text
stringlengths 300
2.84k
|
|---|
Rumours also surfaced in 1900, after Albert Victor's death, of his association with another former Gaiety girl, Maude Richardson (birth name: Louisa Lancey), and that the royal family had attempted to pay her off. In 2002, letters purported to have been sent by Albert Victor to his solicitor referring to a payoff made to Richardson of £200 were sold at Bonhams auction house in London. Owing to discrepancies in the dates and spelling of the letters, one historian has suggested they could be forgeries. |
Rumours also surfaced in 1900, after Albert Victor's death, of his association with another former Gaiety girl, Maude Richardson (birth name: Louisa Lancey), and that the royal family had attempted to pay her off. In 2002, letters purported to have been sent by Albert Victor to his solicitor referring to a payoff made to Richardson of £200 were sold at Bonhams auction house in London. Owing to discrepancies in the dates and spelling of the letters, one historian has suggested they could be forgeries. |
In mid-1890, Albert Victor was attended by several doctors. In Albert Victor's and other correspondence, his illness is only referred to as "fever" or "gout". Some biographers have assumed he was suffering from "a mild form of venereal disease", perhaps gonorrhea, which he may have suffered from on an earlier occasion, but the exact nature of his illness is unknown. Letters dated 1885 and 1886 from Albert Victor to his doctor at Aldershot (known only as "Roche") detail that he was taking medicine for 'glete' (gleet), then a term for gonorrhea discharge. |
In mid-1890, Albert Victor was attended by several doctors. In Albert Victor's and other correspondence, his illness is only referred to as "fever" or "gout". Some biographers have assumed he was suffering from "a mild form of venereal disease", perhaps gonorrhea, which he may have suffered from on an earlier occasion, but the exact nature of his illness is unknown. Letters dated 1885 and 1886 from Albert Victor to his doctor at Aldershot (known only as "Roche") detail that he was taking medicine for 'glete' (gleet), then a term for gonorrhea discharge. |
Just as plans for both his marriage to Mary and his appointment as Viceroy of Ireland were under discussion, Albert Victor fell ill with influenza in the pandemic of 1889–92. He developed pneumonia and died at Sandringham House in Norfolk on 14 January 1892, less than a week after his 28th birthday. His parents the Prince and Princess of Wales, his sisters Princesses Maud and Victoria, his brother Prince George, his fiancée Princess Mary, her parents the Duke and Duchess of Teck, three physicians (Alan Reeve Manby, Francis Laking and William Broadbent) and three nurses were present. The Prince of Wales's chaplain, Canon Frederick Hervey, stood over Albert Victor reading prayers for the dying. |
Just as plans for both his marriage to Mary and his appointment as Viceroy of Ireland were under discussion, Albert Victor fell ill with influenza in the pandemic of 1889–92. He developed pneumonia and died at Sandringham House in Norfolk on 14 January 1892, less than a week after his 28th birthday. His parents the Prince and Princess of Wales, his sisters Princesses Maud and Victoria, his brother Prince George, his fiancée Princess Mary, her parents the Duke and Duchess of Teck, three physicians (Alan Reeve Manby, Francis Laking and William Broadbent) and three nurses were present. The Prince of Wales's chaplain, Canon Frederick Hervey, stood over Albert Victor reading prayers for the dying. |
Just as plans for both his marriage to Mary and his appointment as Viceroy of Ireland were under discussion, Albert Victor fell ill with influenza in the pandemic of 1889–92. He developed pneumonia and died at Sandringham House in Norfolk on 14 January 1892, less than a week after his 28th birthday. His parents the Prince and Princess of Wales, his sisters Princesses Maud and Victoria, his brother Prince George, his fiancée Princess Mary, her parents the Duke and Duchess of Teck, three physicians (Alan Reeve Manby, Francis Laking and William Broadbent) and three nurses were present. The Prince of Wales's chaplain, Canon Frederick Hervey, stood over Albert Victor reading prayers for the dying. |
Just as plans for both his marriage to Mary and his appointment as Viceroy of Ireland were under discussion, Albert Victor fell ill with influenza in the pandemic of 1889–92. He developed pneumonia and died at Sandringham House in Norfolk on 14 January 1892, less than a week after his 28th birthday. His parents the Prince and Princess of Wales, his sisters Princesses Maud and Victoria, his brother Prince George, his fiancée Princess Mary, her parents the Duke and Duchess of Teck, three physicians (Alan Reeve Manby, Francis Laking and William Broadbent) and three nurses were present. The Prince of Wales's chaplain, Canon Frederick Hervey, stood over Albert Victor reading prayers for the dying. |
The nation was shocked. Shops put up their shutters. The Prince of Wales wrote to Queen Victoria, "Gladly would I have given my life for his". Princess Mary wrote to Queen Victoria of the Princess of Wales, "the despairing look on her face was the most heart-rending thing I have ever seen." His younger brother Prince George wrote, "how deeply I did love him; & I remember with pain nearly every hard word & little quarrel I ever had with him & I long to ask his forgiveness, but, alas, it is too late now!" George took Albert Victor's place in the line of succession, eventually succeeding to the throne as George V in 1910. Drawn together during their shared period of mourning, Prince George later married Mary himself in 1893. She became queen on George's accession. |
The nation was shocked. Shops put up their shutters. The Prince of Wales wrote to Queen Victoria, "Gladly would I have given my life for his". Princess Mary wrote to Queen Victoria of the Princess of Wales, "the despairing look on her face was the most heart-rending thing I have ever seen." His younger brother Prince George wrote, "how deeply I did love him; & I remember with pain nearly every hard word & little quarrel I ever had with him & I long to ask his forgiveness, but, alas, it is too late now!" George took Albert Victor's place in the line of succession, eventually succeeding to the throne as George V in 1910. Drawn together during their shared period of mourning, Prince George later married Mary himself in 1893. She became queen on George's accession. |
The nation was shocked. Shops put up their shutters. The Prince of Wales wrote to Queen Victoria, "Gladly would I have given my life for his". Princess Mary wrote to Queen Victoria of the Princess of Wales, "the despairing look on her face was the most heart-rending thing I have ever seen." His younger brother Prince George wrote, "how deeply I did love him; & I remember with pain nearly every hard word & little quarrel I ever had with him & I long to ask his forgiveness, but, alas, it is too late now!" George took Albert Victor's place in the line of succession, eventually succeeding to the throne as George V in 1910. Drawn together during their shared period of mourning, Prince George later married Mary himself in 1893. She became queen on George's accession. |
The nation was shocked. Shops put up their shutters. The Prince of Wales wrote to Queen Victoria, "Gladly would I have given my life for his". Princess Mary wrote to Queen Victoria of the Princess of Wales, "the despairing look on her face was the most heart-rending thing I have ever seen." His younger brother Prince George wrote, "how deeply I did love him; & I remember with pain nearly every hard word & little quarrel I ever had with him & I long to ask his forgiveness, but, alas, it is too late now!" George took Albert Victor's place in the line of succession, eventually succeeding to the throne as George V in 1910. Drawn together during their shared period of mourning, Prince George later married Mary himself in 1893. She became queen on George's accession. |
Albert Victor's mother, Alexandra, never fully recovered from her son's death and kept the room in which he died as a shrine. At the funeral, Mary laid her bridal wreath of orange blossom upon the coffin. James Kenneth Stephen, Albert Victor's former tutor, refused all food from the day of Albert Victor's death and died 20 days later; he had suffered a head injury in 1886 which left him suffering from psychosis. The Prince is buried in the Albert Memorial Chapel close to St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. His tomb, by Alfred Gilbert, is "the finest single example of late 19th-century sculpture in the British Isles". A recumbent effigy of the Prince in a Hussar uniform (almost impossible to see properly "in situ") lies above the tomb. Kneeling over him is an angel, holding a heavenly crown. The tomb is surrounded by an elaborate railing, with figures of saints. The perfectionist Gilbert spent too much on the commission, went bankrupt, and left the country. Five of the smaller figures were only completed with "a greater roughness and pittedness of texture" after his return to Britain in the 1920s. |
