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7211500 | 1 | SSP Program SSP programs focus on animals that are in danger of extinction in the wild, when zoo conservationists believe captive breeding programs may be their only chance to survive."Species Survival Plans help preserve wildlife" on the Central Florida Zoo website. These programs also help maintain healthy and genetically diverse animal populations within the zoo community."Species Survival Plan" on PBS NOVA Online. AZA accredited zoos and AZA conservation partners that are involved in SSP programs engage in cooperative population management and conservation efforts that include research, public education, reintroduction, and in situ or field conservation projects. There are currently 172 species covered by 116 SSP programs in North America.AZA Conservation Program Statistics on the AZA website. SSP Master Plan An SSP Master Plan is a document produced by the SSP coordinator (generally a zoo professional under the guidance of an elected management committee) for a certain species. This document sets breeding goals and other management recommendations to achieve the maximum genetic diversity and demographic stability for a species, given transfer and space constraints. | SSP Program SSP programs focus on animals that are near threatened, threatened, endangered, or otherwise in danger of extinction in the wild, when zoo and zoology conservationists believe captive breeding programs will aid in their chances of survive."Species Survival Plans help preserve wildlife" on the Central Florida Zoo website. These programs help maintain healthy and genetically diverse animal populations within the AZA accredited zoo community."Species Survival Plan" on PBS NOVA Online. AZA accredited zoos and AZA conservation partners that are involved in SSP programs engage in cooperative population management and conservation efforts that include research, conservation genetics, public education, reintroduction, and in situ or field conservation projects. There are currently 172 species covered by 116 SSP programs throughout North America.AZA Conservation Program Statistics on the AZA website. The SSP has been met with widespread success in ensuring that, should a species population become functionally extinct in its natural habitat, a viable population still exists within a zoological setting. This has also led to AZA species reintroduction programs, examples of which include the black-footed ferret, the California condor, the northern riffleshell, the golden lion tamarin, the Karner blue butterfly, the Oregon spotted frog, the palila finch, the red wolf, and the Wyoming toad. SSP Master Plan An SSP Master Plan is a document produced by the SSP coordinator (generally a zoo professional under the guidance of an elected management committee) for a certain species. This document sets ex situ population goals and other management recommendations to achieve the maximum genetic diversity and demographic stability for a species, given transfer and space constraints. | [
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7214055 | 2 | Dipalpur (; ), also spelt Depalpur, is a city in the Okara District of Pakistani province of Punjab that served as headquarters of Depalpur Tehsil , the largest Tehsil of Pakistan . It is situated 25 kilometres from the district capital Okara on a bank of the Beas River in Bari Doab.Location of Dipalpur - Falling Rain GenomicsTehsils & Unions in the District of Okara - Government of Pakistan It is located in the west of District Kasur. History Early Depalpur has a great historic pastand is a very ancient town. The fortified town of Dipalpur is built on an old Kashan site (40 A. D. to 172 A. D. ). The fortifications themselves are very ancient; though it is impossible determine their dates. All that can be said is that they are older than the visitation of Timur in 1398 A. D. From the time of Alexander to the time of Mehmood Ghaznavi, there were no found accounts of Dipalpur. According to the Gazetteer of 1935, the town was claimed to be founded by Sri Chandit was called Sri Nagar at that time, The modern name is claimed to have been named by Raja Deva Pala after he re-founded the town. Early Muslim period%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Mughal and Delhi Sultanates However, in older times, Dipalpur fell on the way to Delhi and , as such, was considered to be a place where an invader could be engaged. Dipalpur, therefore, was one of the 3 lines of defense; the other two begin Uch Sharif, Samana, and Hansi. Ain-i-Akbari reveals that the militia force at Dipalpur, during the reign of Abul Fazal, consisted of 5,210 mounted Horsemen and 53,300 infantry. In the 14th Century, Firuz Shah Tughlaq regularly visited this place. It is also believed that he built a large Mosque outside the city, which no longer remains. At the time of Timur’s invasion, Depalpur was second to Multan in size and importance. The town, it is believed may have been deserted due to Taimurs’s invasion and drying up old Beas River. The Mughal Emperor Akbar, along with his son Saleem (Jahangir) along with their royal entourage, stayed in Dipalpur when he came to pay homage to Fariduddin Ganjshakar in 1578. Akbar named the corridor Bari Doab by combining the syllables of the names of the two rivers, Beas and Ravi River, that bounded the area. Hujra Shah Muqeem Sufism Many Muslim saints have come to preach in this area. Hazrat Bahawal Haq commonly known as Bahawal Sher Qalandar came from Baghdad and settled in the village of Patharwall near Dipalpur. The saint constructed a hujra (small living room) and a mosque outside the village. His grandson Hazrat Shah Muqeem continued his mission. The village came to be known as Hujra Shah Muqeem. This is the place mentioned in the famous Punjabi love story Mirza Sahiban, in which Jati Sahiban came here are prayed, although there is no historical evidence to that . A Muslim saint named as Saayin Abdul Razaq stayed in Dipalpur and later on he started his volunteer activity for local people and after his death he was buried in city. Now, his death place is known as Razaqia Darbar. Mongols The Mongols invaded this part of the country repeatedly and they were checked at Dipalpur by Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban and his son Muhammad Khan, during their last invasion of Punjab in 1285 A.D. Pir Muhammad Khan Mangol (also called Samar Khan)was defeated at Dipalpur but during the pursuit of the retreating Mongols, Muhammad Khan was killed. It is believed that Shahzada Muhammad Khan is laid to rest in a small tomb to the west of the Badshahi Mosque. Conformation from any authentic sources is, however, not available. Notable residents Qaiser Shehzad (born 1986), cricketer Manzoor Wattoo (born 1939 ), politician | Dipalpur (; ), also spelt Depalpur, is a city in Okara District of the Punjab that served as headquarters of Depalpur Tehsil . Dipalpur tehsil is the largest tehsil of pakistan.Largest Tehsil of Pakistan - Laws of Pakistan It is situated 25 kilometres from the district capital Okara on a bank of the Beas River in Bari Doab.Location of Dipalpur - Falling Rain GenomicsTehsils & Unions in the District of Okara - Government of Pakistan It is located in the west of District Kasur. Historical architecture In the past, Dipalpur was surrounded by a fortified wall, rising to the height of 25 feet and strengthened by a deep trench. When and by whom this wall was constructed is not known, but it was renovated, repaired and improved during the rule of Firuz Shah Tughluq and later by Abdur Rahim Khan-e-Khanan, who was the governor during the time of Akbar. Firoz Shah Tughluq constructed a grand mosque and palaces. He also excavated a canal from the river Sutlej to irrigate gardens around the town. Wide and airy tunnels linked the royal residential quarters inside the fort to the adjoining gardens outside. There were 24 burgs (musketry holes) on the fortification wall, 24 mosques, 24 (ponds) and 24 wells at the town's peak. The trench, ponds and tunnels have been filled in, but in some places the location of the trench can still be defined. Most of the wall has been razed. Two of the four massive gateways with pointed arches also exist though they are badly damaged and their wooden doors have vanished. Later coats of cement have marred the original architecture of the gateways. Hindu monastery Besides doors with decorated latches, Jharokhas, bay windows and cut brick works, the most noticeable feature inside old Dipalpur is the monastery of Lal Jas Raj, a guru much venerated by the local people. According to the %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% legend, Lal Jas Raj was the young son of Raja Dipa Chand , the founder of Dipalpur. He sank into the earth due to a curse by his stepmother Rani Dholran. Raja Dipa Chand constructed this monastery in the memory of his son. Today, the chamber is dilapidated, the doors are jammed and a stairway is used for storage. The structure itself is crumbling. According to local residents, there used to be a grand annual "mela" held here. It was also used by Hindus as a place to perform the Sardukahr (head-shaving ritual) until the partition, but "nobody comes anymore". Caravanserai Dipalpur's saray (inn) is near the monastery of Lal Jas Raj. It was a spacious building with airy rooms on four sides, a big courtyard in the centre and four arched entrances. The inn, like most of the older structures in town, is now in a state of disrepair. It has been divided and subdivided so many times by successive occupants that the original shapes are obscured. Even the verandas have been converted to create rooms. Saints 350px| Hujra Shah Muqeem Many Muslim saints have come to preach in this area. Bahawal Haq commonly known as Bahawal Sher Qalandar came from Baghdad and settled in the village of Patharwall near Dipalpur. The saint constructed a hujra (small living room) and a mosque outside the village. His grandson Shah Muqeem continued his mission. The village came to be known as Hujra Shah Muqeem. This is the place mentioned in the famous Punjabi love story Mirza Saheban, although there is no historical evidence that Jati Sahiba (Mirza Sahiba) came here and prayed that "The streets should desert when where my lover Mirza roams about" . The Mughal Emperor Akbar, along with his son Saleem and royal entourage, stayed in Dipalpur when he came to pay homage to Farid Ganj Shakar in 1578. Akbar named the corridor Bari Doab by combining the syllables of the names of the two rivers, Beas and Ravi, that bounded the area. Baba Guru Nanak also stayed in Dipalpur for some time. The ruins of a Gurudwara mark the place. Muslim saint named as Saayi Abdul Razaq stayed in Dipalpur and later on he started his volunteer activity for local people and after his death he was buried in city. Now, his death place is known as Razaqia Darbar. Hazrat baba Fazal Chisti shrine in Kari wala Jagir Near sukh pur.His Urs celebrated every year. Other notable residents Dr. Yasir Imtiaz Khan (born 1983), scientist Qaiser Shehzad (born 1986), cricketer Manzoor Wattoo (born 1939 Bangla Fazilka India ), politician | [
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723000 | 1 | The AMA Style Guide prefers the phrase Criterion Standard instead of "gold standard " , and many medical journals now mandate this usage in their instructions for contributors. For instance, Archives of biological Medicine and Rehabilitation specifies this usage. When the criterion is a whole clinical testing procedure it is usually referred to as clinical case definition . | The AMA Style Guide has prefered the phrase Criterion Standard instead of "gold standard . " Other journals have also issued mandates in their instructions for contributors. For instance, Archives of biological Medicine and Rehabilitation specifies this usage. When the criterion is a whole clinical testing procedure it is usually referred to as clinical case definition . In practice however, the uptake of this term by authors, as well as enforcement by editorial staff is notably poor, at least for AMA journals . | [
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724325 | 1 | B-25 Mitchell bombers from the USAAF 42nd Bombardment Group over Bougainville, 1944 In 1942, Bougainville was occupied by Japanese forces, who used it as a base to attack Guadalcanal and other Allied territory. In November 1943, the 3rd Marine Division landed on the west coast of Bougainville. Shortly afterwards the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay was fought between cruisers and destroyers of the U.S. Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Americans routed the Japanese and took control of the seas in this area. A concerted Allied land offensive between November 1943 and April 1944 was needed to occupy and hold the part of the island along the western shore in an area called "Torokina". The Americans set about establishing a wide defensive perimeter, draining swamps, and building multiple airfields for defense . Their next goal was to attack the Japanese on New Britain Island. The Marines were replaced by US Army troops. They sought international recognition through the United Nations, but were unsuccessful. They also failed in an attempt to unite with the Solomon Islands. In early 1976, the Bougainvillean government realized that they would have to accept Papua New Guinean sovereignty. Secessionist conflict Operations of the mine at Panguna and sharing of its revenues had been perhaps the major sticking point between Bougainville and PNG government. The mine was the largest non-aid revenue stream of the Government of Papua New Guinea from 1975, when it became independent, to the mine's closure in 1989. The national government received a 20\% share of profit from the mine and authorized 0.5–1.25\% share to the Bougainvilleans. Ewins, Rory, The Bougainville Conflict, accessed 24 June 2009 Revenues from the mine products was vitally important to the economy of Papua New Guinea, but the people of Bougainville were seeing little benefit from it. In addition, they began to recognize that they were bearing the total effects of the mine's environmental consequences for the island. They claimed that the Jaba River had been poisoned, causing birth defects among local people, as well as the extinction of the flying fox on the island and adverse effects on fish and other species. Critics said that Bougainville Copper had created an apartheid, segregated system, with one set of facilities for white workers, and one set for the locals. Uprising In November 1988 Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) returned to attacked the mine, holding up its magazine, stealing explosives, and committing numerous acts of arson and sabotage. They cut the power supply to the entire mine by blowing up power pylons. These BRA forces were commanded by Sam Kauona, a man who had trained in Australia and defected from the Papuan defense forces to become Ona's right-hand man. Kauona became the spokesperson for the BRA. He continued to conduct hit-and-run raids on mine property and PNG government installations. Following targeted attacks on mine employees, the company closed the mine on 15 May 1989. Serero died from asthma soon afterward and Ona led the uprising with help from Kauona. Evacuation of all remaining employees of Bougainville Copper Limited followed after the mine's closure, with all personnel withdrawn by 24 March 1990. The Premier of Bougainville, Joseph Kabui, and Father John Momis, the Member for Bougainville in the national parliament and a former leader of the 1975 secession effort, supported Ona and Kauona. They demanded that the company recognize them as legitimate leaders. Both of these men later became involved directly in the independence movement. They were beaten by riot police during a 1989 protest. Allegations of human rights abuses by the PNG army began to arise. These embarrassed the PNG government, which arrested more than 20 men in the army after an investigation. In May 1990, Papua New Guinea imposed a blockade on Bougainville. Francis Ona responded by unilaterally declaring independence. He set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray. The command structure set up by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed to be part of the BRA. A number of (criminal) gangs that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in World War II, terrorized villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions, and a civil war began. Much of the division in this fighting was largely along clan lines; the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, causing other islanders to view it with suspicion. On the island of Buka north of Bougainville, a local militia formed and drove out the BRA with the help of Papuan troops, during a bloody offensive in September 1990. Multiple agreements were signed but were not honored by any parties. The BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such as Kabui. Several other village militias, which together became known as the resistance and were armed by the PNG defense forces, forced the BRA out of their areas. By 1996, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress. In January, following a round of negotiations in Cairns, Australia, between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, a PNG defense force patrol boat fired upon Kabui and the other delegates when they returned to Bougainville. The next month, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, he gave the go-ahead for an invasion of Bougainville, under new commander of the PNG defense forces, Jerry Singirok. Sandline and ceasefire After five resolutions in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, a report by the Special Rapporteur on Summary Executions and Disappearances and a resolution from the Security Council as well as mounting pressure from Amnesty International, ICRC and other human rights groups, the governments of Australia and New Zealand ceased providing military support, forcing Chan to begin to look elsewhere. Thus began the Sandline affair, where the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from Sandline International, a London-based private military company, composed primarily of former British and South African special forces soldiers, which had been involved in the civil wars in Angola and Sierra Leone. With negotiations with Sandline ongoing and incomplete, Chan ordered the military to invade anyway. In July the PNG defense forces attempted to seize Aropa airport, the island's principal airfield. However, the attack was a disaster, suffering from poor logistical planning and determined resistance by BRA fighters. In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated. Although Chan's government attempted to blame the BRA, a subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNG defense force and the resistance militias. Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, which had been unable to make any substantial progress in penetrating the mountainous interior of the island and reopening the Panguna mine. Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries. A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with John Momis as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIG/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases-the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the second being the elections for the Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by Momis. Rapprochment between Kauona and Momis led to an agreement in which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organized reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000. Francis Ona refused to play any part in the peace process, and, with a small minority of fighters, continued to occupy the area around Panguna mine . Throughout the decade, Ona continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005. In March 2005, Dr Shaista Shameem of the United Nations working group on mercenaries asked Fiji and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville. (UNPO) As part of the current peace settlement, a referendum on independence was to be held sometime in the 2010s, with an apparent small minority of fighters left in the center of the island, and enough instability to ensure that the mine remained closed. Support was provided to the group via use of the Loloho wharf on the eastern side of the island by naval vessels from Australia and New Zealand as well as the Kieta airfield by weekly C130 Hercules flights from Townsville. Four UH-1 'Huey' helicopters were supplied by Australian 171st Aviation Squadron, which were painted bright red for visibility and utilized to ferry personnel to inland villages inaccessible by foot or vehicle. With more than 8,000 safe flying hours in the skies of Bougainville to their credit, the choppers made their way back to Australia aboard . Later, air mobility was outsourced to the commercial Hevilift company, which provided two Bell 212 helicopters. The total cost of Australia's development and military assistance to Bougainville from the financial year 1997–98 until FY 2002–03 was $243.2 million. Over 3500 Australian defense personnel and 300 Australian civilians served in the Peace Monitoring Group during Operation Bel Isi. | B-25 Mitchell bombers from the USAAF 42nd Bombardment Group over Bougainville, 1944 In 1942, Bougainville was occupied by Japanese forces, who used it as a base to attack Guadalcanal and other Allied territory. In November 1943, the 3rd Marine Division landed on the west coast of Bougainville. Shortly afterwards the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay was fought between cruisers and destroyers of the U.S. Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Americans routed the Japanese and took control of the seas in this area. A concerted Allied land offensive between November 1943 and April 1944 was needed to occupy and hold the part of the island along the western shore in an area called "Torokina". The Americans set about establishing a wide defensive perimeter, draining swamps, and building multiple airfields for defence . Their next goal was to attack the Japanese on New Britain Island. The Marines were replaced by US Army troops. They sought international recognition through the United Nations, but were unsuccessful. They also failed in an attempt to unite with the Solomon Islands. In early 1976, the Bougainvillean government realised that they would have to accept Papua New Guinean sovereignty. Secessionist conflict Operations of the mine at Panguna and sharing of its revenues had been perhaps the major sticking point between Bougainville and PNG government. The mine was the largest non-aid revenue stream of the Government of Papua New Guinea from 1975, when it became independent, to the mine's closure in 1989. The national government received a 20\% share of profit from the mine and authorised 0.5–1.25\% share to the Bougainvilleans. Ewins, Rory, The Bougainville Conflict, accessed 24 June 2009 Revenues from the mine products was vitally important to the economy of Papua New Guinea, but the people of Bougainville were seeing little benefit from it. In addition, they began to recognise that they were bearing the total effects of the mine's environmental consequences for the island. They claimed that the Jaba River had been poisoned, causing birth defects among local people, as well as the extinction of the flying fox on the island and adverse effects on fish and other species. Critics said that Bougainville Copper had created an apartheid, segregated system, with one set of facilities for white workers, and one set for the locals. Uprising In November 1988 Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) returned to attacked the mine, holding up its magazine, stealing explosives, and committing numerous acts of arson and sabotage. They cut the power supply to the entire mine by blowing up power pylons. These BRA forces were commanded by Sam Kauona, a man who had trained in Australia and defected from the Papuan defence forces to become Ona's right-hand man. Kauona became the spokesperson for the BRA. He continued to conduct hit-and-run raids on mine property and PNG government installations. Following targeted attacks on mine employees, the company closed the mine on 15 May 1989. Serero died from asthma soon afterward and Ona led the uprising with help from Kauona. Evacuation of all remaining employees of Bougainville Copper Limited followed after the mine's closure, with all personnel withdrawn by 24 March 1990. The Premier of Bougainville, Joseph Kabui, and Father John Momis, the Member for Bougainville in the national parliament and a former leader of the 1975 secession effort, supported Ona and Kauona. They demanded that the company recognise them as legitimate leaders. Both of these men later became involved directly in the independence movement. They were beaten by riot police during a 1989 protest. Allegations of human rights abuses by the PNG army began to arise. These embarrassed the PNG government, which arrested more than 20 men in the army after an investigation. In May 1990, Papua New Guinea imposed a blockade on Bougainville. Francis Ona responded by unilaterally declaring independence. He set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray. The command structure set up by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed to be part of the BRA. A number of (criminal) gangs that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in World War II, terrorised villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions, and a civil war began. Much of the division in this fighting was largely along clan lines; the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, causing other islanders to view it with suspicion. On the island of Buka north of Bougainville, a local militia formed and drove out the BRA with the help of Papuan troops, during a bloody offensive in September 1990. Multiple agreements were signed but were not honoured by any parties. The BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such as Kabui. Several other village militias, which together became known as the resistance and were armed by the PNG defence forces, forced the BRA out of their areas. By 1996, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress. In January, following a round of negotiations in Cairns, Australia, between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, a PNG defence force patrol boat fired upon Kabui and the other delegates when they returned to Bougainville. The next month, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, he gave the go-ahead for an invasion of Bougainville, under new commander of the PNG defence forces, Jerry Singirok. Sandline and ceasefire After five resolutions in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, a report by the Special Rapporteur on Summary Executions and Disappearances and a resolution from the Security Council as well as mounting pressure from Amnesty International, ICRC and other human rights groups, the governments of Australia and New Zealand ceased providing military support, forcing Chan to begin to look elsewhere. Thus began the Sandline affair, where the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from Sandline International, a London-based private military company, composed primarily of former British and South African special forces soldiers, which had been involved in the civil wars in Angola and Sierra Leone. With negotiations with Sandline ongoing and incomplete, Chan ordered the military to invade anyway. In July the PNG defence forces attempted to seize Aropa airport, the island's principal airfield. However, the attack was a disaster, suffering from poor logistical planning and determined resistance by BRA fighters. In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated. Although Chan's government attempted to blame the BRA, a subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNG defence force and the resistance militias. Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, which had been unable to make any substantial progress in penetrating the mountainous interior of the island and reopening the Panguna mine. Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries. A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with John Momis as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIG/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases-the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the second being the elections for the Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by Momis. Rapprochment between Kauona and Momis led to an agreement in which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organised reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000. Francis Ona refused to play any part in the peace process, and, with a small minority of fighters, continued to occupy the area around Panguna mine . Throughout the decade, Ona continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005. In March 2005, Dr Shaista Shameem of the United Nations working group on mercenaries asked Fiji and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville. (UNPO) As part of the current peace settlement, a referendum on independence was to be held sometime in the 2010s, with an apparent small minority of fighters left in the centre of the island, and enough instability to ensure that the mine remained closed. Support was provided to the group via use of the Loloho wharf on the eastern side of the island by naval vessels from Australia and New Zealand as well as the Kieta airfield by weekly C130 Hercules flights from Townsville. Four UH-1 'Huey' helicopters were supplied by Australian 171st Aviation Squadron, which were painted bright red for visibility and utilised to ferry personnel to inland villages inaccessible by foot or vehicle. 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724577 | 1 | Units BUN (urea-N) is mg/dL in the United States, Mexico, Italy, Austria, and Germany. Elsewhere, the concentration of urea is reported as mmol/L, generally depending on the lab. BUN (urea-N) SI unit is mmol / L BUN%DIFDELCMD < [%%% mmol/L = BUN%DIFDELCMD < [%%% mg/dL * 0.3571%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% To convert from mg/dL of blood urea nitrogen to mmol/L of urea, multiply by 0.357 (each molecule of urea having two nitrogens , each of molar mass 14g/mol ) (BUN is the mass of nitrogen within urea/volume, not the mass of urea) Urea mmol/L%DIFDELCMD < ] %%% = BUN mg/dL of nitrogen x 10%DIFDELCMD < [%%% dL /L / 14x2 mg N/mmol urea%DIFDELCMD < ] %%% (the mass of nitrogen within urea is used) convert BUN to urea in mg/dL by using following formula: Urea mg/dL%DIFDELCMD < ]%%% = BUN mg/dL%DIFDELCMD < ] %%% * 2.14 (conversion factor derived by: MW of urea = 60, MW of urea nitrogen = 14x2 => 60/28 = 2.14) factor = 1 for conversions in mmol (1 mole N2 = 2 moles N per mole of urea): BUN%DIFDELCMD < [%%% mmol/L = urea%DIFDELCMD < [%%% mmol/L | Units BUN (urea-N) is mg/dL in the United States, Mexico, Italy, Austria, and Germany. Elsewhere, the concentration of urea is reported in SI unit as mmol/L, which is generally depending on the lab. represents the mass of nitrogen within urea / %DIFDELCMD < [%%% %DIFDELCMD < [%%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% volume, not the mass of whole urea. Each molecule of urea has two nitrogen atoms , each of molar mass 14g/mol %DIFDELCMD < ] %%% . To convert from mg/dL of %DIFDELCMD < [%%% blood urea nitrogen to mmol /L %DIFDELCMD < ] %%% of urea: Note that molar concentrations of urea and urea nitrogen are equal, because both nitrogen gas and urea has two nitrogen atoms. Convert BUN to urea in mg/dL by using following formula: %DIFDELCMD < ]%%% %DIFDELCMD < ] %%% Where 60 represents MW of urea and 14*2 MW of urea nitrogen %DIFDELCMD < [%%% %DIFDELCMD < [%%% . | [
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725436 | 1 | Fictional character biography Reign over Ancient Egypt In the 25th Century, after building a sphinx-shaped time machine, an unnamed master criminal decides to use it to travel back in time to the year 2960 BC an conquer Ancient Egypt, with plans to claim En Sabah Nur—the mutant destined to become Apocalypse—as his heir. After his ship instead crashes, leaving him injured and blind, the traveller is nursed back to health by a group of travelling Sandstormers and their leader Baal, before fleeing into the desert with his technology and building an army of robots to conquer Egypt, dubbing himself Pharaoh Rama-Tut.Rise of Apocalypse #1–4 (Oct. 1996 – Jan. 1997) Learning of a radioactive herb that could restore his sight, Rama-Tut acquired it and in triumph, built a variety of massive statues in his honour, replacing those of an angered Khonsu and his Moon Knight.Fantastic Four #19 (October 1963)West Coast Avengers Vol. 2 #20–22 (June – July 1987) Several weeks later, Rama-Tut sends his new General Ozymandias and an army to the Sandstormers to retrieve his records of En Sabah Nur; after the group refuse to returns his records—having adopted it as a doctrine—Ozymandias slaughters the majority of them and enslaves the survivors for Rama-Tut, while Baal escapes to find En Sabah Nur, raising him over the following twenty years, during which Rama-Tut rules unopposed, trapping the vampire Amenhotep within a pyramid,Avengers #129 (November 1974) and having a child named Ramades.4 #15–18 (April – July 2005) Now engaged to Ozymandias's sister Nephri, Rama-Tut begins to come into conflict with a series of other time travellers, including Killpower.Killpower: The Early Years #1–2 (September – October 1993) After finding the Sandstormers' new location and sending out Ozymandias to kill them and retrieve his records and the young En Sabah Nur, having learned of his adoption by Baal, Baal is killed by Ozymandias while En Sabah Nur escapes, swearing vengeance. As Rama-Tut begins planning for his wedding, he sends his most trusted scientist Logos to find En Sabah Nur, who instead, fascinated by En Sabah Nur, decides to protect him and hide him amongst the other slaves of Rama-Tut's kingdom. In 2940 BC, the West Coast Avengers arrive in Rama-Tut's kingdom using a time machine that can only go backwards in time. Hoping to use Rama-Tut's technology to return to their own era, the god Khonshu disguises their appearances as simple peasants, only for Rama-Tut to quickly subdue them and place their bodies in the temple of Khonshu to die, where unbeknownst to Rama-Tut, they are revived by Khonshu. Shortly afterward, the Fantastic Four travel back in time in search of the same herbs Rama-Tut used to cure his blindness to restore the sight of their friend Alicia Masters, only to be captured by Rama-Tut's guards after being drained of their wills to fight by Rama-Tut's Ultra-Diode Ray. At the same time, a time-travelling Doctor Strange is subdued by Rama-Tut's robots.Doctor Strange Vol. 2 #53 (June 1982) Deciding to wed the Invisible Woman instead of Nephri after becoming fascinated by her appearance, enslaving the other members of the group, only for the Invisible Woman to be freed by a jealous Nephri, whom Rama-Tut then imprisons for her actions. After facing the freed West Coast Avengers once again as they seek to steal his time machine, Rama-Tut finds En Sabah Nur hidden among his slaves and, realizing Logos' betrayal, orders him to be put to be tortured and executed. Upon witnessing Logos' demise, En Sabah Nur rejects Rama-Tut's offer of making him his heir, before manifesting his mutant abilities and decimating Rama-Tut's armies, becoming Apocalypse. While fleeing from Apocalypse, Rama-Tut encounters the Fantastic Four once again, freed by the Thing, who chase after Rama-Tut as he attempts to flee back to his original era in his time machine, recognising his defeat, only to find the radioactive herb they needed while chasing him and deciding to return to their own era. Rama-Tut then leaves for the 25th Century in his time machine, as Doctor Strange and the West Coast Avengers find their own ways back to the present via other means, while Apocalypse, enhancing himself with Rama-Tut's technology, walks out into the desert alone to find meaning. | Fictional character biography Reign over Ancient Egypt In the 25th Century, after building a sphinx-shaped time machine, an unnamed Egyptomaniac master criminal decides to use it to travel back in time to the year 2960 BC an conquer Ancient Egypt, with plans to claim En Sabah Nur—the mutant destined to become Apocalypse—as his heir. After his ship instead crashes, leaving him injured and blind, the traveller is nursed back to health by a group of travelling Sandstormers and their leader Baal, before fleeing into the desert with his technology and building an army of robots to conquer Egypt, dubbing himself Pharaoh Rama-Tut.Rise of Apocalypse #1–4 (Oct. 1996 – Jan. 1997) Learning of a radioactive herb that could restore his sight, Rama-Tut acquires it, and in triumph, builds a variety of massive statues in his honour, replacing those of an angered Khonsu and his Moon Knight.Fantastic Four #19 (October 1963)West Coast Avengers Vol. 2 #20–22 (June – July 1987) Several weeks later, Rama-Tut sends his new General Ozymandias and an army to the Sandstormers to retrieve his records of En Sabah Nur; after the group refuse to returns Rama-Tut's records—having adopted them as a doctrine—Ozymandias slaughters the majority of them and enslaves the survivors for Rama-Tut, while Baal escapes to find En Sabah Nur, raising him over the following twenty years, during which Rama-Tut rules unopposed, trapping the vampire Amenhotep within a pyramid,Avengers #129 (November 1974) and having a child named Ramades.4 #15–18 (April – July 2005) Now engaged to Ozymandias's sister Nephri, Rama-Tut begins to come into conflict with a series of other time travellers, including Killpower.Killpower: The Early Years #1–2 (September – October 1993) After finding the Sandstormers' new location and sending out Ozymandias to kill them and retrieve his records and the young En Sabah Nur, having learned of his adoption by Baal, Baal is killed by Ozymandias while En Sabah Nur escapes, swearing vengeance. As Rama-Tut begins planning for his wedding, he sends his most trusted scientist Logos to find En Sabah Nur, who instead, fascinated by En Sabah Nur, decides to protect him and hide him amongst the other slaves of Rama-Tut's kingdom. In 2940 BC, the West Coast Avengers arrive in Rama-Tut's kingdom using a time machine that can only go backwards in time. Hoping to use Rama-Tut's technology to return to their own era, the god Khonshu disguises their appearances as simple peasants, only for Rama-Tut to quickly subdue them and place their bodies in the temple of Khonshu to die, where unbeknownst to Rama-Tut, they are revived by Khonshu. Shortly afterward, the Fantastic Four travel back in time in search of the same herbs Rama-Tut used to cure his blindness to restore the sight of their friend Alicia Masters, only to be captured by Rama-Tut's guards after being drained of their wills to fight by Rama-Tut's Ultra-Diode Ray. At the same time, a time-travelling Doctor Strange is subdued by Rama-Tut's robots.Doctor Strange Vol. 2 #53 (June 1982) Deciding to wed the Invisible Woman instead of Nephri after becoming fascinated by her appearance, Rama-Tut enslaves the other members of the group, only for the Invisible Woman to be freed by a jealous Nephri, whom Rama-Tut then imprisons for her actions. After facing the freed West Coast Avengers once again as they seek to steal his time machine, Rama-Tut finds En Sabah Nur hidden among his slaves and, realizing Logos' betrayal, orders him to be put to be tortured and executed. Upon witnessing Logos' demise, En Sabah Nur rejects Rama-Tut's offer of making him his heir, before manifesting his mutant abilities and decimating Rama-Tut's armies, becoming Apocalypse. While fleeing from Apocalypse, Rama-Tut encounters the Fantastic Four once again, freed by the Thing, who chase after Rama-Tut as he attempts to flee back to his original era in his time machine, recognising his defeat, only to find the radioactive herb they needed while chasing him and deciding to return to their own era. Rama-Tut then leaves for the 25th Century in his time machine, as Doctor Strange and the West Coast Avengers find their own ways back to the present via other means, while Apocalypse, enhancing himself with Rama-Tut's technology, walks out into the desert alone to find meaning. | [
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7260376 | 1 | The Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II Modifying Attributions of Parents (PCIA-II/MAP ; Bohr, 2008, 2005, 2004a, 2004b; Bohr & Holigrocki, 2005) intervention is a brief cognitive-behavioral manualized treatment for parents in high-risk families . A parent and child are video recorded during a structured play activity (see PCIA-II; Holigrocki, Kaminski, & Frieswyk, 1999, 2002) and sessions involve the therapist and parent discussing excerpts from the video and conclude with a post-treatment assessment. Link to external web site with full text articles and treatment manual: PCIA-II/MAP See also Child psychotherapy References Bohr, Y. (2005). Infant Mental Health Programs: Experimenting with innovative models. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(5), 407-422. Bohr, Y. (2004, July). Play, attachment, and negative parental attributions: An innovative intervention. Workshop at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention, Honolulu, HI. Bohr, Y. (2004, June). Visits to the zoo and infant mental health: Experimenting with innovative models for treatment for the very young. Workshop at the Canadian Psychological Association Annual Convention, St. John ’ s, Newfoundland, Canada. Bohr, Y., Dhayanandhan, B., Armour, L., Sockett DiMarco, N., Holigrocki, R. & Baumgartner, E. (2008). Mapping parent-infant interactions: A brief cognitive approach to the prevention of relationship ruptures and infant maltreatment (The MAP method). Infant Mental Health Promotion: IMPrint, 51, 2-7. Bohr, Y. & Holigrocki, R. (2006, June). Modifying negative parental attributions through play: First step in preventing maltreatment? Poster presented at From Research to Practice: Society for Psychotherapy Research Annual Meeting, University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Bohr, Y. & Holigrocki, R. J. (2005). PCIA-II/MAP Treatment Manual: Modifying Attributions of Parents intervention. Unpublished manuscript, York University and the University of Indianapolis. Holigrocki, R. J., Crain, R., Bohr, Y, & Young, K., Bensman, H. (2009). Interventional use of the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II enactments: Modifying an abused mother ’ s attributions to her son. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(5), 1-12. Holigrocki, R. J., Hudson Crain, R., Bohr, Y. & Young, K. (2006, March). When direct observation assessment becomes treatment: Modifying the negative attributions of women victims of domestic violence. In Constance T. Fischer (Chair), Collaborative Feedback. Paper presented at the Society for Personality Assessment Annual Meeting in San Diego, CA. Holigrocki, R. J., Hudson Crain, R., Bohr, Y, & Young, K., & Bensman, H. (in press). Interventional use of the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II enactments: Modifying an abused mother ’ s attributions to her son. Journal of Personality Assessment. | The Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II Modifying Attributions of Parents (PCIA-II/MAP ) intervention is a brief cognitive-behavioral manualized treatment for parents in high-risk families ( Bohr, 2008, 2005, 2004a, 2004b; Bohr & Holigrocki, 2005) . A parent and child are video recorded during a structured play activity (see PCIA-II; Holigrocki, Kaminski, & Frieswyk, 1999, 2002) and sessions involve the therapist and parent discussing excerpts from the video and conclude with a post-treatment assessment. See also Child psychotherapy References Bohr, Y. (2005). Infant Mental Health Programs: Experimenting with innovative models. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(5), 407-422. Bohr, Y. (2004, July). Play, attachment, and negative parental attributions: An innovative intervention. Workshop at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention, Honolulu, HI. Bohr, Y. (2004, June). Visits to the zoo and infant mental health: Experimenting with innovative models for treatment for the very young. Workshop at the Canadian Psychological Association Annual Convention, St. John ' s, Newfoundland, Canada. Bohr, Y., Dhayanandhan, B., Armour, L., Sockett DiMarco, N., Holigrocki, R. & Baumgartner, E. (2008). Mapping parent-infant interactions: A brief cognitive approach to the prevention of relationship ruptures and infant maltreatment (The MAP method). Infant Mental Health Promotion: IMPrint, 51, 2-7. Bohr, Y. & Holigrocki, R. (2006, June). Modifying negative parental attributions through play: First step in preventing maltreatment? Poster presented at From Research to Practice: Society for Psychotherapy Research Annual Meeting, University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Bohr, Y. & Holigrocki, R. J. (2005). PCIA-II/MAP Treatment Manual: Modifying Attributions of Parents intervention. Unpublished manuscript, York University and the University of Indianapolis. Holigrocki, R. J., Crain, R., Bohr, Y, & Young, K., Bensman, H. (2009). Interventional use of the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II enactments: Modifying an abused mother ' s attributions to her son. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(5), 1-12. Holigrocki, R. J., Hudson Crain, R., Bohr, Y. & Young, K. (2006, March). When direct observation assessment becomes treatment: Modifying the negative attributions of women victims of domestic violence. In Constance T. Fischer (Chair), Collaborative Feedback. Paper presented at the Society for Personality Assessment Annual Meeting in San Diego, CA. Holigrocki, R. J., Hudson Crain, R., Bohr, Y, & Young, K., & Bensman, H. (in press). Interventional use of the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II enactments: Modifying an abused mother ' s attributions to her son. Journal of Personality Assessment. External links PCIA-II/MAP: Link to external web site with full text articles and treatment manual | [
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726659 | 1 | Evolution of speed of interaction between components of intelligence systems The first person to measured the speed (in the range of 24.6 – 38.4 meters per second) at which the signal is carried along a nerve fibre in 1849 was Helmholtz.Vorläufiger Bericht über die Fortpflanzungs-Geschwindigkeit der Nervenreizung. In: Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin. Jg. 1850, Veit & Comp., Berlin 1850, S. 71–73. MPIWG Berlin To date, the measured rates of nerve conduction velocity are 0,5 – 120 m/s. Speed of sound and speed of light were determined earlier in the XVII century. By the XXI century, it became clear that they determine mainly the speeds of physical signals-information carriers, between intelligent systems and their components: sound (voice and audio) ~300 m/s, quantum-electron ~ m/s (the speed of radio-electromagnetic waves, electric current, light, optical, tele-communications). Evolution of components of intelligence systems In 1906 year have received universal recognition neuron was opened by Santiago Ramón y Cajal , and the neuron doctrine is the concept that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells.The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906. According to modern data, in the brain H. sapiens in the process of ontogenesis and phylogenesis of an adult human there are 86 billion neurons .Suzana Herculano-Houzel The Human Advantage: A New Understanding of How Our Brain Became Remarkable. MIT Press, 2016. 256 pp. In the process of evolution, the number of human increases from two first-born to about 70 million people (twentieth century BC) , about 300 million ( at the beginning of the first century AD ) , about one billion (at the 30 years of the twentieth century AD) , 6 billion at the end of the twentieth century, 7.7 billion - now world population. According to the mathematical models of Sergey Kapitsa, the amount of mankind can reach 12.5 - 14 billion in the XXI-XXII centuries. | Evolution of speed of interaction between components of intelligence systems The first person to measure the speed (in the range of 24.6 – 38.4 meters per second) at which the signal is carried along a nerve fibre in 1849 was Helmholtz.Vorläufiger Bericht über die Fortpflanzungs-Geschwindigkeit der Nervenreizung. In: Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin. Jg. 1850, Veit & Comp., Berlin 1850, S. 71–73. MPIWG Berlin To date, the measured rates of nerve conduction velocity are 0,5 – 120 m/s. The speed of sound and speed of light were determined earlier in the XVII century. By the 21st century, it became clear that they determine mainly the speeds of physical signals-information carriers, between intelligent systems and their components: sound (voice and audio) ~300 m/s, quantum-electron ~ m/s (the speed of radio-electromagnetic waves, electric current, light, optical, tele-communications). Evolution of components of intelligence systems In 1906 Santiago Ramón y Cajal brought the central importance of the neuron to the attention of scientists and established the neuron doctrine , which states that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells.The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906. According to modern data, there are approximately 86 billion neurons in the brain an adult human .Suzana Herculano-Houzel The Human Advantage: A New Understanding of How Our Brain Became Remarkable. MIT Press, 2016. 256 pp. In the process of evolution, the human population was about 70 million in 2000 BC , about 300 million at the beginning of the first century AD , about one billion in 1930 AD , 6 billion in 2000, and 7.7 billion now world population. According to the mathematical models of Sergey Kapitsa, the human population may reach 12.5 - 14 billion before the end of 2200. | [
