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7862242 | 1 | Black people have been 28\% of those killed by police since 2013 despite being only 13\% of the population. Over the years, countless Black people have been murdered by police, proving that the system is corrupt and in desperate need of reform. The claim that policing in the United States originated from slave patrol should be taken with a grain of salt, as it is largely disputed. See Snopes for more information. | Black people have been 28\% of those killed by police since 2013 despite being only 13\% of the population. This number however does not include that black people are over represented in crimes, which means they have a higher chance of running into police, see Black vs white homicides | [
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7862242 | 2 | Black people have been 28\% of those killed by police since 2013 despite being only 13\% of the population. This number however does not include that black people are over represented in crimes , which means they have a higher chance of running into police, see Black vs white homicides | Black people have been 28\% of those killed by police since 2013 despite being only 13\% of the population. This number however does not factor that black people are over represented in violent crime , which means they have a higher chance of negative encounters with the police, see Black vs white homicides | [
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7866648 | 1 | The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a Journal “ Socio-Analysis ” in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the Centre for Socio-Analysis in Melbourne . Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute for the Study of Social Systems (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute and Tavistock Clinic in London, the Grubb Institute and OPUS , both in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The Journal “ Socio-Analysis ” is now published by Group Relations Australia. Organisational dreaming Current developments in socio-analysis include Bain’s discovery of Organisational Dreaming,Bain A.,“Organisational Dreaming”, in PACAWA Newsletter, February, 2006. Bain A. “The Organisation Containing and Being Contained by Dreams: The Organisation as a Container for Dreams (1)” in Infinite Possibilities of Social Dreaming in Systems, ed. Lawrence W., Karnac, London,2007. which is based on the observation that dreams are “container sensitive”, and that the dreams shared by people within an organisation during a project will reflect organisational realities that are the “unexpressed known” within the organisation.Organisational Dreaming is a part of the generic Social Dreaming | The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a Journal “ Socioanalysis ” in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists , the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA) . Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute for the Study of Social Systems (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute and Tavistock Clinic in London, the Grubb Institute and OPUS , both in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The Journal “ Socioanalysis ” is now published by Group Relations Australia. Organisational dreaming Current developments in socio-analysis include Bain’s discovery of Organisational Dreaming,Bain A.,“Organisational Dreaming”, in PACAWA Newsletter, February, 2006. Bain A. “The Organisation Containing and Being Contained by Dreams: The Organisation as a Container for Dreams (1)” in Infinite Possibilities of Social Dreaming in Systems, ed. Lawrence W., Karnac, London,2007. which is based on the observation that dreams are “container sensitive”, and that the dreams shared by people within an organisation during a project will reflect organisational realities that are the “unexpressed known” within the organisation.Organisational Dreaming is a part of the generic Social Dreaming | [
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7866648 | 2 | These insights of Bion together with theories of Kurt Lewin led to the first Group Relations Conference in 1957 that was sponsored by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations and Leicester University, and directed by Eric Trist.Trist, E., and Sofer, C., Exploration in Group Relations, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1959 Group Relations Conferences typically explore the effects of group and organisational dynamics on how individuals take up authority and leadership in this temporary institution, and in their work. The “Leicester” Conference as it came to be known under the leadership of A.K. Rice and colleagues such as Pierre Turquet, Eric Miller,Eric Miller as director of the Group Relations Program in the Tavistock Institute since 1969 developed the design of the so called Nazareth-Conferences. See: Robert Gosling, and Bruce Reed stimulated similar explorations and enterprises in numerous countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, France, Éire, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Bulgaria, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Israel, India, and Australia. Organisations The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a Journal “Socioanalysis” in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists, the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA). Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute for the Study of Social Systems (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute and Tavistock Clinicin London , the Grubb Institute and OPUS , both in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The Journal “Socioanalysis” is now published by Group Relations Australia. External links Centre for Socio-Analysis in Australia. Grubb Institute in UK. Group Relations Australia International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations IPTAR National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA) OPUS, UK. Social Dreaming Institute Tavistock Clinic Tavistock Institute University of Wuppertal PRO consult the Netherlands The A.K. Rice Institute for the Study of Social Systems (AKRI) in USA | These insights of Bion together with theories of Kurt Lewin led to the first Group Relations Conference in 1957 that was sponsored by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations and Leicester University, and directed by Eric Trist.Trist, E., and Sofer, C., Exploration in Group Relations, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1959 Group Relations Conferences typically explore the effects of group and organisational dynamics on how individuals take up authority and leadership in this temporary institution, and in their work. The “Leicester” Conference as it came to be known under the leadership of A.K. Rice and colleagues such as Pierre Turquet, Eric Miller,Eric Miller as director of the Group Relations Program in the Tavistock Institute since 1969 developed the design of the so called Nazareth-Conferences. See: Robert Gosling, and Bruce Reed stimulated similar explorations and enterprises in numerous countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, France, Éire, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Bulgaria, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Israel, India, and Australia. Organisation Dynamics The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a Journal “Socioanalysis” in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists, the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA). Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute , Tavistock Clinic , the Grubb Institute and OPUS , all in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The Journal “Socioanalysis” is now published by Group Relations Australia. External links Grubb Institute in UK. Group Relations Australia International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations IPTAR National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA) OPUS, UK. Social Dreaming Institute Tavistock Clinic Tavistock Institute University of Wuppertal PRO consult the Netherlands The A.K. Rice Institute for the Study of Social Systems (AKRI) in USA | [
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7866648 | 3 | Socio-analysis is the activity of exploration, consultancy, and action research which combines and synthesises methodologies and theories derived from psychoanalysis, group relations, social systems thinking, organisational behaviour, and social dreaming.Bain A., “ On Socio-Analysis ” Socio-Analysis, Vol.1 No.1 June 1999 Anxiety, its exploration, and understanding are of central concern to psychoanalysis, which was founded to explore the mental problems of medical patients. While socio-analytic exploration frequently uncovers systemic pain, (of which anxiety is a part), the “pain” is a guide to transformation of the system as a whole with all its potentialities for growth. Joshua Bain has suggested that the emphasis on anxiety is limiting, and that a more appropriate paradigm for socio-analysis is wonder.Bain J., “ From Anxiety to Wonder: A New Paradigm for Socio-Analysis ” in Centre for Socio-Analysis Newsletter No.1, February 2006. Wonder was regarded by Plato as the beginning of philosophy, and its link to exploration, creativity, and the growth of capacities of human beings, would seem to make it the appropriate starting point for socio-analysis as well.Bain A., “ Sources of Authority: The Double Threads of Anxiety and Wonder ” in Dare to Think the Unthought Known?, Ed. Ajeet N. Mathur, Aivoainut Oy, Tampere, Finland. March 2006. “ Wonder is the special affection of a philosopher; for philosophy has no other starting point than this; and it is a happy genealogy which makes Iris the daughter of Thaumas ” . Theaetetus, 155D The saying “ When wonder ceases, knowledge begins ” , which is attributed to Sir Francis Bacon, is especially apt for socio-analysis with its emphasis on always explore, rather than sit tight on what is supposedly known. Socio-analysis has its roots in the first Northfield Experiment carried out by Wilfred Bion and John Rickman, and reported in the Lancet in 1943,Bion, W.R., and Rickman, J., "Intra-group Tensions in Therapy", Lancet, 27 November 1943 and later by Bion in the Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic in 1946.Bion, W.R., "The Leaderless Group Project", Bull. Meninger Clinic, 10, 3: 77 - 8l .1946 Bion is generally regarded as the father of socio-analysis (although the word was not used in those days). Wilfred Bion was born in India in 1897 and educated at Bishop Stortford College in England. During the First World War he commanded a tank on the Western Front and was decorated for bravery: Distinguished Service Order, and the Legion of Honour. After studying History at Oxford University, and a stint teaching History at his old school, he began Medical training at University College Hospital in 1924 and qualified in 1930. He worked at the Tavistock Clinic in London before the Second World War, and started a personal psychoanalysis with John Rickman. After the Second World War he contributed to the formation of the Tavistock Institute. He had a second psycho-analysis with Melanie Klein, and trained and qualified as a psychoanalyst. Bion was, and is, regarded by many people as a genius who made fundamental contributions to psychoanalysis, and to the understanding of groups. His stance of always pointing to the unknown, whether with a patient or with a group or in himself, was the realization of his genius. Northfield Hospital was a military hospital, situated in Birmingham, in the English Midlands, with the task of treating soldiers who had developed psychiatric problems, in order to get them back into the war. Together with John Rickman, Wilfred Bion introduced group meetings as the principal method of change for these patients.Harrison, T. Bion, Rickman, Foulkes and the Northfield Experiments. London: Jessica Kingsley, 2000Kraemer, S. "‘The dangers of this atmosphere’: a Quaker connection in the Tavistock Clinic’s development" History of the Human Sciences 2011; 24(2): 82–102 This Experiment , together with the Second Northfield Experiment associated with the innovations of S. H. Foulkes, Tom Main and Harold Bridger, contributed the following elements to the emerging discipline of socio-analysis: Attention to, and making hypotheses, and interpretations, about conscious and unconscious functioning at the level of the group. A group was no longer regarded as simply an aggregate of individuals, but as having its own intrinsic dynamics that required understanding and interpretation. The concept of working therapeutically with the “ institution as a whole", or the “ whole community". The idea of the “therapeutic community” which burgeoned after the Second World War, e.g. at the Menninger Clinic in Kansas, and the Cassel Hospital in London has its origins in Main’s work at Northfield.Main, T."The Concept of the Therapeutic Community: Variations and Vicissitudes", Group Analysis, 10, Suppl.1977 The significance of creating "transitional space" for therapy, action projects, and development, so that people, (in this case patients), are enabled to take up their own authority for task. Bridger pioneered this approach at Northfield through his celebrated “Club” , a space for patients to make of it what they wished to, without the use of the space being determined by hospital or military staff. Bridger continued to develop this approach to working with groups and organisations of all kinds after the War. The Northfield Experiments heralded a socio-analytic consultant role: one of exploration of individual, group, and organisational phenomena which are linked dynamically. The socio-analyst, as exemplified by the role Bion took at Northfield, and after the War in his group explorations at the Tavistock Clinic, works from a stance of “not knowing” with the courage, and fortitude, to pursue psychological truth. Bion’s exploration of group dynamics at the Tavistock Clinic in London after the war culminated in a seminal publication “ Experiences in Groups ” ,Bion, W.R. Experiences in Groups and Other Papers, London, Tavistock, 1961 which describes and analyses three basic assumptions that can be observed in group behaviour at different times: basic assumption dependency, basic assumption fight / flight, and basic assumption pairing. Basic assumptions operate unconsciously within groups at the same time a group may be engaged in a conscious work task – that Bion called a W group.Two other basic assumptions have contributed to understanding group behaviour: basic assumption “Oneness” discovered by Pierre Turquet in 1974. Turquet P, “ Leadership: The individual and the group ” in Gibbard G. et al. eds. The Large Group: Therapy and Dynamics. San Francisco and London. Jossey Bass, 1974. And basic assumption Me discovered by Gordon Lawrence and Alastair Bain in 1992. Lawrence W., Bain A., & Gould L., “ The Fifth Basic Assumption. ” Free Associations, London, Vol. 6, Part 1 (no. 37), 1996 The “Leicester” Conference as it came to be known under the leadership of A.K. Rice and colleagues such as Pierre Turquet, Eric Miller,Eric Miller as director of the Group Relations Program in the Tavistock Institute since 1969 developed the design of the so called Nazareth-Conferences. See: Robert Gosling, and Bruce Reed stimulated similar explorations and enterprises in numerous countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, France, Éire, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Bulgaria, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Israel, India, and Australia. A recent methodology for the exploration of social phenomena has been the discovery of social dreaming by Gordon Lawrence at the Tavistock Institute in 1982.Lawrence W. “ Ventures in Social Dreaming: The First Experience ” in Changes, Vol. 7, No.3, July 1989 Lawrence W. ed. Social Dreaming @ Work, London, Karnac, 1998. Lawrence W. ed. Experiences in Social Dreaming, London, Karnac, 2003 Social Dreaming is the activity of sharing dreams (night dreams), associations to the dreams, and connections between dreams, with others in a Matrix setting. The focus of social dreaming (unlike in psychoanalysis or dreaming groups) is not on the meaning of the dream for the individual dreamer, but regarding the dreams and associations as a way of exploring and making social meaning. Conferences to explore social dreaming have been held in Israel, the United States, Australia, India, and most European countries. Up until 1996 the work that has been described in this article went under different labels.e.g. Psycho-analytic Social Systems Thinking, Working in the Bion I Tavistock Tradition, Psychodynamic approaches to consultancy, System Psychodynamics. There was no one word that described the activities and the role. Alastair Bain suggested that the discipline should be called “ Socio-Analysis ” in 1996. Organisation Dynamics The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a Journal “Socioanalysis ” in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists, the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA). Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute, Tavistock Clinic, the Grubb Institute and OPUS, all in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The Journal “Socioanalysis ” is now published by Group Relations Australia. Organisational dreaming Current developments in socio-analysis include Bain’s discovery of Organisational Dreaming ,Bain A., “Organisational Dreaming” , in PACAWA Newsletter, February, 2006. Bain A. “ The Organisation Containing and Being Contained by Dreams: The Organisation as a Container for Dreams (1) ” in Infinite Possibilities of Social Dreaming in Systems, ed. Lawrence W., Karnac, London,2007. which is based on the observation that dreams are “container sensitive” , and that the dreams shared by people within an organisation during a project will reflect organisational realities that are the “unexpressed known” within the organisation.Organisational Dreaming is a part of the generic Social Dreaming The work of the Centre for Socio-Analysis has also led to a formulation of “authority” that is based in wonder and the sangha (Buddhist notion of “ people on the path ” ) in contrast to usual understandings that are based on the individual, anxiety, and hierarchy. | Socio-analysis is the activity of exploration, consultancy, and action research which combines and synthesises methodologies and theories derived from psychoanalysis, group relations, social systems thinking, organisational behaviour, and social dreaming.Bain A., " On Socio-Analysis " Socio-Analysis, Vol.1 No.1 June 1999 Anxiety, its exploration, and understanding are of central concern to psychoanalysis, which was founded to explore the mental problems of medical patients. While socio-analytic exploration frequently uncovers systemic pain, (of which anxiety is a part), the "pain" is a guide to transformation of the system as a whole with all its potentialities for growth. Joshua Bain has suggested that the emphasis on anxiety is limiting, and that a more appropriate paradigm for socio-analysis is wonder.Bain J., " From Anxiety to Wonder: A New Paradigm for Socio-Analysis " in Centre for Socio-Analysis Newsletter No.1, February 2006. Wonder was regarded by Plato as the beginning of philosophy, and its link to exploration, creativity, and the growth of capacities of human beings, would seem to make it the appropriate starting point for socio-analysis as well.Bain A., " Sources of Authority: The Double Threads of Anxiety and Wonder " in Dare to Think the Unthought Known?, Ed. Ajeet N. Mathur, Aivoainut Oy, Tampere, Finland. March 2006. " Wonder is the special affection of a philosopher; for philosophy has no other starting point than this; and it is a happy genealogy which makes Iris the daughter of Thaumas " . Theaetetus, 155D The saying " When wonder ceases, knowledge begins " , which is attributed to Sir Francis Bacon, is especially apt for socio-analysis with its emphasis on always explore, rather than sit tight on what is supposedly known. Socio-analysis has its roots in the first Northfield Experiment carried out by Wilfred Bion and John Rickman, and reported in the Lancet in 1943,Bion, W.R., and Rickman, J., "Intra-group Tensions in Therapy", Lancet, 27 November 1943 and later by Bion in the Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic in 1946.Bion, W.R., "The Leaderless Group Project", Bull. Meninger Clinic, 10, 3: 77-81 .1946 Bion is generally regarded as the father of socio-analysis (although the word was not used in those days). Wilfred Bion was born in India in 1897 and educated at Bishop 's Stortford College in England. During the First World War he commanded a tank on the Western Front and was decorated for bravery: Distinguished Service Order, and the Legion of Honour. After studying history at Oxford University, and a stint teaching history at his old school, he began medical training at University College Hospital in 1924 and qualified in 1930. He worked at the Tavistock Clinic in London before the Second World War, and started a personal psychoanalysis with John Rickman. After the Second World War he contributed to the formation of the Tavistock Institute. He had a second psycho-analysis with Melanie Klein, and trained and qualified as a psychoanalyst. Bion was, and is, regarded by many people as a genius who made fundamental contributions to psychoanalysis, and to the understanding of groups. His stance of always pointing to the unknown, whether with a patient or with a group or in himself, was the realization of his genius. Northfield Hospital was a military hospital, situated in Birmingham, in the English Midlands, with the task of treating soldiers who had developed psychiatric problems, in order to get them back into the war. Together with John Rickman, Wilfred Bion introduced group meetings as the principal method of change for these patients.Harrison, T. Bion, Rickman, Foulkes and the Northfield Experiments. London: Jessica Kingsley, 2000Kraemer, S. "‘The dangers of this atmosphere’: a Quaker connection in the Tavistock Clinic’s development" History of the Human Sciences 2011; 24(2): 82–102 This experiment , together with the Second Northfield Experiment associated with the innovations of S. H. Foulkes, Tom Main and Harold Bridger, contributed the following elements to the emerging discipline of socio-analysis: Attention to, and making hypotheses, and interpretations, about conscious and unconscious functioning at the level of the group. A group was no longer regarded as simply an aggregate of individuals, but as having its own intrinsic dynamics that required understanding and interpretation. The concept of working therapeutically with the " institution as a whole", or the " whole community". The idea of the "therapeutic community" which burgeoned after the Second World War, e.g. at the Menninger Clinic in Kansas, and the Cassel Hospital in London has its origins in Main’s work at Northfield.Main, T."The Concept of the Therapeutic Community: Variations and Vicissitudes", Group Analysis, 10, Suppl.1977 The significance of creating "transitional space" for therapy, action projects, and development, so that people, (in this case patients), are enabled to take up their own authority for task. Bridger pioneered this approach at Northfield through his celebrated "Club" , a space for patients to make of it what they wished to, without the use of the space being determined by hospital or military staff. Bridger continued to develop this approach to working with groups and organisations of all kinds after the War. The Northfield Experiments heralded a socio-analytic consultant role: one of exploration of individual, group, and organisational phenomena which are linked dynamically. The socio-analyst, as exemplified by the role Bion took at Northfield, and after the War in his group explorations at the Tavistock Clinic, works from a stance of "not knowing" with the courage, and fortitude, to pursue psychological truth. Bion’s exploration of group dynamics at the Tavistock Clinic in London after the war culminated in a seminal publication " Experiences in Groups " ,Bion, W.R. Experiences in Groups and Other Papers, London, Tavistock, 1961 which describes and analyses three basic assumptions that can be observed in group behaviour at different times: basic assumption dependency, basic assumption fight / flight, and basic assumption pairing. Basic assumptions operate unconsciously within groups at the same time a group may be engaged in a conscious work task – that Bion called a W group.Two other basic assumptions have contributed to understanding group behaviour: basic assumption "Oneness" discovered by Pierre Turquet in 1974. Turquet P, " Leadership: The individual and the group " in Gibbard G. et al. eds. The Large Group: Therapy and Dynamics. San Francisco and London. Jossey Bass, 1974. And basic assumption Me discovered by Gordon Lawrence and Alastair Bain in 1992. Lawrence W., Bain A., & Gould L., " The Fifth Basic Assumption. " Free Associations, London, Vol. 6, Part 1 (no. 37), 1996 The "Leicester" Conference as it came to be known under the leadership of A.K. Rice and colleagues such as Pierre Turquet, Eric Miller,Eric Miller as director of the Group Relations Program in the Tavistock Institute since 1969 developed the design of the so called Nazareth-Conferences. See: Robert Gosling, and Bruce Reed stimulated similar explorations and enterprises in numerous countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, France, Éire, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Bulgaria, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Israel, India, and Australia. A recent methodology for the exploration of social phenomena has been the discovery of social dreaming by Gordon Lawrence at the Tavistock Institute in 1982.Lawrence W. " Ventures in Social Dreaming: The First Experience " in Changes, Vol. 7, No.3, July 1989 Lawrence W. ed. Social Dreaming @ Work, London, Karnac, 1998. Lawrence W. ed. Experiences in Social Dreaming, London, Karnac, 2003 Social dreaming is the activity of sharing dreams (night dreams), associations to the dreams, and connections between dreams, with others in a Matrix setting. The focus of social dreaming (unlike in psychoanalysis or dreaming groups) is not on the meaning of the dream for the individual dreamer, but regarding the dreams and associations as a way of exploring and making social meaning. Conferences to explore social dreaming have been held in Israel, the United States, Australia, India, and most European countries. Up until 1996 the work that has been described in this article went under different labels.e.g. Psycho-analytic Social Systems Thinking, Working in the Bion I Tavistock Tradition, Psychodynamic approaches to consultancy, System Psychodynamics. There was no one word that described the activities and the role. Alastair Bain suggested that the discipline should be called " Socio-Analysis " in 1996. Organisation dynamics The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a journal Socioanalysis in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists, the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA). Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute, Tavistock Clinic, the Grubb Institute and OPUS, all in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The journal Socioanalysis is now published by Group Relations Australia. Organisational dreaming Current developments in socio-analysis include Bain’s discovery of organisational dreaming ,Bain A., "Organisational Dreaming" , in PACAWA Newsletter, February, 2006. Bain A. " The Organisation Containing and Being Contained by Dreams: The Organisation as a Container for Dreams (1) " in Infinite Possibilities of Social Dreaming in Systems, ed. 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7871339 | 1 | Salat-e-Janaza or Namaze Janaza (Funeral prayer) The Muslims of the community gather to offer their collective prayers for forgiveness for the dead. This prayer has been generally termed as the Namaze Janaza. The prayer is offered in a particular way with extra (four) Takbirs but there is no Ruku' (bowing) and Sajdah (prostrating). It becomes obligatory for every Muslim adult male to perform the funeral prayer upon the death of any Muslim, however when it is performed by the few it will not be obligation for all. Women also can attend the prayer. | The Muslims of the community gather to offer their collective prayers for forgiveness for the dead. This prayer has been generally termed as the Namaze Janaza. The prayer is offered in a particular way with extra (four) takbirs but there is no ruku and Sajdah (prostrating). It becomes obligatory for every Muslim adult male to perform the funeral prayer upon the death of any Muslim, however when it is performed by the few it will not be obligation for all. Women also can attend the prayer. | [
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7871339 | 2 | The Muslims of the community gather to offer their collective prayers for forgiveness for the dead. This prayer has been generally termed as the Namaze Janaza. The prayer is offered in a particular way with extra (four) takbirs but there is no ruku and Sajdah (prostrating) . It becomes obligatory for every Muslim adult male to perform the funeral prayer upon the death of any Muslim, however when it is performed by the few it will not be obligation for all. Women also can attend the prayer. | The Muslims of the community gather to offer their collective prayers for forgiveness for the dead. This prayer has been generally termed as the Namaze Janaza. The prayer is offered in a particular way with extra (four) takbirs but there is no ruku and sujud . It becomes obligatory for every Muslim adult male to perform the funeral prayer upon the death of any Muslim, however when it is performed by the few it will not be obligation for all. Women also can attend the prayer. | [
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7871339 | 3 | Salah times are prayer times when Muslims perform salah. The term is primarily used for the five daily prayers including the Friday prayer, which is normally Dhuhr prayer but on Fridays it is obligated to be prayed in a group. Muslims believe the salah times were taught by Allah to Muhammad . Muslims pray five times a day, with their prayers being known as Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (after midday), Asr (afternoon), Maghrib (after sunset), Isha (nighttime), facing towards Mecca. The direction of prayer is called the qibla; the early Muslims initially prayed in the direction of Jerusalem before this was changed to Mecca in 624 CE, about a year after Muhammad's migration to Medina. The five intervals were defined by Muslim authorities in the decades after the death of Muhammad in 632, based on the hadith (the reported sayings and actions) of the Islamic prophet. Abu Bakr and other early followers of Muhammad were exposed to these fixed times of prayer of the Syrian Christians in Abyssinia and likely relayed their observations to Muhammad , "placing the potential for Christian influence directly within the Prophet’s circle of followers and leaders." | Salah times are prayer times when Muslims perform salah. The term is primarily used for the five daily prayers including the Friday prayer, which is normally Dhuhr prayer but on Fridays it is obligated to be prayed in a group. Muslims believe the salah times were taught by Allah to Muhammad PBUH . Muslims pray five times a day, with their prayers being known as Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (after midday), Asr (afternoon), Maghrib (after sunset), Isha (nighttime), facing towards Mecca. The direction of prayer is called the qibla; the early Muslims initially prayed in the direction of Jerusalem before this was changed to Mecca in 624 CE, about a year after Muhammad's PBUH, migration to Medina. The five intervals were defined by Muslim authorities in the decades after the death of Muhammad PBUH in 632, based on the hadith (the reported sayings and actions) of the Islamic prophet. Abu Bakr and other early followers of Muhammad PBUH were exposed to these fixed times of prayer of the Syrian Christians in Abyssinia and likely relayed their observations to Muhammad PBUH , "placing the potential for Christian influence directly within the Prophet’s circle of followers and leaders." | [
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7872197 | 1 | Whereas more traditional fine art depends on printed magazines the inherently dynamic nature of new media art has led to the development of online journals . Salient instances include: Austria e.journal is a German language online journal that offers essays and theoretical contributions on the themes of new media culture and communication. It is also open to general artistic, literary and cultural expressions, intentions, insights and concepts. France MCD is a print and digital magazine in french and in english. It is the main new media art journal in France. Germany Netzspannung.org is a German online journal and platform for media art that is also in English that is by Fraunhofer MARS - Exploratory Media Lab and was initiated by Monika Fleischmann and Wolfgang Strauss. It covers media art research, tele-lectures, and eculture. 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The diverse backgrounds and areas of expertise of its members and colleagues have oriented the project towards interdisciplinarity and interculturality. Thus, from its founding in 2008, it has become a point of encounter and dissemination of art, thought and contemporary culture for a broad, diverse and international public, taking advantage of the dynamism and accessibility provided by the Internet. Italy Neural is an Italian new media journal that is primarily in print form . But it has an online news column covering new media art as well as emusic and hacktivism. Spain a mínima is a printed magazine on present-day art and new media that documents the work of artists and researchers interested in the involvement of science and technology in art and culture (text in english /spanish). Artnodes is an online academic journal on new media art and the intersections of art, science and technology. It publishes articles focused in their aesthetics, theories, histories and practices both in English, Spanish and /or Catalan. UK Hidrazone is an academic, online journal for new media art research based at Southampton Solent University. According to its mission statement it 'provides a space for practitioners and writers in the field of digital and interactive arts' and 'seeks to encourage practical and theoretical research into a wide variety of digital art such as net art, interactive art, software art, digital painting, and computational video'. Its modus operandi is a use of theme-based editions. Lovebytes is a Sheffield-based experimental digital arts and media festival. USA Switch is the new media art journal of the CADRE Laboratory for New Media of the School of Art and Design at San Jose State University. It has been published on the Web since 1995. 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7873885 | 1 | The Modern Period covers human history from the creation of a more global network (i.e. the colonization of the Americas by Europeans) to present day. The Renaissance (Europe, 14th century - 17th century) Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, 15th century - 18th century) House of Valois-Orléans (France, 1498–1515) and Valois-Angoulême (France, 1515–1589) The Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century) Elizabethan period (England, 1558–1603) Age of Sail - referring to commercial and military impact of sailing technology, usually dated as 1571–1862 House of Bourbon (France, 1589–1792) Qing dynasty (China, 1644–1912) The Age of Enlightenment (Europe, 18th century) The Age of Revolution is a less commonly used period, but appropriately covers the time between the early modern and contemporary. It begins around 1750 with European industrialization and is marked by several political revolutions. It ends around 1945, with the relative advancement of industrialization in Europe, the United States, Japan, and Russia, and the end of World War II. Industrial Revolution (England, Great Britain, United Kingdom, Western Europe, elsewhere, URL French Revolution (France, Europe, 1789–1799) and Napoleonic Era (France, Europe, 1799–1814 and 1815) House of Bourbon and Bourbon Restoration (France, 1814 and 1815–1830) New Imperialism (Western Europe, 1815-1914) House of Orléans and July Monarchy (France, 1830–1848) Victorian era ( United Kingdom, 1837–1901) French Second Republic (France, 1848–1852) Second French Empire (France, 1852–1870) Meiji era (Japan, 1868–1912) Gilded Age ( United States, 1870–1900) French Third Republic (France, 1870–1940) Machine Age (Europe, United States, elsewhere, 1880-1945) Edwardian period ( United Kingdom, 1901–1910) World War I (Most of Europe, much of Earth, 1914–1918) Spanish flu (Most of Earth, February 1918-April 1920) Interwar period (Earth, 1918–1939) The Roaring Twenties (United States, Earth, 1920–1929) The Great Depression (United States, Earth, 1929–1939) World War II (Most of Europe, Earth, 1939–1945) | The Modern Period covers human history from the creation of a more global network (i.e. the colonization of the Americas by Europeans) to the present day. The Renaissance (Europe, 14th century - 17th century) Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, 15th century - 18th century) House of Valois-Orléans (France, 1498–1515) and Valois-Angoulême (France, 1515–1589) The Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century) Elizabethan period (England, 1558–1603) Age of Sail - referring to the commercial and military impact of sailing technology, usually dated as 1571–1862 House of Bourbon (France, 1589–1792) Qing dynasty (China, 1644–1912) The Age of Enlightenment (Europe, 18th century) The Age of Revolution is a less commonly used period, but appropriately covers the time between the early modern and contemporary. It begins around 1750 with European industrialization and is marked by several political revolutions. It ends around 1945, with the relative advancement of industrialization in Europe, the United States, Japan, and Russia, and the end of World War II. Industrial Revolution (England, Great Britain, United Kingdom, Western Europe, elsewhere, URL French Revolution (France, Europe, 1789–1799) and Napoleonic Era (France, Europe, 1799–1814 and 1815) House of Bourbon and Bourbon Restoration (France, 1814 and 1815–1830) New Imperialism (Western Europe, 1815-1914) House of Orléans and July Monarchy (France, 1830–1848) Victorian era ( the United Kingdom, 1837–1901) French Second Republic (France, 1848–1852) Second French Empire (France, 1852–1870) Meiji era (Japan, 1868–1912) Gilded Age ( the United States, 1870–1900) French Third Republic (France, 1870–1940) Machine Age (Europe, United States, elsewhere, 1880-1945) Edwardian period ( the United Kingdom, 1901–1910) World War I (Most of Europe, much of Earth, 1914–1918) Spanish flu (Most of Earth, February 1918-April 1920) Interwar period (Earth, 1918–1939) The Roaring Twenties (United States, Earth, 1920–1929) The Great Depression (United States, Earth, 1929–1939) World War II (Most of Europe, Earth, 1939–1945) | [