Albert Victor's mother, Alexandra, never fully recovered from her son's death and kept the room in which he died as a shrine. At the funeral, Mary laid her bridal wreath of orange blossom upon the coffin. James Kenneth Stephen, Albert Victor's former tutor, refused all food from the day of Albert Victor's death and died 20 days later; he had suffered a head injury in 1886 which left him suffering from psychosis. The Prince is buried in the Albert Memorial Chapel close to St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. His tomb, by Alfred Gilbert, is "the finest single example of late 19th-century sculpture in the British Isles". A recumbent effigy of the Prince in a Hussar uniform (almost impossible to see properly "in situ") lies above the tomb. Kneeling over him is an angel, holding a heavenly crown. The tomb is surrounded by an elaborate railing, with figures of saints. The perfectionist Gilbert spent too much on the commission, went bankrupt, and left the country. Five of the smaller figures were only completed with "a greater roughness and pittedness of texture" after his return to Britain in the 1920s. |
Albert Victor's mother, Alexandra, never fully recovered from her son's death and kept the room in which he died as a shrine. At the funeral, Mary laid her bridal wreath of orange blossom upon the coffin. James Kenneth Stephen, Albert Victor's former tutor, refused all food from the day of Albert Victor's death and died 20 days later; he had suffered a head injury in 1886 which left him suffering from psychosis. The Prince is buried in the Albert Memorial Chapel close to St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. His tomb, by Alfred Gilbert, is "the finest single example of late 19th-century sculpture in the British Isles". A recumbent effigy of the Prince in a Hussar uniform (almost impossible to see properly "in situ") lies above the tomb. Kneeling over him is an angel, holding a heavenly crown. The tomb is surrounded by an elaborate railing, with figures of saints. The perfectionist Gilbert spent too much on the commission, went bankrupt, and left the country. Five of the smaller figures were only completed with "a greater roughness and pittedness of texture" after his return to Britain in the 1920s. |
Albert Victor's mother, Alexandra, never fully recovered from her son's death and kept the room in which he died as a shrine. At the funeral, Mary laid her bridal wreath of orange blossom upon the coffin. James Kenneth Stephen, Albert Victor's former tutor, refused all food from the day of Albert Victor's death and died 20 days later; he had suffered a head injury in 1886 which left him suffering from psychosis. The Prince is buried in the Albert Memorial Chapel close to St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. His tomb, by Alfred Gilbert, is "the finest single example of late 19th-century sculpture in the British Isles". A recumbent effigy of the Prince in a Hussar uniform (almost impossible to see properly "in situ") lies above the tomb. Kneeling over him is an angel, holding a heavenly crown. The tomb is surrounded by an elaborate railing, with figures of saints. The perfectionist Gilbert spent too much on the commission, went bankrupt, and left the country. Five of the smaller figures were only completed with "a greater roughness and pittedness of texture" after his return to Britain in the 1920s. |
During his life, the bulk of the British press treated Albert Victor with nothing but respect and the eulogies that immediately followed his death were full of praise. The radical politician, Henry Broadhurst, who had met both Albert Victor and his brother George, noted that they had "a total absence of affectation or haughtiness". On the day of Albert Victor's death, the leading Liberal politician, William Ewart Gladstone, wrote in his personal private diary "a great loss to our party". However, Queen Victoria referred to Albert Victor's "dissipated life" in private letters to her eldest daughter, which were later published and, in the mid-20th century, the official biographers of Queen Mary and King George V, James Pope-Hennessy and Harold Nicolson respectively, promoted hostile assessments of Albert Victor's life, portraying him as lazy, ill-educated and physically feeble. The exact nature of his "dissipations" is not clear, but in 1994 Theo Aronson favoured the theory on "admittedly circumstantial" evidence that the "unspecified 'dissipations' were predominantly homosexual". Aronson's judgement was based on Albert Victor's "adoration of his elegant and possessive mother; his 'want of manliness'; his 'shrinking from horseplay'; his 'sweet, gentle, quiet and charming' nature", as well as the Cleveland Street rumours and his opinion that there is "a certain amount of homosexuality in all men". He admitted, however, that "the allegations of Prince Eddy's homosexuality must be treated cautiously." |
During his life, the bulk of the British press treated Albert Victor with nothing but respect and the eulogies that immediately followed his death were full of praise. The radical politician, Henry Broadhurst, who had met both Albert Victor and his brother George, noted that they had "a total absence of affectation or haughtiness". On the day of Albert Victor's death, the leading Liberal politician, William Ewart Gladstone, wrote in his personal private diary "a great loss to our party". However, Queen Victoria referred to Albert Victor's "dissipated life" in private letters to her eldest daughter, which were later published and, in the mid-20th century, the official biographers of Queen Mary and King George V, James Pope-Hennessy and Harold Nicolson respectively, promoted hostile assessments of Albert Victor's life, portraying him as lazy, ill-educated and physically feeble. The exact nature of his "dissipations" is not clear, but in 1994 Theo Aronson favoured the theory on "admittedly circumstantial" evidence that the "unspecified 'dissipations' were predominantly homosexual". Aronson's judgement was based on Albert Victor's "adoration of his elegant and possessive mother; his 'want of manliness'; his 'shrinking from horseplay'; his 'sweet, gentle, quiet and charming' nature", as well as the Cleveland Street rumours and his opinion that there is "a certain amount of homosexuality in all men". He admitted, however, that "the allegations of Prince Eddy's homosexuality must be treated cautiously." |
Rumours that Prince Albert Victor may have committed, or been responsible for, the Jack the Ripper murders were first mentioned in print in 1962. It was later alleged, among others by Stephen Knight in "", that Albert Victor fathered a child with a woman in the Whitechapel district of London, and either he or several high-ranking men committed the murders in an effort to cover up his indiscretion. Though such claims have been repeated frequently, scholars have dismissed them as fantasies, and refer to indisputable proof of the Prince's innocence. For example, on 30 September 1888, when Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were murdered in London, Albert Victor was over 500 miles (over 800 km) away at Balmoral, the royal retreat in Scotland, in the presence of Queen Victoria, other family members, visiting German royalty and a large number of staff. According to the official Court Circular, family journals and letters, newspaper reports and other sources, he could not have been near any of the murders. Other fanciful conspiracy theories are that he died of syphilis or poison, that he was pushed off a cliff on the instructions of Lord Randolph Churchill, or that his death was faked to remove him from the line of succession. |
Rumours that Prince Albert Victor may have committed, or been responsible for, the Jack the Ripper murders were first mentioned in print in 1962. It was later alleged, among others by Stephen Knight in "", that Albert Victor fathered a child with a woman in the Whitechapel district of London, and either he or several high-ranking men committed the murders in an effort to cover up his indiscretion. Though such claims have been repeated frequently, scholars have dismissed them as fantasies, and refer to indisputable proof of the Prince's innocence. For example, on 30 September 1888, when Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were murdered in London, Albert Victor was over 500 miles (over 800 km) away at Balmoral, the royal retreat in Scotland, in the presence of Queen Victoria, other family members, visiting German royalty and a large number of staff. According to the official Court Circular, family journals and letters, newspaper reports and other sources, he could not have been near any of the murders. Other fanciful conspiracy theories are that he died of syphilis or poison, that he was pushed off a cliff on the instructions of Lord Randolph Churchill, or that his death was faked to remove him from the line of succession. |
Albert Victor's posthumous reputation became so bad that in 1964 Philip Magnus called his death a "merciful act of providence", supporting the theory that his death removed an unsuitable heir to the throne and replaced him with the reliable and sober George V. In 1972, Michael Harrison was the first modern author to re-assess Albert Victor and portray him in a more sympathetic light. Biographer Andrew Cook continued attempts to rehabilitate Albert Victor's reputation, arguing that his lack of academic progress was partly due to the incompetence of his tutor, Dalton; that he was a warm and charming man; that there is no tangible evidence that he was homosexual or bisexual; that he held liberal views, particularly on Irish Home Rule; and that his reputation was diminished by biographers eager to improve the image of his brother, George. |
