the 1970s. As Minister of Education in the first Northern Ireland Assembly after the Good Friday Agreement, Martin McGuinness commissioned a review of post-primary transfer – the Burns report – which (in 2001) proposed the ending of the eleven-plus (and academic selection in post-primary transfer) and a system of formative assessment through a pupil profile to provide a wider range of educational information to teachers, parents and pupils. In the subsequent public consultation, a majority of respondents favoured the abolition of eleven-plus tests, but not the end of academic selection, and most wanted all schools to use the same criteria for entry with parental preference to be the most important criterion. The Assembly was suspended in November 2002 and, under direct rule, Education Minister Jane Kennedy commissioned a post-primary transfer working group, chaired by Steve Costello, which reported in 2004 and broadly supported the Burns Report and recommended a broader curriculum through a model known as the entitlement framework. The Assembly was restored in March 2007 and then Education Minister Caitríona Ruane reaffirmed the decision by her predecessors to abolish the eleven-plus; the last government-run test took place in 2008. The majority of grammar schools, however, decided to set their own entrance exams which, at present, are available in two types – AQE and GL Assessment – although a single test is planned from 2023 onwards. School sectors by ethos ----------------------- ### Controlled Tandragee Junior High School, a controlled school in County Armagh. Controlled schools are so-called as their governance is controlled by the state (e.g. through the Education Authority as the employer of teachers) although schools are managed by their board of governors, which include representatives of parents, teachers and transferor churches (who transferred their control of schools to the state in the mid-20th century). Controlled schools are open to children of all faiths and none. Many controlled schools were originally church schools – under the management of the Church of Ireland, Presbyterian Church in Ireland and Methodist Church in Ireland – whose control was transferred in the 1930s and 1940s in return for assurances that a Christian ethos would continue through collective worship (school assemblies), the teaching of non-denominational religious education, and representation of churches on boards of governors. The three churches have a role in education through the Transferor Representatives' Council (TRC) and nominate around 1,500 school governors to the boards of controlled schools. In a more recent development, controlled integrated schools are those which have opted for a formally integrated status and therefore form part of both the controlled and integrated schools sectors.[] The Education Act 2014, which created the Education Authority in the following year, was accompanied by a commitment by the Education Minister and the Northern Ireland Executive to establish and fund a support body for schools in the controlled sector. The Controlled Schools' Support Council (CSSC) therefore became operational in 2016; its headquarters are in Stranmillis University College, Belfast. Membership of the council is voluntary and over 90% of controlled schools are members of the CSSC. In 2021–2022, there were 379 primary schools, 63 nursery schools, 53 secondary (non-grammar) schools and 16 grammar schools in the controlled sector – a total of 511 schools. These included 24 controlled integrated primary schools, five secondary schools and one nursery school with controlled integrated status, and two Irish medium schools. Around 147,000 pupils attended controlled schools (including 8,000 in controlled integrated schools), representing approximately 42% of all pupils in Northern Ireland. In terms of religious breakdown, 59% of pupils in controlled schools were Protestant, 11% were Catholic, and 30% were from other backgrounds. ### Catholic maintained St Aidan's High School, a Catholic maintained school in Derrylin, County Fermanagh. Catholic maintained schools have a Roman Catholic ethos and are maintained by state funding, although the Council for Catholic Maintained Schools (CCMS) – established through the Education Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 – employs teachers in the sector as well as representing its interests. The membership of the CCMS includes representatives of the Department of Education, trustees (Catholic bishops in Northern Ireland), parents (drawn from the local community on a voluntary basis) and teachers. The Catholic Schools' Trustee Service (CTSS) provides teachers, clergy and others interested in Catholic education with resources, guidance and policies to assist them in their work, and highlights the Catholic ethos in education in both the maintained and voluntary grammar sectors. In 2021–2022, there were 442 Catholic maintained schools – 355 primary schools, 56 post-primary (non-grammar) schools, and 31 nursery schools – with a total of 124,000 pupils, representing around 35% of all pupils; 93% of pupils in the sector were from a Catholic background. ### Voluntary grammar Methodist College Belfast, a voluntary grammar school. Voluntary grammar schools are self-governing schools and generally of long standing, having originally established to provide an academic education at post primary level on a fee-paying basis. These schools are now funded by the Department and managed by boards of governors which are constituted in accordance with each school's scheme of management – usually representatives of foundation governors, parents, and teachers and in