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7885 | 1 | Two classical ballet dancers perform a sequence of The Nutcracker, one of the best known works of classical dance . upright=0.75|Dance at Bougival by Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1883) Sioux Buffalo Dance, 1894 Folk dances vary across Europe and may date back hundreds or thousands of years, but many have features in common such as group participation led by a caller, hand-holding or arm-linking between participants, and fixed musical forms known as caroles. Some, such as the maypole dance are common to many nations, while others such as the céilidh and the polka are deeply-rooted in a single culture. Some European folk dances such as the square dance were brought to the New World and subsequently became part of American culture. Ballet developed first in Italy and then in France from lavish court spectacles that combined music, drama, poetry, song, costumes and dance. Members of the court nobility took part as performers. During the reign of Louis XIV, himself a dancer, dance became more codified. Professional dancers began to take the place of court amateurs, and ballet masters were licensed by the French government. The first ballet dance academy was the Académie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy), opened in Paris in 1661. Shortly thereafter, the first institutionalized ballet troupe, associated with the Academy, was formed; this troupe began as an all-male ensemble but by 1681 opened to include women as well. | An Indonesian Balinese dancer Indonesian dances reflect the richness and diversity of Indonesian ethnic groups and cultures. There are more than 1,300 ethnic groups in Indonesia, it can be seen from the cultural roots of the Austronesian and Melanesian peoples, and various cultural influences from Asia and the west. Dances in Indonesia originate from ritual movements and religious ceremonies, this kind of dance usually begins with rituals, such as war dances, shaman dances to cure or ward off disease, dances to call rain and other types of dances. With the acceptance of dharma religion in the 1st century in Indonesia, Hinduism and Buddhist rituals were celebrated in various artistic performances. Hindu epics such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata and also the Panji became the inspiration to be shown in a dance-drama called "Sendratari" resembling "ballet" in the western tradition. An elaborate and highly stylized dance method was invented and has survived to this day, especially on the islands of Java and Bali. The Javanese Wayang wong dance takes footage from the Ramayana or Mahabharata episodes, but this dance is very different from the Indian version, indonesian dances do not pay as much attention to the "mudras" as Indian dances: even more to show local forms. The sacred Javanese ritual dance Bedhaya is believed to date back to the Majapahit period in the 14th century or even earlier, this dance originated from from ritual dances performed by virgin girls to worship Hindu Gods such as Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu. In Bali, dance has become an integral part of the sacred Hindu Dharma rituals. Some experts believe that Balinese dance comes from an older dance tradition from Java. Reliefs from temples in East Java from the 14th century feature crowns and headdresses similar to the headdresses used in Balinese dance today. Islam began to spread to the Indonesian archipelago when indigenous dances and dharma dances were still popular. Artists and dancers still use styles from the previous era, replacing stories with more Islamic interpretations and clothing that is more closed according to Islamic teachings. upright=0.75|Dance at Bougival by Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1883) Folk dances vary across Europe and may date back hundreds or thousands of years, but many have features in common such as group participation led by a caller, hand-holding or arm-linking between participants, and fixed musical forms known as caroles. Some, such as the maypole dance are common to many nations, while others such as the céilidh and the polka are deeply-rooted in a single culture. Some European folk dances such as the square dance were brought to the New World and subsequently became part of American culture. Two classical ballet dancers perform a sequence of The Nutcracker, one of the best known works of classical dance. 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7887563 | 1 | Black triangle A black triangle appearing after the trade name of a British medicine (or vaccine) indicates that the medication is new to the market, or that an existing medicine (or vaccine) is being used for a new reason or by a new route of administration. See also Pharmacovigilance EudraVigilance Uppsala Monitoring Centre (WHO) References Pages on the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) website (accessed 13 Nov 2006): Black triangle scheme Commission on Human Medicines Yellow Card Scheme Further reading British National Formulary | Black triangle A black triangle appearing after the trade name of a British medicine (or vaccine) indicates that the medication is new to the market, or that an existing medicine (or vaccine) is being used for a new reason or by a new route of administration. Black triangle scheme Commission on Human Medicines Yellow Card Scheme See also Pharmacovigilance EudraVigilance Uppsala Monitoring Centre (WHO) British National Formulary References | [
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7890797 | 1 | Category:Colombian botanists Category:Spanish botanists Category: Spanish mathematicians Category: Catholic clergy scientists Category:Viceroyalty of New Granada people Category:1732 births Category:1808 deaths Category:Botanists active in South America Category:Linguists from Spain Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:Del Rosario University faculty Category:University of Seville alumni Category:History of Colombia Category:People from Cádiz Category:18th-century Spanish people Category:18th-century Colombian people Category:19th-century Colombian people Category:18th-century mathematicians Category:19th-century mathematicians Category: 18th-century botanists Category:19th-century botanists Category:18th-century Spanish poets Category:19th-century Spanish poets Category:19th-century male write | Category:Colombian botanists Category:Spanish botanists Category: Catholic clergy scientists Category:Viceroyalty of New Granada people Category:1732 births Category:1808 deaths Category:Botanists active in South America Category:Linguists from Spain Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:Del Rosario University faculty Category:University of Seville alumni Category:History of Colombia Category:People from Cádiz Category:18th-century Colombian people Category:19th-century Colombian people Category:18th-century Spanish mathematicians Category: 18th-century botanists Category:19th-century botanists Category:18th-century Spanish poets Category:19th-century male write | [
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790808 | 1 | Endogenous substances and processes are those that originate from within a system such as an organism, tissue, or cell. The term is chiefly used in biology but also in other fields.The term has also been applied to sociological concepts. See (Vasey 2002 p. 8). Endogenous substances and processes contrast with exogenous ones, such as drugs, which originate from outside of the organism. Endogenous processes Endogenous effects can modulate and regulate systems, in conjunction with environmental influences. Endogeny can refer to changes that originate from within a system. Endogenous changes can occur in social systems and can be modelled by Marxian dialectics.%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Examples of endogenous processes include: Senescence (biological aging) The menstrual cycle The self-sustained circadian rhythms of plants and animals. Endogenous regeneration, which refers to the ability of cells to engage in the repair and regeneration process. Endogenous biological clocks and biological rhythms originating from endogenous mechanisms allow forms of biochronometry.%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% See also Endocrine system Exogeny Notes | Endogenous substances and processes are those that originate from within a system such as an organism, tissue, or cell. Endogenous substances and processes contrast with exogenous ones, such as drugs, which originate from outside of the organism. %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% | [
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7910509 | 1 | In other media Television Force appears in the Iron Man: Armored Adventures episode "Armor Wars". This version is a member of Obadiah Stane's Guardsmen and was a former Maggia operative. His armor is a recolored version of Stark's Space Armor Design. A version of Clay Wilson appears in The Punisher played by Tim Guinee. He cares for his son Lewis ( played by Daniel Webber), a discharged Army veteran who suffers from PTSD. Clay attempts to comfort his son after he nearly shoots him, but Lewis pushes him away. Clay later tells Curtis Hoyle about what happened. In the episode "Crosshairs", he attempts to connect with his son and talk him into changing and moving on with his life, unaware of the fact that his son just killed O'Connor . He even shows him footage of the boxing match between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali in an attempt to connect with him . | In other media Television Force appears in the Iron Man: Armored Adventures animated series episode "Armor Wars". This version is a member of Obadiah Stane's Guardsmen and was a former Maggia enforcer. A version of Clay Wilson appears in The Punisher live-action series, portrayed by Tim Guinee. He cares for his son Lewis ( portrayed by Daniel Webber), a discharged Army veteran who suffers from PTSD. Clay attempts to comfort his son after he nearly shoots him, but Lewis pushes him away. Clay later tells Curtis Hoyle about what happened. In the episode "Crosshairs", he attempts to connect with his son and talk him into changing and moving on with his life, unaware that his son just killed O'Connor . | [
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7915264 | 1 | Like other Nourse Line ships, she was primarily used for the transportation of Indian indentured labourers to the colonies. Details of some of these voyages are as follows: Destination Date of Arrival Number of Passengers Deaths During Voyage Suriname 22 February 1908 n/a n/a Trinidad 1 October 1908 547 4 British Guiana 1909 n/a n/a British Guiana 1910 n/a n/a Suriname 27 January 1910 n/a n/a Fiji 25 June 1911 850 n/a Fiji 4 October 1911 811 n/a Trinidad 14 January 1912 432 3 Fiji 27 April 1912 857 n/a Trinidad 11 December 1912 372 5 Fiji 11 April 1913 808 n/a Trinidad 23 October 1913 423 1 Suriname 7 January 1914 n/a n/a Trinidad 13 October 1914 244 1 British Guiana 1916 n/a n/a Fiji 11 November 1916 888 n/a | Like other Nourse Line ships, she was primarily used for the transportation of Indian indentured labourers to the colonies. Details of some of these voyages are as follows: Destination Date of Arrival Number of Passengers Deaths During Voyage Surinam 22 February 1908 n/a n/a Trinidad 1 October 1908 547 4 British Guiana 1909 n/a n/a British Guiana 1910 n/a n/a Surinam 27 January 1910 n/a n/a Fiji 25 June 1911 850 n/a Fiji 4 October 1911 811 n/a Trinidad 14 January 1912 432 3 Fiji 27 April 1912 857 n/a Trinidad 11 December 1912 372 5 Fiji 11 April 1913 808 n/a Trinidad 23 October 1913 423 1 Surinam 7 January 1914 n/a n/a Trinidad 13 October 1914 244 1 British Guiana 1916 n/a n/a Fiji 11 November 1916 888 n/a | [
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7921791 | 1 | Directional boring, also referred to as horizontal directional drilling (HDD), is a minimal impact trenchless method of installing underground utilities such as pipe, conduit, or cables in a relatively shallow arc or radius along a prescribed underground path using a surface-launched drilling rig. Directional Boring/HDD offers significant environmental advantages over traditional cut and cover pipeline/utility installations. The technique is routinely used when conventional trenching or excavating is not practical or when minimal surface disturbance is required. Although often used interchangeably, the terms directional boring and horizontal directional drilling are distinct in that they convey a different sense of scale. The term "Directional Boring" or "Bore" is generally reserved for mini/small sized drilling rigs, small diameter bores, and crossing lengths in terms of hundreds of feet. Generally, the term Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) is intended to describe large/maxi sized drilling rigs, large diameter bores, and crossing lengths in terms of thousands of feet. Directional boring and HDD are similar in some respects to directional drilling associated with the oil industry, however, an equal comparison cannot be drawn as the procedures serve markedly different functions. Directional Boring/HDD can be utilized with various pipe materials such as PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene, ductile iron, and steel provided that the pipe's properties (wall thickness and material strength) enable it to be both installed and operated (if applicable) under acceptable stress limits. Directional Boring/HDD is generally accomplished in three principal phases. First, a small diameter pilot hole is drilled along a directional path from one surface point to another. Next, the bore created during pilot hole drilling is enlarged to a diameter that will facilitate installation of the desired pipeline. Lastly, the pipeline is pulled into the enlarged hole, thus creating a continuous segment of pipe underground exposed only at the two initial endpoints. Directional Boring/HDD can be utilized to cross any number of surface obstacles including roadways, railroads, wetlands, and water bodies of varying sizes/depths. The process is suitable for a variety of soil conditions including clay, silt, sand, and rock. Problematic soil conditions include large grain content in the form of coarse gravel, cobbles, and boulders. Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling, An Engineering Design Guide (Arlington, VA: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2008) Other subsurface conditions which can impact the feasibility of Directional Boring/HDD include excessive rock strength and abrasivity, poor rock quality, and rock exhibiting karst features. Willoughby, David (2005). Horizontal Directional Drilling, p. 1-263. Mcgraw-Hill, New York. . Short, Jim (1993). Introduction to Directional and Horizontal Drilling, p. 1-222. PennWell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma. . v. Hinueber, Edgar (iMAR Navigation) (2006). Most accurate drilling guidance by dead-reckoning using high precision optical gyroscopes, Proceedings NoDig Conference of Horizontal Directional Drilling, Brisbane 2006. | Directional boring, also referred to as horizontal directional drilling (HDD), is a minimal impact trenchless method of installing underground utilities such as pipe, conduit, or cables in a relatively shallow arc or radius along a prescribed underground path using a surface-launched drilling rig. Directional Boring/HDD offers significant environmental advantages over traditional cut and cover pipeline/utility installations. The technique is routinely used when conventional trenching or excavating is not practical or when minimal surface disturbance is required. PR-277-144507-Z01 Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling Engineering Design Guide (Arlington, VA: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2015) Although often used interchangeably, the terms directional boring and horizontal directional drilling are distinct in that they convey a different sense of scale. The term "Directional Boring" or "Bore" is generally reserved for mini/small sized drilling rigs, small diameter bores, and crossing lengths in terms of hundreds of feet. Generally, the term Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) is intended to describe large/maxi sized drilling rigs, large diameter bores, and crossing lengths in terms of thousands of feet. Directional boring and HDD are similar in some respects to directional drilling associated with the oil industry, however, an equal comparison cannot be drawn as the procedures serve markedly different functions. Directional Boring/HDD can be utilized with various pipe materials such as PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene, ductile iron, and steel provided that the pipe's properties (wall thickness and material strength) enable it to be both installed and operated (if applicable) under acceptable stress limits. PR-277-144507-Z01 Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling Engineering Design Guide (Arlington, VA: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2015) Directional Boring/HDD is generally accomplished in three principal phases. First, a small diameter pilot hole is drilled along a directional path from one surface point to another. Next, the bore created during pilot hole drilling is enlarged to a diameter that will facilitate installation of the desired pipeline. Lastly, the pipeline is pulled into the enlarged hole, thus creating a continuous segment of pipe underground exposed only at the two initial endpoints. Directional Boring/HDD can be utilized to cross any number of surface obstacles including roadways, railroads, wetlands, and water bodies of varying sizes/depths. PR-277-144507-Z01 Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling Engineering Design Guide (Arlington, VA: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2015) The process is suitable for a variety of soil conditions including clay, silt, sand, and rock. Problematic soil conditions include large grain content in the form of coarse gravel, cobbles, and boulders. Other subsurface conditions which can impact the feasibility of Directional Boring/HDD include excessive rock strength and abrasivity, poor rock quality, and rock exhibiting karst features. PR-277-144507-Z01 Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling Engineering Design Guide (Arlington, VA: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2015) HDD Design Guideline Task Committee of the Technical Committee on Trenchless Installation of Pipelines (TIPS) of the Pipeline Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Pipeline design for installation by horizontal directional drilling - ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice (MOP) No. 108 : ASCE manual of practice. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005. Reston, VA. Skonberg, Eric R., and Tennyson M. Muindi. Pipeline design for installation by horizontal directional drilling - ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice (MOP) No. 108 (2nd Edition). Reston, Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014. Willoughby, David (2005). Horizontal Directional Drilling, p. 1-263. Mcgraw-Hill, New York. . Short, Jim (1993). Introduction to Directional and Horizontal Drilling, p. 1-222. 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7921791 | 2 | HDD Design Guideline Task Committee of the Technical Committee on Trenchless Installation of Pipelines (TIPS) of the Pipeline Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Pipeline design for installation by horizontal directional drilling - ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice (MOP) No. 108 : ASCE manual of practice. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005. Reston, VA. Skonberg, Eric R., and Tennyson M. Muindi. Pipeline design for installation by horizontal directional drilling - ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice (MOP) No. 108 (2nd Edition). Reston, Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014. Willoughby, David (2005). Horizontal Directional Drilling, p. 1-263. Mcgraw-Hill, New York. . Short, Jim (1993). Introduction to Directional and Horizontal Drilling, p. 1-222. PennWell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma. . v. Hinueber, Edgar (iMAR Navigation) (2006). Most accurate drilling guidance by dead-reckoning using high precision optical gyroscopes, Proceedings NoDig Conference of Horizontal Directional Drilling, Brisbane 2006. Rizkalla, Moness. Pipeline geo-environmental design and geohazard management. New York, NY: ASME, 2008. | PR-277-144507-Z01 Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal Directional Drilling, An Engineering Design Guide, prepared under the sponsorship of the Pipeline Research Committee at the American Gas Association, April 15, 1995, Revised under the sponsorship of the Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2015. HDD Design Guideline Task Committee of the Technical Committee on Trenchless Installation of Pipelines (TIPS) of the Pipeline Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Pipeline design for installation by horizontal directional drilling - ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice (MOP) No. 108 : ASCE manual of practice. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005. Reston, VA. Skonberg, Eric R., and Tennyson M. Muindi. Pipeline Design for Installation by Horizontal Directional Drilling - ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice (MOP) No. 108 (2nd Edition). Reston, Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014. ASME, Pipeline Geohazards, Planning, Design, Construction and Operations, Second Edition of Pipeline Geo-Environmental Design and Geohazard management, NY: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2019. Willoughby, David (2005). Horizontal Directional Drilling, p. 1-263. Mcgraw-Hill, New York. . Short, Jim (1993). Introduction to Directional and Horizontal Drilling, p. 1-222. PennWell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma. . v. Hinueber, Edgar (iMAR Navigation) (2006). Most accurate drilling guidance by dead-reckoning using high precision optical gyroscopes, Proceedings NoDig Conference of Horizontal Directional Drilling, Brisbane 2006. Rizkalla, Moness. Pipeline geo-environmental design and geohazard management. New York, NY: ASME, 2008. | [
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7933909 | 1 | Her signature project to date as U.S. Poet Laureate is called "Living Nations, Living Words: A Map of First Peoples Poetry" . " For my signature project as the 23rd Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry, I conceived the idea of mapping the U.S. with Native Nations poets and poems , " she writes in the project's introduction. "I want this map to counter damaging false assumptions—that indigenous peoples of our country are often invisible or are not seen as human. You will not find us fairly represented, if at all, in the cultural storytelling of America, and nearly nonexistent in the American book of poetry." In 2021 she was elected to the American Philosophical Society. Personal life Harjo is a mother of two, her sonPhil Dayn and daughter Rainy Dawn. Rainy Dawn is the daughter of poet Simon Ortiz (Acoma Pueblo ) . | Her signature project to date as U.S. Poet Laureate is called "Living Nations, Living Words: A Map of First Peoples Poetry" , which focuses on " mapping the U.S. with Native Nations poets and poems " . In 2021 , she was elected to the American Philosophical Society. Personal life In 1969 at the Institute of American Indian Arts, Harjo met fellow student Phil Wilmon, with whom she had a son, Phil Dayn (b. 1969). Their relationship ended by 1971. In 1972, she met poet Simon Ortiz of the Acoma Pueblo tribe, with whom she had a daughter, Rainy Dawn (b. 1973). She raised both her children as a single mother . | [
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7934013 | 1 | Spirits In Ethiopia, zār is used as a term for malevolent spirits or demons. At the same time, many Ethiopians believe in benevolent, protective spirits, or abdar .Turner, John W. Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity: Faith and Practices. A Country Study: Ethiopia. Thomas P. Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry, eds. Washington: Library of Congress Federal Research Division, 1991. | Spirits In Ethiopia, zār is used as a term for malevolent spirits or demons. At the same time, many Ethiopians believe in benevolent, protective spirits, or adbar .Turner, John W. Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity: Faith and Practices. A Country Study: Ethiopia. Thomas P. Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry, eds. Washington: Library of Congress Federal Research Division, 1991. | [
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7935893 | 1 | Current members Dr Qibla Ayaz (Chairman) Allama Arif Hussain Wahidi (Member) Allama Syed Iftikhar Hussain Naqvi (Member) Dr. Abdul Hakeem Akbari (Member) Dr. Pir Fazeel (Member) Dr. Qari Abdul Rasheed (Member) Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer (Member) Hafiz Fazal-ur-Rahim (Member) Justice (R) Muhammad Raza Khan (Member) Justice (R) Syed Manzoor Hussain Gillani (Member) Maulana Muhammad Hanif Jallandhry (Member) Maulana Muhammad Raghib Hussain Naeemi (Member) Maulana Shafiqur Rehman Pasruri (Member) Mr. Abul Muzaffar Ghulam Muhammad Sialvi (Member) Mr. Ahmed Javed (Member) Mr. Khurshid Ahmad Nadeem (Member) Mr. Malik Allah Buksh Kalyar (Member) Pir Rooh-ul-Husnain Mueen (Member) Professor Dr. Farkhanda Zia (Female member) (Member) Sahibzada Sajid-ur-Rehman (Member) First members The council was then known as Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology. Its first nine members were: History of the Council of Islamic Ideology Government of Pakistan website, Retrieved 18 November 2018 Justice Abu Saleh Muhammad Akram, former judge of Federal Court of Pakistan (Chairman) Justice Muhammad Sharif, former Judge Supreme Court of Pakistan Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi, Punjab, Pakistan Mohmmad Akram Khan; Abdul Hamid Badayuni, Karachi Hafiz Kifayat Husain, Lahore Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Head, Islamic Research Institute, Karachi Abdul Hashim, Islamic Academy, Dhaka Another member from East Pakistan; Syed Najmul Hassan Kararvi | Current members Qibla Ayaz Arif Hussain Wahidi Syed Iftikhar Hussain Naqvi Abdul Hakeem Akbari Pir Fazeel Qari Abdul Rasheed Syed Muhammad Anwer Fazal-ur-Rahim Muhammad Raza Khan Manzoor Hussain Gillani Muhammad Hanif Jalandhari Muhammad Raghib Hussain Naeemi Shafiqur Rehman Pasruri Abul Muzaffar Ghulam Muhammad Sialvi Ahmed Javed Khurshid Ahmad Nadeem Malik Allah Buksh Kalyar Rooh-ul-Husnain Mueen Farkhanda Zia Sahibzada Sajid-ur-Rehman First members The council was then known as Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology. Its first nine members were: History of the Council of Islamic Ideology Government of Pakistan website, Retrieved 18 November 2018 Justice Abu Saleh Muhammad Akram, former judge of Federal Court of Pakistan (Chairman) Justice Muhammad Sharif, former Judge Supreme Court of Pakistan Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi, Punjab, Pakistan Mohmmad Akram Khan; Abdul Hamid Badayuni, Karachi Hafiz Kifayat Husain, Lahore Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Head, Islamic Research Institute, Karachi Abdul Hashim, Islamic Academy, Dhaka Another member from East Pakistan; Syed Najmul Hassan Kararvi | [
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7940460 | 1 | The directory holds more than 28,000 data set descriptions, known as DIFs (Directory Interchange Format). This format is compatible with the Federal Geographic Data Committee's (FGDC) standard and the international ISO 19115 standard. The purpose of the directory is to provide users with information on the availability of data and services that will meet their needs, along with efficient access to those data and services. Links are provided, when available, to connect directly to the data or services of interest. The directory also offers an online metadata authoring tools for those wishing to share knowledge of available data. One of the cornerstones to effective searches within the directory is twelve sets of controlled keywords that assist in normalizing the search. The development of these keywords was initiated over a decade ago. Currently, over 7,000 keywords are controlled, with new sets created for better search refinements, as time permits. The keyword sets are widely used throughout the world and are being translated into many languages. Within the GCMD and the IDN, these controlled keywords can be used in combination with a full-text search engine and also for search refinements. | The Global Change Master Directory holds more than 28,000 data set descriptions, known as DIFs (Directory Interchange Format). This format is compatible with the Federal Geographic Data Committee's (FGDC) standard and the international ISO 19115 standard. The purpose of the directory is to provide users with information on the availability of data and services that will meet their needs, along with efficient access to those data and services. Links are provided, when available, to connect directly to the data or services of interest. The directory also offers an online metadata authoring tools for those wishing to share knowledge of available data. One of the cornerstones to effective searches within the directory is twelve sets of controlled keywords that assist in normalizing the search. The development of these keywords was initiated over a decade ago. Currently, over 7,000 keywords are controlled, with new sets created for better search refinements, as time permits. The keyword sets are widely used throughout the world and are being translated into many languages. Within the Global Change Master Directory and the IDN, these controlled keywords can be used in combination with a full-text search engine and also for search refinements. | [
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7941353 | 1 | Women who have sex with women (WSW) are women who engage in sexual activities with other women, whether or not they identify themselves as lesbian, bisexual, heterosexual, or dispense with sexual identification altogether. The term WSW is often used in medical literature to describe such women as a group for clinical study, without needing to consider sexual self-identity. Physical health General In terms of medical issues with regard to lesbian sexual practices, the sexual identification of women who consult a medical professional is usually not sought nor volunteered, due to the misconceptions and assumptions about sexuality and the hesitancy of some women in disclosing their accurate sexual histories even to a physician.King, p. 219. Lack of differentiation between lesbians and heterosexual women in medical studies that concentrate on health issues for women skews results for lesbians and non-lesbian women. Many women who do not participate in heterosexual activity do not go to see a physician because they do not require birth control, which is the initiating factor for most women to seek consultation with a gynecologist when they become sexually active.Zimmerman, p. 359. As a result, these women are not screened regularly with pap smears because they have a lower perceived risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection or types of cancer. Lesbians are less likely than their heterosexual and bisexual counterparts to get screened for cervical cancer, with some being refused screenings by medical professionals. | Women who have sex with women (WSW) are women who engage in sexual activities with other women, whether they identify themselves as lesbian, bisexual, or heterosexual, or dispense with sexual identification altogether. The term WSW is often used in medical literature to describe such women as a group for clinical study, without needing to consider sexual self-identity. Physical health General In terms of medical issues with regard to lesbian sexual practices, the sexual identification of women who consult a medical professional is usually not sought nor volunteered, due to the misconceptions and assumptions about sexuality and the hesitancy of some women in disclosing their accurate sexual histories even to a physician.King, p. 219. Lack of differentiation between lesbians and heterosexual women in medical studies that concentrate on health issues for women skews results for lesbians and non-lesbian women. Many women who do not participate in heterosexual activity do not go to see a physician because they do not require birth control, which is the initiating factor for most women to seek consultation with a gynecologist when they become sexually active.Zimmerman, p. 359. As a result, these women are not screened regularly with pap smears because they have a lower perceived risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection or types of cancer. Lesbians are less likely than their heterosexual and bisexual counterparts to get screened for cervical cancer, with some being refused screenings by medical professionals. | [
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79449 | 1 | Very high-order multiple births In 1997, the McCaughey septuplets, born in Des Moines, Iowa, became the first septuplets known to survive infancy. Multiple births of as many as eight babies have been born alive, the first set on record goes to the Chukwu family in Texas in 1998, though one died shortly after birth. In 2009, a second set, the Suleman octuplets, were born in Bellflower, California. As of 2019, all of them were alive and turned 10 years old. In May 2021, the Cisse nonuplets were born in Morocco to Halima Cisse, a 25-year-old woman from Mali. | Very high-order multiple births In 1997, the McCaughey septuplets, born in Des Moines, Iowa, became the first septuplets known to survive infancy. Multiple births of as many as eight babies have been born alive, the first set on record goes to the Suleman octuplets, born in 2009 in Bellflower, California. As of 2019, all of them were alive and turned 10 years old. In May 2021, the Cisse nonuplets were born in Morocco to Halima Cisse, a 25-year-old woman from Mali. | [
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79449 | 2 | Multiple births of as many as eight babies have been born alive ; the first set on record were born in Mexico City in 1967; but all eight died within hours of birth. The first instance of octuplets where any of the children (two) survived was in Naples, Italy in 1979. The earliest case in which all eight survived is that of the Suleman octuplets, born in 2009 in Bellflower, California. As of 2019, all of them were alive and turned 10 years old. In May 2021, the Cisse nonuplets were born in Morocco to Halima Cisse, a 25-year-old woman from Mali. | Multiple births have occurred with as many as eight babies having been born alive . The first set on record were born in Mexico City in 1967; but all eight died within hours of birth. The first instance of octuplets where any of the children (two) survived was in Naples, Italy in 1979. The earliest case in which all eight survived is that of the Suleman octuplets, born in 2009 in Bellflower, California. As of 2019, all of them were alive and turned 10 years old. In May 2021, the Cisse nonuplets were born in Morocco to Halima Cisse, a 25-year-old woman from Mali. | [
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79449 | 3 | Very high-order multiple births In 1997, the McCaughey septuplets, born in Des Moines, Iowa, became the first septuplets known to survive infancy. Multiple births have occurred with as many as eight babies having been born alive . The first set on record were born in Mexico City in 1967; but all eight died within hours of birth. The first instance of octuplets where any of the children (two) survived was in Naples, Italy in 1979. The earliest case in which all eight survived is that of the Suleman octuplets, born in 2009 in Bellflower, California. As of 2019, all of them were alive and turned 10 years old. In May 2021, the Cisse nonuplets were born in Morocco to Halima Cisse, a 25-year-old woman from Mali. | Very high-order multiple births In 1997, the McCaughey septuplets, born in Des Moines, Iowa, became the first septuplets known to survive infancy. Multiple births of as many as eight babies have been born alive , the first surviving set on record goes to the Suleman octuplets, born in 2009 in Bellflower, California. As of 2019, all of them were alive and turned 10 years old. In May 2021, the Cisse nonuplets were born in Morocco to Halima Cisse, a 25-year-old woman from Mali. | [
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7946782 | 1 | A lee shore is one that is to the lee side of a vessel — meaning the wind is blowing towards it. Lee (green) and windward (red) shores of a lake, given wind from due east (white arrows). In seamanship, lee shore, sometimes also called leeward ( or, more commonly, ) and ward shore, is a stretch of shoreline that is to the lee side of a vessel —meaning the wind is blowing towards it. A weather shore has the wind blowing from inland over it out to sea. For example, a person standing on a shore when the wind is blowing out to sea (or any large body of water) is standing on a weather shore. If the wind is blowing into shore from the sea, the person is on a lee shore. The opposite of leeward is windward ( or, more commonly, ). "Windward", "leeward", and "lee" The windward shore is a lee shore for vessels traveling offshore , and that shore is "to leeward" of the vessel, but that does not make it the leeward shore of the island . Although the terms are often confused, "the lee shore" is different from "a leeward shore" based on the reference point from which the shore is viewed. Notice the different articles "the" and "a" — "the" windward or leeward shore versus "a" lee shore. The shore that is a lee shore changes based on the reference point, which is the vessel from which the island or lake shore is viewed, and of which the island or lake shore is in the lee. The leeward shore does not change based on the position of the vessel. This means that the "leeward side" of the vessel and the "lee shore" of the land face opposite directions.Capt. James C. Van Pelt III | A lee shore is one that is to the lee side of a vessel — meaning the wind is blowing towards it. Lee (green) and windward (red) shores of a lake, given wind from due east (white arrows). In seamanship, lee shore, sometimes also called leeward ( or, more commonly, ) and ward shore, is a stretch of shoreline that is to the lee side of a vessel —meaning the wind is blowing towards it. Its opposite, the shore on the windward side of the vessel is called the weather or windward shore ( or, more commonly, ). "Windward", "leeward", and "lee" alt=Graphic showing the ambiguity between lee shore of island and ship| The windward shore of an island can be considered the lee shore when seen from a vessel on the water offshore the island Usage of the terms to describe shores in relation to an arbitrary point of view, including on land, can lead to ambiguity. The windward shore of an island is a lee shore from the perspective of a vessel travelling offshore . Although the terms are often confused, "the lee shore" is different from "a leeward shore" based on the reference point from which the shore is viewed. Notice the different articles "the" and "a" — "the" windward or leeward shore versus "a" lee shore. The shore that is a lee shore changes based on the reference point, which is the vessel from which the island or lake shore is viewed, and of which the island or lake shore is in the lee. The leeward shore does not change based on the position of the vessel. This means that the "leeward side" of the vessel and the "lee shore" of the land face opposite directions.Capt. James C. Van Pelt III | [
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7948832 | 1 | 18th century courtiers in fancy dress, at a fête champêtre in a landscaped park Pastoral Concert A fête champêtre was a popular form of entertainment in the 18th century, taking the form of a garden party. This form of entertainment was particularly popular at the French court, where at Versailles areas of the park were landscaped with follies, pavilions and temples to accommodate such festivities. While the term is derived from the French expression for a "pastoral festival" or "country feast" and in theory was a simple form of entertainment, in practice (especially in the 18th century), a fête champêtre was often a very elegant form of entertainment involving on occasions whole orchestras hidden in trees, with guests sometimes in fancy dress . Thus, the simplicity of the event was often contrived. A fête champêtre is very similar to a fête galante, although this term is generally more confined to the idealistic fête champêtre as depicted in art. A famous painting , the Pastoral Concert (as the Louvre now call it) dated to ca. 1509 and variously attributed to Giorgione, Titian, and Sebastiano del Piombo, was named Fête champêtre when it first became part of the Louvre collection. The title is somewhat misleading, as the painting most likely represents some mythological subject, whose precise identification has posed difficulties for art historians. | Nicolas Lancret18th century courtiers in fancy dress, at a fête champêtre in a landscaped park Pastoral Concert A fête champêtre was a popular form of entertainment in the 18th century, taking the form of a garden party. This form of entertainment was particularly popular at the French court, where at Versailles areas of the park were landscaped with follies, pavilions and temples to accommodate such festivities. While the term is derived from the French expression for a "pastoral festival" or "country feast" and in theory was a simple form of entertainment, in practice (especially in the 18th century), a fête champêtre was often a very elegant form of entertainment involving on occasions whole orchestras hidden in trees, with guests sometimes in fancy dress ; the simplicity of the event was often contrived. A fête champêtre is very similar to a fête galante, although this term is generally more confined to the idealistic fête champêtre as depicted in art. A painting dated to ca. 1509 currently called Le Concert champêtre or the Pastoral Concert was named Fête champêtre when it first became part of the Louvre collection. It has been variously attributed to Giorgione, Titian, and Sebastiano del Piombo. The painting most likely represents some mythological subject, whose precise identification has posed difficulties for art historians. | [
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7948832 | 2 | Nicolas Lancret18th century courtiers in fancy dress, at a fête champêtre in a landscaped park Pastoral Concert A fête champêtre was a popular form of entertainment in the 18th century, taking the form of a garden party. This form of entertainment was particularly popular at the French court, where at Versailles areas of the park were landscaped with follies, pavilions and temples to accommodate such festivities. While the term is derived from the French expression for a "pastoral festival" or "country feast" and in theory was a simple form of entertainment , in practice( especially in the 18th century ), a fête champêtre was often a very elegant form of entertainment involving on occasions whole orchestras hidden in trees, with guests sometimes in fancy dress ; the simplicity of the event was often contrived . | Nicolas Lancret18th century courtiers in fancy dress, at a fête champêtre in a landscaped park Pastoral Concert A fête champêtre was a popular form of entertainment in the 18th century, taking the form of a garden party. This form of entertainment was particularly popular at the French court, where at Versailles areas of the park were landscaped with follies, pavilions and temples to accommodate such festivities. The term is derived from the French expression for a "pastoral festival" or "country feast" and in theory was a simple form of entertainment . In practice, especially in the 18th century , the simplicity of the event was often contrived. A fête champêtre was often a very elegant form of entertainment involving on occasions whole orchestras hidden in trees, with guests sometimes in fancy dress . | [