Albert Victor's posthumous reputation became so bad that in 1964 Philip Magnus called his death a "merciful act of providence", supporting the theory that his death removed an unsuitable heir to the throne and replaced him with the reliable and sober George V. In 1972, Michael Harrison was the first modern author to re-assess Albert Victor and portray him in a more sympathetic light. Biographer Andrew Cook continued attempts to rehabilitate Albert Victor's reputation, arguing that his lack of academic progress was partly due to the incompetence of his tutor, Dalton; that he was a warm and charming man; that there is no tangible evidence that he was homosexual or bisexual; that he held liberal views, particularly on Irish Home Rule; and that his reputation was diminished by biographers eager to improve the image of his brother, George. |
Scholl was raised as a Lutheran, although he did at one point consider converting to Catholicism. Against the declared will of his father, he became an enthusiastic member of the Hitler Youth on April 15, 1933 and initially held leadership positions in the Deutsches Jungvolk, but quickly became disillusioned with the group when he realised its true principles. In 1935 he was one of three standard-bearers from Ulm who took part in the NSDAP's "Reich Party Rally for Freedom" from September 10 to 16 in Nuremberg. During this time, his attitude towards the Nazi regime gradually began to change. One reason was that the fanaticism promoted in the Hitler Youth and the unconditional subordination to the power structures ruling there became more and more repugnant. Scholl was arrested, along with Willi Graf, in 1937–38 because of their membership of forbidden Youth Movement organisations. Hans Scholl had joined the Deutsche Jungenschaft 1. 11. in 1934, when he and other Hitler Youth members in Ulm considered membership in this group and the Hitler Youth to be compatible. Scholl was also charged with "immoral behaviour" under laws that criminalised homosexuality stemming from a year-long relationship with Rolf Futterknecht during his time in the youth movement from 1934-35. He was betrayed by Futterknecht, who turned him in to the SS. Hans admitted to the relationship, but the court eventually dismissed the charges and described the affair as a “youthful aberration”. |
Scholl was raised as a Lutheran, although he did at one point consider converting to Catholicism. Against the declared will of his father, he became an enthusiastic member of the Hitler Youth on April 15, 1933 and initially held leadership positions in the Deutsches Jungvolk, but quickly became disillusioned with the group when he realised its true principles. In 1935 he was one of three standard-bearers from Ulm who took part in the NSDAP's "Reich Party Rally for Freedom" from September 10 to 16 in Nuremberg. During this time, his attitude towards the Nazi regime gradually began to change. One reason was that the fanaticism promoted in the Hitler Youth and the unconditional subordination to the power structures ruling there became more and more repugnant. Scholl was arrested, along with Willi Graf, in 1937–38 because of their membership of forbidden Youth Movement organisations. Hans Scholl had joined the Deutsche Jungenschaft 1. 11. in 1934, when he and other Hitler Youth members in Ulm considered membership in this group and the Hitler Youth to be compatible. Scholl was also charged with "immoral behaviour" under laws that criminalised homosexuality stemming from a year-long relationship with Rolf Futterknecht during his time in the youth movement from 1934-35. He was betrayed by Futterknecht, who turned him in to the SS. Hans admitted to the relationship, but the court eventually dismissed the charges and described the affair as a “youthful aberration”. |
In spring of 1937, he joined the Reich Labour Service, having volunteered for duty. He was discharged in March 1939 to attend medical school at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. At the university he came into contact with professors, teachers and students who represented positions that were clearly Christian-ethical and critical of the regime. Therefore, Hans began to question his own ideological position more critically. During the semester break, he was drafted as a medic for front service and took the rank of medical sergeant in the French campaign. What he experienced during direct frontline operations reinforced his personal stance against the rulers and the war in particular. Hans was again enrolled in the military service in spring of 1941 as a medic in the Wehrmacht against Russia. |
In spring of 1937, he joined the Reich Labour Service, having volunteered for duty. He was discharged in March 1939 to attend medical school at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. At the university he came into contact with professors, teachers and students who represented positions that were clearly Christian-ethical and critical of the regime. Therefore, Hans began to question his own ideological position more critically. During the semester break, he was drafted as a medic for front service and took the rank of medical sergeant in the French campaign. What he experienced during direct frontline operations reinforced his personal stance against the rulers and the war in particular. Hans was again enrolled in the military service in spring of 1941 as a medic in the Wehrmacht against Russia. |
After their experiences at the Eastern Front, having learned about mass murder in Poland and the Soviet Union, Scholl and Alexander Schmorell felt compelled to take action. From the end of June until mid July 1942, they wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the iconic poets of German bourgeoisie, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution. |
After their experiences at the Eastern Front, having learned about mass murder in Poland and the Soviet Union, Scholl and Alexander Schmorell felt compelled to take action. From the end of June until mid July 1942, they wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the iconic poets of German bourgeoisie, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution. |
After their experiences at the Eastern Front, having learned about mass murder in Poland and the Soviet Union, Scholl and Alexander Schmorell felt compelled to take action. From the end of June until mid July 1942, they wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the iconic poets of German bourgeoisie, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution. |
After their experiences at the Eastern Front, having learned about mass murder in Poland and the Soviet Union, Scholl and Alexander Schmorell felt compelled to take action. From the end of June until mid July 1942, they wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the iconic poets of German bourgeoisie, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution. |
The unit was constituted into the Regular Army on 18 January 1966 as the 43rd General Support Group. The unit was activated on 26 March 1966 at Fort Carson, Colorado and organized on 16 May 1966. The first battalion to join the Group was the 68th Transportation Battalion which was activated in August 1966. Three more battalions joined the Group in 1967: 195th Maintenance Battalion on 23 February; 242nd Maintenance Battalion on 25 February; and 70th Ordnance Battalion on 1 March. |
The unit was constituted into the Regular Army on 18 January 1966 as the 43rd General Support Group. The unit was activated on 26 March 1966 at Fort Carson, Colorado and organized on 16 May 1966. The first battalion to join the Group was the 68th Transportation Battalion which was activated in August 1966. Three more battalions joined the Group in 1967: 195th Maintenance Battalion on 23 February; 242nd Maintenance Battalion on 25 February; and 70th Ordnance Battalion on 1 March. |
On 26 July 1967, acting on a seven-hour notification, HHC, 43rd and 352nd Transportation Company (Light Truck) deployed to Selfridges Air Force Base, Michigan, to provide logistical support for the elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps during riot control operations. In August and September 1967, units of the Group deployed to Alaska during severe flooding to establish a field laundry site. In 1968, the organization of the Group changed: the 336th Ordnance Battalion joined the Group on 20 May and the 242nd Maintenance Battalion, one of the Group's original members, inactivated on 25 August. In addition to Group organization changes, the 336th Ordnance Battalion deployed to Southeast Asia on 26 September 1968. |