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727343 | 1 | Conditions races are horse races where the weights carried by the runners are laid down by the conditions attached to the race. Weights are allocated according to ; the sex of the runners, with female runners carrying less weight than males; the age of the runners, with younger horses receiving weight from older runners to allow for relative maturity, referred to as weight for age; and quality of runners, with horses that have won certain values of races giving weight to less successful entrants. Conditions races are distinct from handicap races, where the weights carried are laid down by an official handicapper to equalise the difference in ability between the runners. In Great Britain, for example, the British Horseracing Authority's rules define a conditions race as being one "which is none of the following; a Handicap Race or a Novice Race, a race restricted to Maiden Horses, or a race governed by Selling or Claiming provisions." Conditions races are staged at all levels of horse racing. As all of the most important races in Europe are conditions races, the term may also refer to the races for the very best horses, known as Group races. This is not the case in North America and Australia where handicaps are included in the Group race/Graded race system. | Conditions races are horse races in which the weights carried by the runners are laid down by the conditions attached to the race. Weights are allocated according to the sex of the runners, with female runners carrying less weight than males; the age of the runners, with younger horses receiving weight from older runners to allow for relative maturity, referred to as weight for age; and tge quality of the runners, with horses that have won certain values of races giving weight to less successful entrants. Conditions races are distinct from handicap races, for which the weights carried are laid down by an official handicapper to equalise the difference in ability between the runners. In Great Britain, for example, the British Horseracing Authority's rules define a conditions race as being one "which is none of the following; a Handicap Race or a Novice Race, a race restricted to Maiden Horses, or a race governed by Selling or Claiming provisions." Conditions races are staged at all levels of horse racing. As all of the most important races in Europe are conditions races, the term may also refer to races for the very best horses, known as Group races. That is not the case in North America and Australia , where handicaps are included in the Group race/Graded race system. | [
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7273911 | 1 | Absent or invisible ties In a footnote, Mark Granovetter defines what he considers as absent ties: Included in 'absent' are both the lack of any relationship and ties without substantial significance, such as a 'nodding' relationship between people living on the same street, or the 'tie' to the vendor from whom one customarily buys a morning newspaper. That two people 'know' each other by name need not move their relation out of this category if their interaction is negligible. In some contexts, however (disasters, for example), such 'negligible' ties might usefully be distinguished from non existent ties. This is an ambiguity caused by substitution, for convenience of exposition, of discrete values for an underlying continuous variable. The concept of invisible tie was proposed to overcome the contradiction between the adjective "absent" and this definition, which suggests that such ties exist and might "usefully be distinguished" from the absence of ties. The relationship between two familiar strangers, such as two people living on the same street, would not be absent , but invisible. Indeed, because such ties involve only limited interaction , if any, they are hardly observable, and are often overlooked as a relevant type of ties. Absent or invisible ties nevertheless support people's sense of familiarity and belonging. | Absent or invisible ties In a footnote, Mark Granovetter defines what he considers as absent ties: Included in 'absent' are both the lack of any relationship and ties without substantial significance, such as a 'nodding' relationship between people living on the same street, or the 'tie' to the vendor from whom one customarily buys a morning newspaper. That two people 'know' each other by name need not move their relation out of this category if their interaction is negligible. In some contexts, however (disasters, for example), such 'negligible' ties might usefully be distinguished from non existent ties. This is an ambiguity caused by substitution, for convenience of exposition, of discrete values for an underlying continuous variable. The concept of invisible tie was proposed to overcome the contradiction between the adjective "absent" and this definition, which suggests that such ties exist and might "usefully be distinguished" from the absence of ties. From this perspective, the relationship between two familiar strangers, such as two people living on the same street, is not absent but invisible. Indeed, because such ties involve only limited interaction (as in the case of 'nodding relationships') , if any, they are hardly observable, and are often overlooked as a relevant type of ties. Absent or invisible ties nevertheless support people's sense of familiarity and belonging. | [
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7285623 | 1 | In the Bahá'í Faith The term "tablet" is part of the title of many shorter works of Bahá'u' lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith, and his son and successor `Abdu 'l-Bahá. | In the Baháʼí Faith The term "tablet" is part of the title of many shorter works of Baháʼu' lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, and his son and successor ʻAbdu 'l-Bahá. | [
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7286120 | 1 | Nasadiya Sukta begins with the statement: "Then, there was neither existence, nor non-existence." It ponders over the when, why and by whom of creation in a very sincere contemplative tone, and provides no definite answers. Rather, it concludes that the gods too may not know, as they came after creation, and that even the supervisor of creation in the highest heaven may or may not know. Interpretations | Nasadiya Sukta begins with the statement: "Then, there was neither existence, nor non-existence." It ponders over when, why and by whom the universe came into being in a very sincere contemplative tone, and provides no definite answers. Rather, it concludes that the gods too may not know, as they came after creation, and that even the surveyor of that which has been created, in the highest heaven may or may not know. To this extent, the conventional English title Hymn of Creation is perhaps misleading, since the poem does not itself present a cosmogony or creation myth akin to those found in other religious texts, instead provoking the listener to question whether such questions can ever be answered. Interpretations | [
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729853 | 1 | Category:Concepts in Chinese philosophy Category:Buddhism and other religions Category:Confucianism Category: Syncretism Category:Taoism Category:Korean traditions Category:Chinese traditions Category:Vietnamese traditi | Category:Concepts in Chinese philosophy Category:Buddhism and other religions Category:Confucianism Category: Taoism Category:Syncretism Category:Korean traditions Category:Chinese traditions Category:Vietnamese traditi | [
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7299728 | 1 | This theoretical perspective was first introduced by Mark Leary and colleagues in 1995Leary, M. R., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Interpersonal functions of the self-esteem motive: The self-esteem system as a sociometer. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem (pp. 123-144). New York: Plenum Press. and later expanded on by Kirkpatrick and Ellis.Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Ellis, B. J. (2001). An evolutionary-psychological approach to self-esteem: multiple domains and multiple functions. In G. J. O. Fletcher & M. S. Clark (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Interpersonal processes (pp. 411-436). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. In Leary ’ s research, the idea of self-esteem as a sociometer is discussed in depth. This theory was created as a response to psychological phenomenon i.e. social emotions, inter- and intra- personal behaviors, self-serving biases, and reactions to rejection. Based on this theory, self-esteem is a measure of effectiveness in social relations and interactions that monitors acceptance and/or rejection from others. With this, an emphasis is placed on relational value, which is the degree to which a person regards his or her relationship with another, and how it affects day-to-day life. Confirmed by various studies and research, if a person is deemed having relational value, they are more likely to have higher self-esteem. Cameron and Stinson further review the Sociometer Theory definition, highlighting two key constructs of the concept: Types of Self-Esteem Relating to Sociometer Theory Evidence Supporting Sociometer Theory Support for Sociometer Theory has come from an international, cross sequential study conducted in the Netherlands, assessing self-esteem in 1599 seven and eight year olds. The study examined firstly how self-esteem would develop in childhood, and secondly whether self-esteem develops alongside changing peer and family relationships. Inter-individual differences and intra-individual changes in social support over time were assessed. Mean-level self-esteem was found to remain stable in middle childhood and elicited no alterations. Additionally, both within and between person level assessments elicited positive reports of self esteem, showing a more robust social network from self-report measures that participants completed after these assessments. Self-esteem is responsive to social acceptance and rejection: State self-esteem (self-esteem in the immediate situation) is heavily responsive to both social acceptance and rejection. It is known that that acceptance causes increases in state self-esteem and rejection elicits negative views in self-esteem to occur. In a laboratory setting, these alterations are due to future projections of social rejection/acceptance or remembering past experiences in which social rejection/acceptance occurred which can allow an individuals self-esteem to subjectively deviate from normal levels. Global self-esteem is associated with perceptions of social worth: Social worth is a concept that can be utilised as a sociometer to measure self-esteem. Furthermore, this association is thought to exist because global self-esteem influences self-views in a top-down manner. In this top-down process, the traits that are normally associated with the sense of belongingness in social situations act to mediate self-esteem. Additionally, if this top-down manner of global self-esteem influences self-views, then an individuals perceptions of their belongingness and social worth should be positively correlated with global self-esteem. Self-esteem regulates responses to acceptance and rejection: Sociometer theory emphasises that a negative alteration in self-esteem should disrupt the self-esteem system balance, alarming the sociometer to distinguish these discrepancies, allowing for behaviour that restores this balance by restoring belongingness and an individuals self-worth in social situations. See Also Deep social mind Evolutionary psychology and culture Primate empathy Simulation theory of empathy Assertiveness Body image Clinical depression Fear of negative evaluation Identity Inner critic Invisible support List of confidence tricks Optimism bias Outline of self Overconfidence effect Passiveness Performance anxiety Self-affirmation Self-awareness Self-confidence Self-compassion Self-enhancement Self-esteem functions Self-esteem instability Self-evaluation maintenance theory Self image Shyness Social anxiety Social phobia%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% References External links Sociometer theory (at PsychWiki)%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Category:Self Category:Interpersonal relationships Category:Evolutionary psycholog | This theoretical perspective was first introduced by Mark Leary and colleagues in 1995Leary, M. R., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Interpersonal functions of the self-esteem motive: The self-esteem system as a sociometer. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem (pp. 123-144). New York: Plenum Press. and later expanded on by Kirkpatrick and Ellis.Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Ellis, B. J. (2001). An evolutionary-psychological approach to self-esteem: multiple domains and multiple functions. In G. J. O. Fletcher & M. S. Clark (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Interpersonal processes (pp. 411-436). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. In Leary ' s research, the idea of self-esteem as a sociometer is discussed in depth. This theory was created as a response to psychological phenomenon i.e. social emotions, inter- and intra- personal behaviors, self-serving biases, and reactions to rejection. Based on this theory, self-esteem is a measure of effectiveness in social relations and interactions that monitors acceptance and/or rejection from others. 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Mean-level self-esteem was found to remain stable in middle childhood and elicited no alterations. Additionally, both within and between person level assessments elicited positive reports of self esteem, showing a more robust social network from self-report measures that participants completed after these assessments. Self-esteem is responsive to social acceptance and rejection: State self-esteem (self-esteem in the immediate situation) is heavily responsive to both social acceptance and rejection. It is known that that acceptance causes increases in state self-esteem and rejection elicits negative views in self-esteem to occur. In a laboratory setting, these alterations are due to future projections of social rejection/acceptance or remembering past experiences in which social rejection/acceptance occurred which can allow an individuals self-esteem to subjectively deviate from normal levels. Global self-esteem is associated with perceptions of social worth: Social worth is a concept that can be utilised as a sociometer to measure self-esteem. Furthermore, this association is thought to exist because global self-esteem influences self-views in a top-down manner. In this top-down process, the traits that are normally associated with the sense of belongingness in social situations act to mediate self-esteem. Additionally, if this top-down manner of global self-esteem influences self-views, then an individuals perceptions of their belongingness and social worth should be positively correlated with global self-esteem. Self-esteem regulates responses to acceptance and rejection: Sociometer theory emphasises that a negative alteration in self-esteem should disrupt the self-esteem system balance, alarming the sociometer to distinguish these discrepancies, allowing for behaviour that restores this balance by restoring belongingness and an individuals self-worth in social situations. %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% | [
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7299947 | 1 | Fourierism is the set of ideas first put forward by French utopian socialist François Marie Charles Fourier (1772-1837). Fourierism is a system of economic, social, and political beliefs created by Charles Fourier ( 1772-1837). Fourier’s idea was that the future of human kind was meant to settle into communal associations , known as phalanxes. 1620 people were to be housed in each phalanx, and each person was assigned a role that matched with one of the 12 passions. Jobs would be paid based on its difficulty, so sewage cleaners and farmers would be paid more than say a novelist. This was a direct result of Fourier’s belief that the poor in the capitalist society were preventing human progression. Therefore he sought to decline poverty within the phalanx. Anyone not contributing would subsequently be let out. Fourier was also known for having radical ideas for his time. Among these were ideas of an evolving form of nature, one that would bring pacifist animals to the Earth, such as a non-lion. In addition he also believed that the sea would turn to lemonade, and the passions of the people must be set free. This also meant he believed in the promiscuous actions between consenting adults. Fourier, however, died before he could see his ideas come to life. However, Albert Brisbane (1809-1890), his first follower, brought the ideas behind Fourierism to America in the 1840s. He had translated Fourier’s work from French to English, however, he left out the more eccentric themes of his work so it would be more suited to the American population. There he gained many disciples, including Horace Greely, the editor of the New Yorker. By 1842, Albert Brisbane was able to gather enough money to begin his first community. By the beginning of the Civil War, there would be 28 phalanxes in America, but would eventually fall due to economic plunder and an unstable society. Scholarship in politics and economics now considers Charles Fourier’s work as one of the foundation of utopian socialism – this was a term drawn out by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engle as a derogatory term for early socialist thinkers. His work would come to be known as one of the Utopian thinkers whom characterized an entire section of the 19th century in America . | Fourierism is the set of ideas first put forward by French utopian socialist François Marie Charles Fourier (1772-1837). Fourierism is the systematic set of economic, political, and social beliefs first espoused by French intellectual Charles Fourier ( 1772 – 1837). Based upon a belief in the inevitability of communal associations of people who worked and lived together as part of the human future, Fourier's committed supporters referred to his doctrines as Associationism. Political contemporaries and subsequent scholarship has identified Fourier's set of ideas as a form of utopian socialism—a phrase that retains mild pejorative overtones . | [
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730484 | 1 | On April 24, 2013, Braff started a Kickstarter campaign to finance the film Wish I Was Here, based on a script he wrote with his brother, Adam Braff. The goal of $2,000,000 was reached in three days. He directed and starred in the film, which was released in 2014. Braff was the executive producer of the documentary Video Games: The Movie. He was also one of the Executive Producers of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, released in 2014. He has directed several music videos: Gavin DeGraw's "Chariot," Joshua Radin's "Closer" and "I'd Rather Be With You," and Lazlo Bane's "Superman," the theme song from Scrubs. His music production has resulted in newfound success for some of the artists featured on his film soundtracks, such as The Shins, who were prominently featured on the Garden State soundtrack and the Scrubs soundtrack, resulting in the expression "the Zach Braff effect." In 2020, Braff directed the short film In The Time It Takes To Get There, starring Alicia Silverstone and Florence Pugh. The film was based on a poster created by Sam West, the winner of an Adobe movie poster contest in 2018. In 2021 Braff was nominated for a 2021 DGA Award for directing the Apple TV+ comedy show Ted Lasso. Braff wrote and will direct the MGM film A Good Person which reunites him with Morgan Freeman and Florence Pugh and Garden State producer Pam Abdy. Other roles Along with other Scrubs cast members, Braff has a cameo role in It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie. He also voiced the titular character in the Disney animated film Chicken Little (2005), and has reprised the role in various Disney video games such as Chicken Little, Kingdom Hearts II, Chicken Little: Ace in Action and Kingdom Hearts 2.5 HD ReMIX. Braff has also done voiceovers for commercials, including a PUR water campaign, Wendy's in 2007 and 2008, and in Cottonelle as the voice of the puppy.Keller, Joel. Zach Braff says he's not a jerk TV Squad (June 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2-13-09. He also provided the voice of Finley in the Disney film Oz The Great and Powerful (2013). In 2005, Braff was featured on Punk'd when he was tricked into chasing and then beating a supposed vandal who appeared to be spray-painting his brand new Porsche. Braff was in talks to star in the film Fletch Won and had signed on to play the role eventually played by Dane Cook in Mr. Brooks, but dropped out of both roles to work on Open Hearts, which he adapted from a Danish film and will direct. He has also co-written a film version of Andrew Henry's Meadow, a children's book, with his brother, and was scheduled to direct one of the segments for the film New York, I Love You. In July 2009, he signed on as an executive producer for the documentary Heart of Stone to "help spread the word about it." Braff starred in the romantic drama The Last Kiss, which opened on September 15, 2006. Braff tweaked several parts of Paul Haggis' script for the film, as he wanted the script to be as "real as possible" and "really courageous" regarding its subject matter. As with Garden State, Braff was involved with the film's soundtrack, serving as executive producer. The film's director, Tony Goldwyn, compared Braff to a younger version of Tim Allen, describing Braff as "incredibly accessible to an audience... a real guy, an everyman." In 2007, Braff starred in the film The Ex (2007). He also starred in the Canadian indie film The High Cost of Living with Quebec actress Isabelle Blais in 2010. Directed by Deborah Chow, the film was shot in Montreal and principal photography wrapped on March 9, 2010. Braff stated he enjoyed filming in the country in which The Last Kiss was also shot. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was also shown at the Tribeca Film Festival. Braff played the lead role of Alex in Alex, Inc., a television comedy based on a family man who quit his radio career to launch a podcasting company. ABC cancelled the show after one season. Theatre Braff returned to the Public Theater in 2002, in a part in Twelfth Night, staged in Central Park. In mid-2010, Braff took a lead role in Trust, at the Second Stage Theatre, a contemporary Off-Broadway theater company. The play ran from July 23 to September 12, extending its scheduled run by one week. Braff wrote on Facebook that he was "Having so much fun doing Trust." The play co-starred Sutton Foster, Ari Graynor and Bobby Cannavale, was written by Paul Weitz and directed by Peter DuBois. Braff played Henry, a wealthy married man who "looks to find something real in the most unlikely of places." In early 2011, Braff announced that he had written a play to be performed at the Second Stage Theatre in mid-2011. His play, All New People, is set on Long Beach Island and centers on Charlie, a 35-year-old from Braff's home state New Jersey. The play was directed by Peter DuBois, who directed Braff in Trust the previous year. When announcing the play on Facebook, Braff wrote that 'one of my dreams comes true'. In 2012, Braff moved the play on tour to the UK, playing in Manchester at the Manchester Opera House between February 8–11, Glasgow at the King's Theatre between February 14–18, and finally in London for 10 weeks at the Duke of York's Theatre from February 22. On April 10, 2014, Braff opened on Broadway in the musical Bullets Over Broadway The Musical, an adaptation of Woody Allen's 1994 film, directed and choreographed by Susan Stroman.Hetrick, Adam. "Zach Braff and Marin Mazzie Star in Woody Allen Musical 'Bullets Over Broadway', Opening April 10" playbill.com, April 10, 2014 In development upBraff at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. Braff is expected to direct Open Hearts, a remake of the 2002 Danish film Elsker dig for evigt (Love You Forever). The film is about a woman who has an affair with her paralyzed husband's doctor, whose wife caused the accident that put her husband in a wheelchair. It was first revealed that Braff was directing Open Hearts in 2006, however, the movie was cancelled. Braff said "It fell apart at the last second due to scheduling and budget, as so many movies do." At the same time, Braff's film The Last Kiss was being released. In 2009, Braff was working on the script for Swingles, a film based on a spec script by Duncan Birmingham;Duncan Birmingham he will direct and star in alongside Cameron Diaz. Other pursuits In 2009, Braff opened up the restaurant Mermaid Oyster Bar in New York City with chef and high school friend Laurence Edelman, as well as Danny Abrams. Proprietors of the Rio Theater in Monte Rio, California credited Braff with making the donation that put their Kickstarter campaign over the target to buy a digital projector over its $ 60,000 goal in May 2013. Production work Director Year Title Notes 1997 Lionel on a Sunday Short film 2004 Garden State 2005 Gavin DeGraw - Chariot Music video 2008 Night Life Television film Joshua Radin: I'd Rather Be with You - First Version Video short 2004–2009 Scrubs 7 episodes 2014 Wish I Was Here 2015 Self Promotion Television film 2017 Going in Style 2018 Alex, Inc. 4 episodes 2019 In The Time It Takes To Get There Short film 2020 Ted Lasso 1 episode2021 Solos 1 episode | On April 24, 2013, Braff started a Kickstarter campaign to finance the film Wish I Was Here, based on a script he wrote with his brother, Adam Braff. The goal of $2,000,000 was reached in three days. He directed and starred in the film, which was released in 2014. Braff was the executive producer of the documentary Video Games: The Movie. He was also one of the Executive Producers of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, released in 2014. He has directed several music videos: Gavin DeGraw's "Chariot," Joshua Radin's "Closer" and "I'd Rather Be With You," and Lazlo Bane's "Superman," the theme song from Scrubs. His music production has resulted in newfound success for some of the artists featured on his film soundtracks, such as The Shins, who were prominently featured on the Garden State soundtrack and the Scrubs soundtrack, resulting in the expression "the Zach Braff effect." In 2020, Braff directed the short film In The Time It Takes To Get There, starring Alicia Silverstone and Florence Pugh. The film was based on a poster created by Sam West, the winner of an Adobe movie poster contest in 2018. In 2021, Braff was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award for directing the Apple TV+ comedy show Ted Lasso. He also received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series for the Ted Lasso episode "Biscuits". Braff wrote and will direct the MGM film A Good Person which reunites him with Morgan Freeman and Florence Pugh and Garden State producer Pam Abdy. Other roles Along with other Scrubs cast members, Braff has a cameo role in It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie. He also voiced the titular character in the Disney animated film Chicken Little (2005), and has reprised the role in various Disney video games such as Chicken Little, Kingdom Hearts II, Chicken Little: Ace in Action and Kingdom Hearts 2.5 HD ReMIX. Braff has also done voiceovers for commercials, including a PUR water campaign, Wendy's in 2007 and 2008, and in Cottonelle as the voice of the puppy.Keller, Joel. Zach Braff says he's not a jerk TV Squad (June 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2-13-09. He also provided the voice of Finley in the Disney film Oz The Great and Powerful (2013). In 2005, Braff was featured on Punk'd when he was tricked into chasing and then beating a supposed vandal who appeared to be spray-painting his brand new Porsche. Braff was in talks to star in the film Fletch Won and had signed on to play the role eventually played by Dane Cook in Mr. Brooks, but dropped out of both roles to work on Open Hearts, which he adapted from a Danish film and will direct. He has also co-written a film version of Andrew Henry's Meadow, a children's book, with his brother, and was scheduled to direct one of the segments for the film New York, I Love You. In July 2009, he signed on as an executive producer for the documentary Heart of Stone to "help spread the word about it." Braff starred in the romantic drama The Last Kiss, which opened on September 15, 2006. Braff tweaked several parts of Paul Haggis' script for the film, as he wanted the script to be as "real as possible" and "really courageous" regarding its subject matter. As with Garden State, Braff was involved with the film's soundtrack, serving as executive producer. The film's director, Tony Goldwyn, compared Braff to a younger version of Tim Allen, describing Braff as "incredibly accessible to an audience... a real guy, an everyman." In 2007, Braff starred in the film The Ex (2007). He also starred in the Canadian indie film The High Cost of Living with Quebec actress Isabelle Blais in 2010. Directed by Deborah Chow, the film was shot in Montreal and principal photography wrapped on March 9, 2010. Braff stated he enjoyed filming in the country in which The Last Kiss was also shot. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was also shown at the Tribeca Film Festival. Braff played the lead role of Alex in Alex, Inc., a television comedy based on a family man who quit his radio career to launch a podcasting company. ABC cancelled the show after one season. Theatre Braff returned to the Public Theater in 2002, in a part in Twelfth Night, staged in Central Park. In mid-2010, Braff took a lead role in Trust, at the Second Stage Theatre, a contemporary Off-Broadway theater company. The play ran from July 23 to September 12, extending its scheduled run by one week. Braff wrote on Facebook that he was "Having so much fun doing Trust." The play co-starred Sutton Foster, Ari Graynor and Bobby Cannavale, was written by Paul Weitz and directed by Peter DuBois. Braff played Henry, a wealthy married man who "looks to find something real in the most unlikely of places." In early 2011, Braff announced that he had written a play to be performed at the Second Stage Theatre in mid-2011. His play, All New People, is set on Long Beach Island and centers on Charlie, a 35-year-old from Braff's home state New Jersey. The play was directed by Peter DuBois, who directed Braff in Trust the previous year. When announcing the play on Facebook, Braff wrote that 'one of my dreams comes true'. In 2012, Braff moved the play on tour to the UK, playing in Manchester at the Manchester Opera House between February 8–11, Glasgow at the King's Theatre between February 14–18, and finally in London for 10 weeks at the Duke of York's Theatre from February 22. On April 10, 2014, Braff opened on Broadway in the musical Bullets Over Broadway The Musical, an adaptation of Woody Allen's 1994 film, directed and choreographed by Susan Stroman.Hetrick, Adam. "Zach Braff and Marin Mazzie Star in Woody Allen Musical 'Bullets Over Broadway', Opening April 10" playbill.com, April 10, 2014 In development upBraff at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. Braff is expected to direct Open Hearts, a remake of the 2002 Danish film Elsker dig for evigt (Love You Forever). The film is about a woman who has an affair with her paralyzed husband's doctor, whose wife caused the accident that put her husband in a wheelchair. It was first revealed that Braff was directing Open Hearts in 2006, however, the movie was cancelled. Braff said "It fell apart at the last second due to scheduling and budget, as so many movies do." At the same time, Braff's film The Last Kiss was being released. In 2009, Braff was working on the script for Swingles, a film based on a spec script by Duncan Birmingham;Duncan Birmingham he will direct and star in alongside Cameron Diaz. Other pursuits In 2009, Braff opened up the restaurant Mermaid Oyster Bar in New York City with chef and high school friend Laurence Edelman, as well as Danny Abrams. Proprietors of the Rio Theater in Monte Rio, California credited Braff with making the donation that put their Kickstarter campaign over the target to buy a digital projector over its $ 60,000 goal in May 2013. Production work Director Year Title Notes 1997 Lionel on a Sunday Short film 2004 Garden State 2005 Gavin DeGraw - Chariot Music video 2008 Night Life Television film Joshua Radin: I'd Rather Be with You - First Version Video short 2004–2009 Scrubs 7 episodes 2014 Wish I Was Here 2015 Self Promotion Television film 2017 Going in Style 2018 Alex, Inc. 4 episodes 2019 In The Time It Takes To Get There Short film 2020 Ted Lasso 1 episodePending – Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series2021 Solos 1 episode | [
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"before": "$2,000,000 was reached in three days. He directed and starred in the film, which was released in 2014. Braff was the executive producer of the documentary Video Games: The Movie. He was also one of the Executive Producers of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, released in 2014. He has directed several music videos: Gavin DeGraw's \"Chariot,\" Joshua Radin's \"Closer\" and \"I'd Rather Be With You,\" and Lazlo Bane's \"Superman,\" the theme song from Scrubs. His music production has resulted in newfound success for some of the artists featured on his film soundtracks, such as The Shins, who were prominently featured on the Garden State soundtrack and the Scrubs soundtrack, resulting in the expression \"the Zach Braff effect.\" In 2020, Braff directed the short film In The Time It Takes To Get There, starring Alicia Silverstone and Florence Pugh. The film was based on a poster created by Sam West, the winner of an Adobe movie poster contest in 2018. In 2021 Braff was nominated for a 2021 DGA Award for directing the Apple TV+ comedy show Ted Lasso. Braff wrote and will direct the MGM film A Good Person which reunites him with Morgan Freeman and Florence Pugh and Garden State producer Pam Abdy. Other roles Along with other Scrubs cast members, Braff has a cameo role in It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie. He also voiced the titular character in the Disney animated film Chicken Little (2005), and has reprised the role in various Disney video games such as Chicken Little, Kingdom Hearts II, Chicken Little: Ace in Action and Kingdom Hearts 2.5 HD ReMIX. Braff has also done voiceovers for commercials, including a PUR water campaign, Wendy's in 2007 and 2008, and in Cottonelle as the voice of the puppy.Keller, Joel. Zach Braff says he's not a jerk TV Squad (June 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2-13-09. He also provided the voice of Finley in the Disney film Oz The Great and Powerful (2013). In 2005, Braff was featured on Punk'd when he was tricked into chasing and then beating a supposed vandal who appeared to be spray-painting his brand new Porsche. Braff was in talks to star in the film Fletch Won and had signed on to play the role eventually played by Dane Cook in Mr. Brooks, but dropped out of both roles to work on Open Hearts, which he adapted from a Danish film and will direct. He has also co-written a film version of Andrew Henry's Meadow, a children's book, with his brother, and was scheduled to direct one of the segments for the film New York, I Love You. In July 2009, he signed on as an executive producer for the documentary Heart of Stone to \"help spread the word about it.\" Braff starred in the romantic drama The Last Kiss, which opened on September 15, 2006. Braff tweaked several parts of Paul Haggis' script for the film, as he wanted the script to be as \"real as possible\" and \"really courageous\" regarding its subject matter. As with Garden State, Braff was involved with the film's soundtrack, serving as executive producer. The film's director, Tony Goldwyn, compared Braff to a younger version of Tim Allen, describing Braff as \"incredibly accessible to an audience... a real guy, an everyman.\" In 2007, Braff starred in the film The Ex (2007). He also starred in the Canadian indie film The High Cost of Living with Quebec actress Isabelle Blais in 2010. Directed by Deborah Chow, the film was shot in Montreal and principal photography wrapped on March 9, 2010. Braff stated he enjoyed filming in the country in which The Last Kiss was also shot. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was also shown at the Tribeca Film Festival. Braff played the lead role of Alex in Alex, Inc., a television comedy based on a family man who quit his radio career to launch a podcasting company. ABC cancelled the show after one season. Theatre Braff returned to the Public Theater in 2002, in a part in Twelfth Night, staged in Central Park. In mid-2010, Braff took a lead role in Trust, at the Second Stage Theatre, a contemporary Off-Broadway theater company. The play ran from July 23 to September 12, extending its scheduled run by one week. Braff wrote on Facebook that he was \"Having so much fun doing Trust.\" The play co-starred Sutton Foster, Ari Graynor and Bobby Cannavale, was written by Paul Weitz and directed by Peter DuBois. Braff played Henry, a wealthy married man who \"looks to find something real in the most unlikely of places.\" In early 2011, Braff announced that he had written a play to be performed at the Second Stage Theatre in mid-2011. His play, All New People, is set on Long Beach Island and centers on Charlie, a 35-year-old from Braff's home state New Jersey. The play was directed by Peter DuBois, who directed Braff in Trust the previous year. When announcing the play on Facebook, Braff wrote that 'one of my dreams comes true'. In 2012, Braff moved the play on tour to the UK, playing in Manchester at the Manchester Opera House between February 8–11, Glasgow at the King's Theatre between February 14–18, and finally in London for 10 weeks at the Duke of York's Theatre from February 22. On April 10, 2014, Braff opened on Broadway in the musical Bullets Over Broadway The Musical, an adaptation of Woody Allen's 1994 film, directed and choreographed by Susan Stroman.Hetrick, Adam. \"Zach Braff and Marin Mazzie Star in Woody Allen Musical 'Bullets Over Broadway', Opening April 10\" playbill.com, April 10, 2014 In development upBraff at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. Braff is expected to direct Open Hearts, a remake of the 2002 Danish film Elsker dig for evigt (Love You Forever). The film is about a woman who has an affair with her paralyzed husband's doctor, whose wife caused the accident that put her husband in a wheelchair. It was first revealed that Braff was directing Open Hearts in 2006, however, the movie was cancelled. Braff said \"It fell apart at the last second due to scheduling and budget, as so many movies do.\" At the same time, Braff's film The Last Kiss was being released. In 2009, Braff was working on the script for Swingles, a film based on a spec script by Duncan Birmingham;Duncan Birmingham he will direct and star in alongside Cameron Diaz. Other pursuits In 2009, Braff opened up the restaurant Mermaid Oyster Bar in New York City with chef and high school friend Laurence Edelman, as well as Danny Abrams. Proprietors of the Rio Theater in Monte Rio, California credited Braff with making the donation that put their Kickstarter campaign over the target to buy a digital projector over its $",
"after": "$2,000,000 was reached in three days. He directed and starred in the film, which was released in 2014. Braff was the executive producer of the documentary Video Games: The Movie. He was also one of the Executive Producers of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, released in 2014. He has directed several music videos: Gavin DeGraw's \"Chariot,\" Joshua Radin's \"Closer\" and \"I'd Rather Be With You,\" and Lazlo Bane's \"Superman,\" the theme song from Scrubs. His music production has resulted in newfound success for some of the artists featured on his film soundtracks, such as The Shins, who were prominently featured on the Garden State soundtrack and the Scrubs soundtrack, resulting in the expression \"the Zach Braff effect.\" In 2020, Braff directed the short film In The Time It Takes To Get There, starring Alicia Silverstone and Florence Pugh. The film was based on a poster created by Sam West, the winner of an Adobe movie poster contest in 2018. In 2021, Braff was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award for directing the Apple TV+ comedy show Ted Lasso. He also received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series for the Ted Lasso episode \"Biscuits\". Braff wrote and will direct the MGM film A Good Person which reunites him with Morgan Freeman and Florence Pugh and Garden State producer Pam Abdy. Other roles Along with other Scrubs cast members, Braff has a cameo role in It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie. He also voiced the titular character in the Disney animated film Chicken Little (2005), and has reprised the role in various Disney video games such as Chicken Little, Kingdom Hearts II, Chicken Little: Ace in Action and Kingdom Hearts 2.5 HD ReMIX. Braff has also done voiceovers for commercials, including a PUR water campaign, Wendy's in 2007 and 2008, and in Cottonelle as the voice of the puppy.Keller, Joel. Zach Braff says he's not a jerk TV Squad (June 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2-13-09. He also provided the voice of Finley in the Disney film Oz The Great and Powerful (2013). In 2005, Braff was featured on Punk'd when he was tricked into chasing and then beating a supposed vandal who appeared to be spray-painting his brand new Porsche. Braff was in talks to star in the film Fletch Won and had signed on to play the role eventually played by Dane Cook in Mr. Brooks, but dropped out of both roles to work on Open Hearts, which he adapted from a Danish film and will direct. He has also co-written a film version of Andrew Henry's Meadow, a children's book, with his brother, and was scheduled to direct one of the segments for the film New York, I Love You. In July 2009, he signed on as an executive producer for the documentary Heart of Stone to \"help spread the word about it.\" Braff starred in the romantic drama The Last Kiss, which opened on September 15, 2006. Braff tweaked several parts of Paul Haggis' script for the film, as he wanted the script to be as \"real as possible\" and \"really courageous\" regarding its subject matter. As with Garden State, Braff was involved with the film's soundtrack, serving as executive producer. The film's director, Tony Goldwyn, compared Braff to a younger version of Tim Allen, describing Braff as \"incredibly accessible to an audience... a real guy, an everyman.\" In 2007, Braff starred in the film The Ex (2007). He also starred in the Canadian indie film The High Cost of Living with Quebec actress Isabelle Blais in 2010. Directed by Deborah Chow, the film was shot in Montreal and principal photography wrapped on March 9, 2010. Braff stated he enjoyed filming in the country in which The Last Kiss was also shot. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was also shown at the Tribeca Film Festival. Braff played the lead role of Alex in Alex, Inc., a television comedy based on a family man who quit his radio career to launch a podcasting company. ABC cancelled the show after one season. Theatre Braff returned to the Public Theater in 2002, in a part in Twelfth Night, staged in Central Park. In mid-2010, Braff took a lead role in Trust, at the Second Stage Theatre, a contemporary Off-Broadway theater company. The play ran from July 23 to September 12, extending its scheduled run by one week. Braff wrote on Facebook that he was \"Having so much fun doing Trust.\" The play co-starred Sutton Foster, Ari Graynor and Bobby Cannavale, was written by Paul Weitz and directed by Peter DuBois. Braff played Henry, a wealthy married man who \"looks to find something real in the most unlikely of places.\" In early 2011, Braff announced that he had written a play to be performed at the Second Stage Theatre in mid-2011. His play, All New People, is set on Long Beach Island and centers on Charlie, a 35-year-old from Braff's home state New Jersey. The play was directed by Peter DuBois, who directed Braff in Trust the previous year. When announcing the play on Facebook, Braff wrote that 'one of my dreams comes true'. In 2012, Braff moved the play on tour to the UK, playing in Manchester at the Manchester Opera House between February 8–11, Glasgow at the King's Theatre between February 14–18, and finally in London for 10 weeks at the Duke of York's Theatre from February 22. On April 10, 2014, Braff opened on Broadway in the musical Bullets Over Broadway The Musical, an adaptation of Woody Allen's 1994 film, directed and choreographed by Susan Stroman.Hetrick, Adam. \"Zach Braff and Marin Mazzie Star in Woody Allen Musical 'Bullets Over Broadway', Opening April 10\" playbill.com, April 10, 2014 In development upBraff at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. Braff is expected to direct Open Hearts, a remake of the 2002 Danish film Elsker dig for evigt (Love You Forever). The film is about a woman who has an affair with her paralyzed husband's doctor, whose wife caused the accident that put her husband in a wheelchair. It was first revealed that Braff was directing Open Hearts in 2006, however, the movie was cancelled. Braff said \"It fell apart at the last second due to scheduling and budget, as so many movies do.\" At the same time, Braff's film The Last Kiss was being released. In 2009, Braff was working on the script for Swingles, a film based on a spec script by Duncan Birmingham;Duncan Birmingham he will direct and star in alongside Cameron Diaz. Other pursuits In 2009, Braff opened up the restaurant Mermaid Oyster Bar in New York City with chef and high school friend Laurence Edelman, as well as Danny Abrams. 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7310634 | 1 | Early life and career Born in Tselinograd (now Nur-Sultan ) in Kazakh SSR to the parents of Eleanor Azhibekova and Kazhimkan Massimov. His father held various managerial positions such as being the director of the Burundai Production Association of Wall Materials, deputy chief of the Glavtopsnab under the Council of Ministers of the Kazakh SSR, director of the Massimov Health Center LLP. In addition, he was president organizations of the National Agro-Industrial Chamber of Kazakhstan and the Kazakhstan Yoga Association. | Early life and career Karim Massimov was born to a Muslim family in the city of Tselinograd (now Nur-Sultan , Kazakhstan). He is the son of Eleanor Ajıbekova and Qajımqan Massimov. His father held various managerial positions such as being the director of the Burundai Production Association of Wall Materials, deputy chief of the Glavtopsnab under the Council of Ministers of the Kazakh SSR, director of the Massimov Health Center LLP. In addition, he was president organizations of the National Agro-Industrial Chamber of Kazakhstan and the Kazakhstan Yoga Association. | [
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7312322 | 1 | Growth curve of a girl, compared to the 2006 WHO curves . A growth chart is used by pediatricians and other health care providers to follow a child's growth over time. Growth charts have been constructed by observing the growth of large numbers of normal children over time. The height, weight, and head circumference of a child can be compared to the expected parameters of children of the same age and sex to determine whether the child is growing appropriately. Growth charts can also be used to predict the expected adult height and weight of a child because, in general, children maintain a fairly constant growth curve. When a child deviates from his or her previously established growth curve, investigation into the cause is generally warranted. For instance, a decrease in the growth velocity may indicate the onset of a chronic illness such as inflammatory bowel disease. thumbnail|Sample growth chart for use with American boys from birth to age 36 months. Growth charts can also be compiled with a portion of the population deemed to have been raised in more or less ideal environments, such as nutrition that conforms to pediatric guidelines, and no maternal smoking. Charts from these sources end up with slightly taller but thinner averages. Growth charts are different for boys and girls, due in part to pubertal differences and disparity in final adult height. In addition, children with diseases such as Down syndrome and Turner syndrome follow distinct growth curves which deviate significantly from children without these conditions. As such, growth charts have been created to describe the expected growth patterns of several genetic conditions. Since there are differences in normal growth rates between breastfed and formula-fed babies, the World Health Organization growth charts, which better reflect the growth pattern of the healthy, breastfed infant are considered the standard for U.S. children under age two. | thumbnail|Sample growth chart for use with American boys from birth to age 36 months . A growth chart is used by pediatricians and other health care providers to follow a child's growth over time. Growth charts have been constructed by observing the growth of large numbers of normal children over time. The height, weight, and head circumference of a child can be compared to the expected parameters of children of the same age and sex to determine whether the child is growing appropriately. Growth charts can also be used to predict the expected adult height and weight of a child because, in general, children maintain a fairly constant growth curve. When a child deviates from his or her previously established growth curve, investigation into the cause is generally warranted. For instance, a decrease in the growth velocity may indicate the onset of a chronic illness such as inflammatory bowel disease. Growth charts can also be compiled with a portion of the population deemed to have been raised in more or less ideal environments, such as nutrition that conforms to pediatric guidelines, and no maternal smoking. Charts from these sources end up with slightly taller but thinner averages. Growth curve of a girl, compared to the 2006 WHO curves. Growth charts are different for boys and girls, due in part to pubertal differences and disparity in final adult height. In addition, children with diseases such as Down syndrome and Turner syndrome follow distinct growth curves which deviate significantly from children without these conditions. As such, growth charts have been created to describe the expected growth patterns of several genetic conditions. Since there are differences in normal growth rates between breastfed and formula-fed babies, the World Health Organization growth charts, which better reflect the growth pattern of the healthy, breastfed infant are considered the standard for U.S. children under age two. | [