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7952327 | 1 | Samples of Social Stories An Interactive Story to Teach Kids About Restaurant Behavior All About Going to School (to help a child prepare for the school day) I Am Going to the Doctor (to help children prepare for doctors appointments; can be used with adults too; good for people with fear, anxiety, or resistance at check-ups) I Am Going to the Dentist (to prepare children for dental appointments) I Hate the Word No (a story to teach kids to calmly respond to the word no) Targeted use Preparation for social interaction Social stories can be used to communicate ways in which an autistic person can prepare themselves for social interaction.Social stories: their uses and benefits. The National Autistic Society. Retrieved September 8, 2012. Comic strip conversations, a complementary technique developed by Carol Gray, are "visual representations" of conversations and social interactions that aim to help an individual understand social processes and increase their comprehension of other peoples thoughts and actions.Comic strip conversations. The National Autistic Society. Retrieved September 8, 2012. External links Examples of targeted use of social stories Social stories in hindi. Loud noises. Needing a break. Moving through crowds. Category:Autism Category:1991 introductio | Targeted use Preparation for social interaction Social stories can be used to communicate ways in which an autistic person can prepare themselves for social interaction.Social stories: their uses and benefits. The National Autistic Society. Retrieved September 8, 2012. Comic strip conversations, a complementary technique developed by Carol Gray, are "visual representations" of conversations and social interactions that aim to help an individual understand social processes and increase their comprehension of other peoples thoughts and actions.Comic strip conversations. The National Autistic Society. Retrieved September 8, 2012. External links Samples of Social Stories An Interactive Story to Teach Kids About Restaurant Behavior All About Going to School (to help a child prepare for the school day) I Am Going to the Doctor (to help children prepare for doctors appointments; can be used with adults too; good for people with fear, anxiety, or resistance at check-ups) I Am Going to the Dentist (to prepare children for dental appointments) I Hate the Word No (a story to teach kids to calmly respond to the word no) Examples of targeted use of social stories Social stories in hindi. Loud noises. Needing a break. Moving through crowds. Category:Autism Category:1991 introductions Category:Storytellin | [
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7955447 | 1 | How a CCT Works A CCT is very similar to a CAT. Items are administered one at a time to an examinee. After the examinee responds to the item, the computer scores it and determines if the examinee is able to be classified yet. If they are, the test is terminated and the examinee is classified. If not, another item is administered. This process repeats until the examinee is classified or another ending point is satisfied (all items in the bank have been administered, or a maximum test length is reached). Psychometric Model Two approaches are available for the psychometric model of a CCT: classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT). Classical test theory assumes a state model because it is applied by determining item parameters for a sample of examinees determined to be in each category. For instance, several hundred "masters" and several hundred "nonmasters" might be sampled to determine the difficulty and discrimination for each, but doing so requires that you be able to easily identify a distinct set of people that are in each group. IRT, on the other hand, assumes a trait model; the knowledge or ability measured by the test is a continuum. The classification groups will need to be more or less arbitrarily defined along the continuum, such as the use of a cutscore to demarcate masters and nonmasters, but the specification of item parameters assumes a trait model. Item Selection In a CCT, items are selected for administration throughout the test, unlike the traditional method of administering a fixed set of items to all examinees. While this is usually done by individual item, it can also be done in groups of items known as testlets (Leucht & Nungester, 1996;Luecht, R. M., & Nungester, R. J. (1998). Some practical examples of computer-adaptive sequential testing. Journal of Educational Measurement, 35, 229-249. Vos & Glas, 2000Vos, H.J. & Glas, C.A.W. (2000). Testlet-based adaptive mastery testing. In van der Linden, W.J., and Glas, C.A.W. (Eds.) Computerized Adaptive Testing: Theory and Practice.). A bibliography of CCT research | How it works A CCT is very similar to a CAT. Items are administered one at a time to an examinee. After the examinee responds to the item, the computer scores it and determines if the examinee is able to be classified yet. If they are, the test is terminated and the examinee is classified. If not, another item is administered. This process repeats until the examinee is classified or another ending point is satisfied (all items in the bank have been administered, or a maximum test length is reached). Psychometric model Two approaches are available for the psychometric model of a CCT: classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT). Classical test theory assumes a state model because it is applied by determining item parameters for a sample of examinees determined to be in each category. For instance, several hundred "masters" and several hundred "nonmasters" might be sampled to determine the difficulty and discrimination for each, but doing so requires that you be able to easily identify a distinct set of people that are in each group. IRT, on the other hand, assumes a trait model; the knowledge or ability measured by the test is a continuum. The classification groups will need to be more or less arbitrarily defined along the continuum, such as the use of a cutscore to demarcate masters and nonmasters, but the specification of item parameters assumes a trait model. Item selection In a CCT, items are selected for administration throughout the test, unlike the traditional method of administering a fixed set of items to all examinees. While this is usually done by individual item, it can also be done in groups of items known as testlets (Leucht & Nungester, 1996;Luecht, R. M., & Nungester, R. J. (1998). Some practical examples of computer-adaptive sequential testing. Journal of Educational Measurement, 35, 229-249. Vos & Glas, 2000Vos, H.J. & Glas, C.A.W. (2000). Testlet-based adaptive mastery testing. In van der Linden, W.J., and Glas, C.A.W. (Eds.) Computerized Adaptive Testing: Theory and Practice.). Bibliography of CCT research | [
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7955594 | 1 | According to Hansen et al. 2015, powerful storms and changes in sea level rise can explain chevrons , as the study elaborates: The lightly indurated ooid sand ridges are several kilometers long (Bahamas) and appear to have originated from the action of long-period waves from a northeasterly Atlantic source. The chevron ridges contain bands of beach fenestrae, formed by air bubbles trapped in fine ooid sand inundated by water and quickly indurated. The internal sedimentary structures including the beach fenestrae and scour structures (Tormey, 2015) show that the chevrons were rapidly emplaced by water rather than wind (Hearty et al. , 1998). These landforms were deposited near the end of a sea level high stand, when sea level was just beginning to fall, otherwise they would have been reworked subsequently by stable or rising seas. Some chevrons contain multiple smaller ridges “nested” in a seaward direction (Hearty et al., 1998), providing further evidence that sea level was falling fast enough to strand and preserve older chevrons as distinct landforms. Older ridges adjacent to the chevron ridges have wave runup deposits that reach heights nearly 40 m above present sea level, far above the reach of a quiescent 5e sea surface. Such elevated beach fenestrae are considered to result from runup of very large waves (Wanless and Dravis, 1989). These stratigraphically youngest depositson the shore-parallel ridges are 1-5 m thick fenestrae-filled seaward-sloping tabular beds of stage 5e age that mantle older MIS 5e dune deposits (Neumann and Moore, 1975; Chen at al., 1991; Neumann and Hearty, 1996; Tormey, 2015). Runup beds reach more than a kilometer from the present coast, mantling the eastern flanks of stage 5e ridges (Hearty et al., 1998). Bain and Kindler (1994) suggested the fenestrae could be raingenerated, but the fenestrae at high elevations are widespread and exclusive to the late 5e deposits. They are not commonly found in older dune ridges (Hearty et al., 1998). Movement of these sediments, including chevrons, run-up deposits and boulders, required a potent sustained energy source. Anticipating our interpretation in terms of powerful storms driven by an unusually warm tropical ocean and strong zonal temperature gradients in the North Atlantic, we must ask whether there should not be evidence of comparable end-Eemian storms in Bermuda. Indeed, there are seaward sloping planar beds rising to about +20 m along several kilometers of the north coast of Bermuda (Land et al., 1967; Vacher and Rowe, 1997; Hearty et al., 1998).%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% In an alternative view, the Holocene Impact Research Group hypothesizes that the formations could be caused by tsunamis from meteorite impacts or submarine slides which lift sediment up and carry it hundreds of miles until depositing it on coastlines.Gusiakov, V. Abbott, D.H., Bryant, E.A., Masse, W.B., and Breger, D., 2010. Mega tsunami of the world oceans: Chevron dune formation, micro-ejecta, and rapid climate change as the evidence of recent oceanic bolide impacts: T. Beer (ed.), Geophysical Hazards, p. 197-227; Springer Publ. Part of the evidence they cite for this hypothesis is that the sediments contain tiny marine fossils; however, such fossils can be moved by the wind, just like sand. The impact idea is controversial not only because chevrons are similar to wind-blown landforms found far from the ocean, but also because it is unlikely that there have been enough large impacts and landslides to explain the observed chevrons. Moreover, some computer models and sediment-transport analysis do not support this theory. For example, the orientation of chevrons along the southern coast of Madagascar do not line up with what these models of mega-tsunamis have simulated. Additional evidence against the mega-tsunami hypothesis is that the force of the water would not produce such regular bed forms. | According to Hansen et al. 2015, powerful storms and changes in sea level rise can explain chevrons . An example of the formation of chevrons can be seen in the Bahamas, where the lightly indurated ooid sand ridges appear to have been created by the impact of strong waves over a long period of time. Subsequently, the internal structure of the chevrons showed that they were " rapidly emplaced by water rather than wind ". The notion that chevrons are caused by powerful storm surges rather than wind can also be attributed to tsunami deposits , with examples of complex chevron formations being found several kilometres inland, at high elevations %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% and on shorelines without beaches. The Holocene Impact Research Group hypothesizes that the formations could be caused by tsunamis from meteorite impacts or submarine slides which lift sediment up and carry it hundreds of miles until depositing it on coastlines.Gusiakov, V. Abbott, D.H., Bryant, E.A., Masse, W.B., and Breger, D., 2010. Mega tsunami of the world oceans: Chevron dune formation, micro-ejecta, and rapid climate change as the evidence of recent oceanic bolide impacts: T. Beer (ed.), Geophysical Hazards, p. 197-227; Springer Publ. Part of the evidence they cite for this hypothesis is that the sediments contain tiny marine fossils; however, such fossils can be moved by the wind, just like sand. As Abbott et al. 2017 describes; "In particular, the Madagascar chevrons contain significant proportions of early Holocene carbonate tests resembling shells of marine foraminifera, including some that are partially dolomitized, and some that are infilled with mud. These observations suggest that marine carbonate tests in the chevrons were eroded from the continental shelf, and not from modern beaches." The impact idea is controversial not only because chevrons are similar to wind-blown landforms found far from the ocean, but also because it is unlikely that there have been enough large impacts and landslides to explain the observed chevrons. Moreover, some computer models and sediment-transport analysis do not support this theory. For example, the orientation of chevrons along the southern coast of Madagascar do not line up with what these models of mega-tsunamis have simulated. Additional evidence against the mega-tsunami hypothesis is that the force of the water would not produce such regular bed forms. | [
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7963745 | 1 | David Gauthier is the current leading philosopher on the compliance problem. His suggested solution includes the theory of maximin relative concession. | David Gauthier is the current leading philosopher on the compliance problem. His suggested solution includes the theory of minimax relative concession. | [
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7970283 | 1 | In other words, and must be decided beforehand in order to set the thresholds appropriately. The numerical value will depend on the application. The reason for using approximation signs is that, in the discrete case, the signal may cross the threshold between samples. Thus, depending on the penalty of making an error and the sampling frequency, one might set the thresholds more aggressively. Of course, the exact bounds may be used in the continuous case. Holger Wilker: Sequential-Statistik in der Praxis, BoD, Norderstedt 2012, . External links R Package: Wald's Sequential Probability Ratio Test by Stéphane Bottine | In other words, and must be decided beforehand in order to set the thresholds appropriately. The numerical value will depend on the application. The reason for being only an approximation is that, in the discrete case, the signal may cross the threshold between samples. Thus, depending on the penalty of making an error and the sampling frequency, one might set the thresholds more aggressively. The exact bounds are correct in the continuous case. Further reading Holger Wilker: Sequential-Statistik in der Praxis, BoD, Norderstedt 2012, . External links Wald's Sequential Probability Ratio Test for R by Stéphane Bottine Wald's Sequential Probability Ratio Test for Python by Zhenning Yu | [
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7972835 | 1 | The structure of arguments Arguments are typically structured by a claim being defended with reasoning and evidence. It typical consists of statements that provide premises to support a conclusion. In the case of appeal to the stone there is an explicit conclusion but is likely not substantiate with many premises to validate the conclusion being asserted. | The structure of arguments Arguments are typically structured by a claim being defended with reasoning and evidence. It typically consists of statements that provide premises to support a conclusion. In the case of appeal to the stone , there is an explicit conclusion but it 1is likely not substantiated with many premises to validate the conclusion being asserted. | [
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7972835 | 2 | Origin The name appeal to the stone spawned from an argument between Dr. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell over George Berkeley ’ s theory of subjective idealism (known previously as “immaterialism”). Subjective idealism states that reality is dependent on a person’s perceptions of the world and that material objects are intertwined with one’s perceptions of these material objects. Johnson rejected Berkeley’s argument that material things only exist in one’s own interpretation by striking his foot against a large stone and stated, “I refute it thus”. Johnson ’s argument of appeal to the stone was to disprove subjective idealism by showing that by striking his foot against a large stone and observing his footrebounded off of it, would prove the laws of subjective idealism were incorrect . | Origin The name " appeal to the stone " originates from an argument between Dr. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell over George Berkeley ' s theory of subjective idealism (known previously as “immaterialism”). Subjective idealism states that reality is dependent on a person’s perceptions of the world and that material objects are intertwined with one’s perceptions of these material objects. Johnson 's intent, apparently, was to imply that it was absurd of Berkeley to call such a stone "immaterial," when in fact Johnson could kick it with his foot . | [
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7972835 | 3 | Appeal to the stone, also known as argumentum ad lapidem, is a logical fallacy that dismisses an argument as untrue or absurd and proves this assertion by stating that the argument is absurd . This theory is closely tied to proof by assertion due to the lack of evidence behind the statement and its attempt to persuade without providing any evidence. Appeal to the stone is a type of informal fallacy within the realm of logical fallacies. This means that appeal to the stone relies on inductive reasoning in an argument to justify an assertion. The assertion relies entirely on the content of the argument and does not examine the form or structure of it . History alt=Photograph of Dr.Samuel Johnson.|Dr. Samuel Johnson. Originator of the appeal to the stone. The weakness of inductive reasoning (in comparison to deductive reasoning), lays in the inability to gauge the validity or soundness of claims within an argument. Validity of an argument is based on whether the information presented is factual. However, if evidence presented to prove a conclusion are false, this can provide a valid argument based on false information to substantiate the conclusion. Therefore, soundness of an argument is deemed when the assumptions of an argument are factual. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive arguments cannot prove their deductive validity and therefore lead to the problem of induction . Example 351x351px|The appeal to the stone argument follow 4 steps. An initial claim, a denial, a questioning of the refutation, and a dismissal of the denial. Below is an example of an argument employing an appeal to the stone : Speaker A: Vaccines help the immune system and prevent the spread of disease. Speaker B: That is not true. Speaker A: Why is it not true? Speaker B: It is obviously not correct. In this example, Speaker B has denied Speaker A’s claim without providing any evidence to support their denial.%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% The structure of arguments Arguments are typically structured by a claim being defended with reasoning and evidence. It typically consists of statements that provide premises to support a conclusion. In the case of appeal to the stone, there is an explicit conclusion but it 1is likely not substantiated with many premises to validate the conclusion being asserted. According to the theory of argumentation, there must assumptions or premises that follow a method of reasoning or deduction to form the conclusion or point. An appeal to the stone’s lack of evidence to substantiate the refutation of the initial claim puts the burden of proof on the other member of the argument and limits rebuttals . | Appeal to the stone, also known as argumentum ad lapidem, is a logical fallacy that dismisses an argument as untrue or absurd . The dismissal is made by stating or reiterating that the argument is absurd , without providing further argumentation . This theory is closely tied to proof by assertion due to the lack of evidence behind the statement and its attempt to persuade without providing any evidence. Appeal to the stone is a logical fallacy. Specifically, it is an informal fallacy, which means that it relies on inductive reasoning in an argument to justify an assertion. Informal fallacies contain erroneous reasoning in content of the argument and not the form or structure of it , as opposed to formal fallacies, which contain erroneous reasoning in argument form . Example 351x351px|The appeal to the stone argument follow 4 steps. An initial claim, a denial, a questioning of the refutation, and a dismissal of the denial. Below is an example of an argument employing an appeal to the stone : Speaker A: Vaccines help the immune system and prevent the spread of disease. Speaker B: That is not true. Speaker A: Why is it not true? Speaker B: It is obviously not correct. In this example, Speaker B has denied Speaker A’s claim without providing any evidence to support their denial. The structure of arguments Arguments are typically structured by a claim being defended with reasoning and evidence. It typically consists of statements that provide premises to support a conclusion. In the case of appeal to the stone, there is an explicit conclusion but it 1is likely not substantiated with many premises to validate the conclusion being asserted. According to the theory of argumentation, there must assumptions or premises that follow a method of reasoning or deduction to form the conclusion or point. An appeal to the stone’s lack of evidence to substantiate the refutation of the initial claim puts the burden of proof on the other member of the argument and limits rebuttals. History alt=Photograph of Dr.Samuel Johnson.|Dr. Samuel Johnson. Originator of the appeal to the stone. 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7972928 | 1 | grace kennedy is amazing at english lit gemma bowness is a law major The disengagement theory of ageing states that "aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction between the aging person and others in the social system he belongs to". The theory claims that it is natural and acceptable for older adults to withdraw from society. There are multiple variations on disengagement theory, such as moral disengagement. Disengagement theory was formulated by gemma bowness and Cumming and Henry also larsson devlin in 1961 in the book Growing Old and was the first theory of aging that social scientists developed. Thus, the theory has historical significance in gerontology. Since then, it has faced strong criticism since the theory was proposed as innate, universal, and unidirectional. | The disengagement theory of ageing states that "aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction between the aging person and others in the social system he belongs to". The theory claims that it is natural and acceptable for older adults to withdraw from society. There are multiple variations on disengagement theory, such as moral disengagement. Disengagement theory was formulated by Cumming and Henry in 1961 in the book Growing Old and was the first theory of aging that social scientists developed. Thus, the theory has historical significance in gerontology. Since then, it has faced strong criticism since the theory was proposed as innate, universal, and unidirectional. | [
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7974163 | 1 | Women use their core muscles, specifically the transversus abdominis, during labor and delivery. 400px|From Army FM 3-22.9 page 4-16An example of static core function is firing a rifle in the prone position. To maintain accuracy, the shooter must be able to transfer his or her own body weight and the weight of the rifle into the earth. Any attempt of the shooter to create a dynamic motion of the sights (muscle the sights onto the target vs. allowing the posture to aim) will result in a jerky posture where the sights do not sit still on the target. For the shooter to maintain accuracy, the muscles cannot exert force on the rifle, and the skeleton must be aligned to set the rifle (and therefore the sights) onto the target. The core, while resting on the ground and relatively far away from the rifle, is nevertheless aligning the spine and pelvis to which the shoulder and arms and neck are connected. For these peripheral elements to remain static, and not move unnecessarily, the spine, pelvis, and rib cage must be aligned towards this end. Thus the core muscles provide support of the axial skeleton (skull, spine, and tailbone) in an alignment where the upper body can provide a steady, solid base for the rifle to remain motionless. | Core muscles, specifically the transversus abdominis, are used during labor and delivery. 400px|From Army FM 3-22.9 page 4-16An example of static core function is firing a rifle in the prone position. To maintain accuracy, the shooter must be able to transfer their body weight and the weight of the rifle into the earth. Any attempt of the shooter to create a dynamic motion of the sights (muscle the sights onto the target vs. allowing the posture to aim) will result in a jerky posture where the sights do not sit still on the target. For the shooter to maintain accuracy, the muscles cannot exert force on the rifle, and the skeleton must be aligned to set the rifle (and therefore the sights) onto the target. The core, while resting on the ground and relatively far away from the rifle, is nevertheless aligning the spine and pelvis to which the shoulder and arms and neck are connected. For these peripheral elements to remain static, and not move unnecessarily, the spine, pelvis, and rib cage must be aligned towards this end. Thus the core muscles provide support of the axial skeleton (skull, spine, and tailbone) in an alignment where the upper body can provide a steady, solid base for the rifle to remain motionless. | [
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79774 | 1 | The Premier of the Province of Canada Macdonald surprised the Atlantic premiers by asking if the Province of Canada could be included in the negotiations. The request was channelled through the Governor-General, Monck, to London and accepted by the Colonial Office. After several years of legislative paralysis in the Province of Canada caused by the need to maintain a double legislative majority (a majority of both the Canada East and Canada West delegates in the Province of Canada's legislature), Macdonald had led his Liberal-Conservative Party into the Great Coalition with Cartier's Parti bleu and George Brown's Clear Grits. Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown felt union with the other British colonies might be a way to solve the political problems of the Province of Canada. After returning home from the Charlottetown Conference, JMacdonald asked Viscount Monck, the Governor-General of the Province of Canada to invite delegates from the three Maritime provinces and Newfoundland to a conference with United Canada delegates. At the opening of the conference, a total of 33 delegates were included from the British North American Colonies, including Newfoundland, which had not participated in prior meetings. Monck obliged and the Conference went ahead at Quebec City in October 1864. | Macdonald, the premier of the Province of Canada , surprised the Atlantic premiers by asking if the Province of Canada could be included in the negotiations. The request was channelled through the Governor-General, Monck, to London and accepted by the Colonial Office. After several years of legislative paralysis in the Province of Canada caused by the need to maintain a double legislative majority (a majority of both the Canada East and Canada West delegates in the Province of Canada's legislature), Macdonald had led his Liberal-Conservative Party into the Great Coalition with Cartier's Parti bleu and George Brown's Clear Grits. Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown felt union with the other British colonies might be a way to solve the political problems of the Province of Canada. After returning home from the Charlottetown Conference, Macdonald asked Viscount Monck, the Governor-General of the Province of Canada to invite delegates from the three Maritime provinces and Newfoundland to a conference with United Canada delegates. At the opening of the conference, a total of 33 delegates were included from the British North American Colonies, including Newfoundland, which had not participated in prior meetings. Monck obliged and the Conference went ahead at Quebec City in October 1864. | [
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7984265 | 1 | Amanirenas (also spelled Amanirena) was a queen of the Kingdom of Kush from 40 BC to c. 10 BC . Her full title was Amnirense qore li kdwe li ("Ameniras, qore and kandake"). | Infobox monarch | name = Queen Amanirenas | title = Queen of Kush | image = File:Stele hamadab.JPG | caption = Meroitic Stela found at Hamadab | reign = c. 40 – 10 BC | coronation = | full name = Ameniras, Qore and Kandake | predecessor = Teriteqas | successor = Amanishakheto | spouse = | issue = Akinidad | royal house = | dynasty = Meroitic period | father = | mother = | birth_date = 60s–50s BC | birth_place = | death_date = c. 10 BC | death_place = | date of burial = | place of burial = Jebel Barkal (Bar. 4?) This is a message to the McQueen family we rule the world and that’s on period | [
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7998140 | 1 | The Backstretch is the area in a horse racetrack where horses are stabled and the training and daily work of maintaining the horses occurs. In many race tracks it will be found directly across the track from the grandstands and may also be called "the other side of the track . " Description A backstretch is divided into several areas. One, known as "shed row", is a line of stables, each stable home to many of the horses at the track. There are also dormitories, where workers (many migrant) live; offices for the trainers to register horses for upcoming races; a cafeteria; a recreation hall; and offices for the Chaplain. People working in this area are sometimes described as "the backstretch family", consisting of trainers, exercise riders, jockeys, grooms, farriers, veterinarians, muckers, jockey agents, and others in various URL by photographer Harris J. Sklar The backstretch in horse racing is also the part of an oval racecourse farthest from the spectators and opposite the homestretch. Most barn areas are on this far side of the track, and hence, the backstretch derives its name. Merriam- Webster's Dictionary ] References In photo-essay A Backstretch Journey, photographer Harris J. Sklar gives a vivid account of the daily life and activity occurring in the backstretch, with both photographs and quotations. | Backstretch refers to either: (1) the portion of an oval racetrack on the far side of the grandstand, parallel to the homestretch, or, (2) particularly in North America, the area near the racetrack where horses are stabled and the daily work of maintaining the horses occurs. In many racetracks, the stabling area is located next to the far side of the track, and may also be called "the other side of the track " or the "backside". Portion of the racetack upright=1.2|Generic left-handed racetrack diagram: A = finish line, B = grandstand, C/black = chute, Yellow = homestretch, Red = clubhouse turn, Blue = backstretch, Green = far turn, gray inside line = rail and the white center is the infield. The standard definition of backstretch refers to the configuration of an oval racetrack, where the backstretch is parallel to the homestretch. It is shown in blue on the diagram to the left. On an oval track, sprint races (typically 7 furlongs or less) begin on the backstretch and go around one turn to the finish line. Longer races start in the homestretch, take one turn into the backstretch, then another turn into the homestretch, so may be called "two turn" races. Depending on the track dimensions, very long races may consist of three turns, starting on the backstretch and then making a full lap and more. Stabling area Backstretch is also used to refer to the stabling area adjacent to the racetrack. A backstretch is divided into several areas. One, known as "shed row", is a line of stables, each stable home to many of the horses at the track. There are also dormitories, where workers (many migrant) live; offices for the trainers to register horses for upcoming races; a cafeteria; a recreation hall; and offices for the Chaplain. People working in this area are sometimes described as "the backstretch family", consisting of trainers, exercise riders, jockeys, grooms, farriers, veterinarians, muckers, jockey agents, and others in various positions. One groom explained the daily routine: "I come in about four-thirty. Feed breakfast. Most people have watchers who observe a horse to make sure it is eating well and shows no signs of illness] when they feed breakfast. We don’t because the stable’s not that big. But I come in about four-thirty. Feed. Muck out my stalls. Then about five-thirty—six we start training. You know, we pack them up and send them to the track. They come back, we bathe them. But that lasts until ten or ten-thirty. Then we do them up. We put all kinds of liniments and poultices on them and put bandages on them. We feed about eleven a.m. Then we come back about three-thirty. Muck out the stalls again and feed them about five. And then we’re done..." On racedays, the groom is also responsible for leading the horse to and from the racetrack, followed by a bath. References | [
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7999740 | 1 | Pitsen also spelled biçen, pichan, pechan, pitsin, picen, picin, yen, yenpäri, Urman İäse – the Host of the Forest; Cyrillic: Пице́н. is a forest creature in Siberian Tatars' mythology. Pitsen's role is contradictory. It could bring luck, but also troubles, leading humans to wilderness. Shapeshifting is common for Pitsen: he may look like elder with staff and knapsack, but also like different animals, for example apes. Pitsen prefers to live in derelict lodges. He also likes to ride horses and to oil their mane with tar. Валеев Ф. Т., О религиозных представлениях западносибирских татар, в сб.: Природа и человек в религиозных представлениях народов Сибири и Севера, Л., 1976, с. 320-29. Pitsen, transformed to damsel, may have sexual intercourse or get married to human. One legend says that one hunter happened upon beautiful damsel in a forest and get married to her. Soon they become rich. Once he came home ahead of time he used to return and had seen a tusky monster , eating lizards. He cried, being horrified, and that moment his wife and his riches disappeared. | Pitsen also spelled biçen, pichan, pechan, pitsin, picen, picin, yen, yenpäri, Urman İäse – the Host of the Forest; Cyrillic: Пице́н. is a forest creature in the Siberian Tatars' mythology. Pitsen's role is contradictory. It could bring luck, but also troubles, leading humans to the wilderness. Shapeshifting is common for Pitsen: he may look like an elder with a staff and knapsack, but also like different animals, for example apes. Pitsen prefers to live in derelict lodges. He also likes to ride horses and to oil their mane with tar. Валеев Ф. Т., О религиозных представлениях западносибирских татар, в сб.: Природа и человек в религиозных представлениях народов Сибири и Севера, Л., 1976, с. 320-29. Pitsen, when transformed to a damsel, may have sexual intercourse or get married to a human. One legend says that one hunter happened upon beautiful damsel in a forest and got married to her. Soon they become rich. Once he came home ahead of time and saw a tusky monster eating lizards. He cried, being horrified, and that moment his wife and his riches disappeared. | [
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8015297 | 1 | The orienting system describes a system whereby reflexive and more controlled eye movements are initiated as part of the attentional response. The orienting systeminvolves the superior colliculus, magno cells in the pulvinar (thalamus) and the secondary and tertiary areas of the extrastriate cortex e.g. V5. The orienting system follows the second 'geniculate' pathway. This pathway projects first to the superior colliculus and then to the pulvinar of the thalamus before projecting mainly to the posteria parietal area, but there are also projections that fan out to points along the V1 and V4 pathway. La Berge provides a model that describes the complex interaction between the superior colliculus and other brain areas. Broadly, a functional pattern can be discern which describes a number of layers within the superior colliculus . The superficial or upper layers are involved in passing sensory information at high speeds to be analysed for location of the a target, which is passed on to the cortex. This movement-sensitive system is important. References David Andrews, "From theory to practice. " | The brain pathway that orients visual attention to a stimulus is referred to as the orienting system. There are two main types of visual orientations, covert (exogenous) which occurs when a salient environmental change causes a shift in attention and overt (endogenous) which occurs when the individual makes a conscious decision to orient attention to a stimuli During a covert orientation of attention, the individual does not physically move, and during a overt orientation of attention the individual's eyes and head physically move in the direction of the stimulus . Information acquired through covert and overt visual orientations travels through the norepinephrine system, indirectly effecting the ventral visual pathway. The four specific brain regions involved in this process are the frontal eye field, the temporoparietal junction, the pulvinar, and the superior colliculus . The frontal eye field is involved in goal-driven eye movements and can inhibit stimulus driven eye movements. The temporoparietal junction appears to be involved location-cueing tasks, and individuals with lesions in this area have difficulty with attentional reorienting. The pulvinar is located posterior to the thalamus and it's role in the orientating system is still being researched; however it is thought to be involved in covert orienting. Finally, the superior colliculus provides information about the location of the stimuli to which attention is directed. References | [
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8017687 | 1 | Also among those who argue for the primacy of historiography is the architectural historian Mark Jarzombek. The focus of this work is on disciplinary production rather than poetic production, as was the case with Bloom. Since psychology – which became a more or less official science in the 1880s – is now so pervasive, Jarzombek argued, but yet so difficult to pinpoint, the traditional dualism of subjectivity and objectivity has become not only highly ambiguous, but also the site of a complex negotiation that needs to take place between the historian and the discipline. The issue, for Jarzombek, is particular poignant in the fields of art and architectural history, the principal subject of the book. Pierre Nora's notion of "ego-histories" also moves in the direction of critical historiography . The idea of these histories is to bring into focus the relationship between the personality of historians and their life choices in the process of writing of history . It is also proposed that, in architecture, critical historiography involves a strategic choice to approach the position of architecture within the given Symbolic order. This is demonstrated in the way Kenneth Frampton and Manfredo Tafuri associated Marxism with the Frankfurt School's critical theory. | Also among those who argue for the primacy of historiography is the architectural historian Mark Jarzombek. The focus of this work is on disciplinary production rather than poetic production, as was the case with Bloom. Since psychology – which became a more or less official science in the 1880s – is now so pervasive, Jarzombek argued, but yet so difficult to pinpoint, the traditional dualism of subjectivity and objectivity has become not only highly ambiguous, but also the site of a complex negotiation that needs to take place between the historian and the discipline. The issue, for Jarzombek, is particular poignant in the fields of art and architectural history, the principal subject of the book. Pierre Nora's notion of "ego-histories" also moves in the direction of critical historiography due to its interest in the ambiguous relationship between the present, the past, and the writing of history as well as the interactions of the fields of history, literary studies, and anthropology . The idea of these "ego-histories" is to bring into focus the relationship between the personality of historians and their life choices in the process of writing of history . The goal is to obtain the link between the history produced by the historian and the history of which he is a product . It is also proposed that, in architecture, critical historiography involves a strategic choice to approach the position of architecture within the given Symbolic order. This is demonstrated in the way Kenneth Frampton and Manfredo Tafuri associated Marxism with the Frankfurt School's critical theory. | [