On 26 July 1967, acting on a seven-hour notification, HHC, 43rd and 352nd Transportation Company (Light Truck) deployed to Selfridges Air Force Base, Michigan, to provide logistical support for the elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps during riot control operations. In August and September 1967, units of the Group deployed to Alaska during severe flooding to establish a field laundry site. In 1968, the organization of the Group changed: the 336th Ordnance Battalion joined the Group on 20 May and the 242nd Maintenance Battalion, one of the Group's original members, inactivated on 25 August. In addition to Group organization changes, the 336th Ordnance Battalion deployed to Southeast Asia on 26 September 1968. |
In 1970 three military police units (19th MP CO, 148th MP PLT and 984th MP CO) and the 283rd Aviation Company joined the Group in May; the 40th Supply and Service Company joined the Group in November; and the 195th Maintenance Battalion (another of the Group's original members) inactivated on 4 December. In 1971 the 283rd Aviation Company was transferred to Fort Bragg in June; the 4th Military Police Company joined the Group; and a third original member, the 70th Ordnance Battalion, was inactivated in November. In 1972 the 19th Military Police Battalion was formed as a headquarters for the Military Police companies; the 52nd Engineer Battalion joined the Group in July; and the 4th Military Intelligence Company and B Company, 75th Infantry(Ranger) joined the Group in August. The Group was redesignated as the 43rd Corps Support Group in 1973. |
In 1970 three military police units (19th MP CO, 148th MP PLT and 984th MP CO) and the 283rd Aviation Company joined the Group in May; the 40th Supply and Service Company joined the Group in November; and the 195th Maintenance Battalion (another of the Group's original members) inactivated on 4 December. In 1971 the 283rd Aviation Company was transferred to Fort Bragg in June; the 4th Military Police Company joined the Group; and a third original member, the 70th Ordnance Battalion, was inactivated in November. In 1972 the 19th Military Police Battalion was formed as a headquarters for the Military Police companies; the 52nd Engineer Battalion joined the Group in July; and the 4th Military Intelligence Company and B Company, 75th Infantry(Ranger) joined the Group in August. The Group was redesignated as the 43rd Corps Support Group in 1973. |
In December 1992, a UN-sanctioned, U.S.-led deployment of more than 30,000 troops began, to ensure delivery of food aid. These troops were gradually reduced and in large part replaced early in 1993 by a UN peacekeeping operation in which the 43rd CSG played a smaller role. United Nations mediators attempted to bring together the various Somali faction leaders to restore peace to the country. On 26 March 1993, the United Nations passed Resolution 814 which considerably broadened its mandate to intervene in another country's affairs. The UN was now intervening militarily in a peacemaking role under Chapter VII of its charter. The (CSG) from Fort Carson, Colorado, was alerted for Somalia in December 1992. The Brigade Staff included: CSM Forrest R. Guess, BDE XO Stephen Strobel, BDE S-1 Major Dan Bandy, BDE S-2 CPT Sherri Rhodus, BDE S-3 MAJ Greg Alderete, BDE SPO Bill Holstun, BDE S-4 MAJ Dona M. Thomas, the Command Chaplain was CPT Duncan Baugh and the Brigade Legal Advisor was CPT Jody M. Hehr. The Headquarters Company was commanded by CPT Tim Garipee and 1SG John L. Elsasser. |
In December 1992, a UN-sanctioned, U.S.-led deployment of more than 30,000 troops began, to ensure delivery of food aid. These troops were gradually reduced and in large part replaced early in 1993 by a UN peacekeeping operation in which the 43rd CSG played a smaller role. United Nations mediators attempted to bring together the various Somali faction leaders to restore peace to the country. On 26 March 1993, the United Nations passed Resolution 814 which considerably broadened its mandate to intervene in another country's affairs. The UN was now intervening militarily in a peacemaking role under Chapter VII of its charter. The (CSG) from Fort Carson, Colorado, was alerted for Somalia in December 1992. The Brigade Staff included: CSM Forrest R. Guess, BDE XO Stephen Strobel, BDE S-1 Major Dan Bandy, BDE S-2 CPT Sherri Rhodus, BDE S-3 MAJ Greg Alderete, BDE SPO Bill Holstun, BDE S-4 MAJ Dona M. Thomas, the Command Chaplain was CPT Duncan Baugh and the Brigade Legal Advisor was CPT Jody M. Hehr. The Headquarters Company was commanded by CPT Tim Garipee and 1SG John L. Elsasser. |
In December 1992, a UN-sanctioned, U.S.-led deployment of more than 30,000 troops began, to ensure delivery of food aid. These troops were gradually reduced and in large part replaced early in 1993 by a UN peacekeeping operation in which the 43rd CSG played a smaller role. United Nations mediators attempted to bring together the various Somali faction leaders to restore peace to the country. On 26 March 1993, the United Nations passed Resolution 814 which considerably broadened its mandate to intervene in another country's affairs. The UN was now intervening militarily in a peacemaking role under Chapter VII of its charter. The (CSG) from Fort Carson, Colorado, was alerted for Somalia in December 1992. The Brigade Staff included: CSM Forrest R. Guess, BDE XO Stephen Strobel, BDE S-1 Major Dan Bandy, BDE S-2 CPT Sherri Rhodus, BDE S-3 MAJ Greg Alderete, BDE SPO Bill Holstun, BDE S-4 MAJ Dona M. Thomas, the Command Chaplain was CPT Duncan Baugh and the Brigade Legal Advisor was CPT Jody M. Hehr. The Headquarters Company was commanded by CPT Tim Garipee and 1SG John L. Elsasser. |
In December 1992, a UN-sanctioned, U.S.-led deployment of more than 30,000 troops began, to ensure delivery of food aid. These troops were gradually reduced and in large part replaced early in 1993 by a UN peacekeeping operation in which the 43rd CSG played a smaller role. United Nations mediators attempted to bring together the various Somali faction leaders to restore peace to the country. On 26 March 1993, the United Nations passed Resolution 814 which considerably broadened its mandate to intervene in another country's affairs. The UN was now intervening militarily in a peacemaking role under Chapter VII of its charter. The (CSG) from Fort Carson, Colorado, was alerted for Somalia in December 1992. The Brigade Staff included: CSM Forrest R. Guess, BDE XO Stephen Strobel, BDE S-1 Major Dan Bandy, BDE S-2 CPT Sherri Rhodus, BDE S-3 MAJ Greg Alderete, BDE SPO Bill Holstun, BDE S-4 MAJ Dona M. Thomas, the Command Chaplain was CPT Duncan Baugh and the Brigade Legal Advisor was CPT Jody M. Hehr. The Headquarters Company was commanded by CPT Tim Garipee and 1SG John L. Elsasser. |
Operation Restore Hope ended on 4 May 1993, when the United Nations assumed control of the humanitarian mission from American command. The 43rd CSG deployed to Somalia, under the Command of COL Wade H. McManus Jr., as a part of "Operation Continue Hope" from May 1993 to August 1993 to provide nation building and humanitarian intervention while protecting United Nations efforts. This rapidly escalated into urban warfare after the 5 June 1993 attack on a Pakistani Infantry Company and other citywide assaults. The 43rd CSG Headquarters and Headquarters Company were located at the former University of Mogadishu. |
Operation Restore Hope ended on 4 May 1993, when the United Nations assumed control of the humanitarian mission from American command. The 43rd CSG deployed to Somalia, under the Command of COL Wade H. McManus Jr., as a part of "Operation Continue Hope" from May 1993 to August 1993 to provide nation building and humanitarian intervention while protecting United Nations efforts. This rapidly escalated into urban warfare after the 5 June 1993 attack on a Pakistani Infantry Company and other citywide assaults. The 43rd CSG Headquarters and Headquarters Company were located at the former University of Mogadishu. |
Operation Restore Hope ended on 4 May 1993, when the United Nations assumed control of the humanitarian mission from American command. The 43rd CSG deployed to Somalia, under the Command of COL Wade H. McManus Jr., as a part of "Operation Continue Hope" from May 1993 to August 1993 to provide nation building and humanitarian intervention while protecting United Nations efforts. This rapidly escalated into urban warfare after the 5 June 1993 attack on a Pakistani Infantry Company and other citywide assaults. The 43rd CSG Headquarters and Headquarters Company were located at the former University of Mogadishu. |
Operation Restore Hope ended on 4 May 1993, when the United Nations assumed control of the humanitarian mission from American command. The 43rd CSG deployed to Somalia, under the Command of COL Wade H. McManus Jr., as a part of "Operation Continue Hope" from May 1993 to August 1993 to provide nation building and humanitarian intervention while protecting United Nations efforts. This rapidly escalated into urban warfare after the 5 June 1993 attack on a Pakistani Infantry Company and other citywide assaults. The 43rd CSG Headquarters and Headquarters Company were located at the former University of Mogadishu. |