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7316386 | 1 | Composition No.MemberNotesAdvisor1Malcolm MacDonaldGovernor-General of British territories in Southeast Asia Chairman2E.E.C. ThuraisinghamCeylonese representativeMalay Representative3Onn JaafarMenteri Besar of Johor, President of UMNO4Dato' Abdul Wahab Abdul AzizMenteri Besar of Perak5Mohd. Salleh HakimMember of Selangor State Legislative Council6Dr. Mustapha OsmanMember of UMNO Working Committee7Zainal Abidin Haji AbasSecretary-General of UMNOChinese Representative8Tan Cheng Lock9Lee Tiang Keng10C.C Tan11Yong Shook LinOthers12Roland BraddellEuropean representative13L.R. Doraisamy IyerIndian representative14Dr. J.S. GoontingSerani people representative Notes | Composition No.MemberNotesAdvisor1Malcolm MacDonaldGovernor-General of British territories in Southeast Asia Chairman2E.E.C. ThuraisinghamCeylonese representativeMalay Representative3Onn JaafarMenteri Besar of Johor, President of UMNO4Dato' Abdul Wahab Abdul AzizMenteri Besar of Perak5Mohd. Salleh HakimMember of Selangor State Legislative Council6Dr. Mustapha OsmanMember of UMNO Working Committee7Zainal Abidin Haji AbasSecretary-General of UMNOChinese Representative8Tan Cheng LockMelaka9Lee Tiang KengPenang10C.C TanSingapore11Yong Shook LinSelangorOthers12Roland BraddellEuropean representative13L.R. Doraisamy IyerIndian representative14Dr. J.S. GoontingSerani people representative Notes | [
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7321353 | 1 | Battle Additional Japanese troops landing off the west coast of British North Borneo in Labuan, 14 January 1942. On 13 December 1941, a Japanese invasion convoy left Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina, escorted by the cruiser (Rear-Admiral Shintaro Hashimoto), the destroyers of the 12th Destroyer Division (, , and ), the submarine chaser CH-7, and the seaplane tender Kamikawa Maru. Ten transport ships (Imperial Japanese Army transports Katori Maru , Hiyoshi Maru, Myoho Maru, Kenkon Maru, Nichiran Maru; and Imperial Japanese Navy transports Hokkai Maru, Tonan Maru No 3, Unyo Maru No. 2, Kamikawa Maru, Mitakesan Maru) carried the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade HQ under the command of Major-General Kiyotake Kawaguchi. The Support Force—commanded by Rear-Admiral Takeo Kurita—consisted of the cruisers and and the destroyers and . On 22 December, a Japanese convoy left Miri for Kuching, but was spotted by the Dutch flying boat X-35, which radioed a warning to the Dutch submarine HNLMS K XIV , under the command of Lieutenant Commander Carel A. J. van Groeneveld. At 20:40 on 23 December, K XIV infiltrated the convoy and began its attack. The army transports Hiyoshi Maru and were sunk with the loss of hundreds of troops. Hokkai Maru was beached to prevent it from sinking, and an additional transport was less seriously damaged. The rest of the troops were able to land. Although 2nd Battalion, 15th Punjab Regiment, resisted the attack, they were soon outnumbered and retreated up the river. By the afternoon, Kuching was in Japanese hands. | Battle Additional Japanese troops landing off the west coast of British North Borneo in Labuan, 14 January 1942. On 13 December 1941, a Japanese invasion convoy left Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina, escorted by the cruiser (Rear-Admiral Shintaro Hashimoto), the destroyers of the 12th Destroyer Division (, , and ), the submarine chaser CH-7, and the seaplane tender Kamikawa Maru. Ten transport ships (Imperial Japanese Army transports , Hiyoshi Maru, Myoho Maru, Kenkon Maru, Nichiran Maru; and Imperial Japanese Navy transports Hokkai Maru, Tonan Maru No 3, Unyo Maru No. 2, Kamikawa Maru, Mitakesan Maru) carried the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade HQ under the command of Major-General Kiyotake Kawaguchi. The Support Force—commanded by Rear-Admiral Takeo Kurita—consisted of the cruisers and and the destroyers and . On 22 December, a Japanese convoy left Miri for Kuching, but was spotted by the Dutch flying boat X-35, which radioed a warning to the Dutch submarine , under the command of Lieutenant Commander Carel A. J. van Groeneveld. At 20:40 on 23 December, K XIV infiltrated the convoy and began its attack. The army transports Hiyoshi Maru and Katori Maru were sunk with the loss of hundreds of troops. was beached to prevent her from sinking, and another transport was less seriously damaged. The rest of the troops were able to land. Although 2nd Battalion, 15th Punjab Regiment, resisted the attack, they were soon outnumbered and retreated up the river. By the afternoon, Kuching was in Japanese hands. | [
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73231 | 1 | Ancient forecasting For millennia, people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BCE , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 350 BCE , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BCE ,University of California Museum of Paleontology. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ". Retrieved January 12, 2008. which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. In New Testament times, Jesus himself referred to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times." In 904 CE , Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, translated into Arabic from an earlier Aramaic work, discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds., in | Ancient forecasting For millennia, people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 350 BC , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC ,University of California Museum of Paleontology. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ". Retrieved January 12, 2008. which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. In New Testament times, Jesus himself referred to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times." In 904 AD , Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, translated into Arabic from an earlier Aramaic work, discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds., in | [
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73231 | 2 | Ancient forecasting For millennia, people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 350 BC , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC ,University of California Museum of Paleontology. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ". Retrieved January 12, 2008. which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. In New Testament times, Jesus himself referred to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times." In 904 AD , Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, translated into Arabic from an earlier Aramaic work, discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds., in | Ancient forecasting For millennia, people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BCE , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 350 BCE , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BCE ,University of California Museum of Paleontology. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ". Retrieved January 12, 2008. which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. In New Testament times, Jesus himself referred to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times." In 904 CE , Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, translated into Arabic from an earlier Aramaic work, discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds., in | [
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73231 | 3 | Ancient forecasting For millennia, people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BCE , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 350 BCE , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BCE ,University of California Museum of Paleontology. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ". Retrieved January 12, 2008. which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. In New Testament times, Jesus himself referred to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times." In 904 CE , Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, translated into Arabic from an earlier Aramaic work, discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds., in | Ancient forecasting For millennia, people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 350 BC , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC ,University of California Museum of Paleontology. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ". Retrieved January 12, 2008. which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. In New Testament times, Jesus himself referred to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times." In 904 AD , Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, translated into Arabic from an earlier Aramaic work, discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds., in | [
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7336482 | 1 | First citation of the word Perineology " The word perineology represents a neologism. Many specialties have split into subspecialties. From surgery and from gastroenterology derived proctology. The latter needs now an evolution, mainly for its functional aspects. The proctologist cannot restrict his competence to the posterior perineum, as the urologist and the gynaecologist, when evaluating the pelvic floorand its diseases, must take into account the posterior compartment. A unitary view of the pelvic organs function then creates a sort of superspecialty that must open new spaces to the research insuring to the patients more rational solutions. Perineology is then a medical branch of which we probably will hear talking more and more in the future. " (G. Dodi, RICP 1990 ; 9: 113 ) References Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 2002, 13(5):275-277.- Definition of Perineology - Restricted access full text Urogynaecologia International Journal 2003, 17(2):79-86.- Definition of Perineology Pelviperineology Vol 26, 1 2007 History of Pelviperineology Editorial on Pelviperineology Vol 26, 3 2007: Perineology or Pelviperineology | History of the term The word perineology represents a neologism. It was invented for the occasion of the 1st International Symposium on Perineology, held in Venice in 1990 to reflect an integrated view of the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the pelvic floor. It was popularized by the Italian journal Rivista Italiana di Colon-Proctologia. Some physicians in France and Italy prefer to use the broader term “pelviperineology”, which reflect a broader multidisciplinary approach to all the aspects of the management of the pelvic floor. In 2010, an International Society for Pelviperineology was formed. References | [
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7338732 | 1 | title=Comprehensive dictionary of psychoanalysis URL |accessdate=April 27, 2013 </ref> The release of strangulated affect by bringing a particular moment or problem into conscious focus, and thereby abreacting the stifled emotion attached to it, formed the cornerstone of Freud's early cathartic method of treating hysterical conversion symptoms.S Freud, On Psychopathology (PFL 10) p. 72-3 For instance, they believed that pent-up emotions associated with trauma can be discharged by talking about it. Freud and Breur, however, did not treat the spontaneous emotional reliving of traumatic event as curative. They instead described abreaction as the full emotional and motoric response to a traumatic event necessary in adequately relieving a person of being repetitively and unpredictably assailed by the trauma's original and unmitigated emotional intensity. Although the element of surprise is not compatible with Freud's approach to therapy, other theorists consider that, in abreaction, it is an important part of analytic technique. | Psychoanalytic origins The concept of abreaction may have actually been initially formulated by Freud's mentor, Josef Breuer;Introduction to Studies on Hysteria but it was in their joint work of 1893, Studies on Hysteria, that it was first made public to denote the fact that pent-up emotions associated with a trauma can be discharged by talking about it. The release of strangulated affect by bringing a particular moment or problem into conscious focus, and thereby abreacting the stifled emotion attached to it, formed the cornerstone of Freud's early cathartic method of treating hysterical conversion symptoms.S Freud, On Psychopathology (PFL 10) p. 72-3 For instance, they believed that pent-up emotions associated with trauma can be discharged by talking about it. Freud and Breur, however, did not treat the spontaneous emotional reliving of traumatic event as curative. They instead described abreaction as the full emotional and motoric response to a traumatic event necessary in adequately relieving a person of being repetitively and unpredictably assailed by the trauma's original and unmitigated emotional intensity. Although the element of surprise is not compatible with Freud's approach to therapy, other theorists consider that, in abreaction, it is an important part of analytic technique. | [
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733886 | 1 | External links The Annotated Metafilter Post (link to pdf ) Category: Labor Category: Communication Category: Industrial and organizational psychology Category: Human resource management Category: Stress (biological and psychological ) Category:Emotion Category:Life skill | External links The Annotated Metafilter Post (link to PDF ) Category: Communication Category: Emotion Category:Human resource management Category: Industrial and organizational psychology Category: Labor Category:Life skills Category: Stress (biological and psychological | [
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733929 | 1 | Chemical Physics Letters Journal of Physical Chemistry A Journal of Physical Chemistry B Journal of Physical Chemistry C The Journal of Chemical Physics Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics Chemical Physics ChemPhysChem Molecular Physics (journal) | The Journal of Chemical Physics Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters Journal of Physical Chemistry A Journal of Physical Chemistry B Journal of Physical Chemistry C Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics Chemical Physics Letters Chemical Physics ChemPhysChem Molecular Physics (journal) | [
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7339649 | 1 | Candidates for preventive action generally result from suggestions from customers or participants in the process but preventive action is a proactive process to identify opportunities for improvement rather than a simple reaction to identified problems or complaints. Apart from the review of the operational procedures, the preventive action might involve analysis of data, including trend and risk analyses and proficiency-testing results. The focus for preventive actions is to avoid creating nonconformances, but also commonly includes improvements in efficiency. Preventive actions can address technical requirements related to the product or service supplied or to the internal management system. | Jahsh al muhammaed bakr The focus for preventive actions is to avoid creating nonconformances, but also commonly includes improvements in efficiency. Preventive actions can address technical requirements related to the product or service supplied or to the internal management system. | [
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734369 | 1 | Examples of enterprising scientific organizations Each of the organizations listed below , have the ability to conduct scientific research on an extended basis, involving multiple researchers over an extended time. Generally, the research is funded not only for the science itself, but for some application which shows promise for the enterprise. But the researchers, if left to their own choices, will tend to follow their research interest, which is essential for the long-term health of their chosen field. Note that a successful scientific enterprise is not equivalent to a successful high-tech enterprise or to a successful business enterprise, but that they form an ecology, a food chain. The Max Planck Institute, which supports fundamental research in the natural, life and social sciences, the artsand humanities The RAND Corporation, founded as a research corporation. Did groundbreaking work in the field of artificial intelligence The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, founded by Theodore von Kármán Bell Laboratories, renowned for the quality of its scientific work and for inventing the operating system Unix, and the programming languages C and C++ Xerox PARC, research organization which has also spawned innovations such as the graphical user interface, laser printing, and Ethernet SRI, where the computer mouse was invented, were explicitly founded with a research basis IBM Research, notable for inventing the relational database, hard disk drive, and floppy disk Hughes Research Laboratories, location of the invention of the first working laser The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, non-profit medical research organization | Examples of enterprising scientific organizations Each organization listed below has the ability to conduct scientific research on an extended basis, involving multiple researchers over an extended time. Generally, the research is funded not only for the science itself, but for some application which shows promise for the enterprise. But the researchers, if left to their own choices, will tend to follow their research interest, which is essential for the long-term health of their chosen field. Note that a successful scientific enterprise is not equivalent to a successful high-tech enterprise or to a successful business enterprise, but that they form an ecology, a food chain. The Max Planck Institute, which supports fundamental research in the natural, life and social sciences, the artsand humanities The RAND Corporation, founded as a research corporation. Did groundbreaking work in the field of artificial intelligence The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, founded by Theodore von Kármán Bell Laboratories, renowned for the quality of its scientific work and for inventing the operating system Unix, and the programming languages C and C++ Xerox PARC, research organization which has also spawned innovations such as the graphical user interface, laser printing, and Ethernet SRI, where the computer mouse was invented, were explicitly founded with a research basis IBM Research, notable for inventing the relational database, hard disk drive, and floppy disk Hughes Research Laboratories, location of the invention of the first working laser The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, non-profit medical research organization | [
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734489 | 1 | Homecomings largely only exist among high schools in eastern Canada, and are uncommon at that. Newmarket High School, London South Collegiate Institute, Banting Memorial High School, Earl Haig Secondary School and St. Michael's College School are examples of known schools in Ontario to arrange homecomings. Upper Canada College also has a longstanding homecoming tradition, although the event is referred to as "A-Day" (Association Day). | Homecomings largely only exist among high schools in eastern Canada, and are very uncommon at that. Newmarket High School, London South Collegiate Institute, Banting Memorial High School, Earl Haig Secondary School and St. Michael's College School are examples of schools in Ontario known to arrange homecomings. Upper Canada College also has a longstanding homecoming tradition, although the event is referred to as "A-Day" (Association Day). | [
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7347241 | 1 | Cognitive psychology As it relates to cognitive psychology, spreading activation is how the brain moves through an entire network of ideas to retrieve specific information. The spreading activation theory presents the array of concepts within our memory as cognitive units, each consisting of a node and its associated elements or characteristics, all connected together by edges. A spreading activation network can be represented schematically, in a sort of web diagram with shorter lines between two nodes meaning the ideas are more closely related and will typically be associated more quickly to the original concept. | Cognitive psychology As it relates to cognitive psychology, spreading activation is the theory of how the brain iterates through a network of associated ideas to retrieve specific information. The spreading activation theory presents the array of concepts within our memory as cognitive units, each consisting of a node and its associated elements or characteristics, all connected together by edges. A spreading activation network can be represented schematically, in a sort of web diagram with shorter lines between two nodes meaning the ideas are more closely related and will typically be associated more quickly to the original concept. | [
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7348421 | 1 | Leviathan later became the guardian of another incarnation of the Secret Empire. Again a henchman of Professor Power, he battled and was defeated by the duo known at the time as Captain America and Bucky (and who later became known as U.S. Agent and Battlestar, respectively).Captain America #338 Gargantua later became a part-time member of Doctor Octopus' Masters of Evil where they plotted to storm the Avengers Mansion while the Avengers were away. This was made easier when many of the superheroes were replaced with evil doppelgangers of them during the Infinity War. The Masters of Evil were thwarted by the Guardians of the Galaxy who were visiting the Avengers Mansion at the time. Both teams had to work together to stop the doppelgangers. Gargantua was among the members who revolted against Doctor Octopus when he wanted to continue the fight against the Guardians. After Doctor Octopus fled, his Masters of Evil disbanded.Guardians of the Galaxy #28–29 When it came to a small town that was renamed Hulk, Gargantua joined two other superstrong villains, Abomination and Titania, into attacking it to lure out the Hulk. They retreated when they realized that the Hulk was not there.The Incredible Hulk Annual #19 | Leviathan later became the guardian of another incarnation of the Secret Empire. Again a henchman of Professor Power, he battled and was defeated by the duo known at the time as Captain America and Bucky (and who later became known as the U.S. Agent and Battlestar, respectively).Captain America #338 Gargantua later became a part-time member of Doctor Octopus' Masters of Evil where they plotted to storm the Avengers Mansion while the Avengers were away. This was made easier when many of the superheroes were replaced with evil doppelgangers of them during the Infinity War. The Masters of Evil were thwarted by the Guardians of the Galaxy who were visiting Avengers Mansion at the time. Both teams had to work together to stop the doppelgangers. Gargantua was among the members who revolted against Doctor Octopus when he wanted to continue the fight against the Guardians. After Doctor Octopus fled, his Masters of Evil disbanded.Guardians of the Galaxy #28–29 When it came to a small town that was renamed Hulk, Gargantua joined two other super-strong villains, the Abomination and Titania, into attacking it to lure out the Hulk. They retreated when they realized that the Hulk was not there.The Incredible Hulk Annual #19 | [
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7348421 | 2 | Gargantua later became a part-time member of Doctor Octopus' Masters of Evil where they plotted to storm the Avengers Mansion while the Avengers were away. This was made easier when many of the superheroes were replaced with evil doppelgangers of them during the Infinity War. The Masters of Evil were thwarted by the Guardians of the Galaxy who were visiting Avengers Mansion at the time. Both teams had to work together to stop the doppelgangers . Gargantua was among the members who revolted against Doctor Octopus when he wanted to continue the fight against the Guardians. After Doctor Octopus fled, his Masters of Evil disbanded.Guardians of the Galaxy #28–29 | Gargantua later became a part-time member of Doctor Octopus' Masters of Evil where they plotted to storm Avengers Mansion while the Avengers were away. This was made easier when many of the superheroes were replaced with evil doppelgängers of them during the Infinity War. The Masters of Evil were thwarted by the Guardians of the Galaxy who were visiting Avengers Mansion at the time. Both teams had to work together to stop the doppelgängers . Gargantua was among the members who revolted against Doctor Octopus when he wanted to continue the fight against the Guardians. After Doctor Octopus fled, his Masters of Evil disbanded.Guardians of the Galaxy #28–29 | [
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7354493 | 1 | Indus International, Inc, based in West Salem, WI, demonstrated the first US-made planetary book scanner in January 2011. The scanner, called the Indus BookScanner 9000, offered a claimed optical resolution of 400 dpi and a speed of 2.7 seconds per page . | Indus International, Inc, based in West Salem, WI, produces scanners which were bought by some US entities for services like interlibrary loan . | [
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7357937 | 1 | 300px|Fertilization in mammals. The sperm and ovum unite through fertilization, creating a conceptus that (over the course of 8-9 days) will implant in the uterine wall, where it will reside over the course of nine months. In humans, implantation is the stage of pregnancy at which the embryo adheres to the wall of the uterus. At this stage of prenatal development, the conceptus is called a blastocyst. It is by this adhesion that the embryo receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother to be able to grow. | 300px|Fertilization in mammals. The sperm and ovum unite through fertilization, creating a conceptus that (over the course of 8-9 days) will implant in the uterine wall, where it will reside over the course of nine months. In humans, implantation is the stage of human reproduction at which the embryo adheres to the wall of the uterus. At this stage of prenatal development, the conceptus is called a blastocyst. Once this adhesion is successful, the female is considered to be pregnant and the embryo will receive oxygen and nutrients from the mother in order to grow. | [
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7357937 | 2 | Immunosuppressive The embryo differs from the cells of the mother, and would be rejected as a parasite by the immune system of the mother if it didn't secrete immunosuppressive agents. Such agents are Platelet-activating factor, human chorionic gonadotropin, early pregnancy factor, immunosuppressive factor, Prostaglandin E2, Interleukin 1-alpha, Interleukin 6, interferon-alpha, leukemia inhibitory factor and Colony-Stimulating Factor . | Immunosuppressive The embryo differs from the cells of the mother, and would be rejected as a parasite by the immune system of the mother if it did not secrete immunosuppressive agents. Such agents include platelet-activating factor, human chorionic gonadotropin, early pregnancy factor, prostaglandin E2, interleukin 1-alpha, interleukin 6, interferon-alpha, leukemia inhibitory factor and colony-stimulating factor . | [
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73591 | 1 | The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in Tordesillas, Spain on June 7 , 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly-discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire (Crown of Castile), along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. That line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). Dutch map of the Moluccas (north is at right) Initially, the line of demarcation did not encircle the earth. Instead, Spain and Portugal could conquer any new lands they were the first to discover, Spain to the west and Portugal to the east, even if they passed each other on the other side of the globe.Edward Gaylord Bourne, "Historical Introduction", in Blair. But Portugal's discovery of the highly valued Moluccas in 1512 caused Spain to argue in 1518 that the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the earth into two equal hemispheres. After the surviving ships of Magellan's fleet visited the Moluccas in 1521, Spain claimed that those islands were within its western hemisphere. In the early 16th century, the Treaty between Spain and Portugal, concluded at Vitoria; February 19 , 1524 and called for the Badajoz Junta to meet in 1524, at which the two countries tried to reach an agreement on the anti-meridian but failed.Emma Helen Blair, The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803, part 2 They finally agreed in a treaty signed at Zaragoza that Spain would relinquish its claims to the Moluccas upon the payment of 350,000 ducats of gold by Portugal to Spain. To prevent Spain from encroaching upon Portugal's Moluccas, the anti-meridian was to be leagues or 17° to the east of the Moluccas, passing through the islands of Las Velas and Santo Thome.Emma Helen Blair, The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803, part 3 This distance is slightly smaller than the 300 leagues determined by Magellan as the westward distance from los Ladrones to the Philippine island of Samar, which is just west of due north of the Moluccas.Lord Stanley of Alderley, The first voyage round the world, by Magellan, London: Hakluyt, 1874, p. 71 | The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly-discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire (Crown of Castile), along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. That line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). Dutch map of the Moluccas (north is at right) Initially, the line of demarcation did not encircle the earth. Instead, Spain and Portugal could conquer any new lands they were the first to discover, Spain to the west and Portugal to the east, even if they passed each other on the other side of the globe.Edward Gaylord Bourne, "Historical Introduction", in Blair. But Portugal's discovery of the highly valued Moluccas in 1512 caused Spain to argue in 1518 that the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the earth into two equal hemispheres. After the surviving ships of Magellan's fleet visited the Moluccas in 1521, Spain claimed that those islands were within its western hemisphere. In the early 16th century, the Treaty between Spain and Portugal, concluded at Vitoria; 19 February 1524 and called for the Badajoz Junta to meet in 1524, at which the two countries tried to reach an agreement on the anti-meridian but failed.Emma Helen Blair, The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803, part 2 They finally agreed in a treaty signed at Zaragoza that Spain would relinquish its claims to the Moluccas upon the payment of 350,000 ducats of gold by Portugal to Spain. To prevent Spain from encroaching upon Portugal's Moluccas, the anti-meridian was to be leagues or 17° to the east of the Moluccas, passing through the islands of Las Velas and Santo Thome.Emma Helen Blair, The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803, part 3 This distance is slightly smaller than the 300 leagues determined by Magellan as the westward distance from los Ladrones to the Philippine island of Samar, which is just west of due north of the Moluccas.Lord Stanley of Alderley, The first voyage round the world, by Magellan, London: Hakluyt, 1874, p. 71 | [
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736240 | 1 | Highest geographical features The highest volcano is Ojos del Salado on the Argentina–Chile border. It has the highest summit, , of any volcano on Earth. The highest natural lake is an unnamed crater lake on Ojos del Salado at , on the Argentina side. Another candidate was Lhagba Pool on the northeast slopes of Mount Everest, Tibet , at an elevation of , which has since dried up. The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca, on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the Andes, at . The highest glacier is the Khumbu Glacier on the southwest slopes of Mount Everest in Nepal, beginning on the west side of Lhotse at an elevation of . The highest river is disputed; one candidate from many possibilities is the Ating Ho, which flows into the Aong Tso (Hagung Tso), a large lake in Tibet , and has an elevation of about at its source at . Another very large and high river is the Yarlung Tsangpo or upper Brahmaputra River in Tibet , whose main stem, the Maquan River, has its source at about above sea level at . Above these elevations, there are no constantly flowing rivers since the temperature is almost always below freezing. The highest island is one of a number of islands in the Orba Co lake in Tibet , at an elevation of . Highest points attainable by transportation The highest point accessible... ...by land vehicle is an elevation of on Ojos del Salado in Chile, which was reached by the Chilean duo of Gonzalo and Eduardo Canales Moya on 21 April 2007 with a modified Suzuki Samurai, setting the high-altitude record for a four-wheeled vehicle. ...by road (dead end) is on a mining road to the summit of Aucanquilcha in Chile, which reaches an elevation of . It was once usable by 20-tonne mining trucks. (includes description and photos of Aucanquilcha summit road and mine) The road is no longer usable. ...by road (mountain pass) is disputed; there are a number of competing claims for this title due to the definition of "motorable pass" (i.e. a surfaced road or one simply passable by a vehicle): The highest asphalted road crosses Tibet's Semo La pass at . It is used by trucks and buses regularly. The Ticlio pass, on the Central Road of Peru, is the highest surfaced road in the Americas, at an elevation of . The highest unsurfaced road has several different claimants. All are unsurfaced or gravel roads including the barely passable road to Umling, LA, west of Demchok in Ladakh, India, which reaches ("19,300 feet" according to a Border Roads Organisation sign there that recognizes it as the "World's Highest Motorable Pass"), and Mana Pass, between India and Tibet , which is crossed by a gravel road reaching . The heavily trafficked Khardung La in Ladakh lies at . A possibly motorable gravel road crosses Marsimik La in Ladakh at . ...by train is Tanggula Pass, located on the Qinghai–Tibet (Qingzang) Railway in the Tanggula Mountains of Qinghai/Tibet, China, at . The Tanggula railway station is the world's highest railway station at . Before the Qingzang Railway was built, the highest railway ran between Lima and Huancayo in Peru, reaching at Ticlio. ...by oceangoing vessel is a segment of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks in Bavaria, Germany. The locks artificially raise the surface level of the water in the canal to above mean sea level, higher than any other lock system in the world, making it the highest point currently accessible by oceangoing commercial watercraft. La Rinconada, Peru The highest commercial airport is Daocheng Yading Airport, Sichuan, China, at . The proposed Nagqu Dagring Airport in Tibet , if built, will be higher at . The highest helipad is Sonam, Siachen Glacier, India, at a height of above sea level. The highest permanent human settlement is La Rinconada, Peru, , in the Peruvian Andes. The farthest road from the Earth's centre is the Road to Carrel Hut in the Ecuadorian Andes, at an elevation of above sea level and a distance of from the centre of the Earth. Continent Elevation (height above/below sea level) Air temperature (recorded)Global Weather & Climate Extremes World Meteorological Organization Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Africa Kilimanjaro, TanzaniaThe Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition. Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro 100px Lake Assal, Djibouti Kebili, French Tunisia7 July 1931Ifrane, French Morocco11 February 1935 Antarctica Vinson Massif 100px Indicator 62 - Water levels of Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills , Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Retrieved 15 January 2010.Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills(compare the deepest ice section below) Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station9 February 2020 Vostok Station21 July 1983 Asia Mount Everest, Tibet-Nepal Border 100px Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan-Palestine Tirat Zvi, Israel (then in the British Mandate of Palestine)21 June 1942 MeasuredOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union6 February 1933Weather Underground - Christopher C. Burt - The Coldest Places on Earth URL Ahvaz Airport, Iran29 June 2017 ExtrapolatedOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union26 January 1926 Europe Mount Elbrus, Russian FederationMount Elbrus at peakbagger.com 100px Caspian Sea shore, Russian Federation Athens, Greece(and Elefsina, Greece)10 July 1977 Ust-Shchuger, Soviet Union31 December 1978 North America Denali (Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States 100px Badwater Basin, California, United States Greenland Ranch (Furnace Creek), California, United States10 July 1913 North Ice, Greenland9 January 1954 Oceania Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), Indonesia(compare Mount Wilhelm, Mount Cook and Mount Kosciuszko)Carstensz Pyramid, Indonesia at peakbagger.com 100px Lake Eyre, South Australia, Australia Oodnadatta, South Australia, Australia2 January 1960 Ranfurly, Otago, New Zealand17 July 1903 South America Aconcagua, Mendoza, ArgentinaAconcagua, Argentina at peakbagger.com 100px Laguna del Carbón, Argentina Rivadavia, Salta Province, Argentina11 December 1905 Sarmiento, Chubut Province, Argentina 1 June 1907A. Height above sea level is the usual choice of definition for elevation. The point farthest away from the centre of the Earth, however, is Chimborazo in Ecuador (). This is due to the Earth's oblate spheroid shape, with points near the Equator being farther out from the centre than those at the poles. B. All temperatures from the World Meteorological Organization unless noted. C. The former record of recorded at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922 was ruled no longer valid by the WMO due to mistakes made in the recording process. The 1913 reading is, however, itself controversial, and a measurement of at Furnace Creek on 30 June 2013 is undisputed, especially since the same or almost the same temperature has been recorded several times in the 21st century in the same and other places. E. Temperatures greater than in Spain and Portugal were recorded in 1881, but the standard with which they were measured and the accuracy of the thermometers used are unknown; therefore, they are not considered official. Unconfirmed reports also indicate that a set of Spanish stations may have hit during the 2003 heat wave.Europe: Highest Temperature WMO F. Greenland is considered by the World Meteorological Organization to be part of WMO region 6 (Europe). G. A temperature of was recorded in Cloncurry, Queensland on 16 January 1889 under non-standard exposure conditions and is therefore not considered official. | Highest geographical features The highest volcano is Ojos del Salado on the Argentina–Chile border. It has the highest summit, , of any volcano on Earth. The highest natural lake is an unnamed crater lake on Ojos del Salado at , on the Argentina side. Another candidate was Lhagba Pool on the northeast slopes of Mount Everest, China , at an elevation of , which has since dried up. The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca, on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the Andes, at . The highest glacier is the Khumbu Glacier on the southwest slopes of Mount Everest in Nepal, beginning on the west side of Lhotse at an elevation of . The highest river is disputed; one candidate from many possibilities is the Ating Ho, which flows into the Aong Tso (Hagung Tso), a large lake in China , and has an elevation of about at its source at . Another very large and high river is the Yarlung Tsangpo or upper Brahmaputra River in China , whose main stem, the Maquan River, has its source at about above sea level at . Above these elevations, there are no constantly flowing rivers since the temperature is almost always below freezing. The highest island is one of a number of islands in the Orba Co lake in China , at an elevation of . Highest points attainable by transportation The highest point accessible... ...by land vehicle is an elevation of on Ojos del Salado in Chile, which was reached by the Chilean duo of Gonzalo and Eduardo Canales Moya on 21 April 2007 with a modified Suzuki Samurai, setting the high-altitude record for a four-wheeled vehicle. ...by road (dead end) is on a mining road to the summit of Aucanquilcha in Chile, which reaches an elevation of . It was once usable by 20-tonne mining trucks. (includes description and photos of Aucanquilcha summit road and mine) The road is no longer usable. ...by road (mountain pass) is disputed; there are a number of competing claims for this title due to the definition of "motorable pass" (i.e. a surfaced road or one simply passable by a vehicle): The highest asphalted road crosses Tibet's Semo La pass at . It is used by trucks and buses regularly. The Ticlio pass, on the Central Road of Peru, is the highest surfaced road in the Americas, at an elevation of . The highest unsurfaced road has several different claimants. All are unsurfaced or gravel roads including the barely passable road to Umling, LA, west of Demchok in Ladakh, India, which reaches ("19,300 feet" according to a Border Roads Organisation sign there that recognizes it as the "World's Highest Motorable Pass"), and Mana Pass, between India and China , which is crossed by a gravel road reaching . The heavily trafficked Khardung La in Ladakh lies at . A possibly motorable gravel road crosses Marsimik La in Ladakh at . ...by train is Tanggula Pass, located on the Qinghai–Tibet (Qingzang) Railway in the Tanggula Mountains of Qinghai/Tibet, China, at . The Tanggula railway station is the world's highest railway station at . Before the Qingzang Railway was built, the highest railway ran between Lima and Huancayo in Peru, reaching at Ticlio. ...by oceangoing vessel is a segment of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks in Bavaria, Germany. The locks artificially raise the surface level of the water in the canal to above mean sea level, higher than any other lock system in the world, making it the highest point currently accessible by oceangoing commercial watercraft. La Rinconada, Peru The highest commercial airport is Daocheng Yading Airport, Sichuan, China, at . The proposed Nagqu Dagring Airport in China , if built, will be higher at . The highest helipad is Sonam, Siachen Glacier, India, at a height of above sea level. The highest permanent human settlement is La Rinconada, Peru, , in the Peruvian Andes. The farthest road from the Earth's centre is the Road to Carrel Hut in the Ecuadorian Andes, at an elevation of above sea level and a distance of from the centre of the Earth. Continent Elevation (height above/below sea level) Air temperature (recorded)Global Weather & Climate Extremes World Meteorological Organization Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Africa Kilimanjaro, TanzaniaThe Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition. Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro 100px Lake Assal, Djibouti Kebili, French Tunisia7 July 1931Ifrane, French Morocco11 February 1935 Antarctica Vinson Massif 100px Indicator 62 - Water levels of Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills , Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Retrieved 15 January 2010.Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills(compare the deepest ice section below) Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station9 February 2020 Vostok Station21 July 1983 Asia Mount Everest, China-Nepal Border 100px Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan-Palestine Tirat Zvi, Israel (then in the British Mandate of Palestine)21 June 1942 MeasuredOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union6 February 1933Weather Underground - Christopher C. Burt - The Coldest Places on Earth URL Ahvaz Airport, Iran29 June 2017 ExtrapolatedOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union26 January 1926 Europe Mount Elbrus, Russian FederationMount Elbrus at peakbagger.com 100px Caspian Sea shore, Russian Federation Athens, Greece(and Elefsina, Greece)10 July 1977 Ust-Shchuger, Soviet Union31 December 1978 North America Denali (Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States 100px Badwater Basin, California, United States Greenland Ranch (Furnace Creek), California, United States10 July 1913 North Ice, Greenland9 January 1954 Oceania Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), Indonesia(compare Mount Wilhelm, Mount Cook and Mount Kosciuszko)Carstensz Pyramid, Indonesia at peakbagger.com 100px Lake Eyre, South Australia, Australia Oodnadatta, South Australia, Australia2 January 1960 Ranfurly, Otago, New Zealand17 July 1903 South America Aconcagua, Mendoza, ArgentinaAconcagua, Argentina at peakbagger.com 100px Laguna del Carbón, Argentina Rivadavia, Salta Province, Argentina11 December 1905 Sarmiento, Chubut Province, Argentina 1 June 1907A. Height above sea level is the usual choice of definition for elevation. The point farthest away from the centre of the Earth, however, is Chimborazo in Ecuador (). This is due to the Earth's oblate spheroid shape, with points near the Equator being farther out from the centre than those at the poles. B. All temperatures from the World Meteorological Organization unless noted. C. The former record of recorded at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922 was ruled no longer valid by the WMO due to mistakes made in the recording process. The 1913 reading is, however, itself controversial, and a measurement of at Furnace Creek on 30 June 2013 is undisputed, especially since the same or almost the same temperature has been recorded several times in the 21st century in the same and other places. E. 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736240 | 2 | Highest geographical features The highest volcano is Ojos del Salado on the Argentina–Chile border. It has the highest summit, , of any volcano on Earth. The highest natural lake is an unnamed crater lake on Ojos del Salado at , on the Argentina side. Another candidate was Lhagba Pool on the northeast slopes of Mount Everest, China , at an elevation of , which has since dried up. The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca, on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the Andes, at . The highest glacier is the Khumbu Glacier on the southwest slopes of Mount Everest in Nepal, beginning on the west side of Lhotse at an elevation of . The highest river is disputed; one candidate from many possibilities is the Ating Ho, which flows into the Aong Tso (Hagung Tso), a large lake in China , and has an elevation of about at its source at . Another very large and high river is the Yarlung Tsangpo or upper Brahmaputra River in China , whose main stem, the Maquan River, has its source at about above sea level at . Above these elevations, there are no constantly flowing rivers since the temperature is almost always below freezing. The highest island is one of a number of islands in the Orba Co lake in China , at an elevation of . Highest points attainable by transportation The highest point accessible... ...by land vehicle is an elevation of on Ojos del Salado in Chile, which was reached by the Chilean duo of Gonzalo and Eduardo Canales Moya on 21 April 2007 with a modified Suzuki Samurai, setting the high-altitude record for a four-wheeled vehicle. ...by road (dead end) is on a mining road to the summit of Aucanquilcha in Chile, which reaches an elevation of . It was once usable by 20-tonne mining trucks. (includes description and photos of Aucanquilcha summit road and mine) The road is no longer usable. ...by road (mountain pass) is disputed; there are a number of competing claims for this title due to the definition of "motorable pass" (i.e. a surfaced road or one simply passable by a vehicle): The highest asphalted road crosses Tibet's Semo La pass at . It is used by trucks and buses regularly. The Ticlio pass, on the Central Road of Peru, is the highest surfaced road in the Americas, at an elevation of . The highest unsurfaced road has several different claimants. All are unsurfaced or gravel roads including the barely passable road to Umling, LA, west of Demchok in Ladakh, India, which reaches ("19,300 feet" according to a Border Roads Organisation sign there that recognizes it as the "World's Highest Motorable Pass"), and Mana Pass, between India and China , which is crossed by a gravel road reaching . The heavily trafficked Khardung La in Ladakh lies at . A possibly motorable gravel road crosses Marsimik La in Ladakh at . ...by train is Tanggula Pass, located on the Qinghai–Tibet (Qingzang) Railway in the Tanggula Mountains of Qinghai/Tibet, China, at . The Tanggula railway station is the world's highest railway station at . Before the Qingzang Railway was built, the highest railway ran between Lima and Huancayo in Peru, reaching at Ticlio. ...by oceangoing vessel is a segment of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks in Bavaria, Germany. The locks artificially raise the surface level of the water in the canal to above mean sea level, higher than any other lock system in the world, making it the highest point currently accessible by oceangoing commercial watercraft. La Rinconada, Peru The highest commercial airport is Daocheng Yading Airport, Sichuan, China, at . The proposed Nagqu Dagring Airport in China , if built, will be higher at . The highest helipad is Sonam, Siachen Glacier, India, at a height of above sea level. The highest permanent human settlement is La Rinconada, Peru, , in the Peruvian Andes. The farthest road from the Earth's centre is the Road to Carrel Hut in the Ecuadorian Andes, at an elevation of above sea level and a distance of from the centre of the Earth. Continent Elevation (height above/below sea level) Air temperature (recorded)Global Weather & Climate Extremes World Meteorological Organization Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Africa Kilimanjaro, TanzaniaThe Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition. Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro 100px Lake Assal, Djibouti Kebili, French Tunisia7 July 1931Ifrane, French Morocco11 February 1935 Antarctica Vinson Massif 100px Indicator 62 - Water levels of Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills , Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Retrieved 15 January 2010.Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills(compare the deepest ice section below) Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station9 February 2020 Vostok Station21 July 1983 Asia Mount Everest, China-Nepal Border 100px Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan-Palestine Tirat Zvi, Israel (then in the British Mandate of Palestine)21 June 1942 MeasuredOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union6 February 1933Weather Underground - Christopher C. Burt - The Coldest Places on Earth URL Ahvaz Airport, Iran29 June 2017 ExtrapolatedOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union26 January 1926 Europe Mount Elbrus, Russian FederationMount Elbrus at peakbagger.com 100px Caspian Sea shore, Russian Federation Athens, Greece(and Elefsina, Greece)10 July 1977 Ust-Shchuger, Soviet Union31 December 1978 North America Denali (Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States 100px Badwater Basin, California, United States Greenland Ranch (Furnace Creek), California, United States10 July 1913 North Ice, Greenland9 January 1954 Oceania Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), Indonesia(compare Mount Wilhelm, Mount Cook and Mount Kosciuszko)Carstensz Pyramid, Indonesia at peakbagger.com 100px Lake Eyre, South Australia, Australia Oodnadatta, South Australia, Australia2 January 1960 Ranfurly, Otago, New Zealand17 July 1903 South America Aconcagua, Mendoza, ArgentinaAconcagua, Argentina at peakbagger.com 100px Laguna del Carbón, Argentina Rivadavia, Salta Province, Argentina11 December 1905 Sarmiento, Chubut Province, Argentina 1 June 1907A. Height above sea level is the usual choice of definition for elevation. The point farthest away from the centre of the Earth, however, is Chimborazo in Ecuador (). This is due to the Earth's oblate spheroid shape, with points near the Equator being farther out from the centre than those at the poles. B. All temperatures from the World Meteorological Organization unless noted. C. The former record of recorded at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922 was ruled no longer valid by the WMO due to mistakes made in the recording process. The 1913 reading is, however, itself controversial, and a measurement of at Furnace Creek on 30 June 2013 is undisputed, especially since the same or almost the same temperature has been recorded several times in the 21st century in the same and other places. E. Temperatures greater than in Spain and Portugal were recorded in 1881, but the standard with which they were measured and the accuracy of the thermometers used are unknown; therefore, they are not considered official. Unconfirmed reports also indicate that a set of Spanish stations may have hit during the 2003 heat wave.Europe: Highest Temperature WMO F. Greenland is considered by the World Meteorological Organization to be part of WMO region 6 (Europe). G. A temperature of was recorded in Cloncurry, Queensland on 16 January 1889 under non-standard exposure conditions and is therefore not considered official. | Highest geographical features The highest volcano is Ojos del Salado on the Argentina–Chile border. It has the highest summit, , of any volcano on Earth. The highest natural lake is an unnamed crater lake on Ojos del Salado at , on the Argentina side. Another candidate was Lhagba Pool on the northeast slopes of Mount Everest, Tibet , at an elevation of , which has since dried up. The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca, on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the Andes, at . The highest glacier is the Khumbu Glacier on the southwest slopes of Mount Everest in Nepal, beginning on the west side of Lhotse at an elevation of . The highest river is disputed; one candidate from many possibilities is the Ating Ho, which flows into the Aong Tso (Hagung Tso), a large lake in Tibet , and has an elevation of about at its source at . Another very large and high river is the Yarlung Tsangpo or upper Brahmaputra River in Tibet , whose main stem, the Maquan River, has its source at about above sea level at . Above these elevations, there are no constantly flowing rivers since the temperature is almost always below freezing. The highest island is one of a number of islands in the Orba Co lake in Tibet , at an elevation of . Highest points attainable by transportation The highest point accessible... ...by land vehicle is an elevation of on Ojos del Salado in Chile, which was reached by the Chilean duo of Gonzalo and Eduardo Canales Moya on 21 April 2007 with a modified Suzuki Samurai, setting the high-altitude record for a four-wheeled vehicle. ...by road (dead end) is on a mining road to the summit of Aucanquilcha in Chile, which reaches an elevation of . It was once usable by 20-tonne mining trucks. (includes description and photos of Aucanquilcha summit road and mine) The road is no longer usable. ...by road (mountain pass) is disputed; there are a number of competing claims for this title due to the definition of "motorable pass" (i.e. a surfaced road or one simply passable by a vehicle): The highest asphalted road crosses Tibet's Semo La pass at . It is used by trucks and buses regularly. The Ticlio pass, on the Central Road of Peru, is the highest surfaced road in the Americas, at an elevation of . The highest unsurfaced road has several different claimants. All are unsurfaced or gravel roads including the barely passable road to Umling, LA, west of Demchok in Ladakh, India, which reaches ("19,300 feet" according to a Border Roads Organisation sign there that recognizes it as the "World's Highest Motorable Pass"), and Mana Pass, between India and Tibet , which is crossed by a gravel road reaching . The heavily trafficked Khardung La in Ladakh lies at . A possibly motorable gravel road crosses Marsimik La in Ladakh at . ...by train is Tanggula Pass, located on the Qinghai–Tibet (Qingzang) Railway in the Tanggula Mountains of Qinghai/Tibet, China, at . The Tanggula railway station is the world's highest railway station at . Before the Qingzang Railway was built, the highest railway ran between Lima and Huancayo in Peru, reaching at Ticlio. ...by oceangoing vessel is a segment of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks in Bavaria, Germany. The locks artificially raise the surface level of the water in the canal to above mean sea level, higher than any other lock system in the world, making it the highest point currently accessible by oceangoing commercial watercraft. La Rinconada, Peru The highest commercial airport is Daocheng Yading Airport, Sichuan, China, at . The proposed Nagqu Dagring Airport in Tibet , if built, will be higher at . The highest helipad is Sonam, Siachen Glacier, India, at a height of above sea level. The highest permanent human settlement is La Rinconada, Peru, , in the Peruvian Andes. The farthest road from the Earth's centre is the Road to Carrel Hut in the Ecuadorian Andes, at an elevation of above sea level and a distance of from the centre of the Earth. Continent Elevation (height above/below sea level) Air temperature (recorded)Global Weather & Climate Extremes World Meteorological Organization Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Africa Kilimanjaro, TanzaniaThe Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition. Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro 100px Lake Assal, Djibouti Kebili, French Tunisia7 July 1931Ifrane, French Morocco11 February 1935 Antarctica Vinson Massif 100px Indicator 62 - Water levels of Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills , Australian Antarctic Data Centre. Retrieved 15 January 2010.Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills(compare the deepest ice section below) Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station9 February 2020 Vostok Station21 July 1983 Asia Mount Everest, Tibet-Nepal Border 100px Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan-Palestine Tirat Zvi, Israel (then in the British Mandate of Palestine)21 June 1942 MeasuredOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union6 February 1933Weather Underground - Christopher C. Burt - The Coldest Places on Earth URL Ahvaz Airport, Iran29 June 2017 ExtrapolatedOymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union26 January 1926 Europe Mount Elbrus, Russian FederationMount Elbrus at peakbagger.com 100px Caspian Sea shore, Russian Federation Athens, Greece(and Elefsina, Greece)10 July 1977 Ust-Shchuger, Soviet Union31 December 1978 North America Denali (Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States 100px Badwater Basin, California, United States Greenland Ranch (Furnace Creek), California, United States10 July 1913 North Ice, Greenland9 January 1954 Oceania Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), Indonesia(compare Mount Wilhelm, Mount Cook and Mount Kosciuszko)Carstensz Pyramid, Indonesia at peakbagger.com 100px Lake Eyre, South Australia, Australia Oodnadatta, South Australia, Australia2 January 1960 Ranfurly, Otago, New Zealand17 July 1903 South America Aconcagua, Mendoza, ArgentinaAconcagua, Argentina at peakbagger.com 100px Laguna del Carbón, Argentina Rivadavia, Salta Province, Argentina11 December 1905 Sarmiento, Chubut Province, Argentina 1 June 1907A. Height above sea level is the usual choice of definition for elevation. The point farthest away from the centre of the Earth, however, is Chimborazo in Ecuador (). This is due to the Earth's oblate spheroid shape, with points near the Equator being farther out from the centre than those at the poles. B. All temperatures from the World Meteorological Organization unless noted. C. The former record of recorded at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922 was ruled no longer valid by the WMO due to mistakes made in the recording process. The 1913 reading is, however, itself controversial, and a measurement of at Furnace Creek on 30 June 2013 is undisputed, especially since the same or almost the same temperature has been recorded several times in the 21st century in the same and other places. E. Temperatures greater than in Spain and Portugal were recorded in 1881, but the standard with which they were measured and the accuracy of the thermometers used are unknown; therefore, they are not considered official. Unconfirmed reports also indicate that a set of Spanish stations may have hit during the 2003 heat wave.Europe: Highest Temperature WMO F. Greenland is considered by the World Meteorological Organization to be part of WMO region 6 (Europe). G. A temperature of was recorded in Cloncurry, Queensland on 16 January 1889 under non-standard exposure conditions and is therefore not considered official. | [
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736449 | 1 | History Macramé knot: clove hitch, loop to the left One of the earliest recorded uses of macramé-style knots as decoration appeared in the carvings of the Babylonians and Assyrians. Fringe-like plaiting and braiding adorned the costumes of the time and were captured in their stone statuary. Arab weavers knotted excess thread along the edges of hand-loomed fabrics such as towels, shawls, and veils into decorative fringes. The word macramé is derived from the Arabic macramia (), believed to mean "striped towel", "ornamental fringe" or "embroidered veil". Another school of thought indicates that it comes from Turkish makrama, "napkin" or "towel". The decorative fringes also helped to keep flies off camels and horses in northern Africa.%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% The Moorish conquest took the craft to Spain, then Italy, especially in the region of Liguria, then it spread through Europe. In England, it was introduced at the court of Mary II in the late 17th century. Queen Mary taught it to her ladies-in-waiting. Decorative macramé ship Macramé was most popular in the Victorian era. It adorned most homes in items such as tablecloths, bedspreads and curtains. The popular Sylvia's Book of Macramé Lace (1882) showed how "to work rich trimmings for black and coloured costumes, both for home wear, garden parties, seaside ramblings, and balls—fairylike adornments for household and underlinens ...".%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Sailors made macramé objects while not busy at sea, and sold or bartered them when they landed, thus spreading the art to places like China and the New World. Nineteenth-century British and American sailors made hammocks, bell fringes, and belts from macramé. They called the process "square knotting" after the knot they used most often. Sailors also called macramé "McNamara's lace". Macramé's popularity faded, but resurged in the 1970s for making wall hangings, clothing accessories, small jean shorts, bedspreads, tablecloths, draperies, plant hangers and other furnishings. Macramé jewelry became popular in America. Using mainly square knots and granny knots, this jewelry often features handmade glass beads and natural elements such as bone and shell. Necklaces, anklets and bracelets have become popular forms of macramé jewelry. By the early 1980s, macramé again began to fall out of fashion, only to be revived by millennials. | History %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% is the worst subject | [
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736803 | 1 | The St. Petersburg Paradox The St. Petersburg paradox created by Nicolas Bernoulli (cousin of Daniel Bernoulli) empirically discovered that the decisions of rational individuals sometimes violate the axioms of preferences. When a probability distribution function has an infinite expected value, it is expected that a rational person would pay an arbitrarily large finite amount to take this gamble. However, this experiment demonstrated that there is no upper bound on the potential rewards from very low probability events. In his experimental game, a person had to flip a coin as many times as possible until it was tails. The participant's prize will be determined by the number of times the coin was turned heads consecutively. For every time the coin comes up heads (1/2 probability), the participant's prize will be doubled. The game ends when the participant flips the coin and it comes out a tail. According to the axioms of preferences, a player should be willing to pay a high price to play because his entry cost will always be less than the expected value of the game, since he could potentially win an infinite payout. However, in reality, people don't do this. “Only a few of the participants were willing to pay a maximum of $25 to enter the game because many of them were risk averse and unwilling to bet on a very small possibility at a very high price. Bernoulli's Formulation Nicolas Bernoulli described the St. Petersburg paradox (involving infinite expected values) in 1713, prompting two Swiss mathematicians to develop expected utility theory as a solution. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. He used this concept to formalize the idea that the same amount of additional money was less useful to an already-wealthy person than it would be to a poor person. The theory can also more accurately describe more realistic scenarios (where expected values are finite) than expected value alone, He proposed that a nonlinear function of utility of an outcome should be used instead of the expected value of an outcome, accounting for risk aversion, where the risk premium is higher for low-probability events than the difference between the payout level of a particular outcome and its expected value. Bernoulli further proposed that it was not the goal of the gambler to maximize his expected gain but to instead maximize the logarithm of his gain. Nicolas Bernoulli drew attention to psychological and behavioral behind the individual's decision-making process and found that the utility of wealth has a diminishing marginal utility. For example, as someone gets wealthier, an extra dollar or an additional good is perceived as less valuable. In other words, he found that the desirability related with a financial gain depends not only on the gain itself buy also on the wealth of the person. He suggested that people maximize "moral expectation" rather than expected monetary value. Bernoulli made a clear distinction between expected value and expected utility. Instead of using the weighted outcomes, he used the weighted utility multiplied by probabilities. He proved that the utility function used in real life means is finite, even when its expected value is infinite. Other experiments proposed that very low probability events are neglected by considering the finite resources of the participants. For example, it makes rational sense for a rich person, but not for a poor person to pay 10,000USD in exchange for a lottery ticket that yields a 50\% chance of winning and a 50\% chance of nothing. Even though both individuals have the same chance at each monetary price, they will assign different values to the potential outcomes , according to their income levels. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. Ramsey's Theoretic Approach to Subjective Probability In 1926, Frank Ramsey introduced the Ramsey's Representation Theorem. This representation theorem for expected utility assumed that preferences are defined over set of bets where each option has a different yield. Ramsey believed that we always choose decisions to receive the best expected outcome according to our personal preferences. This implies that if we are able to understand the priorities and personal preferences of an individual we can anticipate what choices they are going to take. In this model he defined numerical utilities for each option to exploit the richness of the space of prices. The outcome of each preference is exclusive from each other. For example, if you study, then you can't see your friends, however you will get a good grade in your course. In this scenario, if we analyze what are his personal preferences and beliefs we will be able to predict which he might choose. (e.g. if someone prioritizes more his social life than academic results, he will go out with her friends). Assuming that the decisions of a person are rational, according to this theorem we should be able to know the beliefs and utilities from a person just by looking the choices someone takes (which is wrong). Ramsey defines a proposition as “ethically neutral” when two possible outcome has an equal value. In other words, if the probability can be defined in terms of preference, each proposition should have ½ in order to be indifferent between both options. Ramsey shows that: P(E)=(1−U(m)(U(b)−U(w)) Savage's Subjective Expected Utility Representation In the 1950s, Leonard Jimmie Savage, an American statistician, derived a framework for comprehending expected utility. At that point, it was considered the first and most thorough foundation to understanding the concept. Savage's framework involved proving that expected utility could be used to make an optimal choice among several acts through seven axioms. In his book, The Foundations of Statistics, Savage integrated a normative account of decision making under risk (when probabilities are known) and under uncertainty (when probabilities are not objectively known). Savage concluded that people have neutral attitudes towards uncertainty and that observation is enough to predict the probabilities of uncertain events. A crucial methodological aspect of Savage's framework is its focus on observable choices. Cognitive processes and other psychological aspects of decision making matter only to the extent that they have directly measurable implications on choice. The theory of subjective expected utility combines two concepts: first, a personal utility function, and second a personal probability distribution (usually based on Bayesian probability theory). This theoretical model has been known for its clear and elegant structure and its considered for some researchers one of “the most brilliant axiomatic theory of utility ever developed”. Instead assuming the probability of an event, Savage defines it in terms of preferences over acts. Savage used the states (something that is not in your control) to calculate the probability of an event. On the other hand, he used utility and intrinsic preferences to predict the outcome of the event. Savage assumed that each act and state are enough to uniquely determine an outcome. However, this assumption breaks in the cases where the individual doesn't have enough information about the event. Additionally, he believed that outcomes must have the same utility regardless of the state. For that reason, it is essential to correctly identify which statement is considered an outcome. For example, if someone says “I got the job” this affirmation is not considered an outcome, since the utility of the statement will be different on each person depending on intrinsic factors such as financial necessity or judgments about the company. For that reason, no state can rule out the performance of any act, only when the state and the act are evaluated simultaneously you will be able to determine an outcome with certainty. Savage's Representation Theorem Savage Representation Theorem (Savage, 1954) A preference < satisfies P1-P7 if and only if there is a finitely additive probability measure P and a function u : C → R such that for every pair of acts f and g. f < g ⇐⇒ Z Ω u(f(ω)) dP ≥ Z Ω u(g(ω)) dP *If and only if all the axioms are satisfied when can used the information to reduce the uncertainty about the events that are out of your control. Additionally the theorem ranks the outcome according to utility function that reflects the personal preferences. Key Ingredients: The key ingredients in Savage's theory are: States: The specification of every aspect of the decision problem at hand or “A description of the world leaving no relevant aspect undescribed.” Events: A set of states identified by someone Consequences: A consequence is the description of all that is relevant to the decision maker's utility (e.g. monetary rewards, psychological factors, etc) Acts: An act is a finite-valued function that maps states to consequences. Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem The von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms There are four axioms of the expected utility theory that define a rational decision maker. They are completeness, transitivity, independence and continuity. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences and can always decide between any two alternatives. Axiom (Completeness): For every A and B either or or both. This means that the individual prefers A to B, B to A or is indifferent between A and B. Transitivity assumes that, as an individual decides according to the completeness axiom, the individual also decides consistently. Axiom (Transitivity): For every A, B and C with and we must have . Independence of irrelevant alternatives pertains to well-defined preferences as well. It assumes that two gambles mixed with an irrelevant third one will maintain the same order of preference as when the two are presented independently of the third one. The independence axiom is the most controversial axiom.. Axiom (Independence of irrelevant alternatives): Let A, B, and C be three lotteries with , and let be the probability that a third choice is present: ; if then the third choice, C, is irrelevant, and the order of preference for A before B holds, independently of the presence of C. Continuity assumes that when there are three lotteries (A, B and C) and the individual prefers A to B and B to C, then there should be a possible combination of A and C in which the individual is then indifferent between this mix and the lottery B. Axiom (Continuity): Let A, B and C be lotteries with ; then there exists a probability p such that B is equally good as . If all these axioms are satisfied, then the individual is said to be rational and the preferences can be represented by a utility function, i.e. one can assign numbers (utilities) to each outcome of the lottery such that choosing the best lottery according to the preference amounts to choosing the lottery with the highest expected utility. This result is called the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility representation theorem. In other words, if an individual's behavior always satisfies the above axioms, then there is a utility function such that the individual will choose one gamble over another if and only if the expected utility of one exceeds that of the other. The expected utility of any gamble may be expressed as a linear combination of the utilities of the outcomes, with the weights being the respective probabilities. Utility functions are also normally continuous functions. Such utility functions are also referred to as von Neumann–Morgenstern (vNM) utility functions. This is a central theme of the expected utility hypothesis in which an individual chooses not the highest expected value, but rather the highest expected utility. The expected utility maximizing individual makes decisions rationally based on the axioms of the theory. The von Neumann–Morgenstern formulation is important in the application of set theory to economics because it was developed shortly after the Hicks–Allen "ordinal revolution" of the 1930s, and it revived the idea of cardinal utility in economic theory. However, while in this context the utility function is cardinal, in that implied behavior would be altered by a non-linear monotonic transformation of utility, the expected utility function is ordinal because any monotonic increasing transformation of expected utility gives the same behavior. Examples of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions The utility function was originally suggested by Bernoulli (see above). It has relative risk aversion constant and equal to one, and is still sometimes assumed in economic analyses. The utility function exhibits constant absolute risk aversion, and for this reason is often avoided, although it has the advantage of offering substantial mathematical tractability when asset returns are normally distributed. Note that, as per the affine transformation property alluded to above, the utility function gives exactly the same preferences orderings as does ; thus it is irrelevant that the values of and its expected value are always negative: what matters for preference ordering is which of two gambles gives the higher expected utility, not the numerical values of those expected utilities. The class of constant relative risk aversion utility functions contains three categories. Bernoulli's utility function has relative risk aversion equal to 1. The functions for have relative risk aversion equal to . And the functions for have relative risk aversion equal to See also the discussion of utility functions having hyperbolic absolute risk aversion (HARA). Formula for Expected Utility When the entity whose value affects a person's utility takes on one of a set of discrete values, the formula for expected utility, which is assumed to be maximized, is where the left side is the subjective valuation of the gamble as a whole, is the ith possible outcome, is its valuation, and is its probability. There could be either a finite set of possible values in which case the right side of this equation has a finite number of terms; or there could be an infinite set of discrete values, in which case the right side has an infinite number of terms. When can take on any of a continuous range of values, the expected utility is given by where is the probability density function of Measuring risk in the expected utility context Often people refer to "risk" in the sense of a potentially quantifiable entity. In the context of mean-variance analysis, variance is used as a risk measure for portfolio return; however, this is only valid if returns are normally distributed or otherwise jointly elliptically distributed, or in the unlikely case in which the utility function has a quadratic form. However, David E. Bell proposed a measure of risk which follows naturally from a certain class of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions. Let utility of wealth be given by for individual-specific positive parameters a and b. Then expected utility is given by Thus the risk measure is , which differs between two individuals if they have different values of the parameter allowing different people to disagree about the degree of risk associated with any given portfolio. Individuals sharing a given risk measure (based on given value of a) may choose different portfolios because they may have different values of b. See also Entropic risk measure. For general utility functions, however, expected utility analysis does not permit the expression of preferences to be separated into two parameters with one representing the expected value of the variable in question and the other representing its risk. Criticism Expected utility theory is a theory about how to make optimal decisions under a given probability of risk. It has a normative interpretation which economists used to think applies in all situations to rational agents but now tend to regard as a useful and insightful first order approximation. In empirical applications, a number of violations have been proven to be systematic and these falsifications have deepened understanding of how people actually decide. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979 presented their prospect theory which showed empirically, how preferences of individuals are inconsistent among the same choices, depending on how those choices are presented. This is mainly because people are different in terms of their preferences and parameters. Additionally, personal behaviors may be different between individuals even when they are facing the same choice problem. Like any mathematical model, expected utility theory is a simplification of reality. The mathematical correctness of expected utility theory and the salience of its primitive concepts do not guarantee that expected utility theory is a reliable guide to human behavior or optimal practice. The mathematical clarity of expected utility theory has helped scientists design experiments to test its adequacy, and to distinguish systematic departures from its predictions. This has led to the field of behavioral finance, which has produced deviations from expected utility theory to account for the empirical facts. Other critics argue applying expected utility to economic and policy decisions, has engendered inappropriate valuations, particularly in scenarios in which monetary units are used to scale the utility of nonmonetary outcomes, such as deaths. Conservatism in updating beliefs Psychologists have discovered systematic violations of probability calculations and behavior by humans. This have been evidenced with examples such as the Monty Hall problem where it was demonstrated that people do not revise their degrees on belief in line with experimented probabilities and also that probabilities cannot be apply to single cases. On the other hand, in updating probability distributions using evidence, a standard method uses conditional probability, namely the rule of Bayes. An experiment on belief revision has suggested that humans change their beliefs faster when using Bayesian methods than when using informal judgment.Subjects changed their beliefs faster by conditioning on evidence (Bayes's theorem) than by using informal reasoning, according to a classic study by the psychologist Ward Edwards: According to the empirical results there has been almost no recognition in decision theory of the distinction between the problem of justifying its theoretical claims regarding the properties of rational belief and desire. One of the main reasons is because people's basic tastes and preferences for losses cannot be represented with utility as they change under different scenarios. Irrational deviations Behavioral finance has produced several generalized expected utility theories to account for instances where people's choices deviate from those predicted by expected utility theory. These deviations are described as "irrational" because they can depend on the way the problem is presented, not on the actual costs, rewards, or probabilities involved. Particular theories include prospect theory, rank-dependent expected utility and cumulative prospect theory are considered insufficient to predict preferences and the expected utility. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. This is because preferences and utility functions constructed under different contexts are significantly different. This is demonstrated in the contrast of individual preferences under the insurance and lottery context shows the degree of indeterminacy of the expected utility theory. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. In practice there will be many situations where the probabilities are unknown, and one is operating under uncertainty. In economics, Knightian uncertainty or ambiguity may occur. Thus one must make assumptions about the probabilities, but then the expected values of various decisions can be very sensitive to the assumptions. This is particularly a problem when the expectation is dominated by rare extreme events, as in a long-tailed distribution. Alternative decision techniques are robust to uncertainty of probability of outcomes, either not depending on probabilities of outcomes and only requiring scenario analysis (as in minimax or minimax regret), or being less sensitive to assumptions. Bayesian approaches to probability treat it as a degree of belief and thus they do not draw a distinction between risk and a wider concept of uncertainty: they deny the existence of Knightian uncertainty. They would model uncertain probabilities with hierarchical models, i.e. where the uncertain probabilities are modelled as distributions whose parameters are themselves drawn from a higher-level distribution (hyperpriors). Preference reversals over uncertain outcomes Starting with studies such as Lichtenstein & Slovic (1971), it was discovered that subjects sometimes exhibit signs of preference reversals with regard to their certainty equivalents of different lotteries. Specifically, when eliciting certainty equivalents, subjects tend to value "p bets" (lotteries with a high chance of winning a low prize) lower than "$ bets" (lotteries with a small chance of winning a large prize). When subjects are asked which lotteries they prefer in direct comparison, however, they frequently prefer the "p bets" over "$ bets". Many studies have examined this "preference reversal", from both an experimental (e.g., Plott & Grether, 1979) and theoretical (e.g., Holt, 1986) standpoint, indicating that this behavior can be brought into accordance with neoclassical economic theory under specific assumptions. | The St. Petersburg Paradox The St. Petersburg paradox created by Nicolas Bernoulli (cousin of Daniel Bernoulli) empirically discovered that the decisions of rational individuals sometimes violate the axioms of preferences. When a probability distribution function has an infinite expected value, it is expected that a rational person would pay an arbitrarily large finite amount to take this gamble. However, this experiment demonstrated that there is no upper bound on the potential rewards from very low probability events. In his experimental game, a person had to flip a coin as many times as possible until it was tails. The participant's prize will be determined by the number of times the coin was turned heads consecutively. For every time the coin comes up heads (1/2 probability), the participant's prize will be doubled. The game ends when the participant flips the coin and it comes out a tail. According to the axioms of preferences, a player should be willing to pay a high price to play because his entry cost will always be less than the expected value of the game, since he could potentially win an infinite payout. However, in reality, people don't do this. “Only a few of the participants were willing to pay a maximum of $25 to enter the game because many of them were risk averse and unwilling to bet on a very small possibility at a very high price. Bernoulli's Formulation Nicolas Bernoulli described the St. Petersburg paradox (involving infinite expected values) in 1713, prompting two Swiss mathematicians to develop expected utility theory as a solution. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. He used this concept to formalize the idea that the same amount of additional money was less useful to an already-wealthy person than it would be to a poor person. The theory can also more accurately describe more realistic scenarios (where expected values are finite) than expected value alone, He proposed that a nonlinear function of utility of an outcome should be used instead of the expected value of an outcome, accounting for risk aversion, where the risk premium is higher for low-probability events than the difference between the payout level of a particular outcome and its expected value. Bernoulli further proposed that it was not the goal of the gambler to maximize his expected gain but to instead maximize the logarithm of his gain. Nicolas Bernoulli drew attention to psychological and behavioral behind the individual's decision-making process and found that the utility of wealth has a diminishing marginal utility. For example, as someone gets wealthier, an extra dollar or an additional good is perceived as less valuable. In other words, he found that the desirability related with a financial gain depends not only on the gain itself buy also on the wealth of the person. He suggested that people maximize "moral expectation" rather than expected monetary value. Bernoulli made a clear distinction between expected value and expected utility. Instead of using the weighted outcomes, he used the weighted utility multiplied by probabilities. He proved that the utility function used in real life means is finite, even when its expected value is infinite. Other experiments proposed that very low probability events are neglected by considering the finite resources of the participants. For example, it makes rational sense for a rich person, but not for a poor person to pay 10,000USD in exchange for a lottery ticket that yields a 50\% chance of winning and a 50\% chance of nothing. Even though both individuals have the same chance at each monetary price, they will assign different values to the potential outcomes , according to their income levels. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. Ramsey's Theoretic Approach to Subjective Probability In 1926, Frank Ramsey introduced the Ramsey's Representation Theorem. This representation theorem for expected utility assumed that preferences are defined over set of bets where each option has a different yield. Ramsey believed that we always choose decisions to receive the best expected outcome according to our personal preferences. This implies that if we are able to understand the priorities and personal preferences of an individual we can anticipate what choices they are going to take. In this model he defined numerical utilities for each option to exploit the richness of the space of prices. The outcome of each preference is exclusive from each other. For example, if you study, then you can't see your friends, however you will get a good grade in your course. In this scenario, if we analyze what are his personal preferences and beliefs we will be able to predict which he might choose. (e.g. if someone prioritizes more his social life than academic results, they will go out with their friends). Assuming that the decisions of a person are rational, according to this theorem we should be able to know the beliefs and utilities from a person just by looking the choices someone takes (which is wrong). Ramsey defines a proposition as “ethically neutral” when two possible outcome has an equal value. In other words, if the probability can be defined in terms of preference, each proposition should have ½ in order to be indifferent between both options. Ramsey shows that: P(E)=(1−U(m)(U(b)−U(w)) Savage's Subjective Expected Utility Representation In the 1950s, Leonard Jimmie Savage, an American statistician, derived a framework for comprehending expected utility. At that point, it was considered the first and most thorough foundation to understanding the concept. Savage's framework involved proving that expected utility could be used to make an optimal choice among several acts through seven axioms. In his book, The Foundations of Statistics, Savage integrated a normative account of decision making under risk (when probabilities are known) and under uncertainty (when probabilities are not objectively known). Savage concluded that people have neutral attitudes towards uncertainty and that observation is enough to predict the probabilities of uncertain events. A crucial methodological aspect of Savage's framework is its focus on observable choices. Cognitive processes and other psychological aspects of decision making matter only to the extent that they have directly measurable implications on choice. The theory of subjective expected utility combines two concepts: first, a personal utility function, and second a personal probability distribution (usually based on Bayesian probability theory). This theoretical model has been known for its clear and elegant structure and its considered for some researchers one of “the most brilliant axiomatic theory of utility ever developed”. Instead assuming the probability of an event, Savage defines it in terms of preferences over acts. Savage used the states (something that is not in your control) to calculate the probability of an event. On the other hand, he used utility and intrinsic preferences to predict the outcome of the event. Savage assumed that each act and state are enough to uniquely determine an outcome. However, this assumption breaks in the cases where the individual doesn't have enough information about the event. Additionally, he believed that outcomes must have the same utility regardless of the state. For that reason, it is essential to correctly identify which statement is considered an outcome. For example, if someone says “I got the job” this affirmation is not considered an outcome, since the utility of the statement will be different on each person depending on intrinsic factors such as financial necessity or judgments about the company. For that reason, no state can rule out the performance of any act, only when the state and the act are evaluated simultaneously you will be able to determine an outcome with certainty. Savage's Representation Theorem Savage Representation Theorem (Savage, 1954) A preference < satisfies P1-P7 if and only if there is a finitely additive probability measure P and a function u : C → R such that for every pair of acts f and g. f < g ⇐⇒ Z Ω u(f(ω)) dP ≥ Z Ω u(g(ω)) dP *If and only if all the axioms are satisfied when can used the information to reduce the uncertainty about the events that are out of your control. Additionally the theorem ranks the outcome according to utility function that reflects the personal preferences. Key Ingredients: The key ingredients in Savage's theory are: States: The specification of every aspect of the decision problem at hand or “A description of the world leaving no relevant aspect undescribed.” Events: A set of states identified by someone Consequences: A consequence is the description of all that is relevant to the decision maker's utility (e.g. monetary rewards, psychological factors, etc) Acts: An act is a finite-valued function that maps states to consequences. Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem The von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms There are four axioms of the expected utility theory that define a rational decision maker. They are completeness, transitivity, independence and continuity. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences and can always decide between any two alternatives. Axiom (Completeness): For every A and B either or or both. This means that the individual prefers A to B, B to A or is indifferent between A and B. Transitivity assumes that, as an individual decides according to the completeness axiom, the individual also decides consistently. Axiom (Transitivity): For every A, B and C with and we must have . Independence of irrelevant alternatives pertains to well-defined preferences as well. It assumes that two gambles mixed with an irrelevant third one will maintain the same order of preference as when the two are presented independently of the third one. The independence axiom is the most controversial axiom.. Axiom (Independence of irrelevant alternatives): Let A, B, and C be three lotteries with , and let be the probability that a third choice is present: ; if then the third choice, C, is irrelevant, and the order of preference for A before B holds, independently of the presence of C. Continuity assumes that when there are three lotteries (A, B and C) and the individual prefers A to B and B to C, then there should be a possible combination of A and C in which the individual is then indifferent between this mix and the lottery B. Axiom (Continuity): Let A, B and C be lotteries with ; then there exists a probability p such that B is equally good as . If all these axioms are satisfied, then the individual is said to be rational and the preferences can be represented by a utility function, i.e. one can assign numbers (utilities) to each outcome of the lottery such that choosing the best lottery according to the preference amounts to choosing the lottery with the highest expected utility. This result is called the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility representation theorem. In other words, if an individual's behavior always satisfies the above axioms, then there is a utility function such that the individual will choose one gamble over another if and only if the expected utility of one exceeds that of the other. The expected utility of any gamble may be expressed as a linear combination of the utilities of the outcomes, with the weights being the respective probabilities. Utility functions are also normally continuous functions. Such utility functions are also referred to as von Neumann–Morgenstern (vNM) utility functions. This is a central theme of the expected utility hypothesis in which an individual chooses not the highest expected value, but rather the highest expected utility. The expected utility maximizing individual makes decisions rationally based on the axioms of the theory. The von Neumann–Morgenstern formulation is important in the application of set theory to economics because it was developed shortly after the Hicks–Allen "ordinal revolution" of the 1930s, and it revived the idea of cardinal utility in economic theory. However, while in this context the utility function is cardinal, in that implied behavior would be altered by a non-linear monotonic transformation of utility, the expected utility function is ordinal because any monotonic increasing transformation of expected utility gives the same behavior. Examples of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions The utility function was originally suggested by Bernoulli (see above). It has relative risk aversion constant and equal to one, and is still sometimes assumed in economic analyses. The utility function exhibits constant absolute risk aversion, and for this reason is often avoided, although it has the advantage of offering substantial mathematical tractability when asset returns are normally distributed. Note that, as per the affine transformation property alluded to above, the utility function gives exactly the same preferences orderings as does ; thus it is irrelevant that the values of and its expected value are always negative: what matters for preference ordering is which of two gambles gives the higher expected utility, not the numerical values of those expected utilities. The class of constant relative risk aversion utility functions contains three categories. Bernoulli's utility function has relative risk aversion equal to 1. The functions for have relative risk aversion equal to . And the functions for have relative risk aversion equal to See also the discussion of utility functions having hyperbolic absolute risk aversion (HARA). Formula for Expected Utility When the entity whose value affects a person's utility takes on one of a set of discrete values, the formula for expected utility, which is assumed to be maximized, is where the left side is the subjective valuation of the gamble as a whole, is the ith possible outcome, is its valuation, and is its probability. There could be either a finite set of possible values in which case the right side of this equation has a finite number of terms; or there could be an infinite set of discrete values, in which case the right side has an infinite number of terms. When can take on any of a continuous range of values, the expected utility is given by where is the probability density function of Measuring risk in the expected utility context Often people refer to "risk" in the sense of a potentially quantifiable entity. In the context of mean-variance analysis, variance is used as a risk measure for portfolio return; however, this is only valid if returns are normally distributed or otherwise jointly elliptically distributed, or in the unlikely case in which the utility function has a quadratic form. However, David E. Bell proposed a measure of risk which follows naturally from a certain class of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions. Let utility of wealth be given by for individual-specific positive parameters a and b. Then expected utility is given by Thus the risk measure is , which differs between two individuals if they have different values of the parameter allowing different people to disagree about the degree of risk associated with any given portfolio. Individuals sharing a given risk measure (based on given value of a) may choose different portfolios because they may have different values of b. See also Entropic risk measure. For general utility functions, however, expected utility analysis does not permit the expression of preferences to be separated into two parameters with one representing the expected value of the variable in question and the other representing its risk. Criticism Expected utility theory is a theory about how to make optimal decisions under a given probability of risk. It has a normative interpretation which economists used to think applies in all situations to rational agents but now tend to regard as a useful and insightful first order approximation. In empirical applications, a number of violations have been proven to be systematic and these falsifications have deepened understanding of how people actually decide. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979 presented their prospect theory which showed empirically, how preferences of individuals are inconsistent among the same choices, depending on how those choices are presented. This is mainly because people are different in terms of their preferences and parameters. Additionally, personal behaviors may be different between individuals even when they are facing the same choice problem. Like any mathematical model, expected utility theory is a simplification of reality. The mathematical correctness of expected utility theory and the salience of its primitive concepts do not guarantee that expected utility theory is a reliable guide to human behavior or optimal practice. The mathematical clarity of expected utility theory has helped scientists design experiments to test its adequacy, and to distinguish systematic departures from its predictions. This has led to the field of behavioral finance, which has produced deviations from expected utility theory to account for the empirical facts. Other critics argue applying expected utility to economic and policy decisions, has engendered inappropriate valuations, particularly in scenarios in which monetary units are used to scale the utility of nonmonetary outcomes, such as deaths. Conservatism in updating beliefs Psychologists have discovered systematic violations of probability calculations and behavior by humans. This have been evidenced with examples such as the Monty Hall problem where it was demonstrated that people do not revise their degrees on belief in line with experimented probabilities and also that probabilities cannot be apply to single cases. On the other hand, in updating probability distributions using evidence, a standard method uses conditional probability, namely the rule of Bayes. An experiment on belief revision has suggested that humans change their beliefs faster when using Bayesian methods than when using informal judgment.Subjects changed their beliefs faster by conditioning on evidence (Bayes's theorem) than by using informal reasoning, according to a classic study by the psychologist Ward Edwards: According to the empirical results there has been almost no recognition in decision theory of the distinction between the problem of justifying its theoretical claims regarding the properties of rational belief and desire. One of the main reasons is because people's basic tastes and preferences for losses cannot be represented with utility as they change under different scenarios. Irrational deviations Behavioral finance has produced several generalized expected utility theories to account for instances where people's choices deviate from those predicted by expected utility theory. These deviations are described as "irrational" because they can depend on the way the problem is presented, not on the actual costs, rewards, or probabilities involved. Particular theories include prospect theory, rank-dependent expected utility and cumulative prospect theory are considered insufficient to predict preferences and the expected utility. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. This is because preferences and utility functions constructed under different contexts are significantly different. This is demonstrated in the contrast of individual preferences under the insurance and lottery context shows the degree of indeterminacy of the expected utility theory. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. In practice there will be many situations where the probabilities are unknown, and one is operating under uncertainty. In economics, Knightian uncertainty or ambiguity may occur. Thus one must make assumptions about the probabilities, but then the expected values of various decisions can be very sensitive to the assumptions. This is particularly a problem when the expectation is dominated by rare extreme events, as in a long-tailed distribution. Alternative decision techniques are robust to uncertainty of probability of outcomes, either not depending on probabilities of outcomes and only requiring scenario analysis (as in minimax or minimax regret), or being less sensitive to assumptions. Bayesian approaches to probability treat it as a degree of belief and thus they do not draw a distinction between risk and a wider concept of uncertainty: they deny the existence of Knightian uncertainty. They would model uncertain probabilities with hierarchical models, i.e. where the uncertain probabilities are modelled as distributions whose parameters are themselves drawn from a higher-level distribution (hyperpriors). Preference reversals over uncertain outcomes Starting with studies such as Lichtenstein & Slovic (1971), it was discovered that subjects sometimes exhibit signs of preference reversals with regard to their certainty equivalents of different lotteries. Specifically, when eliciting certainty equivalents, subjects tend to value "p bets" (lotteries with a high chance of winning a low prize) lower than "$ bets" (lotteries with a small chance of winning a large prize). When subjects are asked which lotteries they prefer in direct comparison, however, they frequently prefer the "p bets" over "$ bets". Many studies have examined this "preference reversal", from both an experimental (e.g., Plott & Grether, 1979) and theoretical (e.g., Holt, 1986) standpoint, indicating that this behavior can be brought into accordance with neoclassical economic theory under specific assumptions. | [