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8018297 | 1 | In spite of much documented success, PSI has not taken off massively. Education is still dominated by "same pace, different learning" approaches, and the number of new research publications about PSI gradually declined after a high in the 70's. Several possible reasons are given for this, not the least that PSI represented a too radical deviation from established teaching practices and educational management routines Sherman, J. G. (1992). Reflections on PSI: Good news and bad. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 59-64.. Other explanations include conflicts within the PSI movement and the challenge that PSI would demand more effort from teaching staffGrant , L. K., & Spencer, R. E. (2003). The personalized system of instruction: Review and applications to distance education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2).. However, it has been speculated that PSI might see a revival with modern educational technology, as information technology could gradually alleviate teacher burdens related to frequent testing and feedback, as well as mitigate the increased administrative complexity that student self-pacing has over one instructor-set pace.Eyre, H. L. (2007). Keller's Personalized System of Instruction: Was it a Fleeting Fancy or is there a Revival on the Horizon?. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(3), 317. | In spite of much documented success, PSI has not taken off massively. Education is still dominated by "same pace, different learning" approaches, and the number of new research publications about PSI gradually declined after a high in the 70's. Several possible reasons are given for this, not the least that PSI represented a too radical deviation from established teaching practices and educational management routines Sherman, J. G. (1992). Reflections on PSI: Good news and bad. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 59-64.. Other explanations include conflicts within the PSI movement and the challenge that PSI demands more teaching effortGrant , L. K., & Spencer, R. E. (2003). The personalized system of instruction: Review and applications to distance education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2).. However, it has been speculated that PSI might see a revival with modern educational technology, as information technology could gradually alleviate teacher burdens related to frequent testing and feedback, as well as mitigate the increased administrative complexity that courses with student self-pacing has over those with instructor-set pace.Eyre, H. L. (2007). Keller's Personalized System of Instruction: Was it a Fleeting Fancy or is there a Revival on the Horizon?. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(3), 317. | [
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8018297 | 2 | In spite of much documented success, PSI has not taken off massively. Education is still dominated by "same pace, different learning" approaches, and the number of new research publications about PSI gradually declined after a high in the 70's. Several possible reasons are given for this, not the least that PSI represented a too radical deviation from established teaching practices and educational management routines Sherman, J. G. (1992). Reflections on PSI: Good news and bad. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 59-64.. Other explanations include conflicts within the PSI movement and the challenge that PSI demands more teaching effortGrant, L. K., & Spencer, R. E. (2003). The personalized system of instruction: Review and applications to distance education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2).. However, it has been speculated that PSI might see a revival with modern educational technology, as information technology could gradually alleviate teacher burdens related to frequent testing and feedback, as well as mitigate the increased administrative complexity that courses with student self-pacing has over those with instructor-set pace.Eyre, H. L. (2007). Keller's Personalized System of Instruction: Was it a Fleeting Fancy or is there a Revival on the Horizon?. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(3), 317. | In spite of much documented success, PSI has not taken off massively. Education is still dominated by "same pace, different learning" approaches, and the number of new research publications about PSI gradually declined after its heyday in the 70's. Several possible reasons are given for this, not the least that PSI represented a too radical deviation from established teaching practices and educational management routines Sherman, J. G. (1992). Reflections on PSI: Good news and bad. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 59-64.. Other explanations include conflicts within the PSI movement and the challenge that PSI demands more teaching effortGrant, L. K., & Spencer, R. E. (2003). The personalized system of instruction: Review and applications to distance education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2).. However, it has been speculated that PSI might see a revival with modern educational technology, as information technology could gradually alleviate teacher burdens related to frequent testing and feedback, as well as mitigate the increased administrative complexity that courses with student self-pacing have over those with instructor-set pace.Eyre, H. L. (2007). Keller's Personalized System of Instruction: Was it a Fleeting Fancy or is there a Revival on the Horizon?. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(3), 317. | [
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8018297 | 3 | Written materials—The primary presentation of new content should be through written texts. Given the forms of media available at the time when the Keller Plan was developed (e.g., lectures, movies, audio records, television, radio, paper-based text, etc.), paper-based texts gave students the greatest freedom; books and texts are portable, can be read at one's own pace, can be started and stopped at any time, can be easily reviewed, and can be marked by the reader. As an application of behaviorism, the Keller Plan was meant to maximize the number of operant behaviors that could be reinforced; this could best be done with written materials rather than have the learner be a passive observer of other media. Digital media available today could provide the same kinds of learner control and presumably could be incorporated in a contemporary implementation of PSI . Units of content—Subject matter material should be broken down into separable, meaningful units. These units could have various kinds of relationships; for example, one could provide prerequisites for understanding a second, or the second could provide deeper elaboration of a proceeding unit. In any case, specific learning objectives should be definable for each discrete unit of content. Self-paced instruction—Students should be allowed to advance through the course material at their own pace. While an instructor might specify the order in which learning units are completed, the learners should decide when and at what rate they learn. Learners could move through a course as quickly or slowly as they choose. Unit mastery—Students must satisfy a mastery requirement in one unit before proceeding to the next. Typically, a unit in PSI would have more than one equivalent form of assessment—for example, three quizzes of equal difficulty or three primary sources or data sets to be analyzed. Students must demonstrate mastery of a unit's objectives to a certain level of quality. If the student does not reach the threshold, they are redirected to unit materials (or supplements if provided) and then take an equivalent form of the unit assessment. From the point of view of behaviorism, demonstrating mastery and being allowed to continue to a subsequent unit was presumed to be reinforcing Proctors—Human proctors are an important part of the Keller Plan. The proctors could be "external" to the course (adults or peers brought to the course from external sources) or "internal" (advanced students in the course who are doing well, have completed all units to date, and have good interpersonal skills). Proctors were the arbiters of unit mastery; they would "certify" mastery, discuss areas of weakness, and direct students to the next units. Behaviorists were always concerned about bringing conditioned behaviors under the control of "natural" reinforcers; interactions with the proctors were presumed to provide natural social reinforcers that encouraged learning behaviors and perseverance in the course. | Written materials—The primary presentation of new content should be through written texts. Given the forms of media available at the time when the Keller Plan was developed (e.g., lectures, movies, audio records, television, radio, paper-based text, etc.), paper-based texts gave students the greatest freedom; books and texts are portable, can be read at one's own pace, can be started and stopped at any time, can be easily reviewed, and can be marked by the reader. As an application of behaviorism, the Keller Plan was meant to maximize the number of operant behaviors that could be reinforced; this could best be done with written materials rather than have the learner be a passive observer of other media. Digital media available today could not provide the same kinds of learner control . Presumably, unintended consequences might arise if incorporated into a contemporary implementation of PSI , due to many additional operant behaviors that cannot be controlled by the student or teacher . Units of content—Subject matter material should be broken down into separable, meaningful units. These units could have various kinds of relationships; for example, one could provide prerequisites for understanding a second, or the second could provide deeper elaboration of a proceeding unit. In any case, specific learning objectives should be definable for each discrete unit of content. Self-paced instruction—Students should be allowed to advance through the course material at their own pace. While an instructor might specify the order in which learning units are completed, the learners should decide when and at what rate they learn. Learners could move through a course as quickly or slowly as they choose. Unit mastery—Students must satisfy a mastery requirement in one unit before proceeding to the next. Typically, a unit in PSI would have more than one equivalent form of assessment—for example, three quizzes of equal difficulty or three primary sources or data sets to be analyzed. Students must demonstrate mastery of a unit's objectives to a certain level of quality. If the student does not reach the threshold, they are redirected to unit materials (or supplements if provided) and then take an equivalent form of the unit assessment. From the point of view of behaviorism, demonstrating mastery and being allowed to continue to a subsequent unit was presumed to be reinforcing Proctors—Human proctors are an important part of the Keller Plan. 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801902 | 1 | Another important achievement is the signing of the "Paix des Braves" (French for "Peace of the Brave"). Along with Premier Bernard Landry (of the independentist Parti Québécois, or PQ) and the government of Quebec, Moses and the Council developed this agreement. Far more than an economic deal, it was a "nation to nation" (the Cree and Quebec nations) declaration of peace after long, bitter legal disputes between Cree leaders and the Government of Quebec. The payments from the Quebec Government pays for Quebec obligations contained in the 1975 James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. These obligations were transferred from the Quebec Government to the Cree Government. The Cree Government decides what are the priorities . The Paix des Braves brought big controversy but also many economic and social benefits to the Crees. The Cree communities voted in community referenda to accept the Paix des Braves. The approval was over 65\% with a majority voter turnout. The Paix des Braves now in its sixth year provides 77 million dollars per year to the Cree Communities from the Quebec Government. These payments indexed by electricity, mineral, and forestry sales from the Cree traditional territory will last for another 45 years. These payments from the Quebec Government will be replaced with payments from a Cree Heritage fund set up by the Cree by investing 15\% of the present payments from Quebec Government. This was and still is widely seen as a symbolic show of mutual respect and recognition of the national status and right to self-determination of each people. It was put into concrete action when Ted Moses surprised many by supporting the re-election of Landry's Parti Québécois in the 2003 Quebec election after years of refractory attitudes of the Cree people towards Quebec sovereignism . He declared: "I support Bernard Landry... my friend and my brother... and I will recommend to my people to support the actual Member of Parliament of Ungava, Michel Létourneau." (Ungava is the electoral riding of the Cree of Quebec.) Moses and the PQ leader have indeed become close: Landry invited Moses to his wedding on June 26, 2004. | Another important achievement is the signing of the "Paix des Braves" (French for "Peace of the Brave"). Along with Premier Bernard Landry (of the independentist Parti Québécois, or PQ) and the government of Quebec, Moses and the Council developed this agreement. Far more than an economic deal, it was a "nation to nation" (the Cree and Quebec nations) declaration of peace after long, bitter legal disputes between Cree leaders and the Government of Quebec. The payments from the Quebec Government pays for Quebec obligations contained in the 1975 James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. These obligations were transferred from the Quebec Government to the Cree Government. The Cree Government decides what the priorities are . The Paix des Braves brought great controversy, but also many economic and social benefits to the Crees. The Cree communities voted in community referenda to accept the Paix des Braves. The approval was over 65\% , with a majority voter turnout. The Paix des Braves now provides 77 million dollars per year to the Cree Communities from the Quebec Government. These payments indexed by electricity, mineral, and forestry sales from the Cree traditional territory will last for another 45 years. These payments from the Quebec Government will be replaced with payments from a Cree Heritage fund set up by the Cree by investing 15\% of the present payments from the Quebec Government. This was and still is widely seen as a symbolic show of mutual respect and recognition of the national status and right to self-determination of each people. It was put into concrete action when Ted Moses surprised many by supporting the re-election of Landry's Parti Québécois in the 2003 Quebec election after years of oppositional attitudes of the Cree people towards Quebec sovereignty . He declared: "I support Bernard Landry... my friend and my brother... and I will recommend to my people to support the actual Member of Parliament of Ungava, Michel Létourneau." (Ungava is the electoral riding of the Cree of Quebec.) Moses and the PQ leader have indeed become close: Landry invited Moses to his wedding on June 26, 2004. | [
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801902 | 2 | Ted Moses was born in Eastmain, in the James Bay region of Quebec. After studying at Ryerson University in Toronto and McGill University in Montreal in school administration, he was Chief and Mayor of the village of Eastmain from 1987 to 1990. He was elected Grand Chief of the Crees in 1984. He is active on the international stage, speaking at numerous events about aboriginals and tolerance. Sometimes referred to as Dr. Ted Moses, he is the recipient of two honorary Doctorates of Law. | Moses was born in Eastmain, in the James Bay region of Quebec. After studying at Ryerson University in Toronto and McGill University in Montreal in school administration, he was Chief and Mayor of the village of Eastmain from 1987 to 1990. He was elected Grand Chief of the Crees in 1984. Moses is active on the international stage, speaking at numerous events about aboriginals and tolerance. He is the recipient of two honorary Doctorates of Law. | [
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8020639 | 1 | Category:Climate change organizations Category: Climatology Category:Arizona State University Climatic Data Center Climatic Data Center Category:Oceanograp | Category:Climate change organizations Category: Climate and weather statistics Category:Climate history Category:Arizona State University Climatic Data Center Climatic Data Center Category:Oceanograp | [
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8020639 | 2 | The Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) is a database of temperature, precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures, and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions, that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) temperature set. The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~1650 records greater than 100 years and ~220 greater than 150 years (based on GHCN v2 in 2006). The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697. Map and description 400px|Map of temperature station locations with record lengths indicated by coloring . Category:Climate change organizations based in the United States Category:Climate and weather statistics Category:Historical climatology Category:Arizona State University Climatic Data Center Climatic Data Center Category:Oceanograp | The Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) is a database of temperature, precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center (NDCC) , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures, and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions, that prepared by the NCDC , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) temperature set. The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~1650 records greater than 100 years and ~220 greater than 150 years (based on GHCN v2 in 2006). The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697. Map and description 400px|Map of temperature station locations with record lengths indicated by coloring Category:Climate change organizations based in the United States Category:Climate and weather statistics Category:Historical climatology Category:Arizona State University Global Historical Climatology Network Global Historical Climatology Network Category:Oceanograp | [
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8024980 | 1 | U Unified settlement planning - Unitary urbanism - United States metropolitan area - Urban design - Urban forest - Urban forestry - Urban Land Institute - Urban planning education - Urban planning in Africa - Urban planning in ancient Egypt - Urban planning in Australia - Urban planning in China - Urban planning in France - Urban planning in Japan - Urban planning in communist countries - Urban planning in the European Union - Urban planning in Shanghai - Urban planning in Singapore - Urban Planning Society of China - Urban plans in Iran - Urban reforestation - Urban renewal - Urban sprawl - Urban village - Urbanized area - Urbanomics | U Unified settlement planning - Unitary urbanism - United States metropolitan area - Urban area - Urban design - Urban forest - Urban forestry - Urban Land Institute - Urban planning education - Urban planning in Africa - Urban planning in ancient Egypt - Urban planning in Australia - Urban planning in China - Urban planning in France - Urban planning in Japan - Urban planning in communist countries - Urban planning in the European Union - Urban planning in Shanghai - Urban planning in Singapore - Urban Planning Society of China - Urban plans in Iran - Urban reforestation - Urban renewal - Urban sprawl - Urban village - Urbanomics | [
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8028897 | 1 | The War of the Golden Stool, also known as the Yaa Asantewaa War, the Third Ashanti Expedition, the Ashanti Uprising, or variations thereof, was a violent battle in the series of conflicts between the United Kingdom and the Ashanti Empire (later Ashanti Region), an autonomous state in West Africa that fractiously co-existed with the British and its vassal coastal tribes. The Golden Stool The Golden Stool had long symbolized governing power for the Ashanti people. On 19 March 1901 British statesman David Lloyd George stated in a Parliamentary session that: “Frederick Hodgson’s quest of the Golden Stool was something like the quest of the Holy Grail". The Member of Parliament of Caernarfon as well as other members of the House were extremely concerned about the huge expense that the House was being made to pay for the war. Joseph Chamberlain, then Secretary for the Colonial Office, was questioned extensively as to whether or not Frederick Hodgson had actually been given prior permission to demand the Golden Stool from the Asante people, because he seemed to think that; "if he could only get possession of the Golden Stool he would be able to govern the country for all time”. The speech was received in silence by the assembly, but the chiefs that were present began war preparations upon their return to their homes. In his book The Golden Stool: Some Aspects of the Conflict of Cultures in Modern Africa the anthropologist Reverend Edwin W. Smith wrote of this "A singularly foolish speech! An excellent example of the blunders that are made through ignorance of the African mind!". Gaurav Desai quotes this passage and goes on to clarify that the Stool was not seen as a mere physical object and symbol of power but as a metaphysical and spiritual representation of the soul of the Ashanti people as a whole - this misunderstanding being the catalyst for the conflict, coming at a time of already strained relations. Aftermath Ashanti was annexed into the British Empire; however, the Ashanti still largely governed themselves. They gave little or no deference to colonial authorities. The Ashanti were successful in their pre-war goal to protect the Golden Stool. But, the following year, the British arrested numerous chiefs, including the Queen Mother of Ejisu, Yaa Asantewaa, and exiled them to the Seychelles for 25 years. In that 25-year period many of them died, including Yaa Asantewaa herself in 1921. Kumasi City retains a memorial to this war and several large colonial residences. Ashanti and the former Gold Coast eventually became part of Ghana. The war cost the British and their allies approximately 1,000 fatalities in total; however, according to a statement made by MP David Lloyd George in Parliament in 1901, "the Colonial Office should have had some justification for the foolish policy of the [British] Government in regard to the Golden Stool, that had led to the hundreds and thousands of the corpses of savages festering round the fort of Coomassie"! David Lloyd George further admonished Joseph Chamberlain for his inhumane attitude towards the Human Life of the Asante People who were needlessly killed during the War, because the Golden Stool was never captured by the British: "Surely human life was worth some respectful treatment", he said. The Golden Stool was hidden deep in the forests for the duration of the war, with the British continuing to seek it until 1921. Shortly after this, it was accidentally uncovered by a team of labourers who took the golden ornaments that adorned the stool and left the rest, which was of wood. An Ashanti court sentenced the labourers to death for their desecration, but British officials intervened and arranged for their exile instead. "Yaa Asantewaa Profile", GhanaWeb "Yaa Asantewaa's War". WebCite URL "The Golden Stool". "The story of Africa – West African Kingdoms", BBC World Service. Hernon, Ian Britain's Forgotten Wars, 2002 () Lewin, J Asante before the British: The Prempean Years 1875-1900 The Siege of Kumassi, Lady Mary Alice Hodgson Letters from a Bush Campaign, David Martineau Haylings The Ashanti Campaign of 1900, Captain C. H. Armitage DSO and Lieutenant Colonel A. F. Montanaro The Relief of Kumasi, Captain Harold C.J. Biss Dark and Stormy Days at Kumassi, 1900, or Missionary Experience in Ashanti according to the diary of Rev. Fritz Ramseyer, Friedrich Augustus Louis Ramseyer The Romance of Soldiering and Sport, General Sir James Willcocks, GCB,GCMG, KCSI, DSO The Golden Stool: Some Aspects of the Conflict of Cultures in Modern Africa, The Reverend Edwin W. Smith The Great Drama Of Kumasi, Major Wynyard Montagu Hall | The War of the wooden Stool, also known as the Yaa Asantewaa War, the Third Ashanti Expedition, the Ashanti Uprising, or variations thereof, was a violent battle in the series of conflicts between the United Kingdom and the Ashanti Empire (later Ashanti Region), an autonomous state in West Africa that fractiously co-existed with the British and its vassal coastal tribes. The wooden Stool The wooden Stool had long symbolized governing power for the Ashanti people. On 19 March 1901 British statesman David Lloyd George stated in a Parliamentary session that: “Frederick Hodgson’s quest of the wooden Stool was something like the quest of the Holy Grail". The Member of Parliament of Caernarfon as well as other members of the House were extremely concerned about the huge expense that the House was being made to pay for the war. Joseph Chamberlain, then Secretary for the Colonial Office, was questioned extensively as to whether or not Frederick Hodgson had actually been given prior permission to demand the wooden Stool from the Asante people, because he seemed to think that; "if he could only get possession of the wooden Stool he would be able to govern the country for all time”. The speech was received in silence by the assembly, but the chiefs that were present began war preparations upon their return to their homes. In his book The wooden Stool: Some Aspects of the Conflict of Cultures in Modern Africa the anthropologist Reverend Edwin W. Smith wrote of this "A singularly foolish speech! An excellent example of the blunders that are made through ignorance of the African mind!". Gaurav Desai quotes this passage and goes on to clarify that the Stool was not seen as a mere physical object and symbol of power but as a metaphysical and spiritual representation of the soul of the Ashanti people as a whole - this misunderstanding being the catalyst for the conflict, coming at a time of already strained relations. Aftermath Ashanti was annexed into the British Empire; however, the Ashanti still largely governed themselves. They gave little or no deference to colonial authorities. The Ashanti were successful in their pre-war goal to protect the wooden Stool. But, the following year, the British arrested numerous chiefs, including the Queen Mother of Ejisu, Yaa Asantewaa, and exiled them to the Seychelles for 25 years. In that 25-year period many of them died, including Yaa Asantewaa herself in 1921. Kumasi City retains a memorial to this war and several large colonial residences. Ashanti and the former Gold Coast eventually became part of Ghana. The war cost the British and their allies approximately 1,000 fatalities in total; however, according to a statement made by MP David Lloyd George in Parliament in 1901, "the Colonial Office should have had some justification for the foolish policy of the [British] Government in regard to the wooden Stool, that had led to the hundreds and thousands of the corpses of savages festering round the fort of Coomassie"! David Lloyd George further admonished Joseph Chamberlain for his inhumane attitude towards the Human Life of the Asante People who were needlessly killed during the War, because the wooden Stool was never captured by the British: "Surely human life was worth some respectful treatment", he said. The wooden Stool was hidden deep in the forests for the duration of the war, with the British continuing to seek it until 1921. Shortly after this, it was accidentally uncovered by a team of labourers who took the wooden ornaments that adorned the stool and left the rest, which was of wood. An Ashanti court sentenced the labourers to death for their desecration, but British officials intervened and arranged for their exile instead. "Yaa Asantewaa Profile", GhanaWeb "Yaa Asantewaa's War". WebCite URL "The wooden Stool". "The story of Africa – West African Kingdoms", BBC World Service. Hernon, Ian Britain's Forgotten Wars, 2002 () Lewin, J Asante before the British: The Prempean Years 1875-1900 The Siege of Kumassi, Lady Mary Alice Hodgson Letters from a Bush Campaign, David Martineau Haylings The Ashanti Campaign of 1900, Captain C. H. Armitage DSO and Lieutenant Colonel A. F. Montanaro The Relief of Kumasi, Captain Harold C.J. Biss Dark and Stormy Days at Kumassi, 1900, or Missionary Experience in Ashanti according to the diary of Rev. 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8030835 | 1 | A pneumatic barrier is a method of containing oil spills. It is also called a bubble curtain. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop fish from entering polluted water. An other application of a pneumatic barrier is to decrease the salt-water exchange in navigation locks and prevent salt intrusion in rivers Abraham, G. Van der Burgh, P. De Vos, P. (1973) Pneumatic barriers to reduce salt intrusion through locks, Rijkswaterstaat Communications 17, URL Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains. The pneumatic barrier is a (non-patented) invention of the Dutch engineer Johan van Veen from around 1940 De Ingenieur, 7 maart 1941, URL | A pneumatic barrier is a method of containing oil spills. It is also called a bubble curtain. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop fish from entering polluted water. An other application of a pneumatic barrier is to decrease the salt-water exchange in navigation locks and prevent salt intrusion in rivers . Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains. The pneumatic barrier is a (non-patented) invention of the Dutch engineer Johan van Veen from around 1940 . | [
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8030835 | 2 | A pneumatic barrier is a method of containing oil spills. It is also called a bubble curtain. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop fish from entering polluted water. An other application of a pneumatic barrier is to decrease the salt-water exchange in navigation locks and prevent salt intrusion in rivers. Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains. The pneumatic barrier is a (non-patented) invention of the Dutch engineer Johan van Veen from around 1940 . The pneumatic barrier consists of perforated pipe and a compressed air source. Air escaping from the pipe provides a "hump" of rising water and air which contains the oil spill. Anchors keeping the pipe in a decided spot are helpful. In case of a density current due to salinity differences the barrier mixes the salt water, but also slows down the speed of the density current pneumatic barrier in navigation lock in the Netherlands At water current speeds exceeding one foot per second, the pneumatic barrier no longer functions effectively, limiting deployable sites. The release of compressed air in the water adds oxygen to the local environment. This may be particularly useful in an area which has become a dead zone due to eutrophication. Air curtains may have another application. Dolphin and whale beaching has increased with the rise in ocean temperatures. On Thursday , February 12 , 2017, a group of nearly 400 whales began to beach near Golden Bay on the tip of New Zealand’s South Island, following a similar incident earlier that week. The simplicity of an air curtain system, requiring only air compressors and perforated hoses, would allow for rapid deployment and create aerated zones of oxygenated seawater during a marine emergency. Air curtains are also used to control the release of smoke particulates into the environment. After a natural disaster, or during brush clearing activities, debris is disposed of by incineration in either a ceramic or earth pit containment. Just as an air curtain serves to separate indoor air from outdoor air as , for instance , in restaurants and walk-in refrigerators, a powerful air curtain can defeat the chimney effect of the incineration process to eliminate any smoke from a brush incinerator. The air curtain acts as a lid on the process, and forces the smoke back into the fuel bed for a cleaner burn. | A pneumatic barrier is a method to contain oil spills. It is also called a bubble curtain. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop fish from entering polluted water. A further application of the pneumatic barrier is to decrease the salt-water exchange in navigation locks and prevent salt intrusion in rivers. . Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains. The pneumatic barrier is a (non-patented) invention of the Dutch engineer Johan van Veen from around 1940 . The pneumatic barrier consists of a perforated pipe and a compressed air source. Air escaping from the pipe provides a "hump" of rising water and air which contains the oil spill. Anchors to keep the pipe in a particular spot are helpful. In case of a density current due to salinity differences the barrier mixes the salt water, but also slows down the speed of the density current . pneumatic barrier in navigation lock in the Netherlands At water-current speeds exceeding one foot per second, the pneumatic barrier no longer functions effectively, limiting deployable sites. The release of compressed air in the water adds oxygen to the local environment. This may be particularly useful in areas that have become a dead zone due to eutrophication. Air curtains may have another application. Dolphin and whale beaching has increased with the rise in ocean temperatures. On Thursday February 12th , 2017, a group of nearly 400 whales beached near Golden Bay on the tip of New Zealand’s South Island, following a similar incident earlier that week. The simplicity of an air curtain system, requiring only air compressors and perforated hoses, could allow for rapid deployment and create aerated zones of oxygenated seawater during a marine emergency. Air curtains are also used to control the release of smoke particles into the environment. After a natural disaster, or during brush clearing activities, debris is disposed of by incineration in either a ceramic or earth pit containment. Similar to an air curtain to separate indoor air from outdoor air , for instance in restaurants and walk-in refrigerators, a powerful air curtain can defeat the chimney effect of the incineration process to eliminate any smoke from a brush incinerator. The air curtain acts as a lid on the process, and forces the smoke back into the fuel bed for a cleaner burn. | [
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803597 | 1 | The ecumene (US) or oecumene (UK; ) is a Greek term for the known, the inhabited, or the habitable world dating from antiquity . Under the Roman Empire, it came to refer to civilization as well as the secular and religious imperial administration. In present usage, it is most often used in the context of "ecumenical" and describes the Christian Church as a unified whole, or the unified modern world civilization. It is also used in cartography to describe a type of world map (mappa mundi) used in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Greece A Ptolemaic world map from the Geography (Johannes Schnitzer, 1482). Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276–196 BC) deduced the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy (within 10\% of the correct value). The Greek cartographer Crates created a globe about 150 BC. Claudius Ptolemy (83–161) calculated the Earth's surface in his Geography and described the inhabited portion as spanning 180 degrees of longitude (from the Fortunate Isles in the west to Serae and Serica (China) in the east) and about 80 degrees of latitude (from Thule in the north to anti-Meroë below the equator). Ptolemy was well aware that the Romans knew only about a quarter of the globe and his erroneous belief that the Indian Ocean was landlocked led to expectation of a terra incognita ("unknown land ") . In fact, symmetry led him to expect that there should be three other continents to balance the ecumene: Perioeci ( "beside the ecumene"), Antoeci ("opposite the ecumene") and the Antipodes (“opposite the feet”). | The ecumene (US) or oecumene (UK; ) is an ancient Greek term for the known, the inhabited, or the habitable world . In Greek antiquity, it referred to the portions of the world known to Hellenic geographers, subdivided into three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia) . Under the Roman Empire, it came to refer to civilization itself, as well as the secular and religious imperial administration. In present usage, it is most often used in the context of "ecumenical" and describes the Christian Church as a unified whole, or the unified modern world civilization. It is also used in cartography to describe a type of world map (mappa mundi) used in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Greece A Ptolemaic world map from the Geography (Johannes Schnitzer, 1482). Ancient Greek and Roman geographers knew the approximate size of the globe, but remained ignorant of many parts of it. Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276–196 BC) deduced the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy (within 10\% of the correct value). The Greek cartographer Crates created a globe about 150 BC. Claudius Ptolemy (83–161) calculated the Earth's surface in his Geography and described the inhabited portion as spanning 180 degrees of longitude (from the Fortunate Isles in the west to Serae and Serica (China) in the east) and about 80 degrees of latitude (from Thule in the north to anti-Meroë below the equator). At its widest possible extent, the ancient ecumene thus stretched from northern Europe to equatorial Africa, and from the Atlantic Ocean to western China. During the Middle Ages, this picture of the world was widened to accommodate Scandinavia, the North Atlantic, East Asia, and eventually sub-equatorial Africa. Ptolemy and other ancient geographers were well aware that they had a limited view of the ecumene, and that their knowledge extended to only a quarter of the globe These geographers acknowledged the existence of terrae incognitae ("unknown lands ") within Africa, Europe and Asia . In fact, a belief in global symmetry led many Greco-Roman geographers to posit other continents elsewhere on the globe, which existed in balance with the ecumene: Perioeci ( "beside the ecumene"), Antoeci ("opposite the ecumene") and the Antipodes (“opposite the feet”). | [
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803597 | 2 | The ecumene (US ) or oecumene (UK ; ) is an ancient Greek term for the known, the inhabited, or the habitable world. In Greek antiquity, it referred to the portions of the world known to Hellenic geographers, subdivided into three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). Under the Roman Empire, it came to refer to civilization itself, as well as the secular and religious imperial administration. In present usage, it is most often used in the context of "ecumenical" and describes the Christian Church as a unified whole, or the unified modern world civilization. It is also used in cartography to describe a type of world map (mappa mundi) used in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. | The ecumene (US spelling ) or oecumene (UK spelling ; ) is an ancient Greek term for the known, the inhabited, or the habitable world. In Greek antiquity, it referred to the portions of the world known to Hellenic geographers, subdivided into three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). Under the Roman Empire, it came to refer to civilization itself, as well as the secular and religious imperial administration. In present usage, it is most often used in the context of "ecumenical" and describes the Christian Church as a unified whole, or the unified modern world civilization. It is also used in cartography to describe a type of world map (mappa mundi) used in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. | [
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803597 | 3 | Cartography The term is used in cartography and the historical cartography to describe a type of symbolic, schematic world map made in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. | Cartography The term is used in cartography and historical cartography to describe a type of map, namely the symbolic, schematic world maps made in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. | [