Operation Restore Hope was declared a success in May 1993 and President Clinton celebrated on the White House lawn with Marine Corps Lieutenant General Robert B. Johnston and other Somalia veterans. On 10 May 1993 the 43rd CSG's main body departed Colorado Springs, Colorado on a chartered Boeing 747 from Peterson Air Force Base with layovers in Ireland and Egypt. Operation Continue Hope began that same month with the continued theater service of 4000 servicemen and women. On 5 June 1993, Somali National Alliance forces ambushed and killed 24 Pakistani soldiers assigned to UNOSOM II. Another 44 were wounded. In retaliation, the United Nations Security Council authorized the U.S. and multinational forces to launch ground and air attacks on Aidid's headquarters and strongholds in Mogadishu. The UN's special envoy in Somalia called for Aidid's arrest, but UN forces were unable to accomplish this. On 8 August Somali Guerillas detonated a mine under a passing U.S. Military Police (MP) vehicle on Jialle-Siaad Street in the Medina district of Mogadishu killing four U.S. MPs task organized to the 43rd CGS (Sgt. Christopher Hilgert, 27, of Bloomington, Ind., Specialist Mark Gutting, 25, of Grand Rapids, Mich., and Specialist Keith Pearson, 25, of Tavares, Fla., all of the 977th Military Police Company from Fort Riley, Kan., and Sgt. Ronald Richerson, 24, of Portage, Ind., of the 300th Military Police Company, commanded by Captain Dave Farlow, from Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.) This single, highly effect, attack infamously ushered in a new tactical era of the Improvised Explosive Device (IED). After the death of 18 U.S. soldiers in a firefight with forces loyal to Aidid in October 1993, the United States increased the size of its force in Somalia but withdraw by 31 March 1994. The last remaining U.S. personnel weren't withdrawn until a year later. |
Operation Restore Hope was declared a success in May 1993 and President Clinton celebrated on the White House lawn with Marine Corps Lieutenant General Robert B. Johnston and other Somalia veterans. On 10 May 1993 the 43rd CSG's main body departed Colorado Springs, Colorado on a chartered Boeing 747 from Peterson Air Force Base with layovers in Ireland and Egypt. Operation Continue Hope began that same month with the continued theater service of 4000 servicemen and women. On 5 June 1993, Somali National Alliance forces ambushed and killed 24 Pakistani soldiers assigned to UNOSOM II. Another 44 were wounded. In retaliation, the United Nations Security Council authorized the U.S. and multinational forces to launch ground and air attacks on Aidid's headquarters and strongholds in Mogadishu. The UN's special envoy in Somalia called for Aidid's arrest, but UN forces were unable to accomplish this. On 8 August Somali Guerillas detonated a mine under a passing U.S. Military Police (MP) vehicle on Jialle-Siaad Street in the Medina district of Mogadishu killing four U.S. MPs task organized to the 43rd CGS (Sgt. Christopher Hilgert, 27, of Bloomington, Ind., Specialist Mark Gutting, 25, of Grand Rapids, Mich., and Specialist Keith Pearson, 25, of Tavares, Fla., all of the 977th Military Police Company from Fort Riley, Kan., and Sgt. Ronald Richerson, 24, of Portage, Ind., of the 300th Military Police Company, commanded by Captain Dave Farlow, from Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.) This single, highly effect, attack infamously ushered in a new tactical era of the Improvised Explosive Device (IED). After the death of 18 U.S. soldiers in a firefight with forces loyal to Aidid in October 1993, the United States increased the size of its force in Somalia but withdraw by 31 March 1994. The last remaining U.S. personnel weren't withdrawn until a year later. |
Operation Restore Hope was declared a success in May 1993 and President Clinton celebrated on the White House lawn with Marine Corps Lieutenant General Robert B. Johnston and other Somalia veterans. On 10 May 1993 the 43rd CSG's main body departed Colorado Springs, Colorado on a chartered Boeing 747 from Peterson Air Force Base with layovers in Ireland and Egypt. Operation Continue Hope began that same month with the continued theater service of 4000 servicemen and women. On 5 June 1993, Somali National Alliance forces ambushed and killed 24 Pakistani soldiers assigned to UNOSOM II. Another 44 were wounded. In retaliation, the United Nations Security Council authorized the U.S. and multinational forces to launch ground and air attacks on Aidid's headquarters and strongholds in Mogadishu. The UN's special envoy in Somalia called for Aidid's arrest, but UN forces were unable to accomplish this. On 8 August Somali Guerillas detonated a mine under a passing U.S. Military Police (MP) vehicle on Jialle-Siaad Street in the Medina district of Mogadishu killing four U.S. MPs task organized to the 43rd CGS (Sgt. Christopher Hilgert, 27, of Bloomington, Ind., Specialist Mark Gutting, 25, of Grand Rapids, Mich., and Specialist Keith Pearson, 25, of Tavares, Fla., all of the 977th Military Police Company from Fort Riley, Kan., and Sgt. Ronald Richerson, 24, of Portage, Ind., of the 300th Military Police Company, commanded by Captain Dave Farlow, from Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.) This single, highly effect, attack infamously ushered in a new tactical era of the Improvised Explosive Device (IED). After the death of 18 U.S. soldiers in a firefight with forces loyal to Aidid in October 1993, the United States increased the size of its force in Somalia but withdraw by 31 March 1994. The last remaining U.S. personnel weren't withdrawn until a year later. |
Operation Restore Hope was declared a success in May 1993 and President Clinton celebrated on the White House lawn with Marine Corps Lieutenant General Robert B. Johnston and other Somalia veterans. On 10 May 1993 the 43rd CSG's main body departed Colorado Springs, Colorado on a chartered Boeing 747 from Peterson Air Force Base with layovers in Ireland and Egypt. Operation Continue Hope began that same month with the continued theater service of 4000 servicemen and women. On 5 June 1993, Somali National Alliance forces ambushed and killed 24 Pakistani soldiers assigned to UNOSOM II. Another 44 were wounded. In retaliation, the United Nations Security Council authorized the U.S. and multinational forces to launch ground and air attacks on Aidid's headquarters and strongholds in Mogadishu. The UN's special envoy in Somalia called for Aidid's arrest, but UN forces were unable to accomplish this. On 8 August Somali Guerillas detonated a mine under a passing U.S. Military Police (MP) vehicle on Jialle-Siaad Street in the Medina district of Mogadishu killing four U.S. MPs task organized to the 43rd CGS (Sgt. Christopher Hilgert, 27, of Bloomington, Ind., Specialist Mark Gutting, 25, of Grand Rapids, Mich., and Specialist Keith Pearson, 25, of Tavares, Fla., all of the 977th Military Police Company from Fort Riley, Kan., and Sgt. Ronald Richerson, 24, of Portage, Ind., of the 300th Military Police Company, commanded by Captain Dave Farlow, from Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.) This single, highly effect, attack infamously ushered in a new tactical era of the Improvised Explosive Device (IED). After the death of 18 U.S. soldiers in a firefight with forces loyal to Aidid in October 1993, the United States increased the size of its force in Somalia but withdraw by 31 March 1994. The last remaining U.S. personnel weren't withdrawn until a year later. |
The 43rd CSG was awarded the 3rd Army (ARCENT) Shoulder Sleeve Insignia, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (30 Consecutive or 60 Non-consecutive Days) and the United Nations Somalia Service Medal (90 days Service) or the United Nations Medal (mutually exclusive) and four months of combat service to be applied towards a combat service stripe. COL McManus retired from the Army in 2004 as the Commander of US Army Field Support Command, at the rank of major general. For additional information on the 43rd CSG deployment download "The Basement of Hell" by Greg Alderete. The 43rd Corps Support Group was redesignated as the 43rd Area Support Group on 16 April 1994. |
The 43rd CSG was awarded the 3rd Army (ARCENT) Shoulder Sleeve Insignia, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (30 Consecutive or 60 Non-consecutive Days) and the United Nations Somalia Service Medal (90 days Service) or the United Nations Medal (mutually exclusive) and four months of combat service to be applied towards a combat service stripe. COL McManus retired from the Army in 2004 as the Commander of US Army Field Support Command, at the rank of major general. For additional information on the 43rd CSG deployment download "The Basement of Hell" by Greg Alderete. The 43rd Corps Support Group was redesignated as the 43rd Area Support Group on 16 April 1994. |
The 43rd CSG was awarded the 3rd Army (ARCENT) Shoulder Sleeve Insignia, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (30 Consecutive or 60 Non-consecutive Days) and the United Nations Somalia Service Medal (90 days Service) or the United Nations Medal (mutually exclusive) and four months of combat service to be applied towards a combat service stripe. COL McManus retired from the Army in 2004 as the Commander of US Army Field Support Command, at the rank of major general. For additional information on the 43rd CSG deployment download "The Basement of Hell" by Greg Alderete. The 43rd Corps Support Group was redesignated as the 43rd Area Support Group on 16 April 1994. |