most cases, representatives of the department or the Education Authority. The board of governors is the employing authority and is responsible for the employment of all staff in its school. There were 50 voluntary grammar schools in 2021–2022 with around 51,000 pupils. The sector included 29 schools under Catholic management with 30,000 pupils and 21 under other forms of management with 21,000 pupils; 95% of pupils attending Catholic voluntary schools are from a Catholic background and 57% of pupils attending other voluntary schools are from a Protestant background. The Governing Bodies Association represents the interests of voluntary grammar schools. ### Integrated Main article: Integrated education in Northern Ireland Carnlough Integrated Primary School, County Antrim Grant-maintained integrated schools are those which have been established by the voluntary efforts of parents (such as the first formally integrated school, Lagan College, which was founded in 1981). Controlled integrated schools are controlled schools which have opted to have integrated status following a transformation process with the approval of parents. While parents, rather than churches, took the initiative in the development of grant-maintained integrated schools, the older controlled integrated schools (for example, those built in the 1930s and 1940s) were founded by Protestant churches before their transfer to the state in the mid-20th century. The Northern Ireland Council for Integrated Education (NICIE), a voluntary organisation, promotes, develops and supports integrated education, through the medium of English. The Integrated Education Fund (IEF) is a trust fund for the development and growth of integrated education in the region in response to parental demand. The IEF seeks to bridge the financial gap between starting integrated schools and securing full government funding and support. It was established in 1998 with funding from EU Structural Funds, the Department of Education, the Nuffield Foundation, and the Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust. The IEF financially supports the establishment of new schools, the growth of existing schools, and those schools seeking to become integrated. In 2021–2022, there were 38 grant-maintained integrated schools (23 primary and 15 post-primary) and 30 controlled integrated schools (24 primary, five post-primary and one nursery); all post-primary schools in the sector are non-grammar. There were around 18,000 pupils in grant-maintained integrated schools and 8,000 pupils in controlled integrated schools, therefore around 26,000 pupils in 68 schools across the sector. The community backgrounds of pupils in grant-maintained integrated schools were 40% Catholic, 32% Protestant and 27% other, whereas the proportions for controlled integrated schools were 41% Protestant, 23% Catholic and 36% other. ### Irish-medium maintained Main article: Irish language in Northern Ireland § Education The Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 placed a duty on the Department of Education, similar to that already in existence in relation to integrated education through the 1989 Education Reform Order, "to encourage and facilitate the development of Irish-medium education". Pupils are usually taught most subjects through the medium of Irish, which is the second language of most of the pupils, whilst English is taught through English. This form of education has been described as Immersion education, and is now firmly established as a successful and effective form of bilingual education. It aims to develop a high standard of language competence in the immersion language (Irish) across the curriculum, but must also, and can, ensure a similar level of achievement in the first language (in this case, usually English) as that reached by pupils attending monolingual English medium schools. Irish-medium schools, or Gaelscoileanna, are able to achieve grant-aided status, under the same procedures as other schools, by applying for maintained status. In addition to free-standing schools, Irish language medium education can be provided through units in existing schools; unit arrangements permit Irish-language-medium education to be supported where a free-standing school would not be viable. A unit may operate as a self-contained provision under the management of a host English-medium school and usually on the same site. In addition to this, there are two independent schools teaching through the medium of Irish. These are Gaelscoil Ghleann Darach in Crumlin and Gaelscoil na Daróige in Derry City. Comhairle na Gaelscolaíochta (CnaG) is the representative body for Irish-medium education, and was set up in 2000 by the Department of Education to promote, facilitate and encourage Irish-medium education. One of CnaG's central objectives is to seek to extend the availability of Irish-medium education to parents who wish to avail of it for their children, and it is supported in this role by Iontaobhas na Gaelscolaíochta (the trust fund for Irish-medium education. In 2021–2022, there were 25 primary schools and two post-primary schools (both non-grammar) in the Irish-medium maintained sector, with around 5,000 pupils, and 10 Irish-medium units, educating around 1,500 pupils; pre-school education is also available in the Irish language. School buildings ---------------- Plans for investment in Northern Ireland schools and youth facilities were published in 2005, intended to address a reported problem of "historic under-investment". The "Investment Strategy for Northern Ireland 2005–2015" was published on 14 December 2005. To offer sufficient construction companies an opportunity