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8036002 | 1 | The doctrine of internal relations is the philosophical doctrine that all relations are internal to their bearers, in the sense that they are essential to them and the bearers would not be what they are without them. It was a term used in British philosophy around in the early 1900s.G E Moore, 'External and Internal Relations', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society ( 1919-20 ); reprinted in G E Moore, Philosophical Studies (1922)Russell ‘Pragmatism’ (1909) and ‘The Monistic Theory of Truth’ ( 1906-07 ) "This material is in itself the ultimate substance. Evolution, on the materialistic theory, is reduced to the role of being another word for the description of the changes of the external relations between portions of matter. There is nothing to evolve, because one set of external relations is as good as any other set of external relations. There can merely be change, purposeless and unprogressive. But the whole point of the modem doctrine is the evolution of the complex organisms from antecedent states of less complex organisms. The doctrine thus cries aloud for a conception of organism as fundamental for nature. It also requires an underlying activity -- a substantial activity -- expressing itself in achievements of organism."Whitehead, 1925, pages , 151-152. In the 1925 (first) edition of Whitehead's " Science and the Modern World " the cited paragraph is on p. 135. | The doctrine of internal relations is the philosophical doctrine that all relations are internal to their bearers, in the sense that they are essential to them and the bearers would not be what they are without them. It was a term used in British philosophy around in the early 1900s.G E Moore, 'External and Internal Relations', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society ( 1919–20 ); reprinted in G E Moore, Philosophical Studies (1922)Russell ‘Pragmatism’ (1909) and ‘The Monistic Theory of Truth’ ( 1906–07 ) "This material is in itself the ultimate substance. Evolution, on the materialistic theory, is reduced to the role of being another word for the description of the changes of the external relations between portions of matter. There is nothing to evolve, because one set of external relations is as good as any other set of external relations. There can merely be change, purposeless and unprogressive. But the whole point of the modem doctrine is the evolution of the complex organisms from antecedent states of less complex organisms. The doctrine thus cries aloud for a conception of organism as fundamental for nature. It also requires an underlying activity -- a substantial activity -- expressing itself in achievements of organism."Whitehead, 1925, pages 151–152. In the 1925 (first) edition of Whitehead's Science and the Modern World the cited paragraph is on p. 135. | [
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8037104 | 1 | There are ethical and regulatory concerns regarding DTCA, specifically the extent to which these ads may unduly influence the prescribing of the prescriptions based on consumer demands when, in some cases, they may not be medically necessary, or there are cheaper options available. Critics of DTCA have argued that too much is spent on marketing medications, rather than into research and development; in the United States, ad spending by drugmakers reached US $5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a "product claim" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A "reminder" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune "Good Morning" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric "it's great to stay up late". A "help-seeking" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned "reminder" and "help-seeking" advertisements, although U.S.-style "full product ads" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. There is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with "unsatisfactory" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations "[lacked] accountability and transparency"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that "since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of "disease education information" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a "slippery slope" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive "wonder drugs", and that "we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street." Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for "minor" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer "product claim" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a "fair balance" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given "adequate provision" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a "brief summary" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned "brief summary"), such as on a website, phone hotline, or a current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. Ads that do not make health claims do not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have "adequate provision" via different outlets, a "brief summary" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a "brief summary" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as "It's time for Claritin" and "Clear days and nights are here", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the "brief summary" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted "adequate provision" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $ 1.12 billion. Despite this growth, there were concerns that some ads had an insufficient focus on properly discussing the product, while concerns were also shown for the advertising of erectile dysfunction medications during programming that may be widely watched by children. In 2005, Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) instituted new voluntary guidelines for DTCA, including requirements to voluntarily submit ads to the FDA for review and educate health professionals on new medications before an advertising campaign commences, use clear language in advertising, obtain appropriate age targeting for advertisements involving subject matter that may be inappropriate to certain audiences, and to not use "reminder" ads. By 2011, spending on pharmaceutical advertising had grown to approximately US$4.5 billion per year, and increased to $5.2 billion by 2016. Proposed display of list prices On May 8, 2019, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) approved a mandate for list prices to be displayed in advertising for any prescription that costs $35 or higher for 30 days of treatment. Ads could also include price comparisons against competitors. PhRMA objected to the rule, arguing that prominent display of list prices would cause confusion because they do not reflect what patients would typically pay under insurance coverage (the rule did require display of a disclaimer stating that those with health insurance may pay a different amount). When the rule was proposed in October 2018, PhRMA stated that its members would commit to publishing detailed pricing information online (including possible out-of-pocket costs, and information on financial support options), and directing viewers to this information within their advertising. However, the HHS disputed their arguments, arguing that list prices would help patients calculate how much they would pay, especially if they have not yet met their insurance deductible, or the drug is not covered by their insurance. Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar compared the proposed requirement to similar regulations involving list prices for automobiles. | There are ethical and regulatory concerns regarding DTCA, specifically the extent to which these ads may unduly influence the prescribing of the prescriptions based on consumer demands when, in some cases, they may not be medically necessary, or there are cheaper options available. Critics of DTCA have argued that too much is spent on marketing medications, rather than into research and development; in the United States, ad spending by drugmakers reached US $5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a "product claim" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A "reminder" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune "Good Morning" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric "it's great to stay up late". A "help-seeking" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned "reminder" and "help-seeking" advertisements, although U.S.-style "full product ads" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. There is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with "unsatisfactory" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations "[lacked] accountability and transparency"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that "since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of "disease education information" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a "slippery slope" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive "wonder drugs", and that "we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street." Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for "minor" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer "product claim" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a "fair balance" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given "adequate provision" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a "brief summary" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned "brief summary"), such as on a website, phone hotline, or a current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. Ads that do not make health claims do not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have "adequate provision" via different outlets, a "brief summary" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a "brief summary" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as "Clear days and nights are here" and "It's time for Claritin", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the "brief summary" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted "adequate provision" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $ 1.12 billion. Despite this growth, there were concerns that some ads had an insufficient focus on properly discussing the product, while concerns were also shown for the advertising of erectile dysfunction medications during programming that may be widely watched by children. In 2005, Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) instituted new voluntary guidelines for DTCA, including requirements to voluntarily submit ads to the FDA for review and educate health professionals on new medications before an advertising campaign commences, use clear language in advertising, obtain appropriate age targeting for advertisements involving subject matter that may be inappropriate to certain audiences, and to not use "reminder" ads. By 2011, spending on pharmaceutical advertising had grown to approximately US$4.5 billion per year, and increased to $5.2 billion by 2016. Proposed display of list prices On May 8, 2019, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) approved a mandate for list prices to be displayed in advertising for any prescription that costs $35 or higher for 30 days of treatment. Ads could also include price comparisons against competitors. PhRMA objected to the rule, arguing that prominent display of list prices would cause confusion because they do not reflect what patients would typically pay under insurance coverage (the rule did require display of a disclaimer stating that those with health insurance may pay a different amount). When the rule was proposed in October 2018, PhRMA stated that its members would commit to publishing detailed pricing information online (including possible out-of-pocket costs, and information on financial support options), and directing viewers to this information within their advertising. However, the HHS disputed their arguments, arguing that list prices would help patients calculate how much they would pay, especially if they have not yet met their insurance deductible, or the drug is not covered by their insurance. Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar compared the proposed requirement to similar regulations involving list prices for automobiles. | [
{
"type": "R",
"before": "$5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a \"product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A \"reminder\" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune \"Good Morning\" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric \"it's great to stay up late\". A \"help-seeking\" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned \"reminder\" and \"help-seeking\" advertisements, although U.S.-style \"full product ads\" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. There is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with \"unsatisfactory\" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations \"[lacked] accountability and transparency\"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that \"since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement\". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of \"disease education information\" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a \"slippery slope\" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive \"wonder drugs\", and that \"we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street.\" Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for \"minor\" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer \"product claim\" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a \"fair balance\" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given \"adequate provision\" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a \"brief summary\" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned \"brief summary\"), such as on a website, phone hotline, or a current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. Ads that do not make health claims do not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have \"adequate provision\" via different outlets, a \"brief summary\" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a \"brief summary\" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as \"It's time for Claritin\" and \"Clear days and nights are here\", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the \"brief summary\" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted \"adequate provision\" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $",
"after": "$5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a \"product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A \"reminder\" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune \"Good Morning\" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric \"it's great to stay up late\". A \"help-seeking\" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned \"reminder\" and \"help-seeking\" advertisements, although U.S.-style \"full product ads\" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. There is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with \"unsatisfactory\" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations \"[lacked] accountability and transparency\"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that \"since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement\". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of \"disease education information\" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a \"slippery slope\" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive \"wonder drugs\", and that \"we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street.\" Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for \"minor\" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer \"product claim\" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a \"fair balance\" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given \"adequate provision\" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a \"brief summary\" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned \"brief summary\"), such as on a website, phone hotline, or a current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. Ads that do not make health claims do not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have \"adequate provision\" via different outlets, a \"brief summary\" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a \"brief summary\" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as \"Clear days and nights are here\" and \"It's time for Claritin\", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the \"brief summary\" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted \"adequate provision\" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $",
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8037104 | 2 | There are ethical and regulatory concerns regarding DTCA, specifically the extent to which these ads may unduly influence the prescribing of the prescriptions based on consumer demands when, in some cases, they may not be medically necessary, or there are cheaper options available. Critics of DTCA have argued that too much is spent on marketing medications, rather than into research and development; in the United States, ad spending by drugmakers reached US $5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a "product claim" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A "reminder" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune "Good Morning" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric "it's great to stay up late". A "help-seeking" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned "reminder" and "help-seeking" advertisements, although U.S.-style "full product ads" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. There is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with "unsatisfactory" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations "[lacked] accountability and transparency"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that "since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of "disease education information" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a "slippery slope" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive "wonder drugs", and that "we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street." Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for "minor" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer "product claim" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a "fair balance" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given "adequate provision" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a "brief summary" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects and adverse events to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned "brief summary"), such as on a web page or current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. If an advertisement does not contain health claims, it does not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have "adequate provision" via different outlets, a "brief summary" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a "brief summary" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as "Clear days and nights are here" and "It's time for Claritin", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the "brief summary" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted "adequate provision" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $ 1.12 billion. Despite this growth, there were concerns that some ads had an insufficient focus on properly discussing the product, while concerns were also shown for the advertising of erectile dysfunction medications during programming that may be widely watched by children. In 2005, Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) instituted new voluntary guidelines for DTCA, including requirements to voluntarily submit ads to the FDA for review and educate health professionals on new medications before an advertising campaign commences, use clear language in advertising, obtain appropriate age targeting for advertisements involving subject matter that may be inappropriate to certain audiences, and to not use "reminder" ads. By 2011, spending on pharmaceutical advertising had grown to approximately US$4.5 billion per year, and increased to $5.2 billion by 2016. | There are ethical and regulatory concerns regarding DTCA, specifically the extent to which these ads may unduly influence the prescribing of the prescriptions based on consumer demands when, in some cases, they may not be medically necessary, or there are cheaper options available. Critics of DTCA have argued that too much is spent on marketing medications, rather than into research and development; in the United States, ad spending by drugmakers reached US $5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a "product claim" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A "reminder" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune "Good Morning" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric "it's great to stay up late". A "help-seeking" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned "reminder" and "help-seeking" advertisements, although U.S.-style "full product ads" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. U.S. television channels and print publications are frequently distributed within Canada; there are no regulations requiring direct-to-consumer marketing illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted from media of American origin. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with "unsatisfactory" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations "[lacked] accountability and transparency"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that "since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of "disease education information" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a "slippery slope" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive "wonder drugs", and that "we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street." Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for "minor" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer "product claim" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a "fair balance" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given "adequate provision" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a "brief summary" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects and adverse events to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned "brief summary"), such as on a web page or current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. If an advertisement does not contain health claims, it does not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have "adequate provision" via different outlets, a "brief summary" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a "brief summary" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as "Clear days and nights are here" and "It's time for Claritin", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the "brief summary" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted "adequate provision" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $ 1.12 billion. Despite this growth, there were concerns that some ads had an insufficient focus on properly discussing the product, while concerns were also shown for the advertising of erectile dysfunction medications during programming that may be widely watched by children. In 2005, Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) instituted new voluntary guidelines for DTCA, including requirements to voluntarily submit ads to the FDA for review and educate health professionals on new medications before an advertising campaign commences, use clear language in advertising, obtain appropriate age targeting for advertisements involving subject matter that may be inappropriate to certain audiences, and to not use "reminder" ads. By 2011, spending on pharmaceutical advertising had grown to approximately US$4.5 billion per year, and increased to $5.2 billion by 2016. | [
{
"type": "R",
"before": "$5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a \"product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A \"reminder\" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune \"Good Morning\" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric \"it's great to stay up late\". A \"help-seeking\" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned \"reminder\" and \"help-seeking\" advertisements, although U.S.-style \"full product ads\" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. There is no regulation requiring direct-to-consumer ads illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted when U.S. television channels and print publications are distributed within Canada. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with \"unsatisfactory\" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations \"[lacked] accountability and transparency\"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that \"since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement\". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of \"disease education information\" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a \"slippery slope\" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive \"wonder drugs\", and that \"we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street.\" Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for \"minor\" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer \"product claim\" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a \"fair balance\" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given \"adequate provision\" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a \"brief summary\" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects and adverse events to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned \"brief summary\"), such as on a web page or current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. If an advertisement does not contain health claims, it does not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have \"adequate provision\" via different outlets, a \"brief summary\" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a \"brief summary\" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as \"Clear days and nights are here\" and \"It's time for Claritin\", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the \"brief summary\" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted \"adequate provision\" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $",
"after": "$5.2 billion in 2016. Types The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines several common types of DTCA for prescription medication. It classifies a \"product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the scientific name and trademark brand name of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits. A \"reminder\" advertisement serves primarily to build brand recognition rather than promote the drug's uses and benefits. A reminder ad cannot contain any information or imagery that pertains to the drug itself, including benefits or how it functions, but may still contain a call to action urging viewers to ask their doctor or seek an external resource for more information. Reminder ads may include themes that vaguely allude to the drug's purpose: for example, a reminder commercial for the erectile dysfunction drug Viagra featured the showtune \"Good Morning\" and scenes of a man happily walking to work, emphasizing a sexual innuendo in the lyric \"it's great to stay up late\". A \"help-seeking\" advertisement is not presented as marketing for a drug first and foremost, and instead resemble an awareness campaign for a specific medical condition. They do not specify any specific product or treatment, and direct the audience to ask their doctor or seek an external resource (such as a website or phone hotline) for more information. These outlets are, in turn, used to promote specific prescription options. Awareness campaigns of this nature are sometimes used as preliminary marketing for new drugs. Reminder and help-seeking ads are often used by drugmakers to bypass the more onerous restrictions (such as the required listing of side effects), or outright prohibitions on product claims advertising, as neither of them are focused on promoting the drug itself. Sometimes, a campaign may mix both of these ads, with one ad discussing the condition, and another, similarly-styled ad, mentioning the product but not the condition, seeking to have the viewer infer the association between the ads. Legality Brazil In 2008 a new resolution from ANVISA (Control Agency for Sanitary Vigilance), Resolution 96 from December 17 was released, with focus on medication advertisements. It allows direct-to-consumer advertising of non-prescription medication, with restrictions on the type of drug and words and images that can be used, among other things. Advertisements for prescription medications can only appear in scientific, medical, or health professional journals. Canada The Food and Drugs Act prohibits most direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications: all direct-to-consumer advertising of drugs was forbidden until 1978, when Health Canada began to allow ads containing names, quantities, and prices only, so that pharmacies could display their prices for comparison purposes. In 2000, Health Canada adopted an interpretation of this law allowing for the aforementioned \"reminder\" and \"help-seeking\" advertisements, although U.S.-style \"full product ads\" that mention the purpose of a prescription remain prohibited. Later that year, Health Canada ruled that a pairing of similarly-themed reminder and help-seeking commercials ran afoul of the regulations, as their combination constituted a full product ad. U.S. television channels and print publications are frequently distributed within Canada; there are no regulations requiring direct-to-consumer marketing illegal under Canadian law to be removed or substituted from media of American origin. In 2014, York University professor and physician Dr. Joel Lexchin, and University of British Columbia associate professor Barbara Mintzes, published a study that highlighted 10 DTC cases between 2000 and 2011 with \"unsatisfactory\" responses from Health Canada. They found that Health Canada's application of these regulations \"[lacked] accountability and transparency\"—with no public record of complaints and enforcement besides media coverage of certain prominent cases, and no evidence that Health Canada has ever issued fines for violations. In conclusion, they stated that \"since DTCA became prominent in the U.S. in the mid-1990s, successive governments of different political stripes in Canada have shown a remarkably consistent commitment to non-enforcement\". Europe In October 2002, the European Commission voted against a proposal to selectively allow advertising of \"disease education information\" in relation to AIDS, asthma, and diabetes. Despite insistence otherwise due to its selective and controlled nature, the European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety assessed that the pharmaceutical industry could not be trusted to provide impartial and unbiased information. UK Labour Party MEP Catherine Stihler argued that the proposal was a \"slippery slope\" towards U.S.-style advertising practices promoting expensive \"wonder drugs\", and that \"we don't want consumers sitting on their couches bombarded with a hard sell from big drug companies in the advertising break between Crossroads and Coronation Street.\" Hong Kong Under the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance, advertising of medications is only legal for \"minor\" diseases, such as coughs and colds, headaches, indigestion, and others. Ads may not include depictions of treatment, medical professionals, or dramatizations of symptoms. New Zealand Under the Medicines Act of 1981, and regulated by the Therapeutic Products Advertising Code and a self-regulatory code by the industry group Medicines New Zealand, New Zealand is one of the only countries beside the United States to allow direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription medications. An ongoing review of the Act to develop a replacement, the Therapeutic Products Bill, has faced lobbying efforts for and against the continued legality of DTCA. United Kingdom Advertising materials directed towards the general public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the basis that they are not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), direct-to-consumer \"product claim\" advertisements for a prescription medication must include information on their major side effects and contraindications in the main body, with a \"fair balance\" in its coverage of benefits to risks. Unless they are given \"adequate provision\" via a variety of different outlets, ads must also include a \"brief summary\" of all risks associated with the medication. In print ads within magazines, this summary is typically given on a second page. Print ads must contain a standard notice that instructs patients to report negative side effects and adverse events to the FDA's MedWatch program. In ads carried on broadcast media, such as television commercials, only the major side effects are typically listed, and the ad contains blurbs directing viewers to where they can obtain more information (the aforementioned \"brief summary\"), such as on a web page or current magazine issue. If the drug is subject to a boxed warning from the FDA (which indicates a serious risk), the warning must be reproduced in all advertising materials, and reminder ads for the drug are prohibited. If an advertisement does not contain health claims, it does not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. Early history In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have \"adequate provision\" via different outlets, a \"brief summary\" of all side effects and contraindications. Pharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the FDA mandated that only doctors could prescribe medicine. However, a larger movement towards autonomy in health care decisions prompted the first prominent examples of direct-to-consumer advertising. Merck published the first print DTC ad for a pneumonia vaccine (with a particular focus on those aged 65 years or older), and Boots Pharmaceuticals aired the first DTC television commercial in 1983 for the prescription ibuprofen Rufen. The advertisement promoted it as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand Motrin, and did not contain health claims. The FDA briefly demanded that the Rufen ad be pulled, but it was restored after minor amendments. As its guidelines were not written with mass media in mind, these early campaigns prompted concern from the FDA, especially after the arthritis drug Oraflex (whose release had been backed by a significant PR campaign) was recalled after only five months on the market, following reports of adverse reactions and deaths. FDA commissioner Arthur Hayes showed reservations for the impact that DTCA would have on the industry and public health, and called for a moratorium in September 1983 pending further regulations. The moratorium was lifted in 1985. The industry felt that the requirement for a \"brief summary\" of all side effects was designed with print media in mind, and that their increasing length and technical language (often taking up an entire separate page of fine print when published in a magazine) made television advertising of prescriptions unfeasible. By the 1990s, there were calls for the FDA to loosen its regulations to make the concept viable. Partial deregulation A 1996 marketing campaign for then-prescription allergy medication Claritin found a loophole, by intentionally excluding information about the medication itself from its advertising. Clartin's television commercial contained only imagery, slogans such as \"Clear days and nights are here\" and \"It's time for Claritin\", and instructions to ask a doctor or call a phone number to request more information. In 1997, the FDA issued new guidelines that intended to make DTCM on radio and television less burdensome. In particular, the FDA clarified that informing the audience of where the \"brief summary\" can be obtained (such as a magazine ad, phone hotline, or website) constituted \"adequate provision\" of risk information, and thus relieved them from being included in the ad. The FDA also recognized reminder ads (such as the aforementioned Claritin ad) as not being subject to these rules, since they do not make any claims or statements regarding the indications and benefits of the medication. The industry quickly took advantage of the new guidelines: by 1998, advertising spending on DTCA had reached $",
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804003 | 1 | In Pakistan, term "The Establishment" is used for Army and intelligence agency ISI. Along with the top Economists and pro-military Bureaucrats. According to Some sources, it also includes Advocates and pro-military Media Personnel . | In Pakistan, the term "The Establishment" refers to the military and their relations with the intelligence community and high-level political officials that allow them to exert dominance over the government . | [
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804003 | 2 | The Establishment is a term used to describe a dominant group or elite that controls a polity or an organization. It may comprise a closed social group that selects its own members, or entrenched élite structures in specific institutions. One can refer to any relatively small class or group of people who can exercise control as The Establishment . Conversely, in the jargon of sociology, anyone who does not belong to The Establishment may be labelled an "outsider" (as opposed to an "insider"). Anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment ideologies question the legitimacy of establishments, even seeing their influence on society as anti-democratic. The term in its modern sense was popularized by the British journalist Henry Fairlie, who in September 1955 in the London magazine The Spectator defined the network of prominent, well-connected people as "the Establishment ". He wrote:: Following that, the term the Establishment was quickly picked up in newspapers and magazines all over London, making Fairlie famous. In saying, "There are always two parties, the party of the Past and the party of the Future: the Establishment and the Movement." Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1882 used the term in a somewhat similar sense but his usage but was not picked up by writers. See and Darrel Abel, Democratic Voices and Vistas (2002) p. 2. The Oxford English Dictionary cites Fairlie's column as its origin. The use of the term Establishment also reflects the British term, established church, for the official Church of England. The term quickly became useful in discussing the power elites in many other countries. It is used as a loanword in many other languages.Ruth Wodak, "The “ Establishment ”, the “Élites”, and the “People”." Journal of Language and Politics 16.4 (2017): 551-565. Inside the American Sociological Association the term is often used by those protesting a small clique that controls the organisation. In 1968, a group of academics formed the "Sociology Liberation Movement" (SLM) in order to repudiate the leadership of the American Sociological Association itself, which the SLM referred to as the " Establishment in American sociology". | The Society is a term used to describe a dominant group or elite that controls a polity or an organization. It may comprise a closed social group that selects its own members, or entrenched élite structures in specific institutions. One can refer to any relatively small class or group of people who can exercise control as The Society . Conversely, in the jargon of sociology, anyone who does not belong to The Society may be labelled an "outsider" (as opposed to an "insider"). Anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment ideologies question the legitimacy of establishments, even seeing their influence on society as anti-democratic. The term in its modern sense was popularized by the British journalist Henry Fairlie, who in September 1955 in the London magazine The Spectator defined the network of prominent, well-connected people as "the Society ". He wrote:: Following that, the term the Society was quickly picked up in newspapers and magazines all over London, making Fairlie famous. In saying, "There are always two parties, the party of the Past and the party of the Future: the Society and the Movement." Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1882 used the term in a somewhat similar sense but his usage but was not picked up by writers. See and Darrel Abel, Democratic Voices and Vistas (2002) p. 2. The Oxford English Dictionary cites Fairlie's column as its origin. The use of the term Society also reflects the British term, established church, for the official Church of England. The term quickly became useful in discussing the power elites in many other countries. It is used as a loanword in many other languages.Ruth Wodak, "The “ Society ”, the “Élites”, and the “People”." Journal of Language and Politics 16.4 (2017): 551-565. Inside the American Sociological Association the term is often used by those protesting a small clique that controls the organisation. In 1968, a group of academics formed the "Sociology Liberation Movement" (SLM) in order to repudiate the leadership of the American Sociological Association itself, which the SLM referred to as the " The Society in American sociology". | [