{
"type": "R",
"before": "$25 to enter the game because many of them were risk averse and unwilling to bet on a very small possibility at a very high price. Bernoulli's Formulation Nicolas Bernoulli described the St. Petersburg paradox (involving infinite expected values) in 1713, prompting two Swiss mathematicians to develop expected utility theory as a solution. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. He used this concept to formalize the idea that the same amount of additional money was less useful to an already-wealthy person than it would be to a poor person. The theory can also more accurately describe more realistic scenarios (where expected values are finite) than expected value alone, He proposed that a nonlinear function of utility of an outcome should be used instead of the expected value of an outcome, accounting for risk aversion, where the risk premium is higher for low-probability events than the difference between the payout level of a particular outcome and its expected value. Bernoulli further proposed that it was not the goal of the gambler to maximize his expected gain but to instead maximize the logarithm of his gain. Nicolas Bernoulli drew attention to psychological and behavioral behind the individual's decision-making process and found that the utility of wealth has a diminishing marginal utility. For example, as someone gets wealthier, an extra dollar or an additional good is perceived as less valuable. In other words, he found that the desirability related with a financial gain depends not only on the gain itself buy also on the wealth of the person. He suggested that people maximize \"moral expectation\" rather than expected monetary value. Bernoulli made a clear distinction between expected value and expected utility. Instead of using the weighted outcomes, he used the weighted utility multiplied by probabilities. He proved that the utility function used in real life means is finite, even when its expected value is infinite. Other experiments proposed that very low probability events are neglected by considering the finite resources of the participants. For example, it makes rational sense for a rich person, but not for a poor person to pay 10,000USD in exchange for a lottery ticket that yields a 50\\% chance of winning and a 50\\% chance of nothing. Even though both individuals have the same chance at each monetary price, they will assign different values to the potential outcomes , according to their income levels. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. Ramsey's Theoretic Approach to Subjective Probability In 1926, Frank Ramsey introduced the Ramsey's Representation Theorem. This representation theorem for expected utility assumed that preferences are defined over set of bets where each option has a different yield. Ramsey believed that we always choose decisions to receive the best expected outcome according to our personal preferences. This implies that if we are able to understand the priorities and personal preferences of an individual we can anticipate what choices they are going to take. In this model he defined numerical utilities for each option to exploit the richness of the space of prices. The outcome of each preference is exclusive from each other. For example, if you study, then you can't see your friends, however you will get a good grade in your course. In this scenario, if we analyze what are his personal preferences and beliefs we will be able to predict which he might choose. (e.g. if someone prioritizes more his social life than academic results, he will go out with her friends). Assuming that the decisions of a person are rational, according to this theorem we should be able to know the beliefs and utilities from a person just by looking the choices someone takes (which is wrong). Ramsey defines a proposition as “ethically neutral” when two possible outcome has an equal value. In other words, if the probability can be defined in terms of preference, each proposition should have ½ in order to be indifferent between both options. Ramsey shows that: P(E)=(1−U(m)(U(b)−U(w)) Savage's Subjective Expected Utility Representation In the 1950s, Leonard Jimmie Savage, an American statistician, derived a framework for comprehending expected utility. At that point, it was considered the first and most thorough foundation to understanding the concept. Savage's framework involved proving that expected utility could be used to make an optimal choice among several acts through seven axioms. In his book, The Foundations of Statistics, Savage integrated a normative account of decision making under risk (when probabilities are known) and under uncertainty (when probabilities are not objectively known). Savage concluded that people have neutral attitudes towards uncertainty and that observation is enough to predict the probabilities of uncertain events. A crucial methodological aspect of Savage's framework is its focus on observable choices. Cognitive processes and other psychological aspects of decision making matter only to the extent that they have directly measurable implications on choice. The theory of subjective expected utility combines two concepts: first, a personal utility function, and second a personal probability distribution (usually based on Bayesian probability theory). This theoretical model has been known for its clear and elegant structure and its considered for some researchers one of “the most brilliant axiomatic theory of utility ever developed”. Instead assuming the probability of an event, Savage defines it in terms of preferences over acts. Savage used the states (something that is not in your control) to calculate the probability of an event. On the other hand, he used utility and intrinsic preferences to predict the outcome of the event. Savage assumed that each act and state are enough to uniquely determine an outcome. However, this assumption breaks in the cases where the individual doesn't have enough information about the event. Additionally, he believed that outcomes must have the same utility regardless of the state. For that reason, it is essential to correctly identify which statement is considered an outcome. For example, if someone says “I got the job” this affirmation is not considered an outcome, since the utility of the statement will be different on each person depending on intrinsic factors such as financial necessity or judgments about the company. For that reason, no state can rule out the performance of any act, only when the state and the act are evaluated simultaneously you will be able to determine an outcome with certainty. Savage's Representation Theorem Savage Representation Theorem (Savage, 1954) A preference < satisfies P1-P7 if and only if there is a finitely additive probability measure P and a function u : C → R such that for every pair of acts f and g. f < g ⇐⇒ Z Ω u(f(ω)) dP ≥ Z Ω u(g(ω)) dP *If and only if all the axioms are satisfied when can used the information to reduce the uncertainty about the events that are out of your control. Additionally the theorem ranks the outcome according to utility function that reflects the personal preferences. Key Ingredients: The key ingredients in Savage's theory are: States: The specification of every aspect of the decision problem at hand or “A description of the world leaving no relevant aspect undescribed.” Events: A set of states identified by someone Consequences: A consequence is the description of all that is relevant to the decision maker's utility (e.g. monetary rewards, psychological factors, etc) Acts: An act is a finite-valued function that maps states to consequences. Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem The von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms There are four axioms of the expected utility theory that define a rational decision maker. They are completeness, transitivity, independence and continuity. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences and can always decide between any two alternatives. Axiom (Completeness): For every A and B either or or both. This means that the individual prefers A to B, B to A or is indifferent between A and B. Transitivity assumes that, as an individual decides according to the completeness axiom, the individual also decides consistently. Axiom (Transitivity): For every A, B and C with and we must have . Independence of irrelevant alternatives pertains to well-defined preferences as well. It assumes that two gambles mixed with an irrelevant third one will maintain the same order of preference as when the two are presented independently of the third one. The independence axiom is the most controversial axiom.. Axiom (Independence of irrelevant alternatives): Let A, B, and C be three lotteries with , and let be the probability that a third choice is present: ; if then the third choice, C, is irrelevant, and the order of preference for A before B holds, independently of the presence of C. Continuity assumes that when there are three lotteries (A, B and C) and the individual prefers A to B and B to C, then there should be a possible combination of A and C in which the individual is then indifferent between this mix and the lottery B. Axiom (Continuity): Let A, B and C be lotteries with ; then there exists a probability p such that B is equally good as . If all these axioms are satisfied, then the individual is said to be rational and the preferences can be represented by a utility function, i.e. one can assign numbers (utilities) to each outcome of the lottery such that choosing the best lottery according to the preference amounts to choosing the lottery with the highest expected utility. This result is called the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility representation theorem. In other words, if an individual's behavior always satisfies the above axioms, then there is a utility function such that the individual will choose one gamble over another if and only if the expected utility of one exceeds that of the other. The expected utility of any gamble may be expressed as a linear combination of the utilities of the outcomes, with the weights being the respective probabilities. Utility functions are also normally continuous functions. Such utility functions are also referred to as von Neumann–Morgenstern (vNM) utility functions. This is a central theme of the expected utility hypothesis in which an individual chooses not the highest expected value, but rather the highest expected utility. The expected utility maximizing individual makes decisions rationally based on the axioms of the theory. The von Neumann–Morgenstern formulation is important in the application of set theory to economics because it was developed shortly after the Hicks–Allen \"ordinal revolution\" of the 1930s, and it revived the idea of cardinal utility in economic theory. However, while in this context the utility function is cardinal, in that implied behavior would be altered by a non-linear monotonic transformation of utility, the expected utility function is ordinal because any monotonic increasing transformation of expected utility gives the same behavior. Examples of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions The utility function was originally suggested by Bernoulli (see above). It has relative risk aversion constant and equal to one, and is still sometimes assumed in economic analyses. The utility function exhibits constant absolute risk aversion, and for this reason is often avoided, although it has the advantage of offering substantial mathematical tractability when asset returns are normally distributed. Note that, as per the affine transformation property alluded to above, the utility function gives exactly the same preferences orderings as does ; thus it is irrelevant that the values of and its expected value are always negative: what matters for preference ordering is which of two gambles gives the higher expected utility, not the numerical values of those expected utilities. The class of constant relative risk aversion utility functions contains three categories. Bernoulli's utility function has relative risk aversion equal to 1. The functions for have relative risk aversion equal to . And the functions for have relative risk aversion equal to See also the discussion of utility functions having hyperbolic absolute risk aversion (HARA). Formula for Expected Utility When the entity whose value affects a person's utility takes on one of a set of discrete values, the formula for expected utility, which is assumed to be maximized, is where the left side is the subjective valuation of the gamble as a whole, is the ith possible outcome, is its valuation, and is its probability. There could be either a finite set of possible values in which case the right side of this equation has a finite number of terms; or there could be an infinite set of discrete values, in which case the right side has an infinite number of terms. When can take on any of a continuous range of values, the expected utility is given by where is the probability density function of Measuring risk in the expected utility context Often people refer to \"risk\" in the sense of a potentially quantifiable entity. In the context of mean-variance analysis, variance is used as a risk measure for portfolio return; however, this is only valid if returns are normally distributed or otherwise jointly elliptically distributed, or in the unlikely case in which the utility function has a quadratic form. However, David E. Bell proposed a measure of risk which follows naturally from a certain class of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions. Let utility of wealth be given by for individual-specific positive parameters a and b. Then expected utility is given by Thus the risk measure is , which differs between two individuals if they have different values of the parameter allowing different people to disagree about the degree of risk associated with any given portfolio. Individuals sharing a given risk measure (based on given value of a) may choose different portfolios because they may have different values of b. See also Entropic risk measure. For general utility functions, however, expected utility analysis does not permit the expression of preferences to be separated into two parameters with one representing the expected value of the variable in question and the other representing its risk. Criticism Expected utility theory is a theory about how to make optimal decisions under a given probability of risk. It has a normative interpretation which economists used to think applies in all situations to rational agents but now tend to regard as a useful and insightful first order approximation. In empirical applications, a number of violations have been proven to be systematic and these falsifications have deepened understanding of how people actually decide. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979 presented their prospect theory which showed empirically, how preferences of individuals are inconsistent among the same choices, depending on how those choices are presented. This is mainly because people are different in terms of their preferences and parameters. Additionally, personal behaviors may be different between individuals even when they are facing the same choice problem. Like any mathematical model, expected utility theory is a simplification of reality. The mathematical correctness of expected utility theory and the salience of its primitive concepts do not guarantee that expected utility theory is a reliable guide to human behavior or optimal practice. The mathematical clarity of expected utility theory has helped scientists design experiments to test its adequacy, and to distinguish systematic departures from its predictions. This has led to the field of behavioral finance, which has produced deviations from expected utility theory to account for the empirical facts. Other critics argue applying expected utility to economic and policy decisions, has engendered inappropriate valuations, particularly in scenarios in which monetary units are used to scale the utility of nonmonetary outcomes, such as deaths. Conservatism in updating beliefs Psychologists have discovered systematic violations of probability calculations and behavior by humans. This have been evidenced with examples such as the Monty Hall problem where it was demonstrated that people do not revise their degrees on belief in line with experimented probabilities and also that probabilities cannot be apply to single cases. On the other hand, in updating probability distributions using evidence, a standard method uses conditional probability, namely the rule of Bayes. An experiment on belief revision has suggested that humans change their beliefs faster when using Bayesian methods than when using informal judgment.Subjects changed their beliefs faster by conditioning on evidence (Bayes's theorem) than by using informal reasoning, according to a classic study by the psychologist Ward Edwards: According to the empirical results there has been almost no recognition in decision theory of the distinction between the problem of justifying its theoretical claims regarding the properties of rational belief and desire. One of the main reasons is because people's basic tastes and preferences for losses cannot be represented with utility as they change under different scenarios. Irrational deviations Behavioral finance has produced several generalized expected utility theories to account for instances where people's choices deviate from those predicted by expected utility theory. These deviations are described as \"irrational\" because they can depend on the way the problem is presented, not on the actual costs, rewards, or probabilities involved. Particular theories include prospect theory, rank-dependent expected utility and cumulative prospect theory are considered insufficient to predict preferences and the expected utility. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. This is because preferences and utility functions constructed under different contexts are significantly different. This is demonstrated in the contrast of individual preferences under the insurance and lottery context shows the degree of indeterminacy of the expected utility theory. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. In practice there will be many situations where the probabilities are unknown, and one is operating under uncertainty. In economics, Knightian uncertainty or ambiguity may occur. Thus one must make assumptions about the probabilities, but then the expected values of various decisions can be very sensitive to the assumptions. This is particularly a problem when the expectation is dominated by rare extreme events, as in a long-tailed distribution. Alternative decision techniques are robust to uncertainty of probability of outcomes, either not depending on probabilities of outcomes and only requiring scenario analysis (as in minimax or minimax regret), or being less sensitive to assumptions. Bayesian approaches to probability treat it as a degree of belief and thus they do not draw a distinction between risk and a wider concept of uncertainty: they deny the existence of Knightian uncertainty. They would model uncertain probabilities with hierarchical models, i.e. where the uncertain probabilities are modelled as distributions whose parameters are themselves drawn from a higher-level distribution (hyperpriors). Preference reversals over uncertain outcomes Starting with studies such as Lichtenstein & Slovic (1971), it was discovered that subjects sometimes exhibit signs of preference reversals with regard to their certainty equivalents of different lotteries. Specifically, when eliciting certainty equivalents, subjects tend to value \"p bets\" (lotteries with a high chance of winning a low prize) lower than \"$",
"after": "$25 to enter the game because many of them were risk averse and unwilling to bet on a very small possibility at a very high price. Bernoulli's Formulation Nicolas Bernoulli described the St. Petersburg paradox (involving infinite expected values) in 1713, prompting two Swiss mathematicians to develop expected utility theory as a solution. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. He used this concept to formalize the idea that the same amount of additional money was less useful to an already-wealthy person than it would be to a poor person. The theory can also more accurately describe more realistic scenarios (where expected values are finite) than expected value alone, He proposed that a nonlinear function of utility of an outcome should be used instead of the expected value of an outcome, accounting for risk aversion, where the risk premium is higher for low-probability events than the difference between the payout level of a particular outcome and its expected value. Bernoulli further proposed that it was not the goal of the gambler to maximize his expected gain but to instead maximize the logarithm of his gain. Nicolas Bernoulli drew attention to psychological and behavioral behind the individual's decision-making process and found that the utility of wealth has a diminishing marginal utility. For example, as someone gets wealthier, an extra dollar or an additional good is perceived as less valuable. In other words, he found that the desirability related with a financial gain depends not only on the gain itself buy also on the wealth of the person. He suggested that people maximize \"moral expectation\" rather than expected monetary value. Bernoulli made a clear distinction between expected value and expected utility. Instead of using the weighted outcomes, he used the weighted utility multiplied by probabilities. He proved that the utility function used in real life means is finite, even when its expected value is infinite. Other experiments proposed that very low probability events are neglected by considering the finite resources of the participants. For example, it makes rational sense for a rich person, but not for a poor person to pay 10,000USD in exchange for a lottery ticket that yields a 50\\% chance of winning and a 50\\% chance of nothing. Even though both individuals have the same chance at each monetary price, they will assign different values to the potential outcomes , according to their income levels. Bernoulli's paper was the first formalization of marginal utility, which has broad application in economics in addition to expected utility theory. Ramsey's Theoretic Approach to Subjective Probability In 1926, Frank Ramsey introduced the Ramsey's Representation Theorem. This representation theorem for expected utility assumed that preferences are defined over set of bets where each option has a different yield. Ramsey believed that we always choose decisions to receive the best expected outcome according to our personal preferences. This implies that if we are able to understand the priorities and personal preferences of an individual we can anticipate what choices they are going to take. In this model he defined numerical utilities for each option to exploit the richness of the space of prices. The outcome of each preference is exclusive from each other. For example, if you study, then you can't see your friends, however you will get a good grade in your course. In this scenario, if we analyze what are his personal preferences and beliefs we will be able to predict which he might choose. (e.g. if someone prioritizes more his social life than academic results, they will go out with their friends). Assuming that the decisions of a person are rational, according to this theorem we should be able to know the beliefs and utilities from a person just by looking the choices someone takes (which is wrong). Ramsey defines a proposition as “ethically neutral” when two possible outcome has an equal value. In other words, if the probability can be defined in terms of preference, each proposition should have ½ in order to be indifferent between both options. Ramsey shows that: P(E)=(1−U(m)(U(b)−U(w)) Savage's Subjective Expected Utility Representation In the 1950s, Leonard Jimmie Savage, an American statistician, derived a framework for comprehending expected utility. At that point, it was considered the first and most thorough foundation to understanding the concept. Savage's framework involved proving that expected utility could be used to make an optimal choice among several acts through seven axioms. In his book, The Foundations of Statistics, Savage integrated a normative account of decision making under risk (when probabilities are known) and under uncertainty (when probabilities are not objectively known). Savage concluded that people have neutral attitudes towards uncertainty and that observation is enough to predict the probabilities of uncertain events. A crucial methodological aspect of Savage's framework is its focus on observable choices. Cognitive processes and other psychological aspects of decision making matter only to the extent that they have directly measurable implications on choice. The theory of subjective expected utility combines two concepts: first, a personal utility function, and second a personal probability distribution (usually based on Bayesian probability theory). This theoretical model has been known for its clear and elegant structure and its considered for some researchers one of “the most brilliant axiomatic theory of utility ever developed”. Instead assuming the probability of an event, Savage defines it in terms of preferences over acts. Savage used the states (something that is not in your control) to calculate the probability of an event. On the other hand, he used utility and intrinsic preferences to predict the outcome of the event. Savage assumed that each act and state are enough to uniquely determine an outcome. However, this assumption breaks in the cases where the individual doesn't have enough information about the event. Additionally, he believed that outcomes must have the same utility regardless of the state. For that reason, it is essential to correctly identify which statement is considered an outcome. For example, if someone says “I got the job” this affirmation is not considered an outcome, since the utility of the statement will be different on each person depending on intrinsic factors such as financial necessity or judgments about the company. For that reason, no state can rule out the performance of any act, only when the state and the act are evaluated simultaneously you will be able to determine an outcome with certainty. Savage's Representation Theorem Savage Representation Theorem (Savage, 1954) A preference < satisfies P1-P7 if and only if there is a finitely additive probability measure P and a function u : C → R such that for every pair of acts f and g. f < g ⇐⇒ Z Ω u(f(ω)) dP ≥ Z Ω u(g(ω)) dP *If and only if all the axioms are satisfied when can used the information to reduce the uncertainty about the events that are out of your control. Additionally the theorem ranks the outcome according to utility function that reflects the personal preferences. Key Ingredients: The key ingredients in Savage's theory are: States: The specification of every aspect of the decision problem at hand or “A description of the world leaving no relevant aspect undescribed.” Events: A set of states identified by someone Consequences: A consequence is the description of all that is relevant to the decision maker's utility (e.g. monetary rewards, psychological factors, etc) Acts: An act is a finite-valued function that maps states to consequences. Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem The von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms There are four axioms of the expected utility theory that define a rational decision maker. They are completeness, transitivity, independence and continuity. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences and can always decide between any two alternatives. Axiom (Completeness): For every A and B either or or both. This means that the individual prefers A to B, B to A or is indifferent between A and B. Transitivity assumes that, as an individual decides according to the completeness axiom, the individual also decides consistently. Axiom (Transitivity): For every A, B and C with and we must have . Independence of irrelevant alternatives pertains to well-defined preferences as well. It assumes that two gambles mixed with an irrelevant third one will maintain the same order of preference as when the two are presented independently of the third one. The independence axiom is the most controversial axiom.. Axiom (Independence of irrelevant alternatives): Let A, B, and C be three lotteries with , and let be the probability that a third choice is present: ; if then the third choice, C, is irrelevant, and the order of preference for A before B holds, independently of the presence of C. Continuity assumes that when there are three lotteries (A, B and C) and the individual prefers A to B and B to C, then there should be a possible combination of A and C in which the individual is then indifferent between this mix and the lottery B. Axiom (Continuity): Let A, B and C be lotteries with ; then there exists a probability p such that B is equally good as . If all these axioms are satisfied, then the individual is said to be rational and the preferences can be represented by a utility function, i.e. one can assign numbers (utilities) to each outcome of the lottery such that choosing the best lottery according to the preference amounts to choosing the lottery with the highest expected utility. This result is called the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility representation theorem. In other words, if an individual's behavior always satisfies the above axioms, then there is a utility function such that the individual will choose one gamble over another if and only if the expected utility of one exceeds that of the other. The expected utility of any gamble may be expressed as a linear combination of the utilities of the outcomes, with the weights being the respective probabilities. Utility functions are also normally continuous functions. Such utility functions are also referred to as von Neumann–Morgenstern (vNM) utility functions. This is a central theme of the expected utility hypothesis in which an individual chooses not the highest expected value, but rather the highest expected utility. The expected utility maximizing individual makes decisions rationally based on the axioms of the theory. The von Neumann–Morgenstern formulation is important in the application of set theory to economics because it was developed shortly after the Hicks–Allen \"ordinal revolution\" of the 1930s, and it revived the idea of cardinal utility in economic theory. However, while in this context the utility function is cardinal, in that implied behavior would be altered by a non-linear monotonic transformation of utility, the expected utility function is ordinal because any monotonic increasing transformation of expected utility gives the same behavior. Examples of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions The utility function was originally suggested by Bernoulli (see above). It has relative risk aversion constant and equal to one, and is still sometimes assumed in economic analyses. The utility function exhibits constant absolute risk aversion, and for this reason is often avoided, although it has the advantage of offering substantial mathematical tractability when asset returns are normally distributed. Note that, as per the affine transformation property alluded to above, the utility function gives exactly the same preferences orderings as does ; thus it is irrelevant that the values of and its expected value are always negative: what matters for preference ordering is which of two gambles gives the higher expected utility, not the numerical values of those expected utilities. The class of constant relative risk aversion utility functions contains three categories. Bernoulli's utility function has relative risk aversion equal to 1. The functions for have relative risk aversion equal to . And the functions for have relative risk aversion equal to See also the discussion of utility functions having hyperbolic absolute risk aversion (HARA). Formula for Expected Utility When the entity whose value affects a person's utility takes on one of a set of discrete values, the formula for expected utility, which is assumed to be maximized, is where the left side is the subjective valuation of the gamble as a whole, is the ith possible outcome, is its valuation, and is its probability. There could be either a finite set of possible values in which case the right side of this equation has a finite number of terms; or there could be an infinite set of discrete values, in which case the right side has an infinite number of terms. When can take on any of a continuous range of values, the expected utility is given by where is the probability density function of Measuring risk in the expected utility context Often people refer to \"risk\" in the sense of a potentially quantifiable entity. In the context of mean-variance analysis, variance is used as a risk measure for portfolio return; however, this is only valid if returns are normally distributed or otherwise jointly elliptically distributed, or in the unlikely case in which the utility function has a quadratic form. However, David E. Bell proposed a measure of risk which follows naturally from a certain class of von Neumann–Morgenstern utility functions. Let utility of wealth be given by for individual-specific positive parameters a and b. Then expected utility is given by Thus the risk measure is , which differs between two individuals if they have different values of the parameter allowing different people to disagree about the degree of risk associated with any given portfolio. Individuals sharing a given risk measure (based on given value of a) may choose different portfolios because they may have different values of b. See also Entropic risk measure. For general utility functions, however, expected utility analysis does not permit the expression of preferences to be separated into two parameters with one representing the expected value of the variable in question and the other representing its risk. Criticism Expected utility theory is a theory about how to make optimal decisions under a given probability of risk. It has a normative interpretation which economists used to think applies in all situations to rational agents but now tend to regard as a useful and insightful first order approximation. In empirical applications, a number of violations have been proven to be systematic and these falsifications have deepened understanding of how people actually decide. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979 presented their prospect theory which showed empirically, how preferences of individuals are inconsistent among the same choices, depending on how those choices are presented. This is mainly because people are different in terms of their preferences and parameters. Additionally, personal behaviors may be different between individuals even when they are facing the same choice problem. Like any mathematical model, expected utility theory is a simplification of reality. The mathematical correctness of expected utility theory and the salience of its primitive concepts do not guarantee that expected utility theory is a reliable guide to human behavior or optimal practice. The mathematical clarity of expected utility theory has helped scientists design experiments to test its adequacy, and to distinguish systematic departures from its predictions. This has led to the field of behavioral finance, which has produced deviations from expected utility theory to account for the empirical facts. Other critics argue applying expected utility to economic and policy decisions, has engendered inappropriate valuations, particularly in scenarios in which monetary units are used to scale the utility of nonmonetary outcomes, such as deaths. Conservatism in updating beliefs Psychologists have discovered systematic violations of probability calculations and behavior by humans. This have been evidenced with examples such as the Monty Hall problem where it was demonstrated that people do not revise their degrees on belief in line with experimented probabilities and also that probabilities cannot be apply to single cases. On the other hand, in updating probability distributions using evidence, a standard method uses conditional probability, namely the rule of Bayes. An experiment on belief revision has suggested that humans change their beliefs faster when using Bayesian methods than when using informal judgment.Subjects changed their beliefs faster by conditioning on evidence (Bayes's theorem) than by using informal reasoning, according to a classic study by the psychologist Ward Edwards: According to the empirical results there has been almost no recognition in decision theory of the distinction between the problem of justifying its theoretical claims regarding the properties of rational belief and desire. One of the main reasons is because people's basic tastes and preferences for losses cannot be represented with utility as they change under different scenarios. Irrational deviations Behavioral finance has produced several generalized expected utility theories to account for instances where people's choices deviate from those predicted by expected utility theory. These deviations are described as \"irrational\" because they can depend on the way the problem is presented, not on the actual costs, rewards, or probabilities involved. Particular theories include prospect theory, rank-dependent expected utility and cumulative prospect theory are considered insufficient to predict preferences and the expected utility. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. This is because preferences and utility functions constructed under different contexts are significantly different. This is demonstrated in the contrast of individual preferences under the insurance and lottery context shows the degree of indeterminacy of the expected utility theory. Additionally, experiments have shown systematic violations and generalizations based on the results of Savage and von Neumann–Morgenstern. In practice there will be many situations where the probabilities are unknown, and one is operating under uncertainty. In economics, Knightian uncertainty or ambiguity may occur. Thus one must make assumptions about the probabilities, but then the expected values of various decisions can be very sensitive to the assumptions. This is particularly a problem when the expectation is dominated by rare extreme events, as in a long-tailed distribution. Alternative decision techniques are robust to uncertainty of probability of outcomes, either not depending on probabilities of outcomes and only requiring scenario analysis (as in minimax or minimax regret), or being less sensitive to assumptions. Bayesian approaches to probability treat it as a degree of belief and thus they do not draw a distinction between risk and a wider concept of uncertainty: they deny the existence of Knightian uncertainty. 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7370479 | 1 | List of Temne monarchs TenureNameTitlec.1450Foundation of Koya state (Koya Kingdom or Temne kingdom)Bais (Rulers) c. 1505 to 1680 Unknown Names and Number of Bais 1680 to 1720 Naimbanna I (in Port Lokko)Bai 1720 to 11 November 1793 Naimbanna II Bai 1793 to 1807 Farima IV (Farama) Bai1807 to 1817 Foki Bai 1817 to 1825 Moriba Kindo Bangura, Alikali Bai 1825 to 1826 Kunia Banna, Alikali Bai 1826 to 1840 Fatima Brima Kama, Alikali Bai 1840 to 1859 Moribu Kindo Bai 1859 to 1872 Kanta (Alexander, Conteh)Bai 1872 to 1887 VACANT 1887 to 1898 Burech (Kabalai), !st of Kasseh Bai 1890 to 1898 Kompa Bakari Bombolai ( William Rowe) of Koya Bai 1898 Fula Mansa Gbanka Bai | List of Temne monarchs Names and Dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers (1989). # Name Reign Start Reign End1Farima Ic. 1505c. 15502Farima IIc. 1550c. 15603Farima IIIc. 156016054Sangrafare (or Pedro)160516105Borea I161016306Borea II163016647Felipe II166416808Naimbanna I168017209Naimbanna II172011 November 179310Farima IV1793180711Bai Foki1807181712Moriba1817182513Jack Coby (or Kunia Banna)1825182614Fatima1826184015Moribu Kindo1840185916Bai Kanta (or Alexander)18591872 -Alimani Lahai Bundu(Regent)1872189017Bai Kompa (or William Rowe) 1890189818Fula Mansa Gbanka1898Sub-Kings of Ko-Fransa1Tom I177017782Jimmy177817963Tom II17961807 | [
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7371134 | 1 | Aspects of the anthroposphere include: mines ; agriculture; oil and gas fields; computer-based systems including the Internet; educational systems; landfills; factories; atmospheric pollution; space junk; forestry and deforestation; urban development; transportation systems including roads, highways, and subways; nuclear installations; warfare. | Aspects of the anthroposphere include: mines from which minerals are obtained; automated agriculture which produces the food consumed by 7+ billion Sapiens ; oil and gas fields; computer-based systems including the Internet; educational systems; landfills; factories; atmospheric pollution; artificial satellites in space, both active satellites and space junk; forestry and deforestation; urban development; transportation systems including roads, highways, and subways; nuclear installations; warfare. | [