The 43rd CSG was awarded the 3rd Army (ARCENT) Shoulder Sleeve Insignia, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (30 Consecutive or 60 Non-consecutive Days) and the United Nations Somalia Service Medal (90 days Service) or the United Nations Medal (mutually exclusive) and four months of combat service to be applied towards a combat service stripe. COL McManus retired from the Army in 2004 as the Commander of US Army Field Support Command, at the rank of major general. For additional information on the 43rd CSG deployment download "The Basement of Hell" by Greg Alderete. The 43rd Corps Support Group was redesignated as the 43rd Area Support Group on 16 April 1994. |
Since the earliest times Greenwich has had associations with the sea and navigation. It was a landing place for the Romans, Henry VIII lived here, the Navy has roots on the waterfront, and Charles II founded the Royal Observatory in 1675 for "finding the longitude of places". The home of Greenwich Mean Time and the Prime Meridian since 1884, Greenwich has long been a centre for astronomical study, while navigators across the world have set their clocks according to its time of day. The Museum has the most important holdings in the world on the history of Britain at sea comprising more than two million items, including maritime art (both British and 17th-century Dutch), cartography, manuscripts including official public records, ship models and plans, scientific and navigational instruments, instruments for time-keeping and astronomy (based at the Observatory). Its holdings including paintings relating to Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson and Captain James Cook. |
Since the earliest times Greenwich has had associations with the sea and navigation. It was a landing place for the Romans, Henry VIII lived here, the Navy has roots on the waterfront, and Charles II founded the Royal Observatory in 1675 for "finding the longitude of places". The home of Greenwich Mean Time and the Prime Meridian since 1884, Greenwich has long been a centre for astronomical study, while navigators across the world have set their clocks according to its time of day. The Museum has the most important holdings in the world on the history of Britain at sea comprising more than two million items, including maritime art (both British and 17th-century Dutch), cartography, manuscripts including official public records, ship models and plans, scientific and navigational instruments, instruments for time-keeping and astronomy (based at the Observatory). Its holdings including paintings relating to Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson and Captain James Cook. |
Since the earliest times Greenwich has had associations with the sea and navigation. It was a landing place for the Romans, Henry VIII lived here, the Navy has roots on the waterfront, and Charles II founded the Royal Observatory in 1675 for "finding the longitude of places". The home of Greenwich Mean Time and the Prime Meridian since 1884, Greenwich has long been a centre for astronomical study, while navigators across the world have set their clocks according to its time of day. The Museum has the most important holdings in the world on the history of Britain at sea comprising more than two million items, including maritime art (both British and 17th-century Dutch), cartography, manuscripts including official public records, ship models and plans, scientific and navigational instruments, instruments for time-keeping and astronomy (based at the Observatory). Its holdings including paintings relating to Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson and Captain James Cook. |
Since the earliest times Greenwich has had associations with the sea and navigation. It was a landing place for the Romans, Henry VIII lived here, the Navy has roots on the waterfront, and Charles II founded the Royal Observatory in 1675 for "finding the longitude of places". The home of Greenwich Mean Time and the Prime Meridian since 1884, Greenwich has long been a centre for astronomical study, while navigators across the world have set their clocks according to its time of day. The Museum has the most important holdings in the world on the history of Britain at sea comprising more than two million items, including maritime art (both British and 17th-century Dutch), cartography, manuscripts including official public records, ship models and plans, scientific and navigational instruments, instruments for time-keeping and astronomy (based at the Observatory). Its holdings including paintings relating to Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson and Captain James Cook. |
In late August 2018, several groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 relics that were an asset of the bankrupt Premier Exhibitions. Eventually, the National Maritime Museum, Titanic Belfast and Titanic Foundation Limited, as well as National Museums Northern Ireland, joined together as a consortium that was raising money to purchase the 5,500 artifacts. The group intended to keep all of the items together as a single exhibit. The oceanographer Robert Ballard said that he favoured this bid as it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where the "Titanic" was built) and in Greenwich. The museums were critical of the bid process set by the Bankruptcy Court in Jacksonville, Florida. The minimum bid for the auction on 11 October 2018 was set at US$21.5 million (£16.5m) and the consortium did not have enough funding to meet that amount. |
In late August 2018, several groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 relics that were an asset of the bankrupt Premier Exhibitions. Eventually, the National Maritime Museum, Titanic Belfast and Titanic Foundation Limited, as well as National Museums Northern Ireland, joined together as a consortium that was raising money to purchase the 5,500 artifacts. The group intended to keep all of the items together as a single exhibit. The oceanographer Robert Ballard said that he favoured this bid as it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where the "Titanic" was built) and in Greenwich. The museums were critical of the bid process set by the Bankruptcy Court in Jacksonville, Florida. The minimum bid for the auction on 11 October 2018 was set at US$21.5 million (£16.5m) and the consortium did not have enough funding to meet that amount. |
In late August 2018, several groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 relics that were an asset of the bankrupt Premier Exhibitions. Eventually, the National Maritime Museum, Titanic Belfast and Titanic Foundation Limited, as well as National Museums Northern Ireland, joined together as a consortium that was raising money to purchase the 5,500 artifacts. The group intended to keep all of the items together as a single exhibit. The oceanographer Robert Ballard said that he favoured this bid as it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where the "Titanic" was built) and in Greenwich. The museums were critical of the bid process set by the Bankruptcy Court in Jacksonville, Florida. The minimum bid for the auction on 11 October 2018 was set at US$21.5 million (£16.5m) and the consortium did not have enough funding to meet that amount. |
In late August 2018, several groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 relics that were an asset of the bankrupt Premier Exhibitions. Eventually, the National Maritime Museum, Titanic Belfast and Titanic Foundation Limited, as well as National Museums Northern Ireland, joined together as a consortium that was raising money to purchase the 5,500 artifacts. The group intended to keep all of the items together as a single exhibit. The oceanographer Robert Ballard said that he favoured this bid as it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where the "Titanic" was built) and in Greenwich. The museums were critical of the bid process set by the Bankruptcy Court in Jacksonville, Florida. The minimum bid for the auction on 11 October 2018 was set at US$21.5 million (£16.5m) and the consortium did not have enough funding to meet that amount. |
As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the NPU, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students Association to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, which post he used to promote African nationalism. |
As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the NPU, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students Association to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, which post he used to promote African nationalism. |
As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the NPU, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students Association to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, which post he used to promote African nationalism. |
As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the NPU, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students Association to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, which post he used to promote African nationalism. |
As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the NPU, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students Association to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, which post he used to promote African nationalism. |
