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During the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), a large pressure gradient across the North Atlantic creates strong winds that drive winter storms across the Atlantic and into Northern Europe. During the negative phase, there is only a small pressure gradient. Southern Europe and Africa receive weak winter storms while Northern Europe and the eastern United States are cold and dry. Click on image for full size Courtesy of UCAR The North Atlantic Oscillation Will there be lots of snow in New York this winter? Will it be warmer than usual in France? Will the Mediterranean get rainy weather? That will depend on the North Atlantic Oscillation. Winter weather in the Northern Hemisphere is affected by changes in atmospheric pressure over the North Atlantic called the North Atlantic Oscillation. During the winter, a low pressure system over Iceland and a high pressure system over the Atlantic become stronger or weaker. The changes in pressure cause changes in the amount of wind and the number of winter storms that cross the Atlantic. This affects the weather in North America, Europe, and North Africa. When the difference in pressure between the high and low is large, strong winds cross the North Atlantic, bringing wet winter storms from eastern North America to northern Europe. This is the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation. When the difference in pressure is small, there is less wind over the ocean. Eastern North America and northern Europe have fewer winter storms. The weather is rainy in southern Europe and North Africa. This is the negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation. There is evidence of more negative phases during the 1960s and 1970s and more positive phases during the 1980s and 1990s. Scientists are using computer models to figure out whether this change is due to global warming . The changes in atmospheric pressure associated with the NAO are connected with other patterns of atmospheric pressure including the Arctic Oscillation and the El Nino-Southern Oscillation. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! The Fall 2009 issue of The Earth Scientist , which includes articles on student research into building design for earthquakes and a classroom lab on the composition of the Earth’s ancient atmosphere, is available in our online store You might also be interested in: Wind is moving air. Warm air rises, and cool air comes in to take its place. This movement creates different pressures in the atmosphere which creates the winds around the globe. Since the Earth spins,...more Earth’s climate is warming. During the 20th Century Earth’s average temperature rose 0.6° Celsius (1.1°F). Scientists are finding that the change in temperature has been causing other aspects of our planet...more Sometimes there is a change in the way air moves through parts of the atmosphere. And there are sometimes changes in the way water moves through the ocean too. This disturbs typical weather patterns, or...more Changes in the atmosphere in one place can affect weather over 1000 miles away. Scientists are trying to sort out how this works so that they can better understand and predict weather patterns worldwide....more Leaders from 192 countries are meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark December 7-18, 2009 to decide how the world will deal with climate change. They are trying to decide how to limit the amount of greenhouse...more The climate where you live is called regional climate. It is the average weather in a place over more than thirty years. To describe the regional climate of a place, people often tell what the temperatures...more Even though only a tiny amount of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere are greenhouse gases, they have a huge effect on climate. There are several different types of greenhouse gases. The major ones are carbon...more

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When a person agrees to do something or to not do something, that person is making a promise. A promise can be made (by saying it), or it can be written down as a contract. Breaking a promise, or not keeping it, is often just bad manners, but it can sometimes be illegal, such as when a contract is not kept. A vow is a special promise. It is mostly used in a religious sense or in ceremonies such as marriages when the couple who are being married make their "marriage vows", promising to be faithful to one another.