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7373920 | 1 | A is a Japanese drinking party that takes place at the end of the year and is generally held among groups of co-workers or URL The purpose of the party, as its name implies, is to forget the woes and troubles of the past year, and hopefully look to the new year, usually by consumption of large amounts of alcohol. A bōnenkai does not take place on any specific day, but they are usually held within December. Bōnenkai are observed by parties of friends or co-workers or sponsored by a company or business office for their employees. Bōnenkai are not part of the New Year shogatsu celebration which lasts until 3 January; they are instead a way of ending the year through a group URL The tradition started in the 15th century during the Muromachi period as gatherings to express thanks. At that time, the parties were known as nōkai (, "great achievement gathering"). By the 18th century, they had become known as bōnenkai, or year-end URL Since the late 16th century, banquets and parties have been held with similar intentions as the modern-day bōnenkai. On the 30th of December, groups of Samurai lords would gather to observe what they called "The Forgetting of the Year". It consisted of typical upper-class activities like writing and reciting poetry, and was followed by a large feast. URL These types of parties did not become commonplace in the regular populace of Japan until the abolishment of the feudal ruling system in the late 19th century. Around the same time period, a story written by Japanese author Tsubouchi Shōyō entitled 忘年会 was published in a newspaper. It depicted one of these parties, which featured boisterous discussion, prolific drinking, and entertaining Geishas. 青木, 稔弥. “「忘年会」から「松のうち」へ--坪内逍遥と新聞小説 (江戸から明治への文学 ).” (1985). In Post-occupation Japan, the "lifetime employment systems" established by some companies incorporated many company-organized events, one usually being an end-of-the-year Bōnenkai in December. | A is a Japanese drinking party that takes place at the end of the year and is generally held among groups of co-workers or friends. The purpose of the party, as its name implies, is to forget the woes and troubles of the past year, and hopefully look to the new year, usually by consumption of large amounts of alcohol. A bōnenkai does not take place on any specific day, but they are usually held within December. Bōnenkai are observed by parties of friends or co-workers or sponsored by a company or business office for their employees. Bōnenkai are not part of the New Year shogatsu celebration which lasts until 3 January; they are instead a way of ending the year through a group celebration. The tradition started in the 15th century during the Muromachi period as gatherings to express thanks. At that time, the parties were known as nōkai (, "great achievement gathering"). By the 18th century, they had become known as bōnenkai, or year-end parties. Since the late 16th century, banquets and parties have been held with similar intentions as the modern-day bōnenkai. On the 30th of December, groups of Samurai lords would gather to observe what they called "The Forgetting of the Year". It consisted of typical upper-class activities like writing and reciting poetry, and was followed by a large feast. These types of parties did not become commonplace in the regular populace of Japan until the abolishment of the feudal ruling system in the late 19th century. Around the same time period, a story written by Japanese author Tsubouchi Shōyō entitled 忘年会 was published in a newspaper. It depicted one of these parties, which featured boisterous discussion, prolific drinking, and entertaining Geishas. 青木, 稔弥. “「忘年会」から「松のうち」へ--坪内逍遥と新聞小説 (江戸から明治への文学 ).” (1985). In Post-occupation Japan, the "lifetime employment systems" established by some companies incorporated many company-organized events, one usually being an end-of-the-year Bōnenkai in December. | [
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7375831 | 1 | Following Columbus 's death, in 1507 , the Americas were named after Amerigo Vespucci, who realized that these continents were a unique landmass. The search for a westward route to Asia was completed in 1521, when the Castilian Magellan-Elcano expedition sailed across the Pacific and reached Southeast Asia, before returning to Europe and completing the first circumnavigation of the world. | Columbus died in 1506, and the next year , the Americas were named after Amerigo Vespucci, who realized that these continents were a unique landmass. The search for a westward route to Asia was completed in 1521, when the Castilian Magellan-Elcano expedition sailed across the Pacific and reached Southeast Asia, before returning to Europe and completing the first circumnavigation of the world. | [
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7382070 | 1 | In other media Television Rex Tyler appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold animated series episode "The Golden Age of Justice", voiced by Lex Lang. This version uses an hourglass-shaped device to fuel his powers instead of Miraclo and appears as a member of an aged Justice Society of America. Rex Tyler appears in the Legends of Tomorrow live-action series, portrayed by Patrick J. Adams. This version is the leader of the Justice Society of America. At the end of the first season, he warns the Legends not to travel to 1942 due to their impending deaths only to vanish shortly afterwards. During the second season, the team meets Tyler's past self when they ignore his warning. Tyler is killed by the Reverse-Flash at the end of the episode "The Justice Society of America", erasing his future self who had discovered the Reverse-Flash's plans and warned the Legends from existence. Before his death, Rex was in a relationship with Amaya Jiwe / Vixen, who went after and later joined the Legends to avenge Rex. Rex Tyler appears in the live-action DC Universe series Stargirl, portrayed by Lou Ferrigno, Jr. This version uses a special hourglass amulet that gives him superpowers for one full hour. Ten years prior to the series, Rex was with the Justice Society when the Injustice Society attacked their headquarters; fighting off Tigress and Wizard. Having survived the attack, he and his wife Wendi tracked the Injustice Society to Blue Valley before they were killed in a car accident caused by Solomon Grundy; leaving behind a son, Rick Tyler, who would go on to take up his father's mantle and amulet to avenge his parents. Rex Tyler was parodied in the Robot Chicken episode "Tapping a Hero", voiced by Seth Green, in which he promotes an erectile dysfunction pill guaranteed to make "you an hour-man, just like me!" | In other media Television Rex Tyler was parodied in the Robot Chicken episode "Tapping a Hero", voiced by Seth Green, in which he promotes an erectile dysfunction pill guaranteed to make "you an hour-man, just like me!" Rex Tyler appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold animated series episode "The Golden Age of Justice", voiced by Lex Lang. This version uses an hourglass-shaped device to fuel his powers instead of Miraclo and appears as a member of an aged Justice Society of America. Rex Tyler appears in the Legends of Tomorrow live-action series, portrayed by Patrick J. Adams. This version is the leader of the Justice Society of America. At the end of the first season, he warns the Legends not to travel to 1942 due to their impending deaths only to vanish shortly afterwards. During the second season, the team meets Tyler's past self when they ignore his warning. Tyler is killed by the Reverse-Flash at the end of the episode "The Justice Society of America", erasing his future self who had discovered the Reverse-Flash's plans and warned the Legends from existence. Before his death, Rex was in a relationship with Amaya Jiwe / Vixen, who went after and later joined the Legends to avenge Rex. Rex Tyler appears in the live-action DC Universe series Stargirl, portrayed by Lou Ferrigno, Jr. This version uses a special hourglass amulet that gives him superpowers for one full hour. Ten years prior to the series, Rex was with the Justice Society when the Injustice Society attacked their headquarters; fighting off Tigress and Wizard. Having survived the attack, he and his wife Wendi tracked the Injustice Society to Blue Valley before they were killed in a car accident caused by Solomon Grundy; leaving behind a son, Rick Tyler, who would go on to take up his father's mantle and amulet to avenge his parents. | [
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739147 | 1 | It has been argued that these distinctions are not entirely clear and scholars still debate the fine points of the definitions. Under the definition above, Finnegans Wake, the Critique of Pure Reason , and Being and Time are considered nonergodic literature as they require only "trivial...effort to traverse the text[s]". A stack of stained and mouldering newspapers, on the other hand, is ergodic literature. | It has been argued that these distinctions are not entirely clear and scholars still debate the fine points of the definitions. Under the definition above, Finnegans Wake, the The Phenomenology of Spirit , and Being and Nothingness are considered nonergodic literature as they require only "trivial...effort to traverse the text[s]". A stack of stained and mouldering newspapers, on the other hand, is ergodic literature. | [
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7391817 | 1 | Participatory GIS (PGIS) is a participatory approach to spatial planning and spatial information and communications management. Abbot, J. et al. 1998. [Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?] Participatory Learning & Action PLA Notes (IIED, Sustainable Agriculture & Rural Livelihoods), PLA 33, 27-34. See also Counter-mapping Geodesign Neogeography OpenStreetMap Public participation GIS (PPGIS) Traditional knowledge GIS References Further reading Corbett, J. and Keller, P. 2006. An analytical framework to examine empowerment associated with participatory geographic information systems (PGIS). Cartographica 40(4) : 91 – 102. McCall, Michael K. , and Peter A.Minang.2005. Assessing Participatory GISfor Community-Based Natural Resource Management: Claiming Community Forests in Cameroon. Geographical Journal 171.4 : 340-358. Elwood , Sarah. 2006 Critical Issues in Participatory GIS : Deconstructions, Reconstructions, & & & and New Research Directions. Transactions in GIS 10: 5, 693 – 708 Chambers, K., Corbett, J., Keller, P., Wood, C. 2004. Indigenous Knowledge, Mapping, and GIS: A Diffusion of Innovation Perspective. Cartographica 39(3). Kyem, P. 2004. Of Intractable Conflicts and Participatory GIS Applications; The Search for Consensus Amidst Competing Claims and Institutional Demands. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94(1): 37–57. Kyem, P. 2001/2004. Power, participation and inflexible institutions: An examination of the challenges to community empowerment in participatory GIS applications. Cartographica 38(3/4): 5–17. Sources Public Participation and GIS: Annotated Bibliography Community Mapping, PGIS, PPGIS and P3DM Virtual Library PPgis.Net Blog Category:Geographic information systems Category:Human geography Category:Collaborative mapping Category:Neogeography Category:Applications of geographic information systems __NOTOC_\end{abstract | Participatory GIS (PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a participatory approach to spatial planning and spatial information and communications management. Abbot, J. et al. 1998. [Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?] Participatory Learning & Action PLA Notes (IIED, Sustainable Agriculture & Rural Livelihoods), PLA 33, 27-34. PPGIS is meant to bring the academic practices of GIS and mapping to the local level in order to promote knowledge production by local and non-governmental groups. The idea behind PPGIS is empowerment and inclusion of marginalized populations, who have little voice in the public arena, through geographic technology education and participation. PPGIS uses and produces digital maps, satellite imagery, sketch maps, and many other spatial and visual tools, to change geographic involvement and awareness on a local level. The term was coined in 1996 at the meetings of the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA).Sieber, R. 2006. Public Participation and Geographic Information Systems: A Literature Review and Framework. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 96/3:491-507Public Participation GIS, NCGIA Workshop (Orono, Maine, US, 10–13 July 1996) Debate Attendees to the Mapping for Change International Conference on Participatory Spatial Information Management and Communication conferred to at least three potential implications of PPGIS; it can: (1) enhance capacity in generating, managing, and communicating spatial information; (2) stimulate innovation; and ultimately; (3) encourage positive social change.Corbett, et al. 2006. Overview: Mapping for Change-the emergence of a new practice. Participatory Learning and Action, 54:13–19. This reflects on the rather nebulous definition of PPGIS as referenced in the Encyclopedia of GISTulloch, D., 2008. "Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) ," in K. Kemp (Eds.) Encyclopedia of GIS: Sage Publications, p. 351-353. which describes PPGIS as having a definition problem. There are a range of applications for PPGIS. The potential outcomes can be applied from community and neighborhood planning and development to environmental and natural resource management. Marginalized groups, be they grassroots organizations to indigenous populations could benefit from GIS technology. Governments, non-government organizations and non-profit groups are a big force behind many programs. The current extent of PPGIS programs in the US has been evaluated by Sawicki and Peterman.Craig, et al. 2002. Community Participation and Geographic Information Systems. London: Taylor and Francis They catalog over 60 PPGIS programs who aid in "public participation in community decision making by providing local-area data to community groups," in the United States.Craig02 The organizations providing these programs are mostly universities, local chambers of commerce, non-profit foundations. In general, neighborhood empowerment groups can form and gain access to information that is normally very easy for the official government and planning offices to obtain. It is easier for this to happen than for individuals of lower-income neighborhoods just working by themselves. There have been several projects where university students help implement GIS in neighborhoods and communities. It is believed that access to information is the doorway to more effective government for everybody and community empowerment. In a case study of a group in Milwaukee, residents of an inner city neighborhood became active participants in building a community information system, learning to access public information and create and analyze new databases derived from their own surveys, all with the purpose of making these residents useful actors in city management and in the formation of public policy.Ghose, Rina. 2001. Use of Information Technology for Community Empowerment: Transforming Geographic Information Systems into Community Information Systems. Transactions in GIS 5(2): 141–163 In many cases, there are providers of data for community groups, but the groups may not know that such entities exist. Getting the word out would be beneficial. Some of the spatial data that the neighborhood wanted was information on abandoned or boarded-up buildings and homes, vacant lots, and properties that contained garbage, rubbish and debris that contributed to health and safety issues in the area. They also appreciated being able to find landlords that were not keeping up the properties. The university team and the community were able to build databases and make maps that would help them find these areas and perform the spatial analysis that they needed. Community members learned how to use the computer resources, ArcView 1.0, and build a theme or land use map of the surrounding area. They were able to perform spatial queries and analyze neighborhood problems. Some of these problems included finding absentee landlords and finding code violations for the buildings on the maps. Approaches There are two approaches to PPGIS use and application. These two perspectives, top–down and bottom–up, are the currently debated schism in PPGIS. Top-down According to Sieber (2006), PPGIS was first envisioned as a means of mapping individuals by many social and economic demographic factors in order to analyze the spatial differences in access to social services. She refers to this kind of PPGIS as top-down, being that it is less hands on for the public, but theoretically serves the public by making adjustments for the deficiencies, and improvements in public management.Sieber, R. 2006. Public Participation and Geographic Information Systems: A Literature Review and Framework. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 96/3 : 491-507 Bottom-up A current trend with academic involvement in PPGIS, is researching existing programs, and or starting programs in order to collect data on the effectiveness of PPGIS. Elwood (2006) in The Professional Geographer, talks in depth about the "everyday inclusions, exclusions, and contradictions of Participatory GIS research."Elwood, S. 2006. Negotiating Knowledge Production: The Everyday Inclusions, Exclusions, and Contradictions of Participatory GIS Research. The Professional Geographer, 58/2:197. The research is being conducted in order to evaluate if PPGIS is involving the public equally. In reference to Sieber's top-down PPGIS, this is a counter method of PPGIS, rightly referred to as bottom-up PPGIS. Its purpose is to work with the public to let them learn the technologies, then producing their own GIS. Public participation GIS is defined by Sieber as the use of geographic information systems to broaden public involvement in policymaking as well as to the value of GIS to promote the goals of nongovernmental organizations, grassroots groups and community-based organizations. It would seem on the surface that PPGIS, as it is commonly referred to, in this sense would be of a beneficial nature to those in the community or area that is being represented. But in truth only certain groups or individuals will be able to obtain the technology and use it. Is PPGIS becoming more available to the underprivileged sector of the community? The question of "who benefits?" should always be asked, and does this harm a community or group of individuals. The local, participatory management of urban neighborhoods usually follows on from 'claiming the territory', and has to be made compatible with national or local authority regulations on administering, managing and planning urban territory.McCall, M. K. 2003. Seeking good governance in participatory-GIS: A review of processes and governance dimensions in applying GIS to participatory spatial planning. Habitat International 27:549 – 73. PPGIS applied to participatory community/neighborhood planning has been examined by many others.Howard 1999. Geographic information technologies and community planning: Spatial empowerment and public participation. URL S., Evans, A., Kingston, R. , Turton, I. 1999. Virtual Slaithwaite: A web-based public participation 'Planning for Real' system. Leeds: University of Leeds, School of Geography, Case Study Report, 14pp. URL E., Constructing neighbourhoods from the bottom up: The case for resident-generated GIS. Environment and Planning B 26 (1999), pp. 533–554. Specific attention has been given to applications such as housing issuesElwood, S. 2002. The Impacts of GIS Use for Neighbourhood Revitalization in Minneapolis. In: W. J. Craig, T. M. Harris, D. Weiner (Eds.). Community Participation and Geographic Information Systems (pp. 77–88). London: Taylor& Francis. or neighborhood revitalization.Craig Elwood 1998. W.J. Craig and S.A. Elwood, How and Why Community Groups use Maps and Geographic information. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 25 2 (1998), pp. 95–104 Spatial databases along with the P-mapping are used to maintain a public records GIS or community land information systems.Ventura, S. J., Niemann, B. J., Sutphin, T. L.,& Chenoweth, R. E. (2002). GIS-enhanced land-use planning. In: W. J. Craig, T. M. Harris, D. Weiner (Eds.). Community participation and geographic information systems (pp. 113–124). London: Taylor& Francis. These are just a few of the uses of GIS in the community. Examples Public Participation in decision making processes works not only to identify areas of common values or variability, but also as an illustrative and instructional tool. One example of effective dialogue and building trust between the community and decision makers comes from pre-planning for development in the United Kingdom. It involves using GIS and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) to make a decision about wind farm siting. This method hinges upon taking all stakeholder perspectives into account to improve chances of reaching consensus . This also creates a more transparent process and adds weight to the final decision by building upon traditional methods such as public meetings and hearings, surveys, focus groups, and deliberative processes enabling participants more insights and more informed opinions on environmental issues.Higgs, G., Berry, R., Kidner, D, Langford, M. Using IT approaches to promote public participation in renewable energy planning: Prospects and challenges. 2008. Land Use Policy 25, 596-607. Collaborative processes that consider objective and subjective inputs have the potential to efficiently address some of the conflict between development and nature as they involve a fuller justification by wind farm developers for location, scale, and design. Spatial tools such as creation of 3D view sheds offer participants new ways of assessing visual intrusion to make a more informed decision. Higgs et al. make a very telling statement when analyzing the success of this project – "the only way of accommodating people's landscape concerns is to site wind farms in places that people find more acceptable". This implies that developers recognize the validity of citizens' concerns and are willing to compromise in identifying sites where wind farms will not only be successful financially, but also successful politically and socially. This creates greater accountability and facilitates the incorporation of stakeholder values to resolve differences and gain public acceptance for vital development projects. In another planning example, Simao et al. analyzed how to create sustainable development options with widespread community support. They determined that stakeholders need to learn likely outcomes that result from stated preferences, which can be supported through enhanced access to information and incentives to increase public participation. Through a multi-criteria spatial decision support system stakeholders were able to voice concerns and work on a compromise solution to have final outcome accepted by majority when siting wind farms. This differs from the work of Higgs et al. in that the focus was on allowing users to learn from the collaborative process, both interactively and iteratively about the nature of the problem and their own preferences for desirable characteristics of solution. This stimulated sharing of opinions and discussion of interests behind preferences. After understanding the problem more fully, participants could discuss alternative solutions and interact with other participants to come to a compromise solution.Simao, A., Densham, P.J., Haklay, M. Web-based GIS for collaborative planning and public participation: An application to the strategic planning of wind farm sites. 2009, Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 2027-2040 Similar work has been done to incorporate public participation in spatial planning for transportation system development,Zhong, E. A model for public involvement programming using participatory Geographic Information Systems. 2008. Computers, Environment, and Urban Systems 32 (2008) 123–133 and this method of two-way benefits is even beginning to move towards web-based mapping services to further simplify and extend the process into the community.Kingston, R. Community decision making Public Participation in Local Policy Decision-making: The Role of Web-based Mapping. (2007)The Cartographic journal Vol. 44 No. 2 pp. 138–144 ICA Special Issue 2007 See also Collaborative mapping Counter-mapping Geodesign Geographic information system Neogeography OpenStreetMap Participatory GIS Public participation Traditional knowledge GIS Volunteered geographic information Web mapping References Other Sources Public Participation and GIS: Annotated Bibliography Community Mapping, PGIS, PPGIS and P3DM Virtual Library Further reading Beever, L. B. 2002. Addressing Environmental Justice (EJ) through Community Impact Assessment (CIA). Proceedings of the 8th TRB Conference on the Application of Transportation Planning Methods, Corpus Christi, TX, 22–26 April 2001, ed. R. Donnelly and G. Bennett, 388–98. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. Chambers, K., Corbett, J., Keller, P., Wood, C. 2004. Indigenous Knowledge, Mapping, and GIS: A Diffusion of Innovation Perspective. Cartographica 39(3). Corbett, J. and Keller, P. 2006. An analytical framework to examine empowerment associated with participatory geographic information systems (PGIS). Cartographica 40(4): 91–102. Elwood, Sarah. 2006 Critical Issues in Participatory GIS: Deconstructions, Reconstructions, and New Research Directions. Transactions in GIS 10:5, 693–708 Hoicka, D. 2002. Connecting the dots. Journal of Housing and Community Development 59 (6): 35–38. Kyem, P. 2004. Of Intractable Conflicts and Participatory GIS Applications; The Search for Consensus Amidst Competing Claims and Institutional Demands. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94(1): 37–57. Kyem, P. 2001/2004. Power, participation and inflexible institutions: An examination of the challenges to community empowerment in participatory GIS applications. Cartographica 38(3/4): 5–17. McCall, Michael K., and Peter A. Minang. 2005. Assessing Participatory GIS for Community-Based Natural Resource Management: Claiming Community Forests in Cameroon. Geographical Journal 171.4 : 340-358. Plescia, M., S. Koontz, and S. Laurent. 2001. Community assessment in a vertically integrated health care system. American Journal of Public Health 91 (5): 811–14. Rambaldi G., Kwaku Kyem A. P.; Mbile P.; McCall M. and Weiner D. 2006. Participatory Spatial Information Management and Communication in Developing Countries. EJISDC 25, 1, 1–9 . Rambaldi G, Chambers R., McCall M, And Fox J. 2006. Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers. PLA 54:106–113, IIED, London, UK Others Community Mapping, PGIS, PPGIS and P3DM Virtual Library Grassroots Mapping National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) Open Forum on Participatory Geographic Information Systems and Technologies Ecosensus: Participatory Resource Management and Decision Making in the Northern Rupununi River Catchment in Guyana Public Participation and GIS: Annotated Bibliography Ushahidi Category:Geographic information systems Category:Human geography Category:Collaborative mapping Category:Neogeography Category:Applications of geographic information systems Category:Urban planning Category:Group processe | [
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"after": "In general, neighborhood empowerment groups can form and gain access to information that is normally very easy for the official government and planning offices to obtain. It is easier for this to happen than for individuals of lower-income neighborhoods just working by themselves. There have been several projects where university students help implement GIS in neighborhoods and communities. It is believed that access to information is the doorway to more effective government for everybody and community empowerment. In a case study of a group in Milwaukee, residents of an inner city neighborhood became active participants in building a community information system, learning to access public information and create and analyze new databases derived from their own surveys, all with the purpose of making these residents useful actors in city management and in the formation of public policy.Ghose, Rina. 2001. Use of Information Technology for Community Empowerment: Transforming Geographic Information Systems into Community Information Systems. Transactions in GIS 5(2): 141–163 In many cases, there are providers of data for community groups, but the groups may not know that such entities exist. Getting the word out would be beneficial.",
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"after": "Some of the spatial data that the neighborhood wanted was information on abandoned or boarded-up buildings and homes, vacant lots, and properties that contained garbage, rubbish and debris that contributed to health and safety issues in the area. They also appreciated being able to find landlords that were not keeping up the properties. The university team and the community were able to build databases and make maps that would help them find these areas and perform the spatial analysis that they needed. Community members learned how to use the computer resources, ArcView 1.0, and build a theme or land use map of the surrounding area. They were able to perform spatial queries and analyze neighborhood problems. Some of these problems included finding absentee landlords and finding code violations for the buildings on the maps.",
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"after": "Approaches There are two approaches to PPGIS use and application. These two perspectives, top–down and bottom–up, are the currently debated schism in PPGIS.",
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"after": "Top-down According to Sieber (2006), PPGIS was first envisioned as a means of mapping individuals by many social and economic demographic factors in order to analyze the spatial differences in access to social services. She refers to this kind of PPGIS as top-down, being that it is less hands on for the public, but theoretically serves the public by making adjustments for the deficiencies, and improvements in public management.Sieber, R.",
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"after": "Bottom-up A current trend with academic involvement in PPGIS, is researching existing programs, and or starting programs in order to collect data on the effectiveness of PPGIS. Elwood (2006) in The Professional Geographer, talks in depth about the \"everyday inclusions, exclusions, and contradictions of Participatory GIS research.\"Elwood, S. 2006. Negotiating Knowledge Production: The Everyday Inclusions, Exclusions, and Contradictions of Participatory GIS Research. The Professional Geographer, 58/2:197. The research is being conducted in order to evaluate if PPGIS is involving the public equally. In reference to Sieber's top-down PPGIS, this is a counter method of PPGIS, rightly referred to as bottom-up PPGIS. Its purpose is to work with the public to let them learn the technologies, then producing their own GIS.",
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"after": "Public participation GIS is defined by Sieber as the use of geographic information systems to broaden public involvement in policymaking as well as to the value of GIS to promote the goals of nongovernmental organizations, grassroots groups and community-based organizations. It would seem on the surface that PPGIS, as it is commonly referred to, in this sense would be of a beneficial nature to those in the community or area that is being represented. But in truth only certain groups or individuals will be able to obtain the technology and use it. Is PPGIS becoming more available to the underprivileged sector of the community? The question of \"who benefits?\" should always be asked, and does this harm a community or group of individuals.",
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"after": "The local, participatory management of urban neighborhoods usually follows on from 'claiming the territory', and has to be made compatible with national or local authority regulations on administering, managing and planning urban territory.McCall, M. K. 2003. Seeking good governance in participatory-GIS: A review of processes and governance dimensions in applying GIS to participatory spatial planning. Habitat International 27:549",
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"before": "102. McCall, Michael K. , and Peter A.Minang.2005. Assessing Participatory GISfor Community-Based Natural Resource Management: Claiming Community Forests in Cameroon. Geographical Journal 171.4 : 340-358. Elwood",
"after": "73. PPGIS applied to participatory community/neighborhood planning has been examined by many others.Howard 1999. Geographic information technologies and community planning: Spatial empowerment and public participation. URL S., Evans, A., Kingston, R.",
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"after": "Turton, I. 1999. Virtual Slaithwaite: A web-based public participation 'Planning for Real' system. Leeds: University of Leeds, School of Geography, Case Study Report, 14pp. URL E., Constructing neighbourhoods from the bottom up: The case for resident-generated GIS. Environment and Planning B 26 (1999), pp. 533–554. Specific attention has been given to applications such as housing issuesElwood, S. 2002. The Impacts of GIS Use for Neighbourhood Revitalization in Minneapolis. In: W. J. Craig, T. M. Harris,",
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"after": "Elwood 1998. W.J. Craig and S.A. Elwood, How and Why Community Groups use Maps and Geographic information. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 25 2 (1998), pp. 95–104 Spatial databases along with the P-mapping are used to maintain a public records GIS or community land information systems.Ventura, S. J., Niemann, B. J., Sutphin, T. L.,",
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"after": "Examples Public Participation in decision making processes works not only to identify areas of common values or variability, but also as an illustrative and instructional tool. One example of effective dialogue and building trust between the community and decision makers comes from pre-planning for development in the United Kingdom. It involves using GIS",
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"after": "multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) to make a decision about wind farm siting. This method hinges upon taking all stakeholder perspectives into account to improve chances of reaching consensus . This also creates a more transparent process and adds weight to the final decision by building upon traditional methods such as public meetings and hearings, surveys, focus groups, and deliberative processes enabling participants more insights and more informed opinions on environmental issues.Higgs, G., Berry, R., Kidner, D, Langford, M. Using IT approaches to promote public participation in renewable energy planning: Prospects and challenges. 2008. Land Use Policy 25, 596-607.",
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"after": "Collaborative processes that consider objective and subjective inputs have the potential to efficiently address some of the conflict between development and nature as they involve a fuller justification by wind farm developers for location, scale, and design. Spatial tools such as creation of 3D view sheds offer participants new ways of assessing visual intrusion to make a more informed decision. Higgs et al. make a very telling statement when analyzing the success of this project",
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"after": "In another planning example, Simao et al. analyzed how to create sustainable development options with widespread community support. They determined that stakeholders need to learn likely outcomes that result from stated preferences, which can be supported through enhanced access to information and incentives to increase public participation. Through a multi-criteria spatial decision support system stakeholders were able to voice concerns and work on a compromise solution to have final outcome accepted by majority when siting wind farms. This differs from the work of Higgs et al. in that the focus was on allowing users to learn from the collaborative process, both interactively and iteratively about the nature of the problem and their own preferences for desirable characteristics of solution.",
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"after": "This stimulated sharing of opinions and discussion of interests behind preferences. After understanding the problem more fully, participants could discuss alternative solutions and interact with other participants to come to a compromise solution.Simao, A., Densham, P.J., Haklay, M. Web-based GIS for collaborative planning and public participation: An application to the strategic planning of wind farm sites. 2009, Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 2027-2040 Similar work has been done to incorporate public participation in spatial planning for transportation system development,Zhong, E. A model for public involvement programming using participatory Geographic Information Systems. 2008. Computers, Environment, and Urban Systems 32 (2008) 123–133 and this method of two-way benefits is even beginning to move towards web-based mapping services to further simplify and extend the process into the community.Kingston, R. Community decision making Public Participation in Local Policy Decision-making: The Role of Web-based Mapping. (2007)The Cartographic journal Vol. 44 No. 2 pp. 138–144 ICA Special Issue 2007",
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739291 | 1 | 250px|Ten-sqúat-a-way, Painted in 1830 by George Catlin Tenskwatawa( ; also called Tenskatawa, Tenskwatawah, Tensquatawa or Lalawethika) (January 1775 – November 1836) was a Native American religious and political leader of the Shawnee , known as the Prophet or the Shawnee Prophet. He was a younger brother of Tecumseh, a leader of the Shawnee. In his early years Tenskwatawa was given the name Lalawithika ("He Makes a Loud Noise" , "The Noise Maker" , or "The Rattle")by the Red Sticks, a faction of the Muscogee. Tenskwatawa was once the town drunk, but about 1805, after a stupor so deep that he was believed dead, he awoke and said he had visited the Master of Breath, and been shown a heaven with game and honey for those who lived virtuously and traditionally . Tenskwatawa denounced Euro-American settlers , calling them offspring of the Evil Spirit, and led a purification movement that promoted unity among Native Americans , rejected acculturation to the settler way of life, including alcohol, and encouraged his followers to pursue traditional ways. He was called a Prophet. | 250px|Ten-sqúat-a-way, Painted in 1830 by George Catlin Tenskwatawa( also called Tenskatawa, Tenskwatawah, Tensquatawa or Lalawethika) (January 1775 – November 1836) was a Native American religious and political leader of the Shawnee tribe , known as the Prophet or the Shawnee Prophet. He was a younger brother of Tecumseh, a leader of the Shawnee. In his early years Tenskwatawa was given the name Lalawethika ("He Makes a Loud Noise" or "The Noise Maker" ), but he changed it around 1805 and transformed himself from a hapless, alcoholic youth into an influential spiritual leader . Tenskwatawa denounced the Americans , calling them the offspring of the Evil Spirit, and led a purification movement that promoted unity among the American Indians , rejected acculturation to the American way of life, and encouraged his followers to pursue traditional ways. In the early 1800s Tenskwatawa formed a community with his followers near Greenville in western Ohio, and in 1808 he and his brother, Tecumseh, established a village that the Americans called Prophetstown north of present-day Lafayette, Indiana. At Prophetstown the brothers' pan-Indian resistance movement increased to include thousands of followers, with Tenskwatawa providing the spiritual foundation. Together, they mobilized the Indians in the Midwest to fight the Americans and remained resolute in their rejection of American authority and acculturation. On November 7, 1811, while Tecumseh was away, Tenskwatawa ordered the pre-dawn attack on an American military force encamped near Prophetstown that initiated the Battle of Tippecanoe. The Indians retreated after a two-hour engagement and abandoned Prophetstown, which the Americans burned to the ground. The battle did not end the Indians' resistance against the Americans, but the Prophet lost his influence, became an outcast, and moved to Canada during the War of 1812. After Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, the American Indian resistance movement did not recover and was eventually defeated. Tenskwatawa remained as an exile in Canada for nearly a decade. He returned to the United States in 1824 to assist the U.S. government with the Shawnee removal to reservation land in present-day Kansas. The aging Prophet arrived at the Shawnee reservation in 1828 and faded into obscurity. Tenskwatawa died at what is known as the Argentine district of present-day Kansas City, Kansas, in 1836. | [
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739291 | 2 | In the early 1800s Tenskwatawa formed a community with his followers near Greenville in western Ohio, and in 1808 he and his brother, Tecumseh, established a village that the Americans called Prophetstown north of present-day Lafayette, Indiana. At Prophetstown the brothers' pan-Indian resistance movement increased to include thousands of followers, with Tenskwatawa providing the spiritual foundation. Together, they mobilized the Indians in the Midwest to fight the Americans and remained resolute in their rejection of American authority and acculturation. On November 7, 1811, while Tecumseh was away, Tenskwatawa ordered the pre-dawn attack on an American military force encamped near Prophetstown that initiated the Battle of Tippecanoe. The Indians retreated after a two-hour engagement and abandoned Prophetstown, which the Americans burned to the ground. The battle did not end the Indians' resistance against the Americans , but the Prophet lost his influence, became an outcast, and moved to Canada during the War of 1812. After Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, the American Indian resistance movement did not recover and was eventually defeated. Tenskwatawa remained as an exile in Canada for nearly a decade. He returned to the United States in 1824 to assist the U.S. government with the Shawnee removal to reservation land in present-day Kansas. The aging Prophet arrived at the Shawnee reservation in 1828 and faded into obscurity. Tenskwatawa died at what is known as the Argentine district of present-day Kansas City, Kansas, in 1836. | In the early 1800s Tenskwatawa formed a community with his followers near Greenville in western Ohio, and in 1808 he and his brother, Tecumseh, established a village that the Americans called Prophetstown north of present-day Lafayette, Indiana. At Prophetstown the brothers' pan-American Indian resistance movement increased to include thousands of followers, with Tenskwatawa providing the spiritual foundation. Together, they mobilized the American Indians in the Midwest to fight the Americans and remained resolute in their rejection of American authority and acculturation. On November 7, 1811, while Tecumseh was away, Tenskwatawa ordered the pre-dawn attack on an American military force encamped near Prophetstown that initiated the Battle of Tippecanoe. The American Indians retreated after a two-hour engagement and abandoned Prophetstown, which the Americans burned to the ground. The battle did not end the American Indians' resistance against the United States , but the Prophet lost his influence, became an outcast, and moved to Canada during the War of 1812. After Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, the American Indian resistance movement did not recover and was eventually defeated. Tenskwatawa remained as an exile in Canada for nearly a decade. He returned to the United States in 1824 to assist the U.S. government with the Shawnee removal to reservation land in present-day Kansas. The aging Prophet arrived at the Shawnee reservation in 1828 and faded into obscurity. Tenskwatawa died at what is known as the Argentine district of present-day Kansas City, Kansas, in 1836. | [
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7418140 | 1 | During the 1956 Hungarian revolution, he joined the Imre Nagy government as minister of press and propaganda affairs. He and Zoltán Tildy held the government's last press conference on November 3. On November 4 , as the Soviet army poured into Budapest, he took refuge in the Yugoslavia Embassy, and on November 22 , he and the other members of the Imre Nagy group were arrested and transported to Romania. He was brought back to Budapest in mid-April 1957. While in captivity, awaiting trial for treason, Losonczy went on hunger strike. He was scheduled to stand trial as the second accused in the trial of Imre Nagy and his government, but he died while on a hunger strike in prison awaiting trial when his jailers "carelessly pushed a feeding tube down his windpipe."Fryer, Peter (1997). Hungarian Tragedy, p. 10. Index Books: London. . References | During the 1956 Hungarian revolution, he joined the Imre Nagy government as minister of press and propaganda affairs. He and Zoltán Tildy held the government's last press conference on 3 November. On 4 November , as the Soviet army poured into Budapest, he took refuge in the Yugoslavia Embassy, and on 22 November he and the other members of the Imre Nagy group were arrested and transported to Romania. He was brought back to Budapest in mid-April 1957. While in captivity, awaiting trial for treason, Losonczy went on hunger strike. He was scheduled to stand trial as the second accused in the trial of Imre Nagy and his government, but he died while on a hunger strike in prison awaiting trial when his jailers "carelessly pushed a feeding tube down his windpipe."Fryer, Peter (1997). Hungarian Tragedy, p. 10. Index Books: London. . References | [
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7419828 | 1 | Career opportunities A bachelor's degree in leisure studies qualifies graduates for a wide range of entry level recreational occupations in .......v/ooh/personal-care-and-service/recreation-workers.htm#tab-1|title=Recreation Workers|date=8 January 2014|publisher=|accessdate=29 July 2015 </ref> This is growing as fast as the average of all jobs and is potentially due to increasing childhood obesity rates and the aging baby-boomers generation.%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Work settings include: Rehabilitation centers State and municipal parks Schools Camps Coaching Athletic programs Fitness centers Sporting organizations and businesses Correctional facilities Non-profit organizations Community centers Hospitality services Nursing homes Industries that employed the most recreation /leisure workers in 2012 and average annual salary: Industry Percent employed Avg. annual salary Local government 33\% $22,160 Nursing and residential care facilities 16\% $24,210 Religious, grantmaking, civic, and professional orgs. 12\% $20,310 Arts, entertainment, and recreation 10\% $19 , 320 Social assistance 8\% 22,640 | Career opportunities A bachelor's degree in leisure studies qualifies graduates for a wide range of entry level recreational occupations in %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% the private and public sectors. Leisure Service jobs involve a variety of leisure, recreational and sport settings for all age groups, populations, and diverse geographical locations. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics report that 345,400 recreation worker jobs existed in the U.S. as of 2012 and the mean annual wage for a recreation worker was $25,430. The leisure studies field is expected to grow 14\% from 2012–2022. This is growing as fast as the average of all jobs and is potentially due to increasing childhood obesity rates and the aging baby-boomers generation. Work settings include: Rehabilitation centers State and municipal parks Schools Camps Coaching Athletic programs Fitness centers Sporting organizations and businesses Correctional facilities Non-profit organizations Community centers Hospitality services Nursing homes Industries that employed the most recreation/leisure workers in 2012 and average annual salary: Industry Percent employed Avg. annual salary Local government 33\% $22 , 160 Nursing and residential care facilities 16\% $24,210 Religious, grantmaking, civic, and professional orgs. 12\% $20,310 Arts, entertainment, and recreation 10\% $19,320 Social assistance 8\% $ 22,640 | [