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8040776 | 1 | The defensible space theory of architect and city planner Oscar Newman encompasses ideas about crime prevention and neighborhood safety. Newman argues that architectural and environmental design plays a crucial part in increasing or reducing criminality. The theory developed in the early 1970s, and he wrote his first book on the topic, Defensible Space in 1972. The book contains a study from New York that pointed out that higher crime rate existed in high-rise apartment buildings than in lower housing projects . This, he concluded, was because residents felt no control or personal responsibility for an area occupied by so many people. Throughout his study, Newman focused on explaining his ideas on social control, crime prevention, and public health in relation to community design. | The defensible space theory of architect and city planner Oscar Newman encompasses ideas about crime prevention and neighborhood safety. Newman argues that architectural and environmental design plays a crucial part in increasing or reducing criminality. The theory developed in the early 1970s, and he wrote his first book on the topic, Defensible Space in 1972. The book contains a study from New York that pointed out that higher crime rate existed in high-rise housing projects than in low-rise complexes . This, he concluded, was because residents felt no control or personal responsibility for an area occupied by so many people. Throughout his study, Newman focused on explaining his ideas on social control, crime prevention, and public health in relation to community design. | [
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804779 | 1 | Risk reduction A 2012 Cochrane systematic review found evidence that preoperative physical therapy reduced postoperative pulmonary complications, such as pneumonia and atelectasis, in patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery . In addition, the researchers found that preoperative physical therapy decreased the length of hospital stay by more than three days on average. A 2013 Cochrane review showed that both pharmacological and non-pharmacological prevention reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation after an operation and reduced the length of hospital stays. No difference in mortality could be shown. There is evidence that quitting smoking at least four weeks before surgery may reduce the risk of postoperative complications . | Risk reduction Pharmacological and non-pharmacological prevention approaches may reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation after an operation and reduce the length of hospital stays, however there is no evidenc that this improves mortality. Non-pharmacologic approaches Preoperative physical therapy may reduced postoperative pulmonary complications, such as pneumonia and atelectasis, in patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery and may decrease the length of hospital stay by more than three days on average. There is evidence that quitting smoking at least four weeks before surgery may reduce the risk of postoperative complications . Pharmacological approaches Beta-blocking medication is sometimes prescribed during cardiac surgery. There is some low certainity evidence that this perioperative blockade of beta-adrenergic receptors may reduce the incidence of arial fibrillation and ventricular arrhythmias in patients undergoing cardiac surgery . | [
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804964 | 1 | Language Dehumanization and dehumanized perception can occur as a result of the language used to describe groups of people. Words such as migrant, immigrant, and expatriate are assigned to foreigners based on their social status and wealth, rather than ability, achievements, or political alignment. Expatriate is a word to describe the privileged, often light-skinned people newly residing in an area and has connotations that suggest ability, wealth, and trust. Meanwhile, the word immigrant is used to describe people coming to a new location to reside and infers a much less-desirable meaning. Further, "immigrant" is a word that can be paired with "illegal", which harbors a profoundly negative connotationto those projecting social cognition towards the other. The perpetual misuse of these words used to describe the other in the English language can alter the perception of a group in a derogatory way. "Most of the time when we hear illegal immigrant%DIFDELCMD < ] %%% used, most of the time, the shorter version 'illegals' is being used as a noun, which implies that a human being is perpetually illegal. There is no other classification that I'm aware of where the individual is being rendered as unlawful as opposed to those individuals' actions." A series of language examinations found a direct relation between homophobic epithets and social cognitive distancing towards a group of homosexuals, a form of dehumanization. These epithets (e.g., faggot) were thought to function as dehumanizing labels because they tended to act as markers of deviance. One pair of studies found that subjects were more likely to associate malignant language with homosexuals, and that such language associations increased the physical distancing between the subject and the homosexual. This indicated that the malignant language could encourage dehumanization, cognitive and physical distancing in ways that other forms of malignant language do not. | Language Dehumanization and dehumanized perception can occur as a result of the language used to describe groups of people. Words such as migrant, immigrant, and expatriate are assigned to foreigners based on their social status and wealth, rather than ability, achievements, or political alignment. Expatriate is a word to describe the privileged, often light-skinned people newly residing in an area and has connotations that suggest ability, wealth, and trust. Meanwhile, the word immigrant is used to describe people coming to a new location to reside and infers a much less-desirable meaning. The word "immigrant" is sometimes paired with "illegal", which harbors a profoundly derogatory connotation. Misuse of these terms - they are often used inaccurately - to describe the other , can alter the perception of a group %DIFDELCMD < ] %%% as a whole in a negative way. Ryan Eller, the executive director of the immigrant advocacy group, Define American, expressed the problem this way: A series of language examinations found a direct relation between homophobic epithets and social cognitive distancing towards a group of homosexuals, a form of dehumanization. These epithets (e.g., faggot) were thought to function as dehumanizing labels because they tended to act as markers of deviance. One pair of studies found that subjects were more likely to associate malignant language with homosexuals, and that such language associations increased the physical distancing between the subject and the homosexual. This indicated that the malignant language could encourage dehumanization, cognitive and physical distancing in ways that other forms of malignant language do not. | [
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8053575 | 1 | Women living in poverty-stricken areas are more likely to be obese and engage in unhealthy behaviors such as cigarette smoking and drug use, are less likely to engage in or even have access to legitimate prenatal care, and are at a significantly higher risk for adverse outcomes for both the mother and child. A study conducted in Kenya observed that common maternal health problems in poverty-stricken areas include hemorrhaging, anemia, hypertension, malaria, placenta retention, premature labor, prolonged/complicated labor, and pre-eclampsia. Poverty, malnutrition, and substance abuse may contribute to impaired cognitive, motor, and behavioral problems across childhood. In other words, if a mother is not in optimal health during the prenatal period (the time while she is pregnant) and/or the fetus is exposed to teratogen(s), the child is more likely to experience health or developmental difficulties, or death. The environment in which the mother provides for the embryo/fetus is critical to its wellbeing well after gestation and birth. Because the embryo or fetus's nutrition is based on maternal protein, vitamin, mineral, and total caloric intake, infants born to malnourished mothers are more likely to exhibit malformations. Additionally, maternal stress can affect the fetus both directly and indirectly. When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the developing fetus. Additionally, the mother is more likely to engage in behaviors that could negatively affect the fetus, such as tobacco smoking, drug use, and alcohol abuse . | Women living in poverty-stricken areas are more likely to be obese and engage in unhealthy behaviors such as cigarette smoking and substance use, are less likely to engage in or even have access to legitimate prenatal care, and are at a significantly higher risk for adverse outcomes for both the mother and child. A study conducted in Kenya observed that common maternal health problems in poverty-stricken areas include hemorrhaging, anemia, hypertension, malaria, placenta retention, premature labor, prolonged/complicated labor, and pre-eclampsia. Poverty, malnutrition, and substance use may contribute to impaired cognitive, motor, and behavioral problems across childhood. In other words, if a mother is not in optimal health during the prenatal period (the time while she is pregnant) and/or the fetus is exposed to teratogen(s), the child is more likely to experience health or developmental difficulties, or death. The environment in which the mother provides for the embryo/fetus is critical to its wellbeing well after gestation and birth. Because the embryo or fetus's nutrition is based on maternal protein, vitamin, mineral, and total caloric intake, infants born to malnourished mothers are more likely to exhibit malformations. Additionally, maternal stress can affect the fetus both directly and indirectly. When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the developing fetus. Additionally, the mother is more likely to engage in behaviors that could negatively affect the fetus, such as tobacco smoking, substance use, and alcohol use . | [
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8054393 | 1 | The European union has set up the European personnel recovery centre by developing harmonizing PR policy, doctrine and standards through clear lines of communications with partners stakeholders (nations and international URL The five PR execution tasks Report: Begins with the recognition of an isolating event. It must be both timely and accurate. Locate: Involves the effort to find and authenticate isolated personnel. Accurate position and positive ID are generally required prior to committing forces. Support: Involves support for isolated personnel and their families. It can include establishing two-way communications, dropping supplies, or suppressing enemy threats. Recover: Involves coordinated actions of commanders and staffs, recovery forces and the isolated individual. Reintegrate: The primary consideration is the physical and mental health of the recovered personnel. | The European Personnel Recovery Centre facilitates the harmonisation of personnel recovery policy, doctrine and standards through clear lines of communications with partners stakeholders (nations and international URL The five PR execution tasks Report: Begins with the recognition of an isolating event. It must be both timely and accurate. Locate: Involves the effort to find and authenticate isolated personnel. Accurate position and positive ID are generally required prior to committing forces. Support: Involves support for isolated personnel and their families. It can include establishing two-way communications, dropping supplies, or suppressing enemy threats. Recover: Involves coordinated actions of commanders and staffs, recovery forces and the isolated individual. Reintegrate: The primary consideration is the physical and mental health of the recovered personnel. | [
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8054393 | 2 | The United States Armed Forces defines personnel recovery as " The sum of military, DOD civilian, DOD contractor personnel, or other personnel designated by the President or Secretary of Defense, who are isolated , missing, detained, or captured (IMDC) in an operational environment.Also called PR. " The Joint Personnel Recovery Agency is the Chairman's Controlled Activity and is designated as DoD's office of primary responsibility for DoD-wide personnel recovery (PR) matters, less policy. | The United States Armed Forces , in Joint Publication 3-50 Personnel Recovery, defines personnel recovery as " the sum of military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to prepare for and execute the recovery and reintegration of isolated personnel. " The Joint Personnel Recovery Agency is the Chairman's Controlled Activity and is designated as DoD's office of primary responsibility for DoD-wide personnel recovery (PR) matters, less policy. | [
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8055330 | 1 | Muscle coactivation occurs when agonist and antagonist (or synergist ) muscles surrounding a joint contract simultaneously to provide joint stability. It is also known as muscle cocontraction, since two muscle groups are contracting at the same time. It is able to be measured using electromyography (EMG) from the contractions that occur. The general mechanism of it is still widely unknown. It is believed to be important in joint stabilization, as well as general motor control. | Muscle coactivation occurs when agonist and antagonist muscles (or synergist muscles) surrounding a joint contract simultaneously to provide joint stability. It is also known as muscle cocontraction, since two muscle groups are contracting at the same time. It is able to be measured using electromyography (EMG) from the contractions that occur. The general mechanism of it is still widely unknown. It is believed to be important in joint stabilization, as well as general motor control. | [
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8055330 | 2 | Function Muscle coactivation allows muscle groups surrounding a joint to become more stable. This is due to both muscles (or sets of muscles) contracting at the same time, which produces compression on the joint. The joint is able to become stiffer and more stable due to this action. For example, when the bicep and the triceps coactivate, the elbow becomes more stable. This stabilization mechanism is also important for unexpected loads impeded on the joint, allowing the muscles to coactivate and provide stability to the joint in a quick fashion . This mechanism is controlled neuromuscularly, which allows the muscle(s) to contract. This occurs through a motor neuron sending a signal (through creating action potentials) to the muscle fiber to contract by releasing Acetylcholine . When signals are sent to all muscle fibers in a muscle group, the muscle group will contract as a whole. | Function Muscle coactivation allows muscle groups surrounding a joint to become more stable. This is due to both muscles (or sets of muscles) contracting at the same time, which produces compression on the joint. The joint is able to become stiffer and more stable due to this action. For example, when the biceps and the triceps coactivate, the elbow becomes more stable. This stabilization mechanism is also important for unexpected loads impeded on the joint, allowing the muscles to quickly coactivate and provide stability to the joint . This mechanism is controlled neuromuscularly, which allows the muscle(s) to contract. This occurs through a motor neuron sending a signal (through creating action potentials) to the muscle fiber to contract by releasing acetylcholine . When signals are sent to all muscle fibers in a muscle group, the muscle group will contract as a whole. | [
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805897 | 1 | In the clause , the phrase "useful Arts" is meant to reference inventions. In his dissenting opinion in In re Bilski,In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 88 U.S.P.Q.2d 1385 (2008) . Judge Mayer criticized the majority for not addressing the preliminary issue of whether the claimed invention was within the useful arts. In Mayer's view this should have been dispositive, because he considered the claimed business method not to be within the useful arts . In the same case, Judge Dyk filed a concurring opinion to similar effect .See also Malla Pollack, "The Multiple Unconstitutionality of Business Method Patents: Common Sense, Congressional Choice, and Constitutional History" 61 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 28 (2002); Micro Law, "What Kinds of Computer-Software-Related Advances (if Any) Are Eligible for Patents? Part II: The Useful Arts Requirement," IEEE MICRO (Sept.-Oct. 2008) (available at URL and URL | According to the US Supreme Court , the phrase "useful Arts" is meant to reference inventions. There is controversy in the Court as to whether or not this includes business methods. In the majority opinion for In re Bilski,In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 88 U.S.P.Q.2d 1385 (2008) , Justice Anthony Kennedy states "the Patent Act leaves open the possibility that there are at least some processes that can be fairly described as business methods that are within patentable subject matter under §101." In his dissenting opinion, however, Judge Mayer disagreed because he did not consider the claimed business method to be within the useful arts .See also Malla Pollack, "The Multiple Unconstitutionality of Business Method Patents: Common Sense, Congressional Choice, and Constitutional History" 61 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 28 (2002); Micro Law, "What Kinds of Computer-Software-Related Advances (if Any) Are Eligible for Patents? Part II: The Useful Arts Requirement," IEEE MICRO (Sept.-Oct. 2008) (available at URL and URL | [
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805897 | 2 | According to the US Supreme Court, the phrase "useful Arts" is meant to reference inventions. There is controversy in the Court as to whether or not this includes business methods. In the majority opinion for In re Bilski,In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 88 U.S.P.Q.2d 1385 (2008) Justice Anthony Kennedy states "the Patent Act leaves open the possibility that there are at least some processes that can be fairly described as business methods that are within patentable subject matter under §101." In his dissenting opinion, however, Judge Mayer disagreed because he did not consider the claimed business method to be within the useful arts.See also Malla Pollack, "The Multiple Unconstitutionality of Business Method Patents: Common Sense, Congressional Choice, and Constitutional History" 61 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 28 (2002); Micro Law, "What Kinds of Computer-Software-Related Advances (if Any) Are Eligible for Patents? Part II: The Useful Arts Requirement," IEEE MICRO (Sept.-Oct. 2008) (available at URL and URL | According to the US Supreme Court, the phrase "useful Arts" is meant to reference inventions. There is controversy in the Court as to whether or not this includes business methods. In the majority opinion for In re Bilski,In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 88 U.S.P.Q.2d 1385 (2008) Justice Anthony Kennedy states "the Patent Act leaves open the possibility that there are at least some processes that can be fairly described as business methods that are within patentable subject matter under §101." At the appellate level, Federal Circuit Court Judge Mayer disagreed because he did not consider the claimed business method to be within the useful arts.See also Malla Pollack, "The Multiple Unconstitutionality of Business Method Patents: Common Sense, Congressional Choice, and Constitutional History" 61 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 28 (2002); Micro Law, "What Kinds of Computer-Software-Related Advances (if Any) Are Eligible for Patents? Part II: The Useful Arts Requirement," IEEE MICRO (Sept.-Oct. 2008) (available at URL and URL | [
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80676 | 1 | Anarcho-punk ( or anarchist punk)Anarchist Punk | Music Highlights | AllMusic is punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcore punk, folk punk, and other styles. New York In the 1980s, New York city cultivated a thriving anarcho-punk scene. Beginning as a part of the larger New York hardcore scene, bands like Reagan Youth, False Prophets and Heart Attack. made use of a similar musical style and mentality to their British counterparts. This scene split from New York hardcore as the decade progressed. Nausea were a key figure in the scene during this period, helping to cultivate a new scene in the city based around politics and squatting. | Anarcho-punk ( also known as anarchist punkAnarchist Punk | Music Highlights | AllMusic or peace punk) is punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcore punk, folk punk, and other styles. United States Anarcho-punk spread to the United States in the late-1970s with groups like Austin's MDC and San Francisco's Dead Kennedys. Los Angeles' Black Flag also embraced anarchists politics between 1982 and 1986, when Henry Rollins was their vocalist. United States anarcho-punk generally supported revolutions in Latin America and anti-Apartheid movements and criticized the Presidency of Ronald Reagan. In the 1980s, New York city cultivated a thriving anarcho-punk scene. Beginning as a part of the larger New York hardcore scene, bands like Reagan Youth, False Prophets and Heart Attack. made use of a similar musical style and mentality to their British counterparts. This scene split from New York hardcore as the decade progressed. Nausea were a key figure in the scene during this period, helping to cultivate a new scene in the city based around politics and squatting. | [
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8068094 | 1 | Personal development consists of activities that develop a person's capabilities and potential, build human capital, facilitate employability, and enhance quality of life and the realization of dreams and aspirations. Personal development may take place over the course of an individual's entire lifespan . It is not limited to self-help, but can involve formal and informal activities for developing others in roles such as those of teacher, guide, counselor, manager, coach, or mentor . When personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems offered to support positive adult development at the individual level in organizations.Bob Aubrey (2010), Managing Your Aspirations: Developing Personal Enterprise in the Global Workplace. McGraw-Hill, , page 9. Early education Education offers children the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development. Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development .Tattum, D., & Tattum, E. (2017). Social education and personal development. Routledge. | Personal development consists of activities that develop a person's capabilities and potential, build human capital, facilitate employability, and enhance quality of life and the realization of dreams and aspirations. Personal development may take place over the course of an individual's entire lifespan and is not limited to one stage of a person's life. It can include official and informal actions for developing others in roles such as teacher, guide, counselor, manager, coach, or mentor , and it is not restricted to self-help . When personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems offered to support positive adult development at the individual level in organizations.Bob Aubrey (2010), Managing Your Aspirations: Developing Personal Enterprise in the Global Workplace. McGraw-Hill, , page 9. Early education Education offers children the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development. Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development . If early education fails to meet these qualifications, it can greatly stunt development in children, hindering their success in education as well as society. They can fall behind in development compared to peers their same age .Tattum, D., & Tattum, E. (2017). Social education and personal development. Routledge. | [
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8068094 | 2 | Psychology Psychology became linked to personal development in the early 20th century starting with Alfred Adler (1870–1937) and Carl Jung (1875–1961). Adler refused to limit psychology to analysis alone , making the important point that aspirations focus on looking forward and do not limit themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood experiences.Heinz Ansbacher and Rowena R Ansbacher (1964), Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, Basic Books, 1956. See especially chapter 3 on Finalism and Fiction and chapter 7 on the Style of Life. He also originated the concepts of lifestyle (1929—he defined "lifestyle" as an individual's characteristic approach to life, in facing problems) and of self image, a concept that influenced management under the heading of work-life balance, also known as the equilibrium between a person's career and personal life.Lockwood, N. R. (2003). Work/life balance. Challenges and Solutions, SHRM Research, USA, 2-10. Social psychology Social psychology heavily emphasizes and focuses on human behavior and how individuals interact with others in society. Infants develop socially by creating trusting and dependent relationships with others—namely parental figures. Toddlers further develop social skills. Additionally, they begin to gain a desire for autonomy . The balance of social involvement and autonomy varies per person, but normally autonomous behavior increases with age. Some studies suggest that selfishness begins to diminish, and prosocial behaviors increase, between the ages of six years old to twelve years old. Additionally, the years of adulthood are times of development—self-actualization, relational and occupational development, loss and coping-skills development, etc.—affected by those around us: parents, co-workers, romantic partners, and children. Social psychology draws from many other psychological theories and principles yet views them through a lens of social interaction. | Psychology Psychology became linked to personal development in the early 20th century starting with the research efforts of Alfred Adler (1870–1937) and Carl Jung (1875–1961). Adler refused to limit psychology to analysis alone . He made the important point that aspirations focus on looking forward and do not limit themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood experiences.Heinz Ansbacher and Rowena R Ansbacher (1964), Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, Basic Books, 1956. See especially chapter 3 on Finalism and Fiction and chapter 7 on the Style of Life. He also originated the concepts of lifestyle (1929—he defined "lifestyle" as an individual's characteristic approach to life, in facing problems) and of self image, a concept that influenced management under the heading of work-life balance, also known as the equilibrium between a person's career and personal life.Lockwood, N. R. (2003). Work/life balance. Challenges and Solutions, SHRM Research, USA, 2-10. Social psychology Social psychology heavily emphasizes and focuses on human behavior and how individuals interact with others in society. Infants develop socially by creating trusting and dependent relationships with others—namely parental figures. They learn how to act and treat other people based on the example of parental figures and other adults they interact with often. Toddlers further develop social skills. Additionally, they begin to gain a desire for autonomy and grow more and more independent as they grow older . The balance of social involvement and autonomy varies per person, but normally autonomous behavior increases with age. Some studies suggest that selfishness begins to diminish, and prosocial behaviors increase, between the ages of six years old to twelve years old. Additionally, the years of adulthood are times of development—self-actualization, relational and occupational development, loss and coping-skills development, etc.—affected by those around us: parents, co-workers, romantic partners, and children. Social psychology draws from many other psychological theories and principles yet views them through a lens of social interaction. | [
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8068094 | 3 | Early education Education offers children the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development. Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development. If early education fails to meet these qualifications, it can greatly stunt development in children, hindering their success in education as well as society. They can fall behind in development compared to peers their same age .Tattum, D., & Tattum, E. (2017). Social education and personal development. Routledge. As an academic department, personal development as a specific discipline is usually associated with business schools. As an area of research, personal development draws on links to other academic disciplines: Education for questions of learning and assessment Psychology for motivation and personality Sociology for identity and social networks Economics for human capital and economic value Philosophy for ethics and self-reflection The workplace Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), proposed a hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top, defined as "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming" .Abraham Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation", originally published in the 1943 Psychological Review, number 50, page 838. | Early education Education offers children the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development. Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development. If early education fails to meet these qualifications, it can greatly stunt development in children, hindering their success in education as well as society. They can fall behind in development compared to peers of the same age group .Tattum, D., & Tattum, E. (2017). Social education and personal development. Routledge. As an academic department, personal development as a specific discipline is often associated with business schools. As an area of research, personal development draws on links to other academic disciplines: Education for questions of learning and assessment Psychology for motivation and personality Sociology for identity and social networks Economics for human capital and economic value Philosophy for ethics and self-reflection The workplace Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), proposed a hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top, defined as "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming" . In other words, self actualization is the ambition to become a better version of oneself, to become everything one is capable of being .Abraham Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation", originally published in the 1943 Psychological Review, number 50, page 838. | [
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8071055 | 1 | In The Second Sickness, Howard Waitzkin traces the history of social medicine from Engels, through Virchow , through Allende. Waitzkin has sought to educate North Americans about the contributions of Latin American Social Medicine. In 1976, the British public health scientist and health care critic , Thomas McKeown, MD, published The role of medicine: Dream, mirage or nemesis?, wherein he summarized facts and arguments that supported what became known as the McKeown's thesis, i.e. that the growth of population can be attributed to a decline in mortality from infectious diseases, primarily thanks to better nutrition, later also to better hygiene, and only marginally and late to medical interventions such as antibiotics and vaccines. McKeown was heavily criticized for his controversial ideas, but is nowadays remembered as ' the founder of social medicine ' . | In The Second Sickness, Waitzkin traces the history of social medicine from Engels, through Virchow and Allende. Waitzkin has sought to educate North Americans about the contributions of Latin American Social Medicine. In 1976, the British public health scientist and health care critic Thomas McKeown, MD, published The role of medicine: Dream, mirage or nemesis?, wherein he summarized facts and arguments that supported what became known as McKeown's thesis, i.e. that the growth of population can be attributed to a decline in mortality from infectious diseases, primarily thanks to better nutrition, later also to better hygiene, and only marginally and late to medical interventions such as antibiotics and vaccines. McKeown was heavily criticized for his controversial ideas, but is nowadays remembered as " the founder of social medicine " . | [
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8074163 | 1 | A section in the Diario Oficial del Ministerio de la Guerra (1890) discussing rewards to the Guardia Civil responsible for the death of Elofre, here referred to as Dios Bohane (sic) Ponciano Elofre (sometimes spelled Ponciano Elopre), later called Dios Buhawi (Hiligaynon for "Tornado/Whirlwind God"), was a cabeza (head) of a barangay in Zamboanguita in Negros Oriental, Philippines, and the leader of a politico-religious revolt on Negros in the late 19th century against the Spaniards. Revolutionary activities Elofre began his revolt when, as cabeza de barangay , he failed to collect all the taxes from his constituents. Spanish soldiers beat his father, Cris Elofre, to death in order to teach him a lesson. Thereafter, he rallied the people against the forced payment of taxes. Later, he included religious freedom as part of his agenda, and directed the celebration of the ancient rites of the babaylan (ancient Visayan shaman), a revival of the religious leader of the pre-Spanish era. He and his followers were later called the babaylanes , which numbered about 2,000. Elofre reputedly dressed in female clothing and was said to be effeminate in the same manner as ancient asog shamans. Death The activities of Elofre so alarmed the Spanish colonial government that Governor-General Valeriano Weyler sent 500 men of the Guardia Civil and a battleship to Negros to deal with the threat. On August 22, 1887, Elofre raided Siaton, the town adjoining Zamboanguita, and was killed in the encounter with colonial forces. His wife, Flaviana Tubigan, continued the revolt, but lacked her husband's charm and charisma. She was succeeded by Ka Martin de la Cruz, of Tolong in southern Negros Oriental, Elofre's lieutenant, but his command of the babaylanes degenerated into banditry. When the Spanish authorities failed in their bid to capture him, on September 11, 1893, de la Cruz was killed in a trap laid by his own mistress, Alfonsa Alaidan. The remaining Buhawi followers, conjectures Modesto P. Sa-onoy, were later recruited by Papa Isio when he began to organize his own group of babaylanes in another revolt against Spain.Calma, Ma. Cecilia C. and Concepcion, Diana R.: The Revolution in Negros., Raison D'Etre, University of Negros Occidental-Recoletos Research Planning and Development Office, Bacolod City, 1998 | A section in the (1890) discussing rewards to the responsible for the death of Elofre, here referred to as (sic) Ponciano Elofre (sometimes spelled Ponciano Elopre), later called (Hiligaynon for "Tornado/Whirlwind God"), was a (head) of a in Zamboanguita in Negros Oriental, Philippines, and the leader of a politico-religious revolt on Negros in the late 19th century against the Spaniards. Revolutionary activities Elofre began his revolt when, as , he failed to collect all the taxes from his constituents. Spanish soldiers beat his father, Cris Elofre, to death in order to teach him a lesson. Thereafter, he rallied the people against the forced payment of taxes. Later, he included religious freedom as part of his agenda, and directed the celebration of the ancient rites of the babaylan (ancient Visayan shaman), a revival of the religious leader of the pre-Spanish era. He and his followers were later called the , which numbered about 2,000. Elofre reputedly dressed in female clothing and was said to be effeminate in the same manner as ancient asog shamans. Death The activities of Elofre so alarmed the Spanish colonial government that Governor-General Valeriano Weyler sent 500 men of the and a battleship to Negros to deal with the threat. On August 22, 1887, Elofre raided Siaton, the town adjoining Zamboanguita, and was killed in the encounter with colonial forces. His wife, Flaviana Tubigan, continued the revolt, but lacked her husband's charm and charisma. She was succeeded by Ka Martin de la Cruz, of Tolong in southern Negros Oriental, Elofre's lieutenant, but his command of the degenerated into banditry. When the Spanish authorities failed in their bid to capture him, on September 11, 1893, de la Cruz was killed in a trap laid by his own mistress, Alfonsa Alaidan. The remaining Buhawi followers, conjectures Modesto P. Sa-onoy, were later recruited by Papa Isio when he began to organize his own group of in another revolt against Spain.Calma, Ma. Cecilia C. and Concepcion, Diana R.: The Revolution in Negros., Raison D'Etre, University of Negros Occidental-Recoletos Research Planning and Development Office, Bacolod City, 1998 | [
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808418 | 1 | The black cat in folklore has been able to change into human shape to act as a spy or courier for witches or demons. When the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock, they brought with them a devout faith in the Bible. They also brought a deepening suspicion of anything deemed of Satan and were a deeply suspicious group. They viewed the black cat as a companion, or a familiar to witches . Anyone caught with a black cat would be severely punished or even killed. They viewed the black cat as part demon and part sorcery . These superstitions led people to kill black cats. There is no evidence from England of regular large-scale massacres of "Satanic" cats, or of burning them in midsummer bonfires, as sometimes occurred elsewhere in Europe. In the present-day, many Christians including clergy, have black cats as pets whom they care for. | The black cat in folklore has been able to change into human shape to act as a spy or courier for witches or demons. When the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock, they brought with them a devout faith in the Bible. They also brought a deepening suspicion of anything deemed of Satan and were deeply suspicious of other Christians, including Catholics, Quakers, Anglicans and Baptists. The Pilgrims viewed the black cat as a companion, or a familiar to witches , who were said to "use black cats as an integral part of their craft" . These superstitions led people to kill black cats. There is no evidence from England of regular large-scale massacres of "Satanic" cats, or of burning them in midsummer bonfires, as sometimes occurred elsewhere in Europe. In the present-day, many Westerners, including Christian clergy, have black cats as pets whom they care for. | [
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808418 | 2 | The black cat in folklore has been able to change into human shape to act as a spy or courier for witches or demons. When the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock, they brought with them a devout faith in the Bible. They also brought a deepening suspicion of anything deemed of Satan and were deeply suspicious of other Christians, including Catholics, Quakers, Anglicans and Baptists . The Pilgrims viewed the black cat as a companion, or a familiar to witches, who were said to "use black cats as an integral part of their craft". These superstitions led people to kill black cats. There is no evidence from England of regular large-scale massacres of "Satanic" cats, or of burning them in midsummer bonfires, as sometimes occurred elsewhere in Europe. In the present-day, many Westerners, including Christian clergy, have black cats as pets whom they care for. | The black cat in folklore has been able to change into human shape to act as a spy or courier for witches or demons. When the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock, they brought with them a devout faith in the Bible. They also brought a deepening suspicion of anything deemed of Satan and were deeply suspicious of other Christians, including those of the Catholic, Quaker, Anglican and Baptist denominations . The Pilgrims viewed the black cat as a companion, or a familiar to witches, who were said to "use black cats as an integral part of their craft". These superstitions led people to kill black cats. There is no evidence from England of regular large-scale massacres of "Satanic" cats, or of burning them in midsummer bonfires, as sometimes occurred elsewhere in Europe. In the present-day, many Westerners, including Christian clergy, have black cats as pets whom they care for. | [