As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the NPU, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students Association to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, which post he used to promote African nationalism. |
The aim of founding a hostel was taken directly from USAD and the NPU. Many African students in Britain found that, due to racism, it was difficult to secure satisfactory lodgings. While the Colonial Office showed some interest in establishing such a hostel, WASU was keen to maintain control of the project, and in 1929, Solanke left for a fundraising journey through West Africa. Despite this, the Colonial Office assembled a secret committee to plan for a hostel under its control, and attempted to secure private funding for its construction. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet " The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain". |
The aim of founding a hostel was taken directly from USAD and the NPU. Many African students in Britain found that, due to racism, it was difficult to secure satisfactory lodgings. While the Colonial Office showed some interest in establishing such a hostel, WASU was keen to maintain control of the project, and in 1929, Solanke left for a fundraising journey through West Africa. Despite this, the Colonial Office assembled a secret committee to plan for a hostel under its control, and attempted to secure private funding for its construction. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet " The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain". |
The aim of founding a hostel was taken directly from USAD and the NPU. Many African students in Britain found that, due to racism, it was difficult to secure satisfactory lodgings. While the Colonial Office showed some interest in establishing such a hostel, WASU was keen to maintain control of the project, and in 1929, Solanke left for a fundraising journey through West Africa. Despite this, the Colonial Office assembled a secret committee to plan for a hostel under its control, and attempted to secure private funding for its construction. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet " The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain". |
The aim of founding a hostel was taken directly from USAD and the NPU. Many African students in Britain found that, due to racism, it was difficult to secure satisfactory lodgings. While the Colonial Office showed some interest in establishing such a hostel, WASU was keen to maintain control of the project, and in 1929, Solanke left for a fundraising journey through West Africa. Despite this, the Colonial Office assembled a secret committee to plan for a hostel under its control, and attempted to secure private funding for its construction. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet " The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain". |
The aim of founding a hostel was taken directly from USAD and the NPU. Many African students in Britain found that, due to racism, it was difficult to secure satisfactory lodgings. While the Colonial Office showed some interest in establishing such a hostel, WASU was keen to maintain control of the project, and in 1929, Solanke left for a fundraising journey through West Africa. Despite this, the Colonial Office assembled a secret committee to plan for a hostel under its control, and attempted to secure private funding for its construction. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet " The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain". |
The aim of founding a hostel was taken directly from USAD and the NPU. Many African students in Britain found that, due to racism, it was difficult to secure satisfactory lodgings. While the Colonial Office showed some interest in establishing such a hostel, WASU was keen to maintain control of the project, and in 1929, Solanke left for a fundraising journey through West Africa. Despite this, the Colonial Office assembled a secret committee to plan for a hostel under its control, and attempted to secure private funding for its construction. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet " The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain". |
WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, the group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. |
WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, the group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. |
WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, the group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. |
WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, the group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. |
WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, the group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. |
WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, the group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. |
By 1932, when Solanke returned to Britain, "Wasu" had ceased to appear, and membership had fallen amid disputes between Nigerian and Gold Coast members. However, he had raised sufficient funds to open a hostel in Camden in March 1933 named "Africa House". In addition to providing accommodation for students, the hostel also offered rooms to West African visitors to London, and it housed reference materials on West Africa. The new hostel did nothing to settle the disputes within WASU, and Solanke was accused of wasting money while in Africa, and of attempting to personally control the new lodgings. Almost all the Gold Coast Students' Association (GCSA) members left WASU, and even an intervention by William Ofori Atta was unable to settle matters. |
By 1932, when Solanke returned to Britain, "Wasu" had ceased to appear, and membership had fallen amid disputes between Nigerian and Gold Coast members. However, he had raised sufficient funds to open a hostel in Camden in March 1933 named "Africa House". In addition to providing accommodation for students, the hostel also offered rooms to West African visitors to London, and it housed reference materials on West Africa. The new hostel did nothing to settle the disputes within WASU, and Solanke was accused of wasting money while in Africa, and of attempting to personally control the new lodgings. Almost all the Gold Coast Students' Association (GCSA) members left WASU, and even an intervention by William Ofori Atta was unable to settle matters. |
The Colonial Office determined to open a rival hostel, at which political discussion could be monitored and discouraged. WASU opposed the scheme, and formed an "Africa House Defence Committee", including Reginald Bridgeman of the LAI, also gaining the support of the National Council for Civil Liberties and Paul Robeson, who was awarded the title "Babasale of the Union". Aggrey House opened in October 1934, but a WASU-led boycott left it unfilled, until the Colonial Office offered WASU official recognition and financial support to run Africa House. In financial difficulties, WASU accepted the deal, and also accepted funding from organisations such as the United African Company. |
The Colonial Office determined to open a rival hostel, at which political discussion could be monitored and discouraged. WASU opposed the scheme, and formed an "Africa House Defence Committee", including Reginald Bridgeman of the LAI, also gaining the support of the National Council for Civil Liberties and Paul Robeson, who was awarded the title "Babasale of the Union". Aggrey House opened in October 1934, but a WASU-led boycott left it unfilled, until the Colonial Office offered WASU official recognition and financial support to run Africa House. In financial difficulties, WASU accepted the deal, and also accepted funding from organisations such as the United African Company. |
In July 1938, with grants from various West African governments and British companies, WASU opened a new hostel, on Camden Square. This also solved the union's financial problems, and enabled it to step up its campaigning activity. WASU became increasingly identified as an anti-colonial group, and it called for dominion status and universal suffrage for the West African colonies. Clement Attlee gave a speech to the union in which he suggested that the Atlantic Charter would apply to all nations, effectively endorsing WASU's aims, but Winston Churchill insisted that self-determination could only apply to European nations. |
In July 1938, with grants from various West African governments and British companies, WASU opened a new hostel, on Camden Square. This also solved the union's financial problems, and enabled it to step up its campaigning activity. WASU became increasingly identified as an anti-colonial group, and it called for dominion status and universal suffrage for the West African colonies. Clement Attlee gave a speech to the union in which he suggested that the Atlantic Charter would apply to all nations, effectively endorsing WASU's aims, but Winston Churchill insisted that self-determination could only apply to European nations. |