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7420608 | 1 | "The Centipede's Dilemma" is a short poem that has lent its name to a psychological effect called the centipede effect or centipede syndrome. The centipede effect occurs when a normally automatic or unconscious activity is disrupted by consciousness of it or reflection on it. For example, a golfer thinking too closely about her swing or someone thinking too much about how he knots his tie may find his performance of the task impaired. The effect is also known as hyper-reflection or Humphrey's law after the English psychologist George Humphrey (1889–1966), who propounded it in 1923. As he wrote of the poem, "This is a most psychological rhyme. It contains a profound truth which is illustrated daily in the lives of all of us". The effect is the reverse of a solvitur ambulando. Poem The poem, a short rhyme, is usually attributed to Katherine Craster (1841–1874) in Pinafore Poems, 1871. By 1881 it had begun appearing in journals such as The Spectator and Littell's Living Age. The poem later appeared in an article by British zoologist E. Ray Lankester, published in the scientific journal Nature on May 23, 1889, which discussed the work of the photographer Eadweard Muybridge in capturing the motion of animals: "For my own part," wrote Lankester, "I should greatly like to apply Mr. Muybridge's cameras, or a similar set of batteries, to the investigation of a phenomenon more puzzling even than that of 'the galloping horse'. I allude to the problem of 'the running centipede. Lankester finished the article on a fanciful note by imagining the "disastrous results in the way of perplexity" that could result from such an investigation, quoting the poem and mentioning that the author was unknown to him or to the friend who sent it to him. It has since been variously attributed to specific authors but without convincing evidence, and often appears under the title "The Centipede's Dilemma". The version in the article is as follows : In psychology and philosophy The psychologist George Humphrey referred to the tale in his 1923 book The Story of Man's Mind: "No man skilled at a trade needs to put his constant attention on the routine work", he wrote. "If he does, the job is apt to be spoiled". He went on to recount the centipede's story, commenting, "This is a most psychological rhyme. It contains a profound truth which is illustrated daily in the lives of all of us, for exactly the same thing happens if we pay conscious attention to any well-formed habit, such as walking". Thus, the eponymous "Humphrey's law" states that once performance of a task has become automatized, conscious thought about the task, while performing it, impairs performance. Whereas habit diminishes and then eliminates the attention required for routine tasks, this automaticity is disrupted by attention to a normally unconscious competence. The philosopher Karl Popper referred to the centipede effect in his book Knowledge and the Body-Mind Problem: In Defence of Interaction: "if we have learnt certain movements so that they have sunk below the level of conscious control, then if we try to follow them consciously we very often interfere with them so badly that we stop them". He gives the example of the violinist Adolf Busch who was asked by fellow-violinist Bronisław Huberman how he played a certain passage of Beethoven's violin concerto. Busch told Huberman that it was quite simple — and then found that he could no longer play the passage. The psychiatric psychoanalyst Theo L. Dorpat compares questions and interventions irrelevant to the patient's current thought process during psychotherapy in his book Gaslighting to "the story of the centipede who became disorganized and unable to walk after he was asked, 'What's wrong with your 34th left foot?'." Cultural references Cover of The Hot Soldier and Other Stories by Gustav Meyrink In 1903, Simplicissimus magazine printed an adaptation of the story by the Austrian author Gustav Meyrink, "The Curse of The Toad" (Der Fluch der Kröte). The fable was also published in Meyrink's 1903 collection of tales, The Hot Soldier and Other Stories. Spider Robinson's short story "The Centipede's Dilemma" concerns a psychic who uses instinctive telekinetic powers to cheat at darts, and is foiled when another character triggers hyper-reflection in him. | "The Centipede's Dilemma" is a short poem that has lent its name to a psychological effect called the centipede effect or centipede syndrome. The centipede effect occurs when a normally automatic or unconscious activity is disrupted by consciousness of it or reflection on it. For example, a golfer thinking too closely about her swing or someone thinking too much about how he knots his tie may find his performance of the task impaired. The effect is also known as hyperreflection or Humphrey's law after English psychologist George Humphrey (1889–1966), who propounded it in 1923. As he wrote of the poem, "This is a most psychological rhyme. It contains a profound truth which is illustrated daily in the lives of all of us". The effect is the reverse of a solvitur ambulando. Poem The poem, a short rhyme, is usually attributed to Katherine Craster (1841–1874) in Pinafore Poems, 1871. By 1881 , it had begun appearing in journals such as The Spectator and Littell's Living Age. The poem later appeared in an article by British zoologist E. Ray Lankester, published in the scientific journal Nature on May 23, 1889, which discussed the work of photographer Eadweard Muybridge in capturing the motion of animals: "For my own part," wrote Lankester, "I should greatly like to apply Mr. Muybridge's cameras, or a similar set of batteries, to the investigation of a phenomenon more puzzling even than that of 'the galloping horse'. I allude to the problem of 'the running centipede. Lankester finished the article on a fanciful note by imagining the "disastrous results in the way of perplexity" that could result from such an investigation, quoting the poem and mentioning that the author was unknown to him or to the friend who sent it to him. It has since been variously attributed to specific authors , but without convincing evidence, and often appears under the title "The Centipede's Dilemma". The version in the article is : In psychology and philosophy Psychologist George Humphrey referred to the tale in his 1923 book The Story of Man's Mind: "No man skilled at a trade needs to put his constant attention on the routine work", he wrote. "If he does, the job is apt to be spoiled". He went on to recount the centipede's story, commenting, "This is a most psychological rhyme. It contains a profound truth which is illustrated daily in the lives of all of us, for exactly the same thing happens if we pay conscious attention to any well-formed habit, such as walking". Thus, his eponymous "Humphrey's law" states that once performance of a task has become automatized, conscious thought about the task, while performing it, impairs performance. Whereas habit diminishes and then eliminates the attention required for routine tasks, this automaticity is disrupted by attention to a normally unconscious competence. Philosopher Karl Popper referred to the centipede effect in his book Knowledge and the Body-Mind Problem: In Defence of Interaction: "if we have learnt certain movements so that they have sunk below the level of conscious control, then if we try to follow them consciously , we very often interfere with them so badly that we stop them". He gives the example of violinist Adolf Busch , who was asked by fellow violinist Bronisław Huberman how he played a certain passage of Beethoven's violin concerto. Busch told Huberman that it was quite simple , and then found that he could no longer play the passage. Psychiatric psychoanalyst Theo L. Dorpat compares questions and interventions irrelevant to the patient's current thought process during psychotherapy in his book Gaslighting to "the story of the centipede who became disorganized and unable to walk after he was asked, 'What's wrong with your 34th left foot?'." Cultural references Cover of The Hot Soldier and Other Stories by Gustav Meyrink In 1903, Simplicissimus magazine printed an adaptation of the story by Austrian author Gustav Meyrink, "The Curse of The Toad" (Der Fluch der Kröte). The fable was also published in Meyrink's 1903 collection of tales, The Hot Soldier and Other Stories. Spider Robinson's short story "The Centipede's Dilemma" concerns a psychic who uses instinctive telekinetic powers to cheat at darts, and is foiled when another character triggers hyperreflection in him. | [
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7421881 | 1 | In Media and Scholarship In 2016 the Kerry Babies case was the subject of a film titled Out of Innocence starring Fiona Shaw and Alun Armstrong and distributed by Mbur Indie Film Distribution. A 2019 scholarly article suggests that unfamiliarity with the poorly-documented “killeen” custom (the burial of stillborn babies in unconsecrated ground, which was once prevalent in Kerry) may have been a factor in the case. Mary Burke . “Tuam Babies and Kerry Babies: Clandestine Pregnancies and Child Burial Sites in Tom Murphy’s Drama and Mary Leland’s The Killeen.” Irish University Review 49.2 (2019) : 245-61. URL | In Media and Scholarship In 2016 the Kerry Babies case was the subject of a film titled Out of Innocence starring Fiona Shaw and Alun Armstrong and distributed by Mbur Indie Film Distribution. A 2019 scholarly article suggests that unfamiliarity with the poorly-documented “killeen” custom (the burial of stillborn babies in unconsecrated ground, which was once prevalent in Kerry) may have been a factor in the case. Mary Burke (2009) . “Tuam Babies and Kerry Babies: Clandestine Pregnancies and Child Burial Sites in Tom Murphy’s Drama and Mary Leland’s The Killeen.” Irish University Review 49 (2) 245-61. URL | [
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7421881 | 2 | In Media and Scholarship In 2016 the Kerry Babies case was the subject of a film titled Out of Innocence starring Fiona Shaw and Alun Armstrong and distributed by Mbur Indie Film Distribution. A 2019 scholarly article suggests that unfamiliarity with the poorly-documented “killeen” custom (the burial of stillborn babies in unconsecrated ground, which was once prevalent in Kerry) may have been a factor in the case. Mary Burke (2009) . “Tuam Babies and Kerry Babies: Clandestine Pregnancies and Child Burial Sites in Tom Murphy’s Drama and Mary Leland’s The Killeen.” Irish University Review 49 (2) 245-61. URL | Tuam Babies and Kerry Babies== In Media and Scholarship == In 2016 the Kerry Babies case was the subject of a film titled Out of Innocence starring Fiona Shaw and Alun Armstrong and distributed by Mbur Indie Film Distribution. A 2019 scholarly article suggests that unfamiliarity with the poorly-documented “killeen” custom (the burial of stillborn babies in unconsecrated ground, which was once prevalent in Kerry) may have been a factor in the case. Mary Burke . “Tuam Babies and Kerry Babies: Clandestine Pregnancies and Child Burial Sites in Tom Murphy’s Drama and Mary Leland’s The Killeen.” Irish University Review 49.2 (2019): 245-61. | [
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742316 | 1 | Criticism Philosopher John Searle characterized the goal of Giroux's form of critical pedagogy "to create political radicals", thus highlighting the antagonistic moral and political grounds of the ideals of citizenship and "public wisdom."Searle, John. (1990) The Storm Over the University, The New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990. These varying moral perspectives of what is right are to be found in what John DeweyDewey, John. (1938). Experience and Education. has referred to as the tensions between traditional and progressive education. Searle argued that critical pedagogy's objections to the Western canon are misplaced and/or disingenuous: See also Gottesman, Isaac (2016), The Critical Turn in Education: From Marxist Critique to Poststructuralist Feminism to Critical Theories of Race (New York: Routledge) Salmani Nodoushan, M. A., & Pashapour, A. (2016). Critical pedagogy, rituals of distinction, and true professionalism. Journal of Educational Technology, 13(1), 29-43. | Criticism Critical pedagogy has been the subject of varied debates inside and outside the field of education. Philosopher John Searle characterized the goal of Giroux's form of critical pedagogy "to create political radicals", thus highlighting the antagonistic moral and political grounds of the ideals of citizenship and "public wisdom."Searle, John. (1990) The Storm Over the University, The New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990. These varying moral perspectives of what is right are to be found in what John DeweyDewey, John. (1938). Experience and Education. has referred to as the tensions between traditional and progressive education. Searle argued that critical pedagogy's objections to the Western canon are misplaced and/or disingenuous: Scholars who have worked in the field of critical pedagogy have also critiqued the movement from various angles. In 2016, Curry Stephenson Malott, who had written several books about critical pedagogy and identified as a critical pedagogue, renounced and critiqued his previous work. In History and Education: Engaging the Global Class War, he writes about his "long journey of self-reflection and de-indoctrination" that culminated in the break. Malott writes that "the term critical pedagogy was created by Henry Giroux (1981) as an attempt to dismiss socialism and the legacy of Karl Marx." During the same period, Derek R. Ford also broke with critical pedagogy, claiming that it was "at a dead end." While Ford is not concerned with "proficiency" like O'Dair, he agrees that the focus on critique at the expense of imagination and actual political engagement serves to produce the critical pedagogue as "the enlightened and isolated researcher that reveals the truth behind the curtain." Both Malott and Ford, however, note exceptions to their critiques within the field, such as the work of Peter McLaren. See also Ford, Derek R. (2017), Education and the Production of Space: Political Pedagogy, Geography, and Urban Revolution (New York: Routledge) Gottesman, Isaac (2016), The Critical Turn in Education: From Marxist Critique to Poststructuralist Feminism to Critical Theories of Race (New York: Routledge) Malott, Curry Stephenson (2017) In Defense of Communism: Against Critical Pedagogy, Capitalism, and Trump. Critical Education, 8(1), 1-24. Salmani Nodoushan, M. A., & Pashapour, A. (2016). Critical pedagogy, rituals of distinction, and true professionalism. Journal of Educational Technology, 13(1), 29-43. | [
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7425376 | 1 | Reception Finite and Infinite Games received mixed reviews. Howard A. Paul suggested that the book would be valuable in the education of therapists, whereas Francis Kane of the New York Times was critical of the book's premise and logic. Meanwhile technologist Kevin Kelly praised it for "alter[ing] my thinking about life, the universe, and everything." Reviews in Commonweal and Publishers Weekly were more balanced. Theology professor John F. Haught noted the connection between Carse's book and the works of Søren Kierkegaard, Henri Bergson, René Descartes . Philosopher David Chalmers has called it a 'neglected classic in the philosophy of living.' | Reception Finite and Infinite Games received mixed reviews. Howard A. Paul suggested that the book would be valuable in the education of therapists, whereas Francis Kane of the New York Times was critical of the book's premise and logic. Meanwhile technologist Kevin Kelly praised it for "alter[ing] my thinking about life, the universe, and everything." Reviews in Commonweal and Publishers Weekly were more balanced. Theology professor John F. Haught , writing in The Washington Times magazine noted the connection between Carse's book and the works of Søren Kierkegaard, Henri Bergson, René Descartes . Finite and Infinite Games received a mixed review in Kirkus Reviews which stated 'For every (not too original) insight worth remembering ... there's a pair of others too familiar ... or awkward ... to hold our attention' . Philosopher David Chalmers has called it a 'neglected classic in the philosophy of living.' | [
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742915 | 1 | From English football Albanian: futboll Armenian: ֆուտբոլ (futbol) Bangla: ফুটবল (futbol) Belarusian: футбол (futbol) Bulgarian: футбол (futbol), the sport was initially called ритнитоп ritnitop) literally "kickball"); footballers are still sometimes mockingly called ритнитопковци (ritnitopkovtsi "ball kickers") today. Catalan: futbol Czech: fotbal (kopaná for "kick game" is also used) Filipino: futbol (ᜉᜓᜆ᜔ᜊᜓᜎ᜔ in baybayin) French: football (except in French Canada where it is soccer)) Galician: fútbol Hindi: फ़ुटबॉल (futabol) Japanese: futtobōru (フットボール) is a variant, but サッカー (sakkā) is most commonly used in Japanese, as in 日本サッカー協会 (lit. Japan Soccer Association ) but when translated into English it's Japan Football Association . Kannada: ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ (phutball) Kazakh: футбол (futbol) Kyrgyz: футбол (futbol) Latvian: futbols Lithuanian: futbolas Macedonian: фудбал (fudbal) Malayalam: ഫുട്ബോൾ (phutball) Maltese: futbol Marathi: फुट्बॉल् (phutball) Persian: فوتبال (futbâl) Polish: futbol, as well as the native term piłka nożna literally "foot-ball" Portuguese: futebol Romanian: fotbal Russian: футбол (futbol) Serbian: фудбал (fudbal) Slovak: futbal Spanish: fútbol the calque balompié, from the words "balón" (ball) and "pie" (foot), is seldom used. Tajik: футбол (futbol) Telugu: ఫుట్బాల్ (phutball) Thai: ฟุตบอล (fút-bol) Turkish: futbol Ukrainian: футбол (futbol), occasionally called копаний м'яч (kopanyi myach), literally "kicked ball" or simply копаний (kopanyi) Uzbek: futbol Yiddish: פוטבאָל (futbol) This commonality is reflected in the auxiliary languages Esperanto and Interlingua, which utilize futbalo and football, respectively. | From English football Albanian: futboll Armenian: ֆուտբոլ (futbol) Bangla: ফুটবল (futbol) Belarusian: футбол (futbol) Bulgarian: футбол (futbol), the sport was initially called ритнитоп (ritnitop, literally "kickball"); footballers are still sometimes mockingly called ритнитопковци (ritnitopkovtsi "ball kickers") today. Catalan: futbol Czech: fotbal (kopaná for "kick game" is also used) Filipino: futbol (ᜉᜓᜆ᜔ᜊᜓᜎ᜔ in baybayin) French: football (except in French Canada where it is soccer)) Galician: fútbol Hindi: फ़ुटबॉल (futabol) Japanese: futtobōru (フットボール) is a variant, but サッカー (sakkā) is most commonly used in Japanese, as in 日本サッカー協会 (lit. Japan Soccer Association , but the official English name is Japan Football Association ) . Kannada: ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ (phutball) Kazakh: футбол (futbol) Kyrgyz: футбол (futbol) Latvian: futbols Lithuanian: futbolas Macedonian: фудбал (fudbal) Malayalam: ഫുട്ബോൾ (phutball) Maltese: futbol Marathi: फुट्बॉल् (phutball) Persian: فوتبال (futbâl) Polish: futbol, as well as the native term piłka nożna literally "foot-ball" Portuguese: futebol Romanian: fotbal Russian: футбол (futbol) Serbian: фудбал (fudbal) Slovak: futbal Spanish: fútbol the calque balompié, from the words "balón" (ball) and "pie" (foot), is seldom used. Tajik: футбол (futbol) Telugu: ఫుట్బాల్ (phutball) Thai: ฟุตบอล (fút-bol) Turkish: futbol Ukrainian: футбол (futbol), occasionally called копаний м'яч (kopanyi myach), literally "kicked ball" or simply копаний (kopanyi) Uzbek: futbol Yiddish: פוטבאָל (futbol) This commonality is reflected in the auxiliary languages Esperanto and Interlingua, which utilize futbalo and football, respectively. | [
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743150 | 1 | In a 2–1 decision, Jacques L. Wiener, Jr., and Sarah E. Horvath agreed with the District Court that "the words 'nonsectarian, non proselytizing' are constitutionally necessary components" of a policy governing prayer at graduations. However, the Appeals Court struck down the part of the decision that permitted prayer at football games. Graduation was a once-in-a-lifetime event that deserved to be solemnized with prayer, while football games were "far less solemn and extraordinary." E. Grady Jolly dissented, objecting that now "the majority expressly exerts control over the content of its citizens' prayers." | In a 2–1 decision, Jacques L. Wiener, Jr., and Carl E. Stewart agreed with the District Court that "the words 'nonsectarian, non proselytizing' are constitutionally necessary components" of a policy governing prayer at graduations. However, the Appeals Court struck down the part of the decision that permitted prayer at football games. Graduation was a once-in-a-lifetime event that deserved to be solemnized with prayer, while football games were "far less solemn and extraordinary." E. Grady Jolly dissented, objecting that now "the majority expressly exerts control over the content of its citizens' prayers." | [
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7433246 | 1 | Until April 2008, it was headed by global warming skeptic Tom Harris, formerly Ottawa director of the consulting firm High Park Group, and, until later in 2008, Tim Ball, formerly Professor of Geography at the University of Winnipeg. Harris has stated that the NRSP was set up on the initiative of the High Park Group. Category: Organizations of environmentalism skeptics and critics Category:Year of establishment missing Category:Natural resources organizatio | Until April 2008, it was headed by global warming skeptic Tom Harris, formerly Ottawa director of the consulting firm High Park Group, and, until later in 2008, Tim Ball, geographer at the University of Winnipeg. Harris has stated that the NRSP was set up on the initiative of the High Park Group. Category: Climate change skepticism and denial Category:Natural resources organizations Category: Organizations of environmentalism skeptics and critics Category:Year of establishment missin | [
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743441 | 1 | A Bouguer reduction is called simple or incomplete if the terrain is approximated by an infinite flat plate called the Bouguer plate. A refined or complete Bouguer reduction removes the effects of terrain precisely. The difference between the two , the differential gravitational effect of the unevenness of the terrain , is called the terrain effect. It is always negative. | Reduction A Bouguer reduction is called simple (or incomplete) if the terrain is approximated by an infinite flat plate called the Bouguer plate. A refined (or complete) Bouguer reduction removes the effects of terrain more precisely. The difference between the two is called the terrain effect and is due to the differential gravitational effect of the unevenness of the terrain ; it is always negative. | [
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743441 | 2 | Anomaly The Bouguer anomaly is related to the observed gravity asfollows : Here, is the Bouguer anomaly; is the observed gravity; is the correction for latitude (because the Earth is not a perfect sphere); is the free-air correction; is the Bouguer correction which allows for the gravitational attraction of rocks between the measurement point and sea level; is the free-air gravity anomaly. is a terrain correction which allows for deviations of the surface from an infinite horizontal plane Reduction A Bouguer reduction is called simple (or incomplete) if the terrain is approximated by an infinite flat plate called the Bouguer plate. A refined (or complete) Bouguer reduction removes the effects of terrain more precisely. The difference between the two is called the terrain effect (or terrain correction) and is due to the differential gravitational effect of the unevenness of the terrain; it is always negative. More generally, for a mass distribution with the density depending on one Cartesian coordinate z only, gravity for any z is 2πG times the difference in mass per unit area on either side of this z '' value. A combination of two parallel infinite if equal mass per unit area plates does not produce any gravity between them. | Definition The Bouguer anomaly defined as : Here, is the free-air gravity anomaly. is the Bouguer correction which allows for the gravitational attraction of rocks between the measurement point and sea level; is a terrain correction which allows for deviations of the surface from an infinite horizontal plane The free-air anomaly , in its turn, is related to the observed gravity as follows: where: is the correction for latitude (because the Earth is not a perfect sphere; see normal gravity); is the free-air correction. Reduction A Bouguer reduction is called simple (or incomplete) if the terrain is approximated by an infinite flat plate called the Bouguer plate. A refined (or complete) Bouguer reduction removes the effects of terrain more precisely. The difference between the two is called the terrain effect (or terrain correction) and is due to the differential gravitational effect of the unevenness of the terrain; it is always negative. More generally, for a mass distribution with the density depending on one Cartesian coordinate z only, gravity for any z is 2πG times the difference in mass per unit area on either side of this z value. A combination of two parallel infinite if equal mass per unit area plates does not produce any gravity between them. | [
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744036 | 1 | Joseph Addison embarked on the Grand Tour in 1699 and commented in Remarks on Several Parts of Italy etc. that "The Alps fill the mind with an agreeable kind of horror".Joseph Addison, Remarks on Several Parts of Italy etc. in the years 1701, 1702, 1703. 1773 edition, printed for T. Walker. Chapter on ‘Geneva and the Lake’: 261 Located on Google books, accessed 11.12.07 The significance of Addison's concept of the sublime is that the three pleasures of the imagination that he identified ; greatness, uncommonness, and beauty , "arise from visible objects" ( that is, from sight rather than from rhetoric ) . It is also notable that in writing on the "Sublime in external Nature", he does not use the term "sublime" but uses semi-synonymous terms : "unbounded", "unlimited", "spacious", "greatness", and on occasion terms denoting excess. | Joseph Addison embarked on the Grand Tour in 1699 and commented in Remarks on Several Parts of Italy etc. that "The Alps fill the mind with an agreeable kind of horror".Joseph Addison, Remarks on Several Parts of Italy etc. in the years 1701, 1702, 1703. 1773 edition, printed for T. Walker. Chapter on ‘Geneva and the Lake’: 261 Located on Google books, accessed 11.12.07 The significance of Addison's concept of the sublime is that the three pleasures of the imagination that he identified — greatness, uncommonness, and beauty — "arise from visible objects" ; that is, from sight rather than from rhetoric . It is also notable that in writing on the "Sublime in external Nature", he does not use the term "sublime" but uses semi-synonymous terms such as "unbounded", "unlimited", "spacious", "greatness", and on occasion terms denoting excess. | [
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744036 | 2 | Aesthetics Category:Aesthetic beauty Category:Abstraction Category:Concepts in aesthetics Category:Concepts in ancient Greek aesthetics Category:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics Category:Concepts in ancient Greek philosophy of mind Category:Concepts in metaphysics Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind Category: History of ideas Category:History of philosophy Category: Philosophy of culture Category:Philosophy of education Category:Philosophy of literature Category:Philosophy of mind Category:Romanticism Category:Victor Hu | Aesthetics Category:Aesthetic beauty Category:Abstraction Category:Concepts in aesthetics Category:Concepts in ancient Greek aesthetics Category:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics Category:Concepts in ancient Greek philosophy of mind Category:Concepts in metaphysics Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind Category: Philosophy of culture Category:Philosophy of education Category:Philosophy of literature Category:Philosophy of mind Category:Romanticism Category:Victor Hu | [
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7441186 | 1 | Chainline is the angle of a bicycle chain relative to the centerline of the bike's frame. A bicycle is said to have perfect chainline if the chain is parallel to the frame, which means that the rear sprocket is directly behind the front sprocket . Chainline also refers to the distance between a sprocket and the centerline of the bike . Bicycles with straighter chainline are more efficient due to the frictional losses incurred by running the chain straight around both sprockets but at an angle between them . This is the main reason that a single-speed bicycle is more efficient than a derailleur geared bicycle which is shifted into an identical gear combination . Single-speed bicycles must have the straightest possible chainline in order to prevent the chain from falling off. This is particularly important for fixed-gear bicycles, because chain derailment can cause such a bike's rear wheel to lock. See also Bicycle gearing | Chainline is the angle of a bicycle chain relative to the centerline of the bicycle frame. A bicycle is said to have perfect chainline if the chain is parallel to the centerline of the frame, which means that the rear sprocket is directly behind the front chainring . Chainline also refers to the distance between a sprocket and the centerline of the frame . Bicycles without a straight chainline are slightly less efficient due to frictional losses incurred by running the chain at an angle between the front chainring and rear sprocket . This is the main reason that a single-speed bicycle can be more efficient than a derailleur geared bicycle . Single-speed bicycles should have the straightest possible chainline . See also Bicycle gearing | [
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7449722 | 1 | New Amsterdam Public Hospital, in New Amsterdam, Guyana, is outstanding example of timber architecture, and one of the two surviving architectural masterpieces designed by Cesar Castellani, an architect employed in the Public Works Department of British Guiana. Construction commenced in late 1881 with funds provided to the Public Works Department by the colonial administration. The hospital was built in stages. The central pavilion was completed in 1881. The hospital was almost complete in 1884, and was occupied in 1885. It was described as a “timber architectural masterpiece”. The building was later declared unfit to work and left abandoned. It slowly collapsed due to vandalism and deterioration.Guyana Times International Old location: | New Amsterdam Public Hospital, in New Amsterdam, Guyana, is one of the two surviving buildings designed by Cesar Castellani, an architect employed in the Public Works Department of British Guiana. Construction commenced in late 1881 with funds provided to the Public Works Department by the colonial administration. The hospital was built in stages. The central pavilion was completed in 1881. The hospital was almost complete in 1884, and was occupied in 1885. It was described as a “timber architectural masterpiece”. The building was later declared unfit to work and left abandoned. It slowly collapsed due to vandalism and deterioration.Guyana Times International Old location: In 1893, the hospital had 150 beds, four sick wards (one designated for females) each with 24 beds with a window between each bed. | [
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7451157 | 1 | Penang's only synagogue, located on 28, Nagore Road, was opened in 1929 but closed down in 1976 as the community could no longer fulfill the minyan, a quorum of ten or more adult Jews assembled for purposes of fulfilling a public religious obligation. Today, approximately 100 Jews who are refugees from Russia are said to reside in Malaysia. The original Penang Jewish community ceased to exist with the death of Mordecai (Mordy) David Mordecai on 15 July 2011.News Straits Times (Northern Edition) article on 18 July 2011 entitled: "Uncle Mordy laid to rest" The rest of the Penang Jews have either embraced Christianity or else have emigrated to other countries, especially with the rise of anti-semitic sentiments and anti-Israel policies pursued by the Malaysian government since the 1970s. | Penang's only synagogue, located on 28, Nagore Road, was opened in 1929 but closed down in 1976 as the community could no longer fulfill the minyan, a quorum of ten or more adult Jews assembled for purposes of fulfilling a public religious obligation. In 2008, it was reported that approximately 100 Jewish refugees from Russia were residing in Malaysia. The original Penang Jewish community ceased to exist with the death of Mordecai (Mordy) David Mordecai on 15 July 2011.News Straits Times (Northern Edition) article on 18 July 2011 entitled: "Uncle Mordy laid to rest" The rest of the Penang Jews have either embraced Christianity or else have emigrated to other countries, especially with the rise of anti-semitic sentiments and anti-Israel policies pursued by the Malaysian government since the 1970s. | [
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7453251 | 1 | See also Mereological nihilism Mereology Gallois, A. 1998. Occasions of Identity. Oxford, Clarendon Press. McDaniel, K. 2004. Modal Realism with Overlap from Lewisian Themes: The Philosophy of David K. Lewis ed. Frank Jackson and Graham Priest. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Sider, T. 2001. Four-Dimensionalism. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Thomson, J. 1983. Parthood and Identity Across Time. The Journal of Philosophy 80:4, p. 201-20. van Inwagen, P. 1981. The Doctrine of Arbitrary Undetached Parts. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, 62, p. 123-37. Zimmerman, D. 1993. Persistence and Presentism. Philosophical Papers 25:2, p. 115-26. A collection of essays on persistence and temporal parts is: Haslanger, Sally & Kurtz, Roxanne Marie. 2006. Persistence: Contemporary Readings''. The MIT Press . | See also Four-dimensionalism Mereological nihilism Mereology Sources Gallois, A. 1998. Occasions of Identity. Oxford, Clarendon Press. McDaniel, K. 2004. Modal Realism with Overlap , in: Lewisian Themes: The Philosophy of David K. Lewis ed. Frank Jackson and Graham Priest. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Sider, T. 2001. Four-Dimensionalism. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Thomson, J. 1983. Parthood and Identity Across Time. The Journal of Philosophy 80:4, p. 201-20. van Inwagen, P. 1981. The Doctrine of Arbitrary Undetached Parts. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, 62, p. 123-37. Zimmerman, D. 1993. Persistence and Presentism. Philosophical Papers 25:2, p. 115-26. Further reading Haslanger, Sally & Kurtz, Roxanne Marie. 2006. Persistence: Contemporary Readings''. The MIT Press a collection of essays on persistence and temporal parts . | [
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745656 | 1 | He was also well known for his philanthropy. During the Great Irish Famine in April 1847, he implemented a network of soup kitchens to feed the poor. His "famine soup" was served to thousands of the poor for free. Soyer wrote a number of bestselling books about cooking, one of them even selling over a quarter of a million copies. His 1854 book A Shilling Cookery for the People was a recipe book for ordinary people who could not afford elaborate kitchen utensils or large amounts of exotic ingredients. Other works included The Gastronomic Regenerator (1846), The modern Housewife or ménagère (1849)"spotted, adj.". OED Online. March 2012. Oxford University Press. URL (accessed March 17 , 2012). and Soyer's Culinary Campaign (1857). | He was also well known for his philanthropy. During the Great Irish Famine in April 1847, he implemented a network of soup kitchens to feed the poor. His "famine soup" was served to thousands of the poor for free. Soyer wrote a number of bestselling books about cooking, one of them even selling over a quarter of a million copies. His 1854 book A Shilling Cookery for the People was a recipe book for ordinary people who could not afford elaborate kitchen utensils or large amounts of exotic ingredients. Other works included The Gastronomic Regenerator (1846), The modern Housewife or , Ménagère and Soyer's Culinary Campaign (1857). | [
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7458541 | 1 | Les voyages aventureux du Capitaine Martin de Hoyarsabal, habitant du Cubiburu, contenant les règles et enseignments nécessaires à la bonne et seure navigation ("The Adventurous Voyages of Captain Martin de Hoyarsabal, inhabitant of Ciboure, contatining the rules and information necessary for good and sure navigation") is a Middle French treatise on navigation by Martin de Hoyarçabal, from the French Basque Country. It was published in 1547 in Bordeaux, edited by Jean Chouin. It was the world's first pedagogical book on navigation, whose purpose was to teach sailors how to sail . & References | Les voyages aventureux du Capitaine Martin de Hoyarsabal, habitant du Cubiburu, contenant les règles et enseignments nécessaires à la bonne et seure navigation ("The Adventurous Voyages of Captain Martin de Hoyarsabal, inhabitant of Ciboure, contatining the rules and information necessary for good and sure navigation") is a Middle French 'rutter' (from ) by Martin de Hoyarçabal, from the French Basque Country. It was one of the earlier navigational guides or pilot books, whose purpose was to show sailors how to navigate various European and New World coastlines. See also :fr:Routier (instructions nautiques). It was first published in French in 1547 , apparently printed in Bordeaux by Jean Chouin. The only known copy of the 1547 edition was acquired by the French Bibliotheque nationale in c1900. Until then it was thought that the first edition of the book was the 1632 Rouen edition. 11 photostats of the original in the Bibliothèque nationale were printed by the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston in 1930, most of which are now in libraries in the USA. According to Michael Barkham it seems certain that the typographic address of the 1547 edition is false, since there was no printer/publisher of the name of Chouin in Bordeaux: rather, the book was printed and published in the Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle by the Protestant printer-publisher and propagandist Jean Portau . Editions Source: (1547) À Bordeaux: Jean Chouin. (1662) À Rouen: A L'imprimerie de David du Petit Val, Imprimeur et Librarie ordinaire de sa Majesté (1633, twice) À Bordeaux: Guillaume Millanges. Gallica) (1636, 1669) Sevendent à la Rochelle, : Chez les veuves de Paul& Pierre Yvounet, sur la rive. (Archive.org) (1677) Librvrv hau da Jxasoco Nabigacionecoa. Martin de Hoyazarbalec, egiña Francezes. Basque edition translated by Pierre Detcheverry, called “Dorre”. Bordeaux: Fauvet. References | [
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74591 | 1 | Those trained only in manual osteopathic treatment, generally to relieve muscular and skeletal conditions, are referred to as osteopaths. These non-physician practitioners are not permitted to use the title D.O. in the United States . This is to avoid confusion with osteopathic physicians who are medical doctors trained and certified to practice in the branch of scientific medicine called osteopathic medicine in the United States. The American Osteopathic Association and the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine recommend using the terms osteopathic physician (U.S.-trained only) and osteopathic medicine in reference to osteopathic medicine as practised in the United States. Osteopathic physicians earn the degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.). An osteopathic physician in the United States is a physician trained in the full scope of medical practice . With the increased internationalization of osteopathy, the AOA recommended in 2010 that the older terms osteopathy and osteopath be reserved for "informal or historical discussions and for referring to previously named entities in the profession and foreign-trained osteopaths", and replaced in the US by osteopathic medicine and osteopathic physician . | An osteopathic physician in the United States is a physician trained in the full scope of medical practice, with a degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.). . With the increased internationalization of osteopathy, the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) recommended in 2010 that the older terms osteopathy and osteopath be reserved for "informal or historical discussions and for referring to previously named entities in the profession and foreign-trained osteopaths", and replaced in the US by osteopathic medicine and osteopathic physician . The American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine made a similar recommendation. Those trained only in manual osteopathic treatment, generally to relieve muscular and skeletal conditions, are referred to as osteopaths, and are not permitted to use the title D.O. in the United States to avoid confusion with osteopathic physicians . | [
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74591 | 2 | In the United States the training of osteopathic physicians is similar to that of Doctor of Medicine (MD) physicians.Dennis L. Kasper, Eugene Braunwald, Anthony S. Fauci, Stephen L. Hauser, Dan L. Longo, J. Larry Jameson, and Kurt J. Isselbacher, Eds.Chapter 10. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th Ed. 2005. McGraw-Hill. Osteopathic manipulation is still included in the curricula of osteopathic physicians and is considered a unique aspect of DO ( Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ) training. In the United States, graduates of osteopathic medical schools have the option to sit for both the osteopathic physician-specific COMLEX medical licensing exam and the allopathic USMLE licensing exam. The practice of osteopathy began in the United States in 1874. Osteopathic medicine was founded by Andrew Taylor Still, a 19th-century American physician (MD), Civil War surgeon, and Kansas state and territorial legislator. He lived near Baldwin City, Kansas during the American Civil War and it was there that he founded the practice of osteopathy. Still claimed that human illness was rooted in problems with the musculoskeletal system, and that osteopathic manipulations could solve these problems by harnessing the body's own self-repairing potential. Still's patients were forbidden from treatment by conventional medicine, as well as from other practices such as drinking alcohol. These practices derive from the belief, common in the early 19th century among proponents of alternative medicine, that the body's natural state tends toward health and inherently contains the capacity to battle any illness. This was opposed to orthodox practitioners, who held that intervention by a physician was necessary to restore health in the patient. Still established the basis for osteopathy, and the division between alternative medicine and traditional medicine had already been a major conflict for decades. One integral tenet of osteopathy is that problems in the body's anatomy can affect its proper functioning. Another tenet is the body's innate ability to heal itself. Many of osteopathic medicine's manipulative techniques are aimed at reducing or eliminating the impediments to proper structure and function so the self-healing mechanism can assume its role in restoring a person to health. Osteopathic medicine defines a concept of health care that embraces the concept of the unity of the living organism's structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). The American Osteopathic Association (AOA ) states that the four major principles of osteopathic medicine are the following: Criticism The American Medical Association listed D.O.s as "cultists" and deemed M.D. consultation of D.O.s unethical from 1923 until 1962. M.D.s regarded that osteopathic treatments were rooted in "pseudoscientific dogma", and although physicians from both branches of medicine have been able to meet on common ground, tensions between the two continue. In a 1995 conference address, the president of the Association of American Medical Colleges, Jordan J. Cohen, pinpointed OMT as a defining difference between M.D.s and D.O.s ; while he saw there was no quarrel in the appropriateness of manipulation for musculoskeletal treatment, the difficulty centered on "applying manipulative therapy to treat other systemic diseases" – at that point, Cohen maintained, "we enter the realm of skepticism on the part of the allopathic world." In 1999, Joel D. Howell noted that osteopathy and medicine as practiced by M.D.s were becoming increasingly convergent. He suggested that this raised a paradox: "if osteopathy has become the functional equivalent of allopathy, what is the justification for its continued existence? And if there is value in therapy that is uniquely osteopathic – that is, based on osteopathic manipulation or other techniques – why should its use be limited to osteopaths?" The scope of practice for US-trained osteopathic physicians is unlimited on an exceptions basis. Full licensure to practice medicine is awarded on an exceptions basis following a hearing before the licensing authorities in New Zealand. Both the Medical Council of New Zealand and the Osteopathic Council of New Zealand OCNZ regulate osteopathic physicians in New Zealand. Currently, the country has no recognized osteopathic medical schools. An osteopathic physician in the United States is a physician trained in the full scope of medical practice, with a degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( D.O. ).. With the increased internationalization of osteopathy, the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) recommended in 2010 that the older terms osteopathy and osteopath be reserved for "informal or historical discussions and for referring to previously named entities in the profession and foreign-trained osteopaths", and replaced in the US by osteopathic medicine and osteopathic physician. The American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine made a similar recommendation. Those trained only in manual osteopathic treatment, generally to relieve muscular and skeletal conditions, are referred to as osteopaths, and are not permitted to use the title D.O. in the United States to avoid confusion with osteopathic physicians. | In the United States the training of osteopathic physicians is similar to that of Doctor of Medicine (MD) physicians.Dennis L. Kasper, Eugene Braunwald, Anthony S. Fauci, Stephen L. Hauser, Dan L. Longo, J. Larry Jameson, and Kurt J. Isselbacher, Eds.Chapter 10. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th Ed. 2005. McGraw-Hill. Osteopathic manipulation is still included in the curricula of osteopathic physicians and is considered a unique aspect of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO ) training. In the United States, graduates of osteopathic medical schools have the option to sit for both the osteopathic physician-specific COMLEX medical licensing exam and the allopathic USMLE licensing exam. The practice of osteopathy began in the United States in 1874. Osteopathic medicine was founded by Andrew Taylor Still, a 19th-century American physician (MD), Civil War surgeon, and Kansas state and territorial legislator. He lived near Baldwin City, Kansas , during the American Civil War and it was there that he founded the practice of osteopathy. Still claimed that human illness was rooted in problems with the musculoskeletal system, and that osteopathic manipulations could solve these problems by harnessing the body's own self-repairing potential. Still's patients were forbidden from treatment by conventional medicine, as well as from other practices such as drinking alcohol. These practices derive from the belief, common in the early 19th century among proponents of alternative medicine, that the body's natural state tends toward health and inherently contains the capacity to battle any illness. This was opposed to orthodox practitioners, who held that intervention by a physician was necessary to restore health in the patient. Still established the basis for osteopathy, and the division between alternative medicine and traditional medicine had already been a major conflict for decades. One integral tenet of osteopathy is that problems in the body's anatomy can affect its proper functioning. Another tenet is the body's innate ability to heal itself. Many of osteopathic medicine's manipulative techniques are aimed at reducing or eliminating the impediments to proper structure and function so the self-healing mechanism can assume its role in restoring a person to health. Osteopathic medicine defines a concept of health care that embraces the concept of the unity of the living organism's structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). The AOA states that the four major principles of osteopathic medicine are the following: Criticism The American Medical Association listed DOs as "cultists" and deemed MD consultation of DOs unethical from 1923 until 1962. MDs regarded that osteopathic treatments were rooted in "pseudoscientific dogma", and although physicians from both branches of medicine have been able to meet on common ground, tensions between the two continue. In a 1995 conference address, the president of the Association of American Medical Colleges, Jordan J. Cohen, pinpointed OMT as a defining difference between MDs and DOs ; while he saw there was no quarrel in the appropriateness of manipulation for musculoskeletal treatment, the difficulty centered on "applying manipulative therapy to treat other systemic diseases" – at that point, Cohen maintained, "we enter the realm of skepticism on the part of the allopathic world." In 1999, Joel D. Howell noted that osteopathy and medicine as practiced by MDs were becoming increasingly convergent. He suggested that this raised a paradox: "if osteopathy has become the functional equivalent of allopathy, what is the justification for its continued existence? And if there is value in therapy that is uniquely osteopathic – that is, based on osteopathic manipulation or other techniques – why should its use be limited to osteopaths?" The scope of practice for US-trained osteopathic physicians is unlimited on an exceptions basis. Full licensure to practice medicine is awarded on an exceptions basis following a hearing before the licensing authorities in New Zealand. Both the Medical Council of New Zealand and the OCNZ regulate osteopathic physicians in New Zealand. Currently, the country has no recognized osteopathic medical schools. An osteopathic physician in the United States is a physician trained in the full scope of medical practice, with a degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( DO ).. With the increased internationalization of osteopathy, the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) recommended in 2010 that the older terms osteopathy and osteopath be reserved for "informal or historical discussions and for referring to previously named entities in the profession and foreign-trained osteopaths", and replaced in the US by osteopathic medicine and osteopathic physician. The American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine made a similar recommendation. 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7461188 | 1 | The Kingdom of Champasak (Lao: ຈຳປາສັກ [càmpàːsák]) or Bassac, (1713–1904) was a Lao kingdom under Nokasad, a grandson of King Sourigna Vongsa, the last king of Lan Xang ; and son-in-law of the Cambodian King Chey Chettha IV. Bassac and the neighboring principalities of Attapeu and Stung Treng emerged as power centers under what was later to be described as the Mandala Southeast Asian political model. In 1777, King Taksin of Siam sent an invading army to the Kingdom of Vientiane. The Thai army also attack Champasak, the kingdom was occupied without major resistance. King Pothi (Sayakumane) was taken prisoner to Krung Thep (Bangkok). In 1780, King Sayakumane was allowed to return to Champasak as vassal of the Siamese king. At the beginning the 19th century, and ignoring the worldwide agricultural disaster accompanying the 1816 Year Without a Summer, Bassac was said to be on a prosperous trade route as the outlet for cardamon, rubber, wax, resin, skins, horns, and slaves from the east bank to Ubon, Khorat, and Bangkok. The region then fell victim to Siamese and French struggles to extend suzerainty. The Phra Phuttha Butsayarat or Phra Luk Buddha, palladium of the Kingdom of Champasak, Laos. The Phra Butsayarat was brought to the Kingdom of Lan Xang by King Setthathirath from the Kingdom of Lan Na in the 16th century, with several other significant statutes. In the 19th century the image was taken by the Kingdom of Siam to Bangkok. It currently resides in the Phra Buddha Rattanasathan (พระพุทธรัตนสถาน) ordination hall at the Grand Palace in Bangkok. | The Kingdom of Champasak (Lao: ຈຳປາສັກ [càmpàːsák]) or Bassac, (1713–1904) was a Lao kingdom under Nokasad, a grandson of King Sourigna Vongsa, the last king of Lan Xang and son-in-law of the Cambodian King Chey Chettha IV. Bassac and the neighboring principalities of Attapeu and Stung Treng emerged as power centers under what was later to be described as the Mandala Southeast Asian political model. In 1777, King Taksin of Siam sent an invading army to the Kingdom of Vientiane. The Thai army also attacked Champasak, and the kingdom was occupied without major resistance. King Pothi (Sayakumane) was taken prisoner to Krung Thep (Bangkok). In 1780, King Sayakumane was allowed to return to Champasak as vassal of the Siamese king. At the beginning of the 19th century, and ignoring the worldwide agricultural disaster accompanying the 1816 Year Without a Summer, Bassac was said to be on a prosperous trade route as the outlet for cardamon, rubber, wax, resin, skins, horns, and slaves from the east bank to Ubon, Khorat, and Bangkok. The region then fell victim to Siamese and French struggles to extend suzerainty. The Phra Phuttha Butsayarat or Phra Luk Buddha, palladium of the Kingdom of Champasak, Laos. The Phra Butsayarat was brought to the Kingdom of Lan Xang by King Setthathirath from the Kingdom of Lan Na in the 16th century, with several other significant statutes. In the 19th century , the image was taken by the Kingdom of Siam to Bangkok. It currently resides in the Phra Buddha Rattanasathan (พระพุทธรัตนสถาน) ordination hall at the Grand Palace in Bangkok. | [