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Master the key communication skills required in international business English |Series:||Delta Business Communication Skills| |Level:||Pre-intermediate - Intermediate / B1-B2| |Tags:||B1-B2, business, communication, self-study| E-mailing aims to develop both the skills and language needed to write effective business emails in English. The units cover: - getting started - structuring your message - being clear and concise - choosing the right level of formality - getting the tone right - checking before you send Emailing provides six core units, each containing these sections: - warmer to raise awareness of the skills involved in effective communication and to introduce different strategies for developing these skills. - presentation and practice of core language connected to each skill. - over to you, which allows students to apply what they have learned to their real-life work situation. In addition, the book contains: - a needs analysis to help learners to think about their strengths and weaknesses in English and to identify and prioritize their learning needs - a personal learning journal to help students monitor their learning during the course - a review to help consolidate the language work students have done in each unit - a reference section listing the vocabulary, grammar and phrases covered in each unit - an answer key, including suggested answers and audio scripts Emailing is designed for classroom use, but is also suitable for self-study. This book would easily supplement a business course or would be useful by itself for business people wanting to polish up their skills whether in class or at home in this ever evolving field of communication. IATEFL/BESIG Business Issues, PDF

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Written By: Moustafa Bahran Article Date: Sep 21, 2010 - 4:38:27 PM Quantum Chromo-Dynamics (QCD) is the physical theory that explains the strong interaction of sub-nuclear particles called Quarks. These are structure-less (point-like) particles that make up both the proton and the neutron which make up the atomic nucleus. Quarks are strongly bound together inside the proton or the neutron which are in turn strongly bound together inside the atomic nucleus. They are bound together by so to speak gluing particles called Gluons. These Gluons come in three distinct values (colors) of an intrinsic property called color quantum number, hence came the term chromo to describe Quark dynamics. Therefore in nature, the force that unifies particles (tightly group them together) is both powerful and colorful. On the other hand, the force responsible for nuclear decay (radioactivity) is a weak force; a very weak one. That is how physics describes nature. In particular, that is how physics sees the force of unity as oppose to the force of decay among particles in nature, but what about Yemeni politics? Yemen unity was re-established in May 1990 by strong and binding factors in and outside Yemen. The force driving Yemeni unity was so powerful such that it defeated a secessionist movement with external funds in 1994. Nothing could deter the unity parties from fulfilling the dream of the Yemeni people of a unified country. Today, the picture is different as the Yemeni political landscape is even much more colorful but certainly not united. More political colors have emerged but with less unity among them. There are four main political colors or sets of colors that will end up collectively deciding the fate of the country. These are: The ruling party (the State): This group is certainly not monochromatic by any means. The main opposition coalition (Joint Meeting Parties and allies): This group is as colorful as it gets, in fact it is so colorful that one sometimes wonders how the red socialists get along with the green (moderate) or black (extremist) Islamic brotherhood. The Huthis in the north of Yemen: This group is certainly as monochromatic as it gets. “Al herak” in the south of Yemen: So far, this group has not formed a distinct color or a set of colors but the expectation is that it will be colorful. It is also expected to have colors close to the socialist party spectrum. The interaction between these elements has been and will continue to be colorful and fits the description of chromo-dynamics. The interaction has sometimes reached the extremity of bloodshed, but the question remains: will this chromo-dynamics be a force of unity or a force of decay? The answer is by no means straightforward. Yet, the key as to the likelihood of where that answer is heading, is to answer another question which is: will all the four above political elements interact positively together? If so, unity will be preserved and if not, hell may break loose! Our politicians from all of the above colors must realize that they are all nationals and matter to Yemen’s future and therefore, none should be left out of the ongoing national dialogue. Today, the ruling party is in the lead and its Government can lead by example or screw up by habit! In nature, the force of unity is both strong and colorful while the force of decay is weak and non-colorful. On the other hand Yemeni politics is quite colorful but it remains to be seen which forces will overcome, the force of unity or the force of disintegration? In both cases it is the Government that will end up being congratulated or blamed, and blaming will then be of no use! Professor of Physics (email@example.com) • Who spoiled the new invention in Yemen? • High five for Yemen’s democratic spirit • Condemning North Korea is not enough • Yemeni Political Monte Carlo Calculations! • The G20 smile summit Seoul 2010