In the mid-1940s, Solanke returned to West Africa to undertake further fundraising, with H. O. Davies becoming acting Secretary-General. WASU also affiliated to the World Youth Movement, and in 1946 it held a joint conference with Kwame Nkrumah's West African National Secretariat. This event agreed a platform of anti-imperialism and socialism. Nkrumah also became Vice President of WASU. The following year, WASU called for an immediate decision on independence for the West African colonies, and criticised the Labour government for its failure to deliver this. |
In the mid-1940s, Solanke returned to West Africa to undertake further fundraising, with H. O. Davies becoming acting Secretary-General. WASU also affiliated to the World Youth Movement, and in 1946 it held a joint conference with Kwame Nkrumah's West African National Secretariat. This event agreed a platform of anti-imperialism and socialism. Nkrumah also became Vice President of WASU. The following year, WASU called for an immediate decision on independence for the West African colonies, and criticised the Labour government for its failure to deliver this. |
Solanke returned from West Africa at the end of the decade, with sufficient funding for a new hostel to open on the Chelsea Embankment. However, he fell out with WASU's executive, each accusing the other of excessive expenditure, and in 1949 he stepped down from his positions in the group. In the 1951 elections to WASU's executive, he organised an anti-communist slate, which failed to take control from the largely communist leadership of Joe Appiah and Ade Ademola. In 1952, WASU determined to close their Camden hostel, but Solanke instead took control of it. |
Solanke returned from West Africa at the end of the decade, with sufficient funding for a new hostel to open on the Chelsea Embankment. However, he fell out with WASU's executive, each accusing the other of excessive expenditure, and in 1949 he stepped down from his positions in the group. In the 1951 elections to WASU's executive, he organised an anti-communist slate, which failed to take control from the largely communist leadership of Joe Appiah and Ade Ademola. In 1952, WASU determined to close their Camden hostel, but Solanke instead took control of it. |
In 1952, WASU began publication of "WASU News Service", as an openly Marxist replacement for "Wasu". Following further financial problems, it sold its hostel on the Chelsea Embankment and opened cheaper premises on Warrington Crescent in 1956. The same year, it underwent a major reorganisation and passed a motion disassociating it from all political organisations. In 1958, it joined the Committee of African Organisations and lost importance, but it remained active into the early 1960s. The National Union of Nigerian Students was one of the organisations set up in the wake of the demise of WASU. |
In 1952, WASU began publication of "WASU News Service", as an openly Marxist replacement for "Wasu". Following further financial problems, it sold its hostel on the Chelsea Embankment and opened cheaper premises on Warrington Crescent in 1956. The same year, it underwent a major reorganisation and passed a motion disassociating it from all political organisations. In 1958, it joined the Committee of African Organisations and lost importance, but it remained active into the early 1960s. The National Union of Nigerian Students was one of the organisations set up in the wake of the demise of WASU. |
Since its inception, public K–12 has been debated and subject to several waves of reform throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. In the 1980s, Reagan's 'A Nation at Risk' initiative included provisions requiring public education to be evaluated based on standards, and teacher pay to be based on evaluations. In the 1990s, the Goals 2000 Act and the “Improving America’s Schools” act provided additional federal funding to states to bolster local K–12 systems. This was followed in the 2000s by a rigorous uptick in standards-based evaluations with the No Child Left Behind Act, and the Race to the Top Act. In 2015, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which returned some power to state governments with respect to evaluations and standards. |
Since its inception, public K–12 has been debated and subject to several waves of reform throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. In the 1980s, Reagan's 'A Nation at Risk' initiative included provisions requiring public education to be evaluated based on standards, and teacher pay to be based on evaluations. In the 1990s, the Goals 2000 Act and the “Improving America’s Schools” act provided additional federal funding to states to bolster local K–12 systems. This was followed in the 2000s by a rigorous uptick in standards-based evaluations with the No Child Left Behind Act, and the Race to the Top Act. In 2015, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which returned some power to state governments with respect to evaluations and standards. |
Since its inception, public K–12 has been debated and subject to several waves of reform throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. In the 1980s, Reagan's 'A Nation at Risk' initiative included provisions requiring public education to be evaluated based on standards, and teacher pay to be based on evaluations. In the 1990s, the Goals 2000 Act and the “Improving America’s Schools” act provided additional federal funding to states to bolster local K–12 systems. This was followed in the 2000s by a rigorous uptick in standards-based evaluations with the No Child Left Behind Act, and the Race to the Top Act. In 2015, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which returned some power to state governments with respect to evaluations and standards. |
Since its inception, public K–12 has been debated and subject to several waves of reform throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. In the 1980s, Reagan's 'A Nation at Risk' initiative included provisions requiring public education to be evaluated based on standards, and teacher pay to be based on evaluations. In the 1990s, the Goals 2000 Act and the “Improving America’s Schools” act provided additional federal funding to states to bolster local K–12 systems. This was followed in the 2000s by a rigorous uptick in standards-based evaluations with the No Child Left Behind Act, and the Race to the Top Act. In 2015, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which returned some power to state governments with respect to evaluations and standards. |
The term is often used as a kind of shorthand to collectively refer to the entirety of primary and secondary education, as it is much easier than having to say one is referring in the aggregate to elementary, middle, and high school education. However, it is rare for a school district to actually teach all K–12 grades at one unified school campus. Even the smallest school districts try to maintain, at a minimum, a two-tier distinction between an elementary school (K–8) and a high school (9–12). |
The term is often used as a kind of shorthand to collectively refer to the entirety of primary and secondary education, as it is much easier than having to say one is referring in the aggregate to elementary, middle, and high school education. However, it is rare for a school district to actually teach all K–12 grades at one unified school campus. Even the smallest school districts try to maintain, at a minimum, a two-tier distinction between an elementary school (K–8) and a high school (9–12). |
The ASCCC Chancellor's Office Career Technical Education (CTE) Unit of the Economic Development and Workforce Preparation Division focuses on program coordination and advocacy, policy development and coordination with K–18 workforce preparation and career and technical education systems. Responsible for the implementation of the Vocational and Technical Education Act (VTEA), managing and coordinating activities that impact other interagency and intra-agency objectives. In addition, the CTE Unit is also responsible for the development, dissemination, and implementation of the California State Plan and the annual performance reports. |
The ASCCC Chancellor's Office Career Technical Education (CTE) Unit of the Economic Development and Workforce Preparation Division focuses on program coordination and advocacy, policy development and coordination with K–18 workforce preparation and career and technical education systems. Responsible for the implementation of the Vocational and Technical Education Act (VTEA), managing and coordinating activities that impact other interagency and intra-agency objectives. In addition, the CTE Unit is also responsible for the development, dissemination, and implementation of the California State Plan and the annual performance reports. |
The method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai. The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Chera Tamils by the 5th century BC. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama and Samanalawewa, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period. |
The method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai. The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Chera Tamils by the 5th century BC. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama and Samanalawewa, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period. |