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7466623 | 1 | Economic importance Economic extraction of SMS deposits is in the theoretical stage, the greatest complication being the extreme water depths at which these deposits are forming. However, apparent vast areas of the peripheral areas of these black smoker zones contain a sulfide ooze which could, theoretically, be vacuumed up off the seafloor. Nautilus Minerals Inc. (Nautilus) is engaged in commercially exploring the ocean floor for copper, gold, silver and zinc seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits, and mineral extraction from an SMS system. Nautilus' Solwara 1 Project located at 1600 metres water depth in the Bismarck Sea, Papua New Guinea, will be the world's first deep-sea mining project, with first production expected in 2017. | Economic importance Economic extraction of SMS deposits is in the theoretical stage, the greatest complication being the extreme water depths at which these deposits are forming. However, apparent vast areas of the peripheral areas of these black smoker zones contain a sulfide ooze which could, theoretically, be vacuumed up off the seafloor. Nautilus Minerals Inc. (Nautilus) was engaged in commercially exploring the ocean floor for copper, gold, silver and zinc seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits, and mineral extraction from an SMS system. Nautilus' Solwara 1 Project located at 1,600 metres water depth in the Bismarck Sea, Papua New Guinea, was an attempt at the world's first deep-sea mining project, with first production originally expected in 2017. However, the company went bankrupt in 2019 after failing to secure funding for the project. | [
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7468145 | 1 | The Moy was a 1,697 ton, iron sailing ship with a length of , breadth of and depth of . She was built by Russel & Company for the Nourse Line, named after the River Moy in northwest of Ireland and launched in May 1885. She was primarily used for the transportation of Indian indenture labourers to the colonies. Details of some of these voyages are as follows: Destination Date of Arrival Number of Passengers Deaths During Voyage Fiji 3 May 1889 677 n/a Fiji 14 April 1893 467 n/a Trinidad 11 December 1893 627 n/a Trinidad 3 December 1894 636 25 Trinidad 16 January 1901 611 3 Fiji 1 June 1898 568 n/ aitish GuianarAugust 19029a/ n/a a / British Guiana March 1904 523 46 In 1888, the Moy repatriated 327 former indentured labourers from St Lucia back to India. | The Moy was a 1,697 ton, iron sailing ship with a length of , breadth of and depth of . She was built by Russel & Company for the Nourse Line, named after the River Moy in northwest of Ireland and launched in May 1885. She was primarily used for the transportation of Indian indenture labourers to the colonies. Details of some of these voyages are as follows: Destination Date of Arrival Number of Passengers Deaths During Voyage Fiji 3 May 1889 677 n/a Fiji 14 April 1893 467 n/a Trinidad 11 December 1893 627 n/a Trinidad 3 December 1894 636 25 Trinidad 16 January 1901 611 3 Fiji 1 June 1898 568 n/ aBritish Guiana 20 August 1902 n/a n / a British Guiana March 1904 523 46 In 1888, the Moy repatriated 327 former indentured labourers from St Lucia back to India. | [
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7473077 | 1 | Animals and spirits Csodaszarvas (animal)A central figure in the legends surrounding the origin of the Hungarian people. The name translates to "Miraculous Deer". According to Hungarian legend, preserved in the 13th century chronicle Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum by Simon of Kéza, while out hunting, the brothers Hunor and Magor saw a miraculous white stag (sometimes described as golden). They pursued the animal, but it always stayed ahead of them, leading them westward into Levedia, where they married two princesses and founded the Huns and Hungarian people. One of the main reasons for claims of religious and cultural ties between Huns and Hungarians is the stag and the brothers Hunor and Magor.Bába (creature)Meaning "old woman", she was originally a good fairy who later degraded and became evil. Although she had magical abilities, she was not a witch (boszorkány). She was thought to live in fountains, and if young children went too close to her lair, she lured them in.Boszorkány (witch)Meaning "witch", hostile, harm-doing, supernatural old lady. She had an ability to transform, fly and curse. A boszorkány corrupted the animals, for example, soured the milk of the cows. For humans, she brought an abrupt illness. They "operated" in the night, or in the nightfall.Bubus (spirit)A small being that lives in caves. See →Mumus.Fene (spirit)The demon of illness. Today, a common saying still uses its name: "A fene egye meg!", which literally means "Let it be eaten by the fene!", and is uttered when something does not occur as one wishes. "Fene" is also considered the place where demons roam, i.e. the popular Hungarian curse "menj a fenébe!" is equivalent to the English "go to hell!". Modern Hungarian language also kept "fene" in names of some illnesses, like lépfene (anthrax).Guta (spirit)A fearsome Hungarian demon who beats his victims to death, often associated with strokes, heart attacks, or sudden paralysis.Lidérc (creature)A unique supernatural being of Hungarian folklore. It has three known varieties, which often borrow traits from one another: a miracle chicken or csodacsirke (the traditional form); a temporal devil or földi ördög; and a Satanic lover, ördögszerető.Szépasszony (spirit) Meaning "Fair Lady", she is a demon with long hair and a white dress. She appears and dances in storms and hail, and seduces young men.Turul (animal) The great bird resembling to a falcon that was sent forth by Isten to guide the creation and destiny of the Magyar people. 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The Routledge Dictionary Of Gods Goddesses Devils And Demons. Routledge. 2004. p. 166. can ride a horse, and has seven heads, sometimes three, 12 or 21 (relating to numbers in astrology). Dragons usually symbolized human behaviour or character, i.e. when the hero was fighting with him, he was fighting to overcome his own bad behaviour, habit or characteristic.YWGCAP (spirit)The demon of disaster . It's told it was originally a foot solider who died on battle and are the souls of those who were dying. It 's said it origanated in the village of Dautova during a waring period and was recorded to have the villagers mysteriously disappear in the night . | Animals and spirits Csodaszarvas (animal)A central figure in the legends surrounding the origin of the Hungarian people. The name translates to "Miraculous Deer". According to Hungarian legend, preserved in the 13th century chronicle Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum by Simon of Kéza, while out hunting, the brothers Hunor and Magor saw a miraculous white stag (sometimes described as golden). They pursued the animal, but it always stayed ahead of them, leading them westward into Levedia, where they married two princesses and founded the Huns and Hungarian people. One of the main reasons for claims of religious and cultural ties between Huns and Hungarians is the stag and the brothers Hunor and Magor.Bába (creature)Meaning "old woman", she was originally a good fairy who later degraded and became evil. Although she had magical abilities, she was not a witch (boszorkány). She was thought to live in fountains, and if young children went too close to her lair, she lured them in.Boszorkány (witch)Meaning "witch", hostile, harm-doing, supernatural old lady. She had an ability to transform, fly and curse. A boszorkány corrupted the animals, for example, soured the milk of the cows. For humans, she brought an abrupt illness. They "operated" in the night, or in the nightfall.Bubus (spirit)A small being that lives in caves. See →Mumus.Fene (spirit)The demon of illness. Today, a common saying still uses its name: "A fene egye meg!", which literally means "Let it be eaten by the fene!", and is uttered when something does not occur as one wishes. "Fene" is also considered the place where demons roam, i.e. the popular Hungarian curse "menj a fenébe!" is equivalent to the English "go to hell!". Modern Hungarian language also kept "fene" in names of some illnesses, like lépfene (anthrax).Guta (spirit)A fearsome Hungarian demon who beats his victims to death, often associated with strokes, heart attacks, or sudden paralysis.Lidérc (creature)A unique supernatural being of Hungarian folklore. 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In Hungarian mythology, it is similar to turul. Featuring in some fairy tales (like Fehérlófia, The son of the white horse), it is a cruel, greedy bird eating humans, but it's the only way to get back from Under World to Middle World.Sárkány (dragon)Appearing in almost all folk tales, this creature breathes flame and guards captive women and treasure, but unlike Western counterparts, it is always man-shaped, wields a weapon (often multiple),Lurker, Manfred. The Routledge Dictionary Of Gods Goddesses Devils And Demons. Routledge. 2004. p. 166. can ride a horse, and has seven heads, sometimes three, 12 or 21 (relating to numbers in astrology). Dragons usually symbolized human behaviour or character, i.e. when the hero was fighting with him, he was fighting to overcome his own bad behaviour, habit or characteristic.YWGCAP (spirit)The demon of hunger . 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7473077 | 2 | Animals and spirits Csodaszarvas (animal)A central figure in the legends surrounding the origin of the Hungarian people. The name translates to "Miraculous Deer". According to Hungarian legend, preserved in the 13th century chronicle Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum by Simon of Kéza, while out hunting, the brothers Hunor and Magor saw a miraculous white stag (sometimes described as golden). They pursued the animal, but it always stayed ahead of them, leading them westward into Levedia, where they married two princesses and founded the Huns and Hungarian people. One of the main reasons for claims of religious and cultural ties between Huns and Hungarians is the stag and the brothers Hunor and Magor.Bába (creature)Meaning "old woman", she was originally a good fairy who later degraded and became evil. Although she had magical abilities, she was not a witch (boszorkány). 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The Routledge Dictionary Of Gods Goddesses Devils And Demons. Routledge. 2004. p. 166. can ride a horse, and has seven heads, sometimes three, 12 or 21 (relating to numbers in astrology). Dragons usually symbolized human behaviour or character, i.e. when the hero was fighting with him, he was fighting to overcome his own bad behaviour, habit or characteristic .YWGCAP (spirit)The demon of hunger. It's told it was originally a wealthy lord who was murdered by its subjects after causing a famine by using the taxes that were collected to host many feasts for itself. It was written that a year after the death of the lord some villagers mysteriously dying. From there it seems to have evolved to the lord's spirit leading villagers to their death and then consuming their souls. The legend seems to have origanated from some scriptures in the village of dauvota where it must of been treated as a small local demon . | Animals and spirits Csodaszarvas (animal)A central figure in the legends surrounding the origin of the Hungarian people. The name translates to "Miraculous Deer". According to Hungarian legend, preserved in the 13th century chronicle Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum by Simon of Kéza, while out hunting, the brothers Hunor and Magor saw a miraculous white stag (sometimes described as golden). They pursued the animal, but it always stayed ahead of them, leading them westward into Levedia, where they married two princesses and founded the Huns and Hungarian people. One of the main reasons for claims of religious and cultural ties between Huns and Hungarians is the stag and the brothers Hunor and Magor.Bába (creature)Meaning "old woman", she was originally a good fairy who later degraded and became evil. 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7473605 | 1 | Barbara Assoon (1929 – 15 April 2020) was a Trinidadian actress, journalist, and broadcaster. Biography Barbara Assoon was born in the Trinidad capital, Port of Spain . The daughter of a French-Chinese acrobat, she began her acting career in the mid-1940s. In 1948, she had a role in a production of Peter Ustinov's play The Indifferent Shepherd, acting in the first of many productions with Errol John. In the following year, Assoon received a scholarship to study acting in England, choosing the Bristol Old Vic school. Assoon spent the next 19 years in Britain and appeared in many radio, television and stage productions. She performed in many radio soap operas as well as live TV dramas during the 1950s. In 1957, Assoon made her Trinidadian radio debut in The Edwards Family, a soap opera. | Barbara Assoon (1929 – 15 April 2020) was a Trinidad and Tobago actress, journalist, and broadcaster. Biography Barbara Assoon was born in Port of Spain , Trinidad and Tobago . The daughter of a French-Chinese acrobat, she began her acting career in the mid-1940s. In 1948, she had a role in a production of Peter Ustinov's play The Indifferent Shepherd, acting in the first of many productions with Errol John. In the following year, Assoon received a scholarship to study acting in England, choosing the Bristol Old Vic school. Assoon spent the next 19 years in Britain and appeared in many radio, television and stage productions. She performed in many radio soap operas as well as live TV dramas during the 1950s. In 1957, Assoon made her Trinidadian radio debut in The Edwards Family, a soap opera. | [
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7478096 | 1 | Required training Staff working in nuclear pharmacies require extensive training on aspects of good manufacturing practice, radiation safety concerns and aseptic dispensing. In the United States an authorised nuclear pharmacist must be a fully qualified pharmacist with evidence of additional training and qualification in nuclear pharmacy practice . In the UK qualified pharmacists may be involved along with clinical scientists or technologists, with relevant training. | Training and regulation Radiopharmacy is a heavily regulated field, as it combines several practices and fields which may come under the purview of multiple regulators and legislation. These include occupational exposure of staff to ionising radiation, preparation of medicines, patient exposure to ionising radiation, transport of radioactive materials, and environmental exposure to ionising radiation. Different regulations may cover the various stages involved in radiopharmacies, ranging from production of "cold" (non-radioactive) kits, to the marketing and distribution of final products. Staff working in nuclear pharmacies require extensive training on aspects of good manufacturing practice, radiation safety concerns and aseptic dispensing. In the United States an authorised nuclear pharmacist must be a fully qualified pharmacist with evidence of additional training and qualification in nuclear pharmacy practice . Several European Union directives cover radiopharmaceuticals as a special group of medicines, reflecting the wide range of types of producers and staff groups that may be involved . In the UK qualified pharmacists may be involved along with clinical scientists or technologists, with relevant training. | [
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7478519 | 1 | Books of remembrance at a crematorium. A Book of remembrance is a book commemorating those who have died, usually listing their names in date or alphabetical order. They are often compiled to commemorate war dead and others who have died on military operations , but may also commemorate those buried in a cemetery .(2019, April 3). "History of the Books of Remembrance". Veterans Affairs Canada. Retrieved August 15, 2019. Books of Remembrance are often held by municipal authorities or churches and pages may be turned daily in memory of those on each page. (2019, February 14). "Today's Page in the Books of Remembrance". Veterans Affairs Canada. Retrieved August 15, 2019. | Books of remembrance at a crematorium. A book of remembrance is a book commemorating those who have died, usually listing their names in date or alphabetical order. They are often compiled to commemorate war dead and others who have died on military operations .(2019, April 3). "History of the Books of Remembrance". Veterans Affairs Canada. Retrieved August 15, 2019. Another use is to commemorate people who have been cremated or buried at a location, as an alternative to grave markers.A guide to memorial services - www.funeralguide.co.uk Books of remembrance are often held by municipal authorities or churches and pages may be turned daily in memory of those on each page. (2019, February 14). "Today's Page in the Books of Remembrance". Veterans Affairs Canada. Retrieved August 15, 2019. | [
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747934 | 1 | 300px|Adam, Eve, and a female serpent at the entrance to Notre Dame de Paris The fall of man, the fall of Adam, or simply the Fall, is a term used in Christianity to describe the transition of the first man and woman from a state of innocent obedience to God to a state of guilty disobedience. The doctrine of the Fall comes from a biblical interpretation of Genesis, chapters 1-3. At first, Adam and Eve lived with God in the Garden of Eden, but the serpent tempted them into eating the fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, which God had forbidden. After doing so, they became ashamed of their nakedness and God expelled them from the Garden to prevent them from eating from the tree of life and becoming immortal. Interpretations Immortality Christian exegetes of ("for in the day that you eat of it you shall die") have applied the day-year principle to explain how Adam died within a day. , and Jubilees 4:29–31 explained that, to God, one day is equivalent to a thousand years and thus Adam died within that same "day". Online translation of Jubilees The Greek Septuagint, on the other hand, has "day" translated into the Greek word for a twenty-four-hour period (ἡμέρα, hēméra). Original sin 400px|The fall depicted in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo The theme is also frequently depicted in historical European art. Lucas van Leyden, a Dutch engraver and painter during the Renaissance period, created several different woodcuts featuring Adam and Eve (two were part of his Power of Women series). See also Book of the Heavenly Cow Deal with the Devil Ningishzida Paradise Lost by John Milton Theodicy and the Bible#The Fall and freedom of the will%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% References Bibliography%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Further reading Beynen, G. Koolemans, Animal Language in the Garden of Eden: Folktale Elements in Genesis in Signifying Animals: Human Meaning in the Natural World, Roy G. Willis, ed., (London: Routledge, 1994), 39–50. Thompson, William Irwin, The Time Falling Bodies Take to Light: Mythology, Sexuality and the Origins of Culture, 1981, 2001 External links%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Fall of Adam and Eve as explained in Mormonism The Fall, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Martin Palmer, Griselda Pollock John Carey (In Our Time'', Apr. 8, 2004)%DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% Category:Adam and Eve Category:Bereshit (parashah) Category:Biblical phrases Category:Book of Genesis Category:Christian mythology Category:Christian terminology Category:Christian theology of the Bible Category:Garden of Eden Category:Gnosticism Category:Islamic mythology Category:Jewish mythology Category:Judeo-Christian topics Category:Mormon cosmology Category:Systematic theolog | 300px|Adam, Eve, and a female serpent at the entrance to Notre Dame de Paris . The Fall of Man, the Fall of Adam, the Fall into Sin, or simply the Fall, is a term used in Christianity to describe the transition of the first man and woman from a state of innocent obedience to God to a state of guilty disobedience. The doctrine of the Fall comes from a biblical interpretation of Genesis, chapters 1-3. At first, Adam and Eve lived with God in the Garden of Eden, but the serpent tempted them into eating the fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, which God had forbidden. After doing so, they became ashamed of their nakedness and God expelled them from the Garden to prevent them from eating from the tree of life and becoming immortal. Interpretations Immortality Christian exegetes of ("for in the day that you eat of it you shall die") have applied the day-year principle to explain how Adam died within a day. , and Jubilees 4:29–31 explained that, to God, one day is equivalent to a thousand years and thus Adam died within that same "day". Online translation of Jubilees The Greek Septuagint, on the other hand, has "day" translated into the Greek word for a twenty-four-hour period (ἡμέρα, hēméra). Original sin 400px|The fall depicted in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo . The theme is also frequently depicted in historical European art. Lucas van Leyden, a Dutch engraver and painter during the Renaissance period, created several different woodcuts featuring Adam and Eve (two were part of his Power of Women series). %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% | [
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7485789 | 1 | Critics of historical particularism argue that it is anti theoretical because it doesn't seek to make universal theories, applicable to all the world's cultures. According to the critics, Boas believed that theories would arise spontaneously once enough data was collected , but a more recent work complicates this view (Lewis 2001) . This school of anthropological thought was the first to be uniquely American and Boas (his school of thought included) was, arguably, the most influential anthropological thinker in American history. References 3. Lewis, Herbert S. (June 2001). "Boas, Darwin, Science, and Anthropology." Current Anthropology 42 (3):381-406. | Critics of historical particularism argue that it is anti theoretical because it doesn't seek to make universal theories, applicable to all the world's cultures. Boas believed that theories would arise spontaneously once enough data was collected . This school of anthropological thought was the first to be uniquely American and Boas (his school of thought included) was, arguably, the most influential anthropological thinker in American history. References | [
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7486068 | 1 | The Ashanti threat In the early 19th century, the Ashanti began expanding their control over Ghana , sending many people fleeing to the coast. Fante communities outside of Mankessim became targets of the Ashanti, and decided to unite in defense. In 1806, the first Ashanti–Fante War resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Fante. This Fante until this time were the most powerful and most dominant Kingdoms in the Gold Coast. They controlled all trade between various European nations and the interior. This hedgemony was being threatened by the Ashanti. The Fante had also been fighting a long and taxing war with the Dutch to their west from Elmina all the way to Axim. In fact, at some point, Fante Union army surrounded their own town of Elmina threatening to destroy the Dutch and all inhabitants. The Dutch had become allies of the Ashantis and they saw the need to drive them away from their lands. | The Ashanti threat In the early 19th century, the Ashanti after finally breaking free from the Denkyira, whom they were a vassal state began expanding their control over the central Gold Coast through a series of conquering wars , sending many people fleeing to the coast. The Fante aided and granted asylum to the Denkyira, Assin and others. Fante communities outside of Mankessim therefore became targets of the Ashanti, and they decided to unite in defense. Of their lands and trade routes to the coast. In 1806, the first Ashanti–Fante War resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Fante. This Fante until this time were the most powerful and most dominant Kingdom in the Gold Coast. They controlled all trade between various European nations and the interior. This hedgemony was being threatened by the Ashanti. The Fante had also been fighting a long and taxing war with the Dutch to their west from Elmina all the way to Axim. In fact, at some point, Fante Union army surrounded their own town of Elmina threatening to destroy the Dutch and all inhabitants. The Dutch had become allies of the Ashantis and they saw the need to drive them away from their lands. | [
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7486068 | 2 | Organization The Fante quickly organized themselves into military groups, or companies, called Asafo, to defend themselves from non-Akan groups in the vicinity, as well as separate Akan groups - most notably the Ashanti in later centuries . Tradition has it that the Fante sub-groups Ekumfi, Abora, Enyan, Nkusukum and Kurentsir were the first to settle Mankessim. They were later joined by the Gomoa, Ajumako, Akatakyi and the Edina . | Organization The Fante have always been an independent amalgamation of various states who governed themselves by a very sophisticated federal system. In fact, scholars are only now begining to study how complex the traditional Fante system works as opposed to a Kingdom headed by one King. However their traditional capital has always been Mankessim. In times or war, all Fante states provided men for the Union Army which was often commanded by the Paramount Chief of Abura. Their system of organizing themselves into military groups, or companies, called Asafo, to defend themselves from Europeans, non-Akan groups in the vicinity, as well as separate Akan groups - most notably the Ashanti in later centuries have led to the immense popularity of the Asafo Flags and Pusuban Shrines. It is widely believed that this organization of Asafo (warriors) has some European influences. Although the Fante encountered and traded with Europeans for more than 400 years, it is only in 1890s did they British finally begin to exert some control over their lands. Tradition has it that the Fante sub-groups Ekumfi, Abora, Enyan, Nkusukum and Kurentsir were the first to settle Mankessim. They were later joined by the Gomoa, Ajumako, Akatakyi and the Edina . Today Fantes are mainly located in the Central and Western Regions of Ghana and some in the Ivory Coast. A small minority of Fantes having European ancestry due to intermarriage . | [
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7486068 | 3 | Decline The early successes of the confederacy were short-lived, and a protracted war with the Dutch, backers of the Ashanti Confederacy , left them in ruins. In 1873, the British proclaimed the entire coast of Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) a protectorate of the crown. The Fante dissolved their confederacy that same year in return for money, guns and a license to make war on any invading Ashanti on behalf of the British. Mankessim continued to hold cultural and political importance among the Fante , but was never again an independent force in the region . | Decline of the Confederacy The early successes of the modern Fante confederacy were short-lived, and a protracted war with the Dutch, backers of the Ashanti Kingdom , left them in ruins. In 1873, the British proclaimed the entire coast of Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) a protectorate of the crown. The Fante allied themselves to the British that same year in return for money, guns and a license to make war on any invading Ashanti on behalf of the British. Mankessim continued to hold cultural and political importance among the Fante . The Fante became fierce advocates for decolonization and many prominent Fante leaders, lawyers m, scholars and businessmen were involved in the fight for independence from the early 1900 until independence in 1957 when they together with all Akans, Ga-Adangbe, Ewes and various Northern tribes became the modern Republic of Ghana. Through such resistance, they became such a menace that the British moved the capital of the Gold Coast from Oguaa (Cape Coast) to Accra . | [
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7486068 | 4 | The Mankessim Kingdom (1252–1844) Old Fante Confedracy was a pre-colonial African state in modern-day Ghana. It is regarded as the heartland of the Fante people, and operated as capital of the Modern Fante Confederacy in the 19th century. The city of Mankessim still exists and is located in the central region of Ghana, about an hour and a half west of Accra and half and hours drive east of Cape Coast . The Mankessim Kingdom's influence included not only their own kingdom, but extended to the whole of the Fante people, and at times the entire coast of modern-day Ghana. Origin The Fante people claim to have separated from other Akan People in Bono Kingdom around 1250 AD. This act became the origin of their name, "Fa-atsew" meaning "the half that left". The Fante left their Akan brethren at Krako, present day Techiman in the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana, and became their own distinct Akan group. The Fante people were led by three great warriors known as Obrumankoma, Odapagya and Oson (the whale, the eagle and the elephant respectively). According to tradition, Obrumankoma and Odapagya died on this exodus and were embalmed and carried the rest of the way. Oson led the people to what would become Mankessim in 1252. Legend has it that the Fante's chief fetish priest, Komfo Amona, planted a spear in the ground when they reached the location of the settlement. The spear is called the Akyin-Enyim, meaning "in front of god". The place became the meeting place for the Fante elders and the head fetish priest when discussing important matters. The first Omanhene (king) of Mankessim (Brafo; Ambrado) was installed here, and later kingmakers would visit the site for consultation. According to the Fante, the spear cannot be removed by mortal hands. The land the Fante reached was initially called Adoakyir by its existing inhabitants, which the Fante called "Etsi-fue-yifo" meaning people with bushy hair. The Fante conquered these people after a series of wars and renamed the settlement Oman-kesemu, meaning large town. The name has evolved into the current name, Mankessim. Organization The Fante have always been an independent amalgamation of various states who governed themselves by a very sophisticated federal system. In fact, scholars are only now begining to study how complex the traditional Fante system works as opposed to a Kingdom headed by one King. However their traditional capital has always been Mankessim. In times or war, all Fante states provided men for the Union Army which was often commanded by the Paramount Chief of Abura. Their system of organizing themselves into military groups, or companies, called Asafo, to defend themselves from Europeans, non-Akan groups in the vicinity, as well as separate Akan groups - most notably the Ashanti in later centuries have led to the immense popularity of the Asafo Flags and Pusuban Shrines. It is widely believed that this organization of Asafo (warriors) has some European influences. Although the Fante encountered and traded with Europeans for more than 400 years, it is only in 1890s did they British finally begin to exert some control over their lands. Tradition has it that the Fante sub-groups Ekumfi, Abora, Enyan, Nkusukum and Kurentsir were the first to settle Mankessim. They were later joined by the Gomoa, Ajumako, Akatakyi and the Edina. Today Fantes are mainly located in the Central and Western Regions of Ghana and some in the Ivory Coast. A small minority of Fantes having European ancestry due to intermarriage. The Ashanti threat In the early 19th century, the Ashanti after finally breaking free from the Denkyira, whom they were a vassal state began expanding their control over the central Gold Coast through a series of conquering wars , sending many people fleeing to the coast. The Fante aided and granted asylum to the Denkyira, Assin and others. Fante communities outside of Mankessim therefore became targets of the Ashanti, and they decided to unite in defense. Of their lands and trade routes to the coast. In 1806, the first Ashanti–Fante War resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Fante. This Fante until this time were the most powerful and most dominant Kingdom in the Gold Coast. They controlled all trade between various European nations and the interior. This hedgemony was being threatened by the Ashanti. The Fante had also been fighting a long and taxing war with the Dutch to their west from Elmina all the way to Axim. In fact, at some point, Fante Union army surrounded their own town of Elmina threatening to destroy the Dutch and all inhabitants. The Dutch had become allies of the Ashantis and they saw the need to drive them away from their lands. In 1811, the Fante again went to war with the Ashanti, losing in open battle, but forcing a humiliating withdrawal of Ashantis from Mfantseman by using punishing guerrilla tactics. In 1844, the Fante signed a bond with the British that allied themselves to the British , but were guaranteed self-governance. However, the British, and the Dutch on the coast, did little to recognize Fante sovereignty. Decline of the Confederacy The early successes of the modern Fante confederacy were short-lived, and a protracted war with the Dutch, backers of the Ashanti Kingdom , left them in ruins. In 1873, the British proclaimed the entire coast of Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) a protectorate of the crown. The Fante allied themselves to the British that same year in return for money, guns and a license to make war on any invading Ashanti on behalf of the British. Mankessim continued to hold cultural and political importance among the Fante . The Fante became fierce advocates for decolonization and many prominent Fante leaders, lawyers m, scholars and businessmen were involved in the fight for independence from the early 1900 until independence in 1957 when they together with all Akans, Ga-Adangbe, Ewes and various Northern tribes became the modern Republic of Ghana. Through such resistance, they became such a menace that the British moved the capital of the Gold Coast from Oguaa (Cape Coast) to Accra . | The Mankessim Kingdom (1252–1844) was a pre-colonial African state in modern-day Ghana. It is regarded as the heartland of the Fante people, and operated as capital of the Fante Confederacy in the 19th century. The town of Mankessim still exists and is located in the central region of Ghana, about an hour and a half west of Accra . The Mankessim Kingdom's influence included not only their own kingdom, but extended to the whole of the Fante people, and at times the entire coast of modern-day Ghana. Origin The Fante people claim to have separated from the Bono people, around 1250 AD. This act became the origin of their name, "Fa-atsew" meaning "the half that left". The Fante left their Bono brethren at Krako, present day Techiman in the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana, and became their own distinct Akan group. The Fante people were led by three great warriors known as Obrumankoma, Odapagya and Oson (the whale, the eagle and the elephant respectively). According to tradition, Obrumankoma and Odapagya died on this exodus and were embalmed and carried the rest of the way. Oson led the people to what would become Mankessim in 1252. Legend has it that the Fante's chief fetish priest, Komfo Amona, planted a spear in the ground when they reached the location of the settlement. The spear is called the Akyin-Enyim, meaning "in front of god". The place became the meeting place for the Fante elders and the head fetish priest when discussing important matters. The first Omanhene (king) of Mankessim was installed here, and later kingmakers would visit the site for consultation. According to the Fante, the spear cannot be removed by mortal hands. The land the Fante reached was initially called Adoakyir by its existing inhabitants, which the Fante called "Etsi-fue-yifo" meaning people with bushy hair. The Fante conquered these people and renamed the settlement Oman-kesemu, meaning large town. The name has evolved into the current name, Mankessim. Organization The Fante quickly organized themselves into military groups, or companies, called Asafo, to defend themselves from non-Akan groups in the vicinity, as well as separate Akan groups - most notably the Ashanti in later centuries . Tradition has it that the Fante sub-groups Ekumfi, Abora, Enyan, Nkusukum and Kurentsir were the first to settle Mankessim. They were later joined by the Gomoa, Ajumako, Akatakyi and the Edina. The Ashanti threat In the early 19th century, the Ashanti began expanding their control over Ghana , sending many people fleeing to the coast. Fante communities outside of Mankessim became targets of the Ashanti, and decided to unite in defense. In 1806, the first Ashanti–Fante War resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Fante. In 1811, the Fante again went to war with the Ashanti, again losing in open battle, but forcing a withdrawal by using guerrilla tactics. In 1844, the Fante put themselves under British protection , but were guaranteed self-governance. However, the British, and the Dutch on the coast, did little to recognize Fante sovereignty. Decline The early successes of the confederacy were short-lived, and a protracted war with the Dutch, backers of the Ashanti Confederacy , left them in ruins. In 1873, the British proclaimed the entire coast of Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) a protectorate of the crown. The Fante dissolved their confederacy that same year in return for money, guns and a license to make war on any invading Ashanti on behalf of the British. Mankessim continued to hold cultural and political importance among the Fante , but was never again an independent force in the region . | [
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748731 | 1 | Etymology The word " cooper " is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German kūper 'cooper ' from kūpe 'cask', in turn from Latin cupa 'tun, barrel'.Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 2002. 5th ed. Vol. 1, A–M. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 513. Everything a cooper produces is referred to collectively as cooperage. A cask is any piece of cooperage containing a bouge, bilge, or bulge in the middle of the container. A barrel is a type of cask, so the terms "barrel-maker" and "barrel-making" refer to just one aspect of a cooper's work. The facility in which casks are made is also referred to as a cooperage. | Stuff The word " mom " is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German mother 'chunker ' from kūpe 'cask', in turn from Latin cupa 'tun, barrel'.Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 2002. 5th ed. Vol. 1, A–M. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 513. Everything a cooper produces is referred to collectively as cooperage. A cask is any piece of cooperage containing a bouge, bilge, or bulge in the middle of the container. A barrel is a type of cask, so the terms "barrel-maker" and "barrel-making" refer to just one aspect of a cooper's work. The facility in which casks are made is also referred to as a cooperage. | [
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7493315 | 1 | I think it right to warn my reader, that there are more passages than one in the book, which are of that nature, which will be perfectly understood by my Masonic friends, but which my engagements prevent me explaining to the world at large.Anacalypsis, xx. Decades later, John Ballou Newbrough cited extensively to the Anacalypsis, including Higgins' use of Pandeism, in the notes to Newbrough's 1882 Oahspe Bible.John Ballou Newbrough, Oahspe Bible, pg. 874. Similar, possibly related coinings of Pandeism have occurred elsewhere. One author writes of a contemporary religious group in Bali (which is within the geographic realm of Pandeism described by Higgins): The empu uses a typical pedanda ketu, "crown" which is tall and red, and a ball. Another man leads Pande ceremonies on the island. He represents a curious mix of Buddhism, Hinduism, and, if it can be called this, "Pandeism".Fred B. Eiseman, Jr., Bali: Sekala and Niskala: Essays on Religion, Ritual, and Art (1989) p. 89. | Decades later, John Ballou Newbrough cited extensively to the Anacalypsis, including Higgins' use of Pandeism, in the notes to Newbrough's 1882 Oahspe Bible.John Ballou Newbrough, Oahspe Bible, pg. 874. Similar, possibly related coinings of Pandeism have occurred elsewhere. One author writes of a contemporary religious group in Bali (which is within the geographic realm of Pandeism described by Higgins): | [
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7496669 | 1 | Tim Ingold coined the term in his 1993 articleIngold, Tim. (1993) "The Temporality of the Landscape", World Archaeology, 25(2): pp. 24-174 defining the spatial and temporal dimensions of the landscape in human life. He considers it as a methodological structure and analyses the temporality of the landscape in Pieter Bruegel's famous painting, The Harvesters. | Tim Ingold coined the term in his 1993 articleIngold, Tim. (1993) "The Temporality of the Landscape", World Archaeology, 25(2): pp. 152-174 defining the spatial and temporal dimensions of the landscape in human life. He considers it as a methodological structure and analyses the temporality of the landscape in Pieter Bruegel's famous painting, The Harvesters. | [
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749788 | 1 | 220px|A deformed sucker cluster on an arm of an octopus Deformity of hand due to X-ray burns. These burns are accidents. X-rays were not shielded when they were first discovered and used, and people got radiationburns . | 220px|A deformed sucker cluster on an arm of an octopus Female hand showing deformity due to x-ray burns. The inflammation is due to excessive radiation, which occurs when x-ray machines are unshielded . | [
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7500979 | 1 | Different versions of this argument have been put forward by Peter Singer,Animals and Ethics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Tom Regan,Regan, Tom "An examination and defense of one argument concerning animal rights", Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 22, 1979, 189–219 Evelyn Pluhar,Pluhar, E. Beyond Prejudice: The Moral Significance of Human and Nonhuman Animals, Durham: Duke University Press, 1995 and Oscar Horta.Horta, Oscar. "The Scope of the Argument from Species Overlap", Journal of Applied Philosophy, 31, 2014, 142-154 . | Different versions of this argument have been put forward by Peter Singer,Animals and Ethics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Tom Regan,Regan, Tom "An examination and defense of one argument concerning animal rights", Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 22, 1979, 189–219 Evelyn Pluhar,Pluhar, E. Beyond Prejudice: The Moral Significance of Human and Nonhuman Animals, Durham: Duke University Press, 1995 , Oscar Horta.Horta, Oscar. "The Scope of the Argument from Species Overlap", Journal of Applied Philosophy, 31, 2014, 142-154 . and the youtuber Isaac Brown (Ask Yourself) . | [
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7500979 | 2 | Different versions of this argument have been put forward by Peter Singer,Animals and Ethics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Tom Regan,Regan, Tom "An examination and defense of one argument concerning animal rights", Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 22, 1979, 189–219 Evelyn Pluhar,Pluhar, E. Beyond Prejudice: The Moral Significance of Human and Nonhuman Animals, Durham: Duke University Press, 1995, Oscar Horta.Horta, Oscar. "The Scope of the Argument from Species Overlap", Journal of Applied Philosophy, 31, 2014, 142-154. and the youtuber Isaac Brown ( Ask Yourself). | Different versions of this argument have been put forward by Peter Singer,Animals and Ethics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Tom Regan,Regan, Tom "An examination and defense of one argument concerning animal rights", Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 22, 1979, 189–219 Evelyn Pluhar,Pluhar, E. Beyond Prejudice: The Moral Significance of Human and Nonhuman Animals, Durham: Duke University Press, 1995, Oscar Horta.Horta, Oscar. "The Scope of the Argument from Species Overlap", Journal of Applied Philosophy, 31, 2014, 142-154. and the youtuber Isaac Brown with his Name the Trait Argument (Content Creator name: Ask Yourself). | [
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75045 | 1 | 300px | Jason Lewis of Expedition 360 pedalling his boat Moksha on the River Thames in London, shortly before completing the first human-powered circumnavigation of the Earth (2007) 300px|In 2012, the Swiss boat PlanetSolar became the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe. Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire island, continent, or astronomical body (e.g. a planet or moon). This article focuses on the circumnavigation of Earth. Human-powered According to adjudicating bodies Guinness World Records and Explorersweb, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe on 6 October 2007. This was part of a thirteen-year journey entitled Expedition 360. A replica of Magellan and Elcano's Nao Victoria, the first vessel to circumnavigate the planet | 400px | The Magellan-Elcano expedition was the first recorded circumnavigation of the Earth . Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire island, continent, or astronomical body (e.g. a planet or moon). This article focuses on the circumnavigation of Earth. Human-powered 300px|Jason Lewis of Expedition 360 pedalling his boat Moksha on the River Thames in London, shortly before completing the first human-powered circumnavigation of the Earth (2007) According to adjudicating bodies Guinness World Records and Explorersweb, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe on 6 October 2007. This was part of a thirteen-year journey entitled Expedition 360. A replica of Magellan and Elcano's Nao Victoria, the first vessel to circumnavigate the planet 300px|In 2012, the Swiss boat PlanetSolar became the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe. | [
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7510018 | 1 | Stepan Zorian (Armenian: Ստեփան Զօրեան, 1867–1919), better known by his nom de guerre Rostom (), was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and a very active participant of the Armenian national liberation movement. Founding of the ARF Zorian was born in Tsghna, Erivan Governorate . He attended college in Moscow but dropped out before graduating. He eventually went to Tiflis, Georgia, where he met Christapor Mikaelian and Simon Zavarian, all would become revolutionaries. They co-founded the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) in 1890. Their new political party had a major impact on Armenians. It gained support by demanding reforms and taking up arms to defend Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire. | Stepan Zorian (Armenian: Ստեփան Զօրեան, 1867–1919), better known by his nom de guerre Rostom (), was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and a leader of the Armenian national liberation movement. Founding of the ARF Zorian was born in the village of Tsghna in the Erivan Governorate of the Russian Empire (now located in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan) . He attended college in Moscow but dropped out before graduating. He eventually went to Tiflis, Georgia, where he met Christapor Mikaelian and Simon Zavarian, all would become revolutionaries. They co-founded the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) in 1890. Their new political party had a major impact on Armenians. It gained support by demanding reforms and taking up arms to defend Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire. | [
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