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The ability to interpret and act on the massive amounts of information locked in web and enterprise systems is critical to success in the modern business economy. R, a free software environment for statistical computing and graphics, is a comprehensive, fully-programmable package that empowers developers and analysts to capture, process, and respond intelligently to statistical information. It consists of the interpreted R language plus a run-time environment with graphics, a debugger, and the ability to run programs stored in script files. It compiles and runs on UNIX, Windows and Mac OS X, and has been extended with hundreds of add-on packages.Thorough coverage of the R environment Introduction to statistical analysis Dozens of practical examples Author Rob Kabacoff has years of hands-on experience in data management and analysis using R R in Action is the first book to present both the R system and the use cases that make it such a compelling package for business developers. The book begins by introducing the R language, including the development environment. As you work through various examples illustrating R's features, you'll also get a crash course in practical statistics, from basic univariate methods, to advanced multivariate methods. Focusing on practical solutions, the book also covers elegant methods for dealing with messy and incomplete data. And data analysis is only half the story. You'll also master R's extensive graphical environment for presenting data. Along the way, the book presents many of R's most useful add-on modules. You'll also learn how to interface R with other software platforms and data management systems for maximum utility. Unless otherwise noted above, most orders ship within 1 to 2 days. We will promptly notify you if there is a stock problem with any items on your order and provide you with an estimated delivery date. If you have a firm need by date, please provide such information in the comment section at checkout. Page Count (est.): 446 Pub Date: 8/24/2011

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Most Active Stories - What Kentucky Teachers Think Of Their Schools, Education Department Releases Survey Results - MSU's Presidential Search Committee Plans to Use National Search Firm - MSU Board of Regents Approves Dr. Tim Miller as Interim President - Kentucky to Raise Gas Tax in July - Survey Finds McConnell Leading Over Democratic Challengers Tue June 12, 2012 Datebook: June 12 - Anne Frank Begins Her Diary 70 Years Ago Time Magazine put 15-year-old Anne Frank on their list of The Most Important People of the Century, stating: "With a diary kept in a secret attic, she braved the Nazis and lent a searing voice to the fight for human dignity." The diary began with this date, her 13th birthday: June 12, 1942. In 1933, after losing her German citizenship (Nuremberg Laws), Frank's family fled to Amsterdam, where they were trapped after Nazi occupation. In 1942, they went into hiding in rooms of Anne's father, Otto Frank's, office building. Her group was betrayed in 1944, and they were sent to concentration camps. Anne and her sister Margot wound up in Bergen-Belsen, where they died of typhus in March 1945. Otto Frank found her diary after the war, and published it in 1947. It was published in English in 1952 as The Diary of a Young Girl. Eleanor Roosevelt said it was "one of the wisest and most moving commentaries on war and its impact on human beings that I have ever read." JFK said "no voice is more compelling than that of Anne Frank." Nelson Mandela said reading the book in prison gave him encouragement. Soviet writer Ilya Ehrenburg said, "one voice speaks for six-million - the voice not of a sage or a poet but of an ordinary little girl." It’s Tuesday, June 12 There’s a 5K run/walk and kids’ fun run promoting ALS awareness this Saturday at the Marshall County High School cross country track. The pre-registration fee is $25, or $30 on the day of the event. The one-mile walk is free. To register visit alsaky.org. The Pennyroyal Arts Council presents Mash Bash for the Arts with Bawn in the Mash Saturday night from 5 to 9. Bring chairs and blankets to enjoy barbeque and live music on the lawn at the RB Roland Distillery in Pembroke. There will also be a silent auction of artwork by regional artists. Admission is free, but donations will be accepted. The Yeiser Art Center hosts a workshop titled “Doodling with Bill” on Saturday, June 23, from 12:30 to 2. Artist Bill Ford teaches middle and high school students about the history and art of doodling. The class fee is $25. Reserve a seat by calling 442-2453. Submit your community events at wkms.org.