to support this strategy, the Department of Education established the "Northern Ireland Schools Modernisation Programme ("NISMP"), with companies invited to express interest in works contracts in 2007. Further and higher education ---------------------------- Northern Ireland provides a wide range of options for further and higher education through its universities, regional colleges (for further education), and other specialist colleges for teacher training and the agri-food sector. The Open University and regional colleges, in particular, enroll large numbers of adult learners. Many young people choose to travel to Great Britain to continue their education although this has, for many years, caused concern about a 'brain drain' effect and the difficulty in retaining skills and knowledge in the region's economy. The relatively low cost of living and higher quality of life in smaller and closer-knit communities, though, is an attraction for many students and graduates from Britain, the rest of Ireland and elsewhere. In 2019–2020, the last year before disruption to school exams by the Covid-19 pandemic, 48% of school leavers in Northern Ireland entered higher education, 29% entered further education, 10% entered training, 9% entered employment, 3% became unemployed and the destination for a further 2% was unknown. Further reading --------------- * Dominic Murray, Alan Smith, Ursula Birthistle (1997), Education in Ireland, Irish Peace Institute Research Centre. ISBN 1-874653-42-9
Separate secondary school in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada Monsignor Paul Dwyer Catholic High School, commonly referred to as Dwyer, is a Catholic high school in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada within the Durham Catholic District School Board (DCDSB). The school offers curricula for students in grades 9–12 and a wide range of academic and extracurricular activities. The school prides itself on its athletic and art programs, with several alumni becoming athletes. History ------- The school was first established in September 1962 as St. Joseph High School by the Sisters of St. Joseph, Monsignor Paul Dwyer, and various other Catholic priests in Oshawa. The first Catholic high school in Oshawa, St. Joseph High was established to extend Catholic education from elementary to secondary school. In September 1965, St. Joseph High School moved to 700 Stevenson Road North, and was renamed Oshawa Catholic High School. In 1976, the school was again renamed to Monsignor Paul Dwyer Catholic High School in memory of Monsignor Paul Dwyer, who gave generously to the Oshawa community and the development of Catholic education in Oshawa. Monsignor Dwyer was close friends with Pope John XXIII, who gifted him his pair of red slippers, which are currently on display in the main office. In June 2019, part of the school was walled off and sold to Grandview Children's Centre, much like another part of the school within the same corridor several years prior. Notable alumni -------------- * Ricky Foley, CFL player * Adam Baboulas, retired CFL player * Andre Talbot, retired CFL player * Larry Hopkins, retired NHL player * Rick St. Croix, retired NHL player * Mark Mathews, Professional lacrosse player * Matthew Hughes, Olympic Athlete * Kathleen Taylor, first woman to chair the board of a major Canadian bank Violence and incidents ---------------------- On March 30, 2010, at the school's bus stop, student Michael "Biggie" McDonald, 16, died of a stab wound after a fight with another student. Arrested soon after the incident, which was witnessed by dozens of students at a bus stop, was Dwyer student Jacques "Junior" Amakon. In June 2012 Amakon was sentenced to five years in prison for the killing of the school football player. He was released after serving about 28 months of his 60-month sentence. Upon his release, Amakon was contacted by CityNews Toronto and given the opportunity to comment. On November 24, 2016, a man in a van pulled up beside a seventeen-year-old student as he was walking to school after lunch, slashed the student with a knife and then drove off. Immediately after the stabbing, staff and students performed a hold and secure, which was soon lifted when police determined the attack was not random. The student survived with minor injuries and was responsive after the attack. Randy Chessman, 21, was later charged with assault, aggravated assault, assault with a weapon, and possession of dangerous weapons. On September 11, 2018, Dwyer was one of six schools that was placed under hold and secure around 11:00 AM when a suspicious package was found at the intersection of Stevenson and Rossland. The hold and secure was lifted by 12:30 PM. Police did not say what the package was, but stated that there was no concern to public safety. Academics --------- Students at the school take a mandatory religion class annually. Students must also take a variety of classes including science, math, English, geography, history, physical education and more, depending on their grade. According to the Fraser Institute in 2016-17, the school received 5.1 out of 10, ranking it the sixth best secondary school in Oshawa, and the 552nd school out of 747 in Ontario. Replacement proposal -------------------- In a report from November 27, 2016, the DCDSB proposed plans for a new high school to replace Paul Dwyer's apparently aging facilities. In a September 25, 2017, report, the DCDSB stated that changing its location was the primary factor behind the proposal to rebuild the school. Approval from the province has not been granted as of June 2019[update].

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