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8087746 | 1 | Humans are motivated to assign causes to their actions and behaviors. Social psychology states that attribution is the process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events as being either external or internal. Models to explain this process are called attribution theory. Psychological research into attribution began with the work of Fritz Heider in the early 20th century, and the theory was further advanced by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner. | Attribution is a term used in psychology which deals with how individuals perceive the causes of everyday experience, as being either external or internal. Models to explain this process are called attribution theory. For instance, an experience may be perceived as being caused by factors outside the person's control (external) or it may be perceived as the person's own doing (internal). This form of attribution is called the 'locus of causality'. Psychological research into attribution began with the work of Fritz Heider in the early 20th century, and the theory was further advanced by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner. | [
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8087746 | 2 | Attribution is a term used in psychology which deals with how individuals perceive the causes of everyday experience, as being either external or internal. Models to explain this process are called attribution theory. For instance, an experience may be perceived as being caused by factors outside the person's control (external) or it may be perceived as the person's own doing (internal). This form of attribution is called the 'locus of causality' . Psychological research into attribution began with the work of Fritz Heider in the early 20th century, and the theory was further advanced by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner . | Attribution is a term used in psychology which deals with how individuals perceive the causes of everyday experience, as being either external or internal. Models to explain this process are called attribution theory. Psychological research into attribution began with the work of Fritz Heider in the early 20th century, and the theory was further advanced by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner. Heider first introduced the concept of perceived 'locus of causality' to define the perception of one's environment. For instance, an experience may be perceived as being caused by factors outside the person's control (external) or it may be perceived as the person's own doing (internal). These initial perceptions are called attributions. Psychologists use these attributions to better understand an individual's motivation and competence. The theory is of particular interest to employers who use it to increase worker motivation, goal orientation, and productivity . Psychologists have identified various biases in the way people attribute causation, especially when dealing with others. The fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to attribute dispositional or personality-based explanations for behavior, rather than considering external factors. We tend to assume others are responsible for their own misfortunes, in other words, while blaming external factors for our own. Culture bias is when someone makes an assumption about the behavior of a person based on their own cultural practices and beliefs Attribution theory has been criticised as being mechanistic and reductionist for assuming that people are rational, logical, and systematic thinkers. It also fails to address the social, cultural, and historical factors that shape attributions of cause . | [
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8087746 | 3 | The fundamental attribution error describes the habit to misunderstand dispositional or personality-based explanations for behavior, rather than considering external factors. The fundamental attribution error is most visible when people explain and assume the behavior of others. For example, if a person is overweight, a person's first assumption might be that they have a problem with overeating or are lazy and not that they might have a medical reason for being heavier set. When evaluating others' behaviors, the situational context is often ignored in favor of assuming the disposition of the actor to be the cause of an observed behavior. This is because when a behavior occurs attention is most often focused on the person performing the behavior. Thus , the individual is more salient than the environment and dispositional attributions are made more often than situational attributions to explain the behavior of others. However, when evaluating one's own behavior, the situational factors are often exaggerated when there is a negative outcome while dispositional factors are exaggerated when there is a positive outcome. | The fundamental attribution error describes the habit to misunderstand dispositional or personality-based explanations for behavior, rather than considering external factors. The fundamental attribution error is most visible when people explain and assume the behavior of others. For example, if a person is overweight, a person's first assumption might be that they have a problem with overeating or are lazy , and not that they might have a medical reason for being heavier set. When evaluating others' behaviors, the situational context is often ignored in favor of assuming the disposition of the actor to be the cause of an observed behavior. This is because , when a behavior occurs , attention is most often focused on the person performing the behavior. Thus the individual is more salient than the environment , and dispositional attributions are made more often than situational attributions to explain the behavior of others. However, when evaluating one's own behavior, the situational factors are often exaggerated when there is a negative outcome , while dispositional factors are exaggerated when there is a positive outcome. | [
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808876 | 1 | Thus, while Snorri's euhemerism follows the early Christian tradition , the effect is not simply to discredit the divinity of the gods of a religion on the wane, but also (on the model of Virgil's Aeneid) to hint that the 'divinisation' was done in order to legitimize more recent Scandinavian rulers . | Snorri's euhemerism follows the early Christian tradition . | [
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8089198 | 1 | Symptoms and signs Bowing of one or both legs that may: Be rapidly progressive Appear asymmetric Primarily occur just below the knee Complications Failure to treat Blount's disease may lead to progressive deformity. Blount's disease may come back after surgery, especially in younger children. Because of the bowing, a leg-length discrepancy may result. This may result in disability if the discrepancy is significant (greater than 1 inch) and is not treated. Causes Blount's disease occurs in young children and adolescents. The cause is unknown but is thought to be due to the effects of weight on the growth plate. The inner part of the tibia, just below the knee, fails to develop normally, causing angulation of the bone.%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Unlike bowlegs, which tend to straighten as the child develops, Blount's disease is progressive and the condition worsens. It can cause severe bowing of the legs and can affect one or both legs. This condition is more common among children of African ancestry. It is also associated with obesity, short stature, and early walking. Diagnosis Physical examination shows the lower legs to be angled inward. An x-ray of the knee and the lower leg confirms the diagnosis. Differential Diagnosis Lower extremity deformities in Rickets can closely mimic those produced by Blount's disease. To differentiate between Rickets and Blount's disease it is important to correlate the clinical picture with laboratory findings such as calcium, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase. Besides the X-ray appearance. Bone deformities in Rickets have a reasonable likelihood to correct over time, while this is not the case with Blount's disease. Nevertheless both disorders may need surgical intervention in the form of bone osteotomy or more commonly guided growth surgery. Osteochondrodysplasias or genetic bone diseases can cause lower extremity deformities similar to Blount's disease. The clinical appearance and the characteristic radiographic are important to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Children who develop severe bowing before the age of 3 may be treated with knee ankle foot orthoses. However, bracing may fail, or bowing may not be detected until the child is older. In some cases, surgery may be performed . Surgery may involve cutting the shin bone (tibia) to realign it, and sometimes lengthen it as well.Other times, the growth of just the outer half of the tibia can be surgically restricted to allow the child’s natural growth to reverse the bowing process. This second, much smaller surgery is most effective in children with less severe bowing and significant growth remaining. Return to normal function and cosmetic appearance is expected if the knee can be properly aligned . | %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Lower extremity deformities in Rickets can closely mimic those produced by Blount's disease. To differentiate between Rickets and Blount's disease it is important to correlate the clinical picture with laboratory findings such as calcium, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase. Besides the X-ray appearance. Bone deformities in Rickets have a reasonable likelihood to correct over time, while this is not the case with Blount's disease. Nevertheless both disorders may need surgical intervention in the form of bone osteotomy or more commonly guided growth surgery. Osteochondrodysplasias or genetic bone diseases can cause lower extremity deformities similar to Blount's disease. The clinical appearance and the characteristic radiographic are important to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Children who develop severe bowing before the age of 3 may be treated with knee ankle foot orthoses. However, bracing may fail, or bowing may not be detected until the child is older. In some cases, surgery may be performed . | [
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8094825 | 1 | Criticism Besides the common criticisms of self-help, Harvard psychologist Bella M. DePaulo has written books such as Singlism on the stigmatization of single people. | Criticism Besides the common criticisms of self-help, psychologist Bella M. DePaulo has written books on singlism such as Singlism : What it is, why it matters and how to stop it and Singled Out on the stigmatization of single people. | [
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8097692 | 1 | In the literal sense, the term describes a man who is agreeable, gentle, compassionate, sensitive and vulnerable. The term is used both positively and negatively. When used positively, and particularly when used as a preference or description by someone else, it is intended to imply a male who puts the needs of others before his own, avoids confrontations, does favors, gives emotional support, tries to stay out of trouble, and generally acts nicely towards others.Glover, Dr. Robert, URL In the context of a relationship, it may also refer to traits of honesty, loyalty, romanticism, courtesy, and respect. When used negatively, a nice guy implies a male who is unassertive or otherwise non-masculine . The opposite of a genuine "nice guy" is commonly described as a "jerk", a term for a mean, selfish and uncaring person. However, the term is also often used sarcastically, particularly in the context of dating, to describe someone who believes himself to possess genuine "nice guy" characteristics, even though he actually may not, and who uses acts of friendship and basic social etiquette with the unstated aim of progressing to a romantic or sexual relationship. | In the literal sense, the term describes a man who is agreeable, gentle, compassionate, sensitive and vulnerable. The term is used both positively and negatively. When used positively, and particularly when used as a preference or description by someone else, it is intended to imply a man who puts the needs of others before his own, avoids confrontations, does favors, gives emotional support, tries to stay out of trouble, and generally acts nicely towards others.Glover, Dr. Robert, URL In the context of a relationship, it may also refer to traits of honesty, loyalty, romanticism, courtesy, and respect. When used negatively, a nice guy implies a man who is unassertive or otherwise " non-masculine " . The opposite of a genuine "nice guy" is commonly described as a "jerk", a term for a mean, selfish and uncaring person. However, the term is also often used sarcastically, particularly in the context of dating, to describe someone who believes himself to possess genuine "nice guy" characteristics, even though he actually does not, and who uses acts of friendship and basic social etiquette with the ulterior aim of progressing to a romantic or sexual relationship. | [
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8097941 | 1 | History The Iranian hero Rostam, mythical king of Zabulistan, in his 7th century AD mural at Panjikent . He is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns. Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu. | History A Kushan or Turkic horseman from a 7th century AD mural at Panjikent , Sogdia is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns. The Hephthalites: Archaeological And Historical Analysis by Aydogdy Kurbanov, page 60/ digital page 65 - URL Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu. | [
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8097941 | 2 | History A Kushan or Turkic horseman from a 7th century AD mural at Panjikent, Sogdia is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns.The Hephthalites: Archaeological And Historical Analysis by Aydogdy Kurbanov, page 60/ digital page 65 - URL Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu. The earliest suggested examples were once thought to include Neanderthals and the Proto-Neolithic Homo sapiens component (ninth millennium BC ) from Shanidar Cave in Iraq,Meiklejohn, Christopher; Anagnostis Agelarakis; Peter A. Akkermans; Philip E.L. Smith & Ralph Solecki (1992) "Artificial cranial deformation in the Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic Near East and its possible origin: evidence from four sites," Paléorient 18(2), pp. 83-97, see , accessed 1 August 2015. The view that the Neanderthal skull was artificially deformed, thus representing the oldest example of such practices by tens of thousands of years, has since been argued incorrect by Chech, Grove, Thorne, and Trinkaus, based on new cranial reconstructions in 1999, where the team concluded "we no longer consider that artificial cranial deformation can be inferred for the specimen". It is thought elongated skulls found among Neolithic peoples in Southwest Asia were the result of artificial cranial deformation.K.O. Lorentz (2010) "Ubaid head shaping," in Beyond the Ubaid (R.A. Carter & G. Philip, Eds.), pp. 125-148. The earliest written record of cranial deformation—by Hippocrates, of the Macrocephali or Long-heads, who were named for their practice of cranial modification—dates to 400 BC .Hippocrates of Cos (1923) [ca. 400 BC ] Airs, Waters, and Places, Part 14, e.g., Loeb Classic Library Vol. 147, pp. 110–111 (W. H. S. Jones, transl., DOI: 10.4159/DLCL.hippocrates_cos-airs_waters_places.1923, see . Alternatively, the Adams 1849 and subsequent English editions (e.g., 1891), The Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Francis Adams, transl.), New York, NY, USA: William Wood, at the [MIT] Internet Classics Archive (Daniel C. Stevenson, compiler), see . Alternatively, the Clifton 1752 English editions, "Hippocrates Upon Air, Water, and Situation; Upon Epidemical Diseases; and Upon Prognosticks, In Acute Cases especially. To which is added…" Second edition, pp. 22-23 (Francis Clifton, transl.), London, GBR: John Whiston and Benj. White; and Lockyer Davis, see . All web versions accessed 1 August 2015. Central Asia In the Old World, Huns also are known to have practised similar cranial deformation,Facial reconstruction of a Hunnish woman, Das Historische Museum der Pfalz, Speyer as were the people known as the Alans.Bachrach, Bernard S. (1973) A History of the Alans in the West: From Their First Appearance in the Sources of Classical Antiquity Through the Early Middle Ages, pp. 67-69, Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press. In Late Antiquity ( AD 300–600), the East Germanic tribes who were ruled by the Huns, the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Heruli, Rugii, and Burgundians adopted this custom. Among the Lombards, the Burgundians and the Thuringians,Herbert Schutz, The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750, P. Lang, 2000, p. 62. this custom seems to have comprised women only.Tore Ahlbäck, The Problem of Ritual, Donner Institute, 1993, p. 279. In western Germanic tribes, artificial skull deformations rarely have been found.Pany, Doris & Karin Wiltschke-Schrotta, "Artificial cranial deformation in a migration period burial of Schwarzenbach, Lower Austria," ViaVIAS, no. 2, pp. 18-23, Vienna, AUT: Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science. | History A Kushan or Turkic horseman from a 7th century CE mural at Panjikent, Sogdia is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns.The Hephthalites: Archaeological And Historical Analysis by Aydogdy Kurbanov, page 60/ digital page 65 - URL Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu. The earliest suggested examples were once thought to include Neanderthals and the Proto-Neolithic Homo sapiens component (ninth millennium BCE ) from Shanidar Cave in Iraq,Meiklejohn, Christopher; Anagnostis Agelarakis; Peter A. Akkermans; Philip E.L. Smith & Ralph Solecki (1992) "Artificial cranial deformation in the Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic Near East and its possible origin: evidence from four sites," Paléorient 18(2), pp. 83-97, see , accessed 1 August 2015. The view that the Neanderthal skull was artificially deformed, thus representing the oldest example of such practices by tens of thousands of years, has since been argued incorrect by Chech, Grove, Thorne, and Trinkaus, based on new cranial reconstructions in 1999, where the team concluded "we no longer consider that artificial cranial deformation can be inferred for the specimen". It is thought elongated skulls found among Neolithic peoples in Southwest Asia were the result of artificial cranial deformation.K.O. Lorentz (2010) "Ubaid head shaping," in Beyond the Ubaid (R.A. Carter & G. Philip, Eds.), pp. 125-148. The earliest written record of cranial deformation—by Hippocrates, of the Macrocephali or Long-heads, who were named for their practice of cranial modification—dates to 400 BCE .Hippocrates of Cos (1923) [ca. 400 BCE ] Airs, Waters, and Places, Part 14, e.g., Loeb Classic Library Vol. 147, pp. 110–111 (W. H. S. Jones, transl., DOI: 10.4159/DLCL.hippocrates_cos-airs_waters_places.1923, see . Alternatively, the Adams 1849 and subsequent English editions (e.g., 1891), The Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Francis Adams, transl.), New York, NY, USA: William Wood, at the [MIT] Internet Classics Archive (Daniel C. Stevenson, compiler), see . Alternatively, the Clifton 1752 English editions, "Hippocrates Upon Air, Water, and Situation; Upon Epidemical Diseases; and Upon Prognosticks, In Acute Cases especially. To which is added…" Second edition, pp. 22-23 (Francis Clifton, transl.), London, GBR: John Whiston and Benj. White; and Lockyer Davis, see . All web versions accessed 1 August 2015. Central Asia In the Old World, Huns also are known to have practised similar cranial deformation,Facial reconstruction of a Hunnish woman, Das Historische Museum der Pfalz, Speyer as were the people known as the Alans.Bachrach, Bernard S. (1973) A History of the Alans in the West: From Their First Appearance in the Sources of Classical Antiquity Through the Early Middle Ages, pp. 67-69, Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press. In Late Antiquity ( CE 300–600), the East Germanic tribes who were ruled by the Huns, the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Heruli, Rugii, and Burgundians adopted this custom. Among the Lombards, the Burgundians and the Thuringians,Herbert Schutz, The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750, P. Lang, 2000, p. 62. this custom seems to have comprised women only.Tore Ahlbäck, The Problem of Ritual, Donner Institute, 1993, p. 279. In western Germanic tribes, artificial skull deformations rarely have been found.Pany, Doris & Karin Wiltschke-Schrotta, "Artificial cranial deformation in a migration period burial of Schwarzenbach, Lower Austria," ViaVIAS, no. 2, pp. 18-23, Vienna, AUT: Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science. | [
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8097941 | 3 | History A Kushan or Turkic horseman from a 7th century CE mural at Panjikent, Sogdia is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns.The Hephthalites: Archaeological And Historical Analysis by Aydogdy Kurbanov, page 60/ digital page 65 - URL Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu. The earliest suggested examples were once thought to include Neanderthals and the Proto-Neolithic Homo sapiens component (ninth millennium BCE ) from Shanidar Cave in Iraq,Meiklejohn, Christopher; Anagnostis Agelarakis; Peter A. Akkermans; Philip E.L. Smith & Ralph Solecki (1992) "Artificial cranial deformation in the Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic Near East and its possible origin: evidence from four sites," Paléorient 18(2), pp. 83-97, see , accessed 1 August 2015. The view that the Neanderthal skull was artificially deformed, thus representing the oldest example of such practices by tens of thousands of years, has since been argued incorrect by Chech, Grove, Thorne, and Trinkaus, based on new cranial reconstructions in 1999, where the team concluded "we no longer consider that artificial cranial deformation can be inferred for the specimen". It is thought elongated skulls found among Neolithic peoples in Southwest Asia were the result of artificial cranial deformation.K.O. Lorentz (2010) "Ubaid head shaping," in Beyond the Ubaid (R.A. Carter & G. Philip, Eds.), pp. 125-148. The earliest written record of cranial deformation—by Hippocrates, of the Macrocephali or Long-heads, who were named for their practice of cranial modification—dates to 400 BCE .Hippocrates of Cos (1923) [ca. 400 BCE ] Airs, Waters, and Places, Part 14, e.g., Loeb Classic Library Vol. 147, pp. 110–111 (W. H. S. Jones, transl., DOI: 10.4159/DLCL.hippocrates_cos-airs_waters_places.1923, see . Alternatively, the Adams 1849 and subsequent English editions (e.g., 1891), The Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Francis Adams, transl.), New York, NY, USA: William Wood, at the [MIT] Internet Classics Archive (Daniel C. Stevenson, compiler), see . Alternatively, the Clifton 1752 English editions, "Hippocrates Upon Air, Water, and Situation; Upon Epidemical Diseases; and Upon Prognosticks, In Acute Cases especially. To which is added…" Second edition, pp. 22-23 (Francis Clifton, transl.), London, GBR: John Whiston and Benj. White; and Lockyer Davis, see . All web versions accessed 1 August 2015. Central Asia In the Old World, Huns also are known to have practised similar cranial deformation,Facial reconstruction of a Hunnish woman, Das Historische Museum der Pfalz, Speyer as were the people known as the Alans.Bachrach, Bernard S. (1973) A History of the Alans in the West: From Their First Appearance in the Sources of Classical Antiquity Through the Early Middle Ages, pp. 67-69, Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press. In Late Antiquity ( CE 300–600), the East Germanic tribes who were ruled by the Huns, the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Heruli, Rugii, and Burgundians adopted this custom. Among the Lombards, the Burgundians and the Thuringians,Herbert Schutz, The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750, P. Lang, 2000, p. 62. this custom seems to have comprised women only.Tore Ahlbäck, The Problem of Ritual, Donner Institute, 1993, p. 279. In western Germanic tribes, artificial skull deformations rarely have been found.Pany, Doris & Karin Wiltschke-Schrotta, "Artificial cranial deformation in a migration period burial of Schwarzenbach, Lower Austria," ViaVIAS, no. 2, pp. 18-23, Vienna, AUT: Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science. | History A Kushan or Turkic horseman from a 7th century AD mural at Panjikent, Sogdia is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns.The Hephthalites: Archaeological And Historical Analysis by Aydogdy Kurbanov, page 60/ digital page 65 - URL Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu. The earliest suggested examples were once thought to include Neanderthals and the Proto-Neolithic Homo sapiens component (ninth millennium BC ) from Shanidar Cave in Iraq,Meiklejohn, Christopher; Anagnostis Agelarakis; Peter A. Akkermans; Philip E.L. Smith & Ralph Solecki (1992) "Artificial cranial deformation in the Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic Near East and its possible origin: evidence from four sites," Paléorient 18(2), pp. 83-97, see , accessed 1 August 2015. The view that the Neanderthal skull was artificially deformed, thus representing the oldest example of such practices by tens of thousands of years, has since been argued incorrect by Chech, Grove, Thorne, and Trinkaus, based on new cranial reconstructions in 1999, where the team concluded "we no longer consider that artificial cranial deformation can be inferred for the specimen". It is thought elongated skulls found among Neolithic peoples in Southwest Asia were the result of artificial cranial deformation.K.O. Lorentz (2010) "Ubaid head shaping," in Beyond the Ubaid (R.A. Carter & G. Philip, Eds.), pp. 125-148. The earliest written record of cranial deformation—by Hippocrates, of the Macrocephali or Long-heads, who were named for their practice of cranial modification—dates to 400 BC .Hippocrates of Cos (1923) [ca. 400 BC ] Airs, Waters, and Places, Part 14, e.g., Loeb Classic Library Vol. 147, pp. 110–111 (W. H. S. Jones, transl., DOI: 10.4159/DLCL.hippocrates_cos-airs_waters_places.1923, see . Alternatively, the Adams 1849 and subsequent English editions (e.g., 1891), The Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Francis Adams, transl.), New York, NY, USA: William Wood, at the [MIT] Internet Classics Archive (Daniel C. Stevenson, compiler), see . Alternatively, the Clifton 1752 English editions, "Hippocrates Upon Air, Water, and Situation; Upon Epidemical Diseases; and Upon Prognosticks, In Acute Cases especially. To which is added…" Second edition, pp. 22-23 (Francis Clifton, transl.), London, GBR: John Whiston and Benj. White; and Lockyer Davis, see . All web versions accessed 1 August 2015. Central Asia In the Old World, Huns also are known to have practised similar cranial deformation,Facial reconstruction of a Hunnish woman, Das Historische Museum der Pfalz, Speyer as were the people known as the Alans.Bachrach, Bernard S. (1973) A History of the Alans in the West: From Their First Appearance in the Sources of Classical Antiquity Through the Early Middle Ages, pp. 67-69, Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press. In Late Antiquity ( AD 300–600), the East Germanic tribes who were ruled by the Huns, the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Heruli, Rugii, and Burgundians adopted this custom. Among the Lombards, the Burgundians and the Thuringians,Herbert Schutz, The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750, P. 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8100629 | 1 | Notable people Tihomil Beritić, physician Ilija Janjić, Bishop Leopold Mandić, Catholic saint Nikola Modruški, Bishop of Modruš Božo Nikolić, sea captain and politician Josip Pečarić, mathematician Franjo Kunčer, motorsport racer Andrija Maurović, comic book author Marija Vučinović, politician Viktor Vida, writer Predrag Vušović, actor Milan Sijerković, meteorologists Ivan Brkanović, writer Marta Batinović, handball player, representing Montenegro Matea Pletikosić, handball player, representing Montenegro Tomislav Crnković, football player | Notable people Luka Brajnović, university professor and journalist Tihomil Beritić, physician blessed Gracija of Muo, Augustinian and hermit Leopold Mandić, Catholic saint Vjenceslav Čižek, poet Andrija Paltašić, medieval printer Ilija Janjić, Bishop Nikola Modruški, Bishop of Modruš Božo Nikolić, sea captain and politician Josip Pečarić, mathematician Franjo Kunčer, motorsport racer Andrija Maurović, comic book author Marija Vučinović, politician Viktor Vida, writer Predrag Vušović, actor Milan Sijerković, meteorologists Branko Sbutega, priest and writer Ivan Brkanović, writer Marta Batinović, handball player, representing Montenegro Matea Pletikosić, handball player, representing Montenegro Tomislav Crnković, football player | [
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8103 | 1 | 300px|Satellite image of deforestation in progress in eastern Bolivia. Worldwide, 10\% of wilderness areas were lost between 1990 and 2015."Un dizième des terres sauvages ont disparu en deux décennies" (Radio Télévision Suisse) citing 350px|Tropical deforestation in 1750-2004 (net loss) 450px|Forest Landscape Integrity Index showing anthropogenic modification of remaining forest. 300px| Dry seasons, exacerbated by climate change, and the use of slash-and-burn methods for clearing tropical forest for agriculture, livestock, logging, and mining are causing wildfires, deforestating the Amazon rainforest. (MODIS satellite image of 2020 Brazil rainforest wildfires) Recent history (1970 onwards) For instance, FAO estimate that the global forest carbon stock has decreased 0.9\%, and tree cover 4.2\% between 1990 and 2020. The forest carbon stock in Europe (including Russia) increased from 158.7 to 172.4 Gt between 1990 and 2020. In North America, the forest carbon stock increased from 136.6 to 140 Gt in the same period. However, carbon stock decreased from 94.3 to 80.9 Gt in Africa, 45.8 to 41.5 Gt in South and Southeast Asia combined, 33.4 to 33.1 Gt in Oceania, 5 to 4.1 Gt in Central America, and from 161.8 to 144.8 Gt in South America. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) states that there is disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not, and quote research indicating that tree cover has increased 7.1\% between 1982 and 2016. IPCC also writes: «While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forests […].» Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23\% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power. The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition. Deforestation in the Maranhão state of Brazil, 2016 In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible", and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions". The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited economically from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities, i.e. that the poor should not have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem. Soil Deforestation for the use of clay in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. The hill depicted is Morro da Covanca, in Jacarepaguá Due to surface plant litter, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of erosion. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from surface runoff. The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of (forest) roads and the use of mechanized equipment. The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpower the amount of money spent by people employed in logging.Deforestation Across the World's Tropical Forests Emits Large Amounts of Greenhouse Gases with Little Economic Benefits, According to a New Study at CGIAR.org , 4 December 2007. According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various ventures that prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequently returned far less than US$1". The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is 23 euro (about US $35). Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth. In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6\%, compared with the 2\% growth rate for developed countries. As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur. Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation. About 90\% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon. The European Union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation. Forest transition theory The forest transition and historical baselines. The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory, whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries). Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a "law of nature", and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to "bridge" the forest transition. FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: (i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and (ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation. Historical causes Prehistory The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favorable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart. Populations such as the sub class Lissamphibia were devastated, whereas Reptilia survived the collapse. The surviving organisms were better adapted to the drier environment left behind and served as legacies in succession after the collapse. An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Rainforests once covered 14\% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6\% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years. Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic foragers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration, resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400–8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture. The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land. Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.Hogan, C. Michael (22 December 2007). "Knossos fieldnotes", The Modern Antiquarian Pre-industrial history Easter Island, deforested. According to Jared Diamond: "Among past societies faced with the prospect of ruinous deforestation, Easter Island and Mangareva chiefs succumbed to their immediate concerns, but Tokugawa shoguns, Inca emperors, New Guinea highlanders, and 16th century German landowners adopted a long view and reafforested."Diamond, Jared (2005) "The world as a polder: what does it all mean to us today?" pp. 522–523 in Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive, Penguin Books. . Throughout prehistory, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,Encyclopćdia Britannica Online School Edition. School.eb.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010. only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation."The Mystery of Easter Island", Smithsonian Magazine, 1 April 2007. Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources. The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment. With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland. Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time. Deforestation of Brazil's Atlantic Forest c.1820–1825 From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century. Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.) In Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports of increased seasonal flooding in New England during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests for agriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream. The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the Baltic trade for ship timbers, and looked to the untapped forests of New England to supply the need. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe: Industrial era In the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology.Norris, F. Terry (1997) "Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley", in Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis, Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, pp. 73–89. . The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the Central forest-grasslands transition and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. Rates of deforestation Slash-and-burn farming in the state of Rondônia, western Brazil Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. Cambridge University Press. Present-day In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. That’s the equivalent of losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds. History Global deforestationDuke Press policy studies / Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy / edited by Richard P. Tucker and J. F. Richards sharply accelerated around 1852.E. O. Wilson, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage .Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries, guardian.co.uk, 1 July 2008. As of 1947, the planet had 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature tropical forests,Maycock, Paul F. Deforestation. WorldBookOnline. but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed.Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) . Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14\% to 6\%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20\% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century. In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10\% remaining, with another 10\% in a degraded condition. 80\% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. Rates of change A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23\% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing.Committee On Forestry. FAO (16 March 2001). Retrieved 29 August 2010. On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster, csmonitor.com, 21 October 2005. From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.FAO. 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing? An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015. Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010. Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content , Worldwatch Institute The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10\% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests". Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation. and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.The World Bank estimates that 80\% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42\% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging accounts for 80\% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru.) Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Methods of analysis Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve, which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).Whitehead, John (22 November 2006) Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?, env-econ.net . Some cartographers have attempted to illustrate the sheer scale of deforestation by country using a cartogram. Victor Vescovo. (2006). The Atlas of World Statistics. The Caladan Press. Retrieved 3 August 2012. Satellite image of Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side upright=0.9|Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India Regions Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90\% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. Madagascar has lost 90\% of its eastern rainforests.IUCN – Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List, 27 June 2007. In South Asia, about 88\% of the rainforests have been lost. Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.Chart – Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.Rainforest Destruction. rainforestweb.org 300px|Satellite imagery of locations of the 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires as detected by MODIS from August 15 to August 22, 2019 Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.The Amazon Rainforest, BBC, 14 February 2003. Some 80\% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world. The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world. The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3\% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia. In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40\% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years. Brazil has lost 90–95\% of its Mata Atlântica forest. Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88\% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year. However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019. Brazil is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency.Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007, USATODAY.com, 24 January 2008. Paraguay was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010, Paraguay's parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether. As of 2007, less than 50\% of Haiti's forests remained. The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. In 2011 Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90\% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world). {| class="wikitable sortable" border="0" style="background:#ffffff" align="top" |+ style="text-align:center; background:DarkGreen; color:white;"|Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011 |- ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Endangered forest ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Region ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Remaining habitat ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Predominate vegetation type ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Notes |- | Indo-Burma | Asia-Pacific | 5\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, India.Indo-Burma, Conservation International. |- | New Caledonia | Asia-Pacific | 5\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.New Caledonia, Conservation International. |- | Sundaland | Asia-Pacific | 7\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern Borneo and Sumatra.Sundaland, Conservation International. |- | Philippines | Asia-Pacific | 7\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.Philippines, Conservation International. |- | Atlantic Forest | South America | 8\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.Atlantic Forest , Conservation International. |- | Mountains of Southwest China | Asia-Pacific | 8\% | Temperate coniferous forest | See note for region covered.Mountains of Southwest China, Conservation International. |- | California Floristic Province | North America | 10\% | Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.California Floristic Province , Conservation International. |- | Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa | Africa | 10\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Conservation International. |- | Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands | Africa | 10\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros.Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands, Conservation International. |- | Eastern Afromontane | Africa | 11\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forestsMontane grasslands and shrublands | Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.Eastern Afromontane, Conservation International. | 30 billion for the period 2010–2012. Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiativeForest Monitoring for Action (FORMA) : Center for Global Development : Initiatives: Active. Cgdev.org (23 November 2009). Retrieved 29 August 2010. and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.Browser – GEO FCT Portal. Portal.geo-fct.org. Retrieved 29 August 2010. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15. The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government.Agriculture Secretary Vilsack: $1 billion for REDD+ "Climate Progress . Climateprogress.org (16 December 2009). Retrieved 29 August 2010. In 2014, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and partners launched Open Foris – a set of open-source software tools that assist countries in gathering, producing and disseminating information on the state of forest resources. The tools support the inventory lifecycle, from needs assessment, design, planning, field data collection and management, estimation analysis, and dissemination. Remote sensing image processing tools are included, as well as tools for international reporting for Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and MRV (Measurement, Reporting and Verification) and FAO's Global Forest Resource Assessments. Forest plantations In order to acquire the world's demand for wood, it is suggested that high yielding forest plantations are suitable according to forest writers Botkins and Sedjo. Plantations that yield 10 cubic meters per hectare a year would supply enough wood for trading of 5\% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1–2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5–10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interspersed with conservation land. | 300px|Satellite image of deforestation in progress in eastern Bolivia. Worldwide, 10\% of wilderness areas were lost between 1990 and 2015."Un dizième des terres sauvages ont disparu en deux décennies" (Radio Télévision Suisse) citing 350px|Tropical deforestation in 1750-2004 (net loss) 450px|Forest Landscape Integrity Index showing anthropogenic modification of remaining forest. 300px| Deforestation in New Zealand. Recent history (1970 onwards) Deforestation in Europe. For instance, FAO estimate that the global forest carbon stock has decreased 0.9\%, and tree cover 4.2\% between 1990 and 2020. The forest carbon stock in Europe (including Russia) increased from 158.7 to 172.4 Gt between 1990 and 2020. In North America, the forest carbon stock increased from 136.6 to 140 Gt in the same period. However, carbon stock decreased from 94.3 to 80.9 Gt in Africa, 45.8 to 41.5 Gt in South and Southeast Asia combined, 33.4 to 33.1 Gt in Oceania, 5 to 4.1 Gt in Central America, and from 161.8 to 144.8 Gt in South America. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) states that there is disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not, and quote research indicating that tree cover has increased 7.1\% between 1982 and 2016. IPCC also writes: «While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forests […].» Deforestation in Canada. Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23\% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power. The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition. In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible", and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions". Illegal gold mining in Madre de Dios, Peru. The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited economically from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities, i.e. that the poor should not have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem. Soil Deforestation in France. Due to surface plant litter, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of erosion. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from surface runoff. The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of (forest) roads and the use of mechanized equipment. The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpower the amount of money spent by people employed in logging.Deforestation Across the World's Tropical Forests Emits Large Amounts of Greenhouse Gases with Little Economic Benefits, According to a New Study at CGIAR.org , 4 December 2007. According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various ventures that prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequently returned far less than US$1". The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is 23 euro (about US $35). Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth. In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6\%, compared with the 2\% growth rate for developed countries. As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur. Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation. About 90\% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon. The European Union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation. Forest transition theory The forest transition and historical baselines. The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory, whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries). Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a "law of nature", and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to "bridge" the forest transition. FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: (i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and (ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation. Historical causes Prehistory The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favorable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart. Populations such as the sub class Lissamphibia were devastated, whereas Reptilia survived the collapse. The surviving organisms were better adapted to the drier environment left behind and served as legacies in succession after the collapse. An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Rainforests once covered 14\% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6\% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years. Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic foragers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration, resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400–8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture. The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land. Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.Hogan, C. Michael (22 December 2007). "Knossos fieldnotes", The Modern Antiquarian Pre-industrial history Easter Island, deforested. According to Jared Diamond: "Among past societies faced with the prospect of ruinous deforestation, Easter Island and Mangareva chiefs succumbed to their immediate concerns, but Tokugawa shoguns, Inca emperors, New Guinea highlanders, and 16th century German landowners adopted a long view and reafforested."Diamond, Jared (2005) "The world as a polder: what does it all mean to us today?" pp. 522–523 in Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive, Penguin Books. . Throughout prehistory, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,Encyclopćdia Britannica Online School Edition. School.eb.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010. only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation."The Mystery of Easter Island", Smithsonian Magazine, 1 April 2007. Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources. The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment. With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland. Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time. Deforestation in Suriname c.1880–1900 From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century. Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.) In Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports of increased seasonal flooding in New England during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests for agriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream. The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the Baltic trade for ship timbers, and looked to the untapped forests of New England to supply the need. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe: Industrial era In the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology.Norris, F. Terry (1997) "Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley", in Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis, Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, pp. 73–89. . The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the Central forest-grasslands transition and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. Rates of deforestation Deforestation in Venezuela for cattle breeding. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. Cambridge University Press. Present-day In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. That’s the equivalent of losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds. History Global deforestationDuke Press policy studies / Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy / edited by Richard P. Tucker and J. F. Richards sharply accelerated around 1852.E. O. Wilson, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage .Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries, guardian.co.uk, 1 July 2008. As of 1947, the planet had 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature tropical forests,Maycock, Paul F. Deforestation. WorldBookOnline. but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed.Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) . Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14\% to 6\%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20\% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century. In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10\% remaining, with another 10\% in a degraded condition. 80\% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. Rates of change A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23\% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing.Committee On Forestry. FAO (16 March 2001). Retrieved 29 August 2010. On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster, csmonitor.com, 21 October 2005. From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.FAO. 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing? An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015. Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010. Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content , Worldwatch Institute The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10\% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests". Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation. and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.The World Bank estimates that 80\% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42\% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging accounts for 80\% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru.) Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Methods of analysis Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve, which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).Whitehead, John (22 November 2006) Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?, env-econ.net . Some cartographers have attempted to illustrate the sheer scale of deforestation by country using a cartogram. Victor Vescovo. (2006). The Atlas of World Statistics. The Caladan Press. Retrieved 3 August 2012. Satellite image of Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side upright=0.9|Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India Regions Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90\% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. Madagascar has lost 90\% of its eastern rainforests.IUCN – Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List, 27 June 2007. In South Asia, about 88\% of the rainforests have been lost. Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.Chart – Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.Rainforest Destruction. rainforestweb.org 300px|Deforestation in Ecuador. Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.The Amazon Rainforest, BBC, 14 February 2003. Some 80\% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world. The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world. The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3\% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia. In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40\% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years. Brazil has lost 90–95\% of its Mata Atlântica forest. Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88\% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year. However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019. Brazil is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency.Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007, USATODAY.com, 24 January 2008. Paraguay was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010, Paraguay's parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether. As of 2007, less than 50\% of Haiti's forests remained. The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. In 2011 Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90\% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world). {| class="wikitable sortable" border="0" style="background:#ffffff" align="top" |+ style="text-align:center; background:DarkGreen; color:white;"|Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011 |- ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Endangered forest ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Region ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Remaining habitat ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Predominate vegetation type ! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Notes |- | Indo-Burma | Asia-Pacific | 5\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, India.Indo-Burma, Conservation International. |- | New Caledonia | Asia-Pacific | 5\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.New Caledonia, Conservation International. |- | Sundaland | Asia-Pacific | 7\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern Borneo and Sumatra.Sundaland, Conservation International. |- | Philippines | Asia-Pacific | 7\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.Philippines, Conservation International. |- | Atlantic Forest | South America | 8\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.Atlantic Forest , Conservation International. |- | Mountains of Southwest China | Asia-Pacific | 8\% | Temperate coniferous forest | See note for region covered.Mountains of Southwest China, Conservation International. |- | California Floristic Province | North America | 10\% | Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.California Floristic Province , Conservation International. |- | Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa | Africa | 10\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Conservation International. |- | Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands | Africa | 10\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros.Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands, Conservation International. |- | Eastern Afromontane | Africa | 11\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forestsMontane grasslands and shrublands | Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.Eastern Afromontane, Conservation International. | 30 billion for the period 2010–2012. Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiativeForest Monitoring for Action (FORMA) : Center for Global Development : Initiatives: Active. Cgdev.org (23 November 2009). Retrieved 29 August 2010. and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.Browser – GEO FCT Portal. Portal.geo-fct.org. Retrieved 29 August 2010. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15. The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government.Agriculture Secretary Vilsack: $1 billion for REDD+ "Climate Progress . Climateprogress.org (16 December 2009). Retrieved 29 August 2010. In 2014, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and partners launched Open Foris – a set of open-source software tools that assist countries in gathering, producing and disseminating information on the state of forest resources. The tools support the inventory lifecycle, from needs assessment, design, planning, field data collection and management, estimation analysis, and dissemination. Remote sensing image processing tools are included, as well as tools for international reporting for Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and MRV (Measurement, Reporting and Verification) and FAO's Global Forest Resource Assessments. Forest plantations 300px|Deforestation in Germany. In order to acquire the world's demand for wood, it is suggested that high yielding forest plantations are suitable according to forest writers Botkins and Sedjo. Plantations that yield 10 cubic meters per hectare a year would supply enough wood for trading of 5\% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1–2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5–10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interspersed with conservation land. | [
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"before": "$35). Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth. In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6\\%, compared with the 2\\% growth rate for developed countries. As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur. Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation. About 90\\% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon. The European Union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation. Forest transition theory The forest transition and historical baselines. The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory, whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries). Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a \"law of nature\", and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to \"bridge\" the forest transition. FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: (i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and (ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation. Historical causes Prehistory The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favorable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart. Populations such as the sub class Lissamphibia were devastated, whereas Reptilia survived the collapse. The surviving organisms were better adapted to the drier environment left behind and served as legacies in succession after the collapse. An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Rainforests once covered 14\\% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6\\% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years. Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic foragers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration, resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400–8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture. The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land. Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.Hogan, C. Michael (22 December 2007). \"Knossos fieldnotes\", The Modern Antiquarian Pre-industrial history Easter Island, deforested. According to Jared Diamond: \"Among past societies faced with the prospect of ruinous deforestation, Easter Island and Mangareva chiefs succumbed to their immediate concerns, but Tokugawa shoguns, Inca emperors, New Guinea highlanders, and 16th century German landowners adopted a long view and reafforested.\"Diamond, Jared (2005) \"The world as a polder: what does it all mean to us today?\" pp. 522–523 in Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive, Penguin Books. . Throughout prehistory, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,Encyclopćdia Britannica Online School Edition. School.eb.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010. only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation.\"The Mystery of Easter Island\", Smithsonian Magazine, 1 April 2007. Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources. The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment. With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland. Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time. Deforestation of Brazil's Atlantic Forest c.1820–1825 From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century. Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.) In Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports of increased seasonal flooding in New England during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests for agriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream. The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the Baltic trade for ship timbers, and looked to the untapped forests of New England to supply the need. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe: Industrial era In the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology.Norris, F. Terry (1997) \"Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley\", in Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis, Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, pp. 73–89. . The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the Central forest-grasslands transition and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. Rates of deforestation Slash-and-burn farming in the state of Rondônia, western Brazil Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. Cambridge University Press. Present-day In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. That’s the equivalent of losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds. History Global deforestationDuke Press policy studies / Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy / edited by Richard P. Tucker and J. F. Richards sharply accelerated around 1852.E. O. Wilson, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage .Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries, guardian.co.uk, 1 July 2008. As of 1947, the planet had 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature tropical forests,Maycock, Paul F. Deforestation. WorldBookOnline. but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed.Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) . Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14\\% to 6\\%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20\\% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century. In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10\\% remaining, with another 10\\% in a degraded condition. 80\\% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. Rates of change A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23\\% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing.Committee On Forestry. FAO (16 March 2001). Retrieved 29 August 2010. On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster, csmonitor.com, 21 October 2005. From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.FAO. 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing? An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015. Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010. Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content , Worldwatch Institute The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that \"the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10\\% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests\". Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation. and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.The World Bank estimates that 80\\% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42\\% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging accounts for 80\\% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru.) Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Methods of analysis Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve, which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).Whitehead, John (22 November 2006) Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?, env-econ.net . Some cartographers have attempted to illustrate the sheer scale of deforestation by country using a cartogram. Victor Vescovo. (2006). The Atlas of World Statistics. The Caladan Press. Retrieved 3 August 2012. Satellite image of Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side upright=0.9|Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India Regions Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90\\% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. Madagascar has lost 90\\% of its eastern rainforests.IUCN – Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List, 27 June 2007. In South Asia, about 88\\% of the rainforests have been lost. Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.Chart – Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.Rainforest Destruction. rainforestweb.org 300px|Satellite imagery of locations of the 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires as detected by MODIS from August 15 to August 22, 2019 Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.The Amazon Rainforest, BBC, 14 February 2003. Some 80\\% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world. The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world. The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3\\% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia. In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40\\% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years. Brazil has lost 90–95\\% of its Mata Atlântica forest. Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88\\% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year. However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019. Brazil is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency.Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007, USATODAY.com, 24 January 2008. Paraguay was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010, Paraguay's parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether. As of 2007, less than 50\\% of Haiti's forests remained. The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. In 2011 Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90\\% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world). {| class=\"wikitable sortable\" border=\"0\" style=\"background:#ffffff\" align=\"top\" |+ style=\"text-align:center; background:DarkGreen; color:white;\"|Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011 |- ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Endangered forest ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Region ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Remaining habitat ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Predominate vegetation type ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Notes |- | Indo-Burma | Asia-Pacific | 5\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, India.Indo-Burma, Conservation International. |- | New Caledonia | Asia-Pacific | 5\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.New Caledonia, Conservation International. |- | Sundaland | Asia-Pacific | 7\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern Borneo and Sumatra.Sundaland, Conservation International. |- | Philippines | Asia-Pacific | 7\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.Philippines, Conservation International. |- | Atlantic Forest | South America | 8\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.Atlantic Forest , Conservation International. |- | Mountains of Southwest China | Asia-Pacific | 8\\% | Temperate coniferous forest | See note for region covered.Mountains of Southwest China, Conservation International. |- | California Floristic Province | North America | 10\\% | Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.California Floristic Province , Conservation International. |- | Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa | Africa | 10\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Conservation International. |- | Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands | Africa | 10\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros.Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands, Conservation International. |- | Eastern Afromontane | Africa | 11\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forestsMontane grasslands and shrublands | Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.Eastern Afromontane, Conservation International. |",
"after": "$35). Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth. In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6\\%, compared with the 2\\% growth rate for developed countries. As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur. Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation. About 90\\% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon. The European Union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation. Forest transition theory The forest transition and historical baselines. The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory, whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries). Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a \"law of nature\", and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to \"bridge\" the forest transition. FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: (i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and (ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation. Historical causes Prehistory The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favorable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart. Populations such as the sub class Lissamphibia were devastated, whereas Reptilia survived the collapse. The surviving organisms were better adapted to the drier environment left behind and served as legacies in succession after the collapse. An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Rainforests once covered 14\\% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6\\% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years. Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic foragers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration, resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400–8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture. The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land. Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.Hogan, C. Michael (22 December 2007). \"Knossos fieldnotes\", The Modern Antiquarian Pre-industrial history Easter Island, deforested. According to Jared Diamond: \"Among past societies faced with the prospect of ruinous deforestation, Easter Island and Mangareva chiefs succumbed to their immediate concerns, but Tokugawa shoguns, Inca emperors, New Guinea highlanders, and 16th century German landowners adopted a long view and reafforested.\"Diamond, Jared (2005) \"The world as a polder: what does it all mean to us today?\" pp. 522–523 in Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive, Penguin Books. . Throughout prehistory, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,Encyclopćdia Britannica Online School Edition. School.eb.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010. only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation.\"The Mystery of Easter Island\", Smithsonian Magazine, 1 April 2007. Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources. The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment. With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland. Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time. Deforestation in Suriname c.1880–1900 From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century. Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.) In Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports of increased seasonal flooding in New England during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests for agriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream. The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the Baltic trade for ship timbers, and looked to the untapped forests of New England to supply the need. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe: Industrial era In the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology.Norris, F. Terry (1997) \"Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley\", in Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis, Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, pp. 73–89. . The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the Central forest-grasslands transition and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. Rates of deforestation Deforestation in Venezuela for cattle breeding. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. Cambridge University Press. Present-day In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. That’s the equivalent of losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds. History Global deforestationDuke Press policy studies / Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy / edited by Richard P. Tucker and J. F. Richards sharply accelerated around 1852.E. O. Wilson, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage .Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries, guardian.co.uk, 1 July 2008. As of 1947, the planet had 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature tropical forests,Maycock, Paul F. Deforestation. WorldBookOnline. but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed.Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) . Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14\\% to 6\\%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20\\% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century. In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10\\% remaining, with another 10\\% in a degraded condition. 80\\% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. Rates of change A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23\\% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing.Committee On Forestry. FAO (16 March 2001). Retrieved 29 August 2010. On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster, csmonitor.com, 21 October 2005. From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.FAO. 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing? An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015. Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010. Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content , Worldwatch Institute The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that \"the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10\\% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests\". Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation. and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.The World Bank estimates that 80\\% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42\\% in Colombia, while in Peru, illegal logging accounts for 80\\% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru.) Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Methods of analysis Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve, which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).Whitehead, John (22 November 2006) Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?, env-econ.net . Some cartographers have attempted to illustrate the sheer scale of deforestation by country using a cartogram. Victor Vescovo. (2006). The Atlas of World Statistics. The Caladan Press. Retrieved 3 August 2012. Satellite image of Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side upright=0.9|Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India Regions Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90\\% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. Madagascar has lost 90\\% of its eastern rainforests.IUCN – Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List, 27 June 2007. In South Asia, about 88\\% of the rainforests have been lost. Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.Chart – Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.Rainforest Destruction. rainforestweb.org 300px|Deforestation in Ecuador. Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.The Amazon Rainforest, BBC, 14 February 2003. Some 80\\% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world. The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world. The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3\\% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia. In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40\\% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years. Brazil has lost 90–95\\% of its Mata Atlântica forest. Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88\\% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year. However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019. Brazil is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency.Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007, USATODAY.com, 24 January 2008. Paraguay was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010, Paraguay's parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether. As of 2007, less than 50\\% of Haiti's forests remained. The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. In 2011 Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90\\% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world). {| class=\"wikitable sortable\" border=\"0\" style=\"background:#ffffff\" align=\"top\" |+ style=\"text-align:center; background:DarkGreen; color:white;\"|Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011 |- ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Endangered forest ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Region ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Remaining habitat ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Predominate vegetation type ! style=\"background:LightGreen; color:Black\"|Notes |- | Indo-Burma | Asia-Pacific | 5\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, India.Indo-Burma, Conservation International. |- | New Caledonia | Asia-Pacific | 5\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.New Caledonia, Conservation International. |- | Sundaland | Asia-Pacific | 7\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern Borneo and Sumatra.Sundaland, Conservation International. |- | Philippines | Asia-Pacific | 7\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.Philippines, Conservation International. |- | Atlantic Forest | South America | 8\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.Atlantic Forest , Conservation International. |- | Mountains of Southwest China | Asia-Pacific | 8\\% | Temperate coniferous forest | See note for region covered.Mountains of Southwest China, Conservation International. |- | California Floristic Province | North America | 10\\% | Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests | See note for region covered.California Floristic Province , Conservation International. |- | Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa | Africa | 10\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Conservation International. |- | Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands | Africa | 10\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests | Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros.Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands, Conservation International. |- | Eastern Afromontane | Africa | 11\\% | Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forestsMontane grasslands and shrublands | Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.Eastern Afromontane, Conservation International. |",
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