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from Bright Advent all source material is from the 17th century and appears in single quotes [The Historical Cast] Reverend John Eliot (1604-1690)—Known as the Apostle to the Indians, Eliot helped found thirteen towns for "Praying Indians" and printed the Indian Bible. The conversion and protection of the Indians near Massachusetts Bay became his life's work. John Sassamon (c.1625-1675)—Massachusett Indian and translator for Eliot. He served as an interpreter and soldier for the puritan colonists in the Pequot War, attended Harvard, translated the entire Bible into Algonquian with Eliot, and became a Christian minister. His murder, allegedly at the order of the Indian Sachem Philip, precipitated King Philip's War. Robert Boyle (1627-1691)—Considered by many to be the founder of modern chemistry, he is best known today for Boyle's Law of Gasses. A wealthy and influential man who helped found The Royal Society, Boyle was also a devoted Christian who became president of The Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, which funded Eliot's mission. [Eliot, of Sassamon] 'God first put into my heart a compassion over their poor Souls, and a desire to teach them to know Christ, and to bring them into his Kingdom. Then presently I found out (by God's wise providence) a pregnant witted young man, who had been a Servant in an English house, who pretty well understood our Language, better than he could speak it, and well understood his own Language, and hath a clear pronunciation: Him I made my Interpreter. By his help I translated the Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and many Texts of Scripture. Also I compiled both Exhortations and Prayers by his help.' He is well-used— he sees words in the air of it. To change one or some is simple, he says: breathe words in, to the meaning (keeping that inside lungs) and the tune another language likes (keeping that simply singing) —this divergent mix enters unto some obscure process of organic formation— and press that out his mouth! This air then fills the air. You will notice Sassamon's position, in interpreting, is always upwind. This air, these two languages in two forms moves toward a third. By example, as I understand it, a body mass of understood English words (approaches unto in the air) a larger more firm (though airie) space of Massachusett "understanding" (itself as a form). All this, he sees within his visual consciousness. The known words drift toward the understanding and, as tide to a shore, form to its shape. This formation appears to him as the words interpreted. The sounds interpreted. Though in a way other than letters. More, I deduce, like an air-made landscape or map of meaning. Thus, many scenes of desired interpretation have been given over for bad weather, winds, etc. He likes nothing better than a most gentle and constant zephyr. A still day tends to infuriate as a stubborn mule would. Airy tempests (as can sometimes favor our new coast) put a cold stop to any adventure, even within a good wigwam. These acting, I deduce, like a disappearing of ink or rather a constant hand scraping the slate. Firesmoke is not unpleasant to this miraculous conversation of currents. As I have my Light Appearing More and More Towards the Perfect Day, he says, so he can hope for air appearing more and more towards the perfect translation of that, the Bible of our Massachusett language. He looks to books because they affect not the air, but also they have none. A thing he desires and fears. I am working to proceed with his ideas, being as they are a cause or by-product of his particular genius, and only know to start here: Breath indeed is the prayer of a new creature. |begin,||because||the Argument||is the Subject||in||both| |Some||poor||in this world shall||be saved||in heaven| |Nawhutche||matchekuog||yeu ut muttaohket pish||wadchanoog||kesukquit.| |The Argument:||because||they believe.'| And these Indians, 'musical sounds they also have, and perfect Harmony, but they differ from us in sound. There be four several sorts of Sounds or Tones uttered by Mankind. 1. Articulation in Speech. 3. Laetation and Joy: of which kind of sounds our Music and Song is made. 4. Ululation, Howling, Yelling, or Mourning: and of that kind of sound is their Music and Song made.' And I only mourn. As we work, my children, my wife and children, die. One by one they fall, they go, they rise. I see them like trees. In their absence from the field around me, the field of vision I labor in, I set my mind to a new frame: making the firebrand God's own hand from hip to toe showing me to know Him in this burning numb forerunner of heaven. A missive only into mine own mind—the seal inward for no man to see or them to feel though I am struck to the ground by it, such is His call that our eyes cannot look upon Him. This feeble wheel of mine feels afire from His mere token & reminder: 'Up, and be doing, and the Lord will be with thee.' To take that next step & taste the light wrought across my very eyes by the Lord's electric storm down my right side shaking even my teeth. My comings & goings secretly mapped—a geography of sensation I inwardly diagram by loving attention—grown of a sort of metallic hum of empty pasturage taken up into me. Pain. The trees, the field I hobble back to especially each day to see what is not as once there. The new clear space hardly innominate. Gone. But what was that space before their passed presences? Any blank is God. They were all there once. One by one until but Anne and the one boy. Gone. Space, their presence in it, their absence from it, Godspace. Until but the one boy—Joseph, like a holy but half-used father to me. Oh Anne. She will not return to me, but I will go unto her. 'My desire was that they should serve God on earth; but if God will choose rather to have them serve him in heaven, I have nothing to object against it, his will be done to take my family to himself' and I will bear the metal tooth gnashing time about me, the work unfinished, the field wide open and white but a want of workers. We must finish. One word becomes another by suffocation across whatever is the virgin, inviolable concept. One wallowing becomes another wallowing—the way men will die the same but make different noises to do it. Guttural resistant clicks or that nice rounded resignation, blood and meaning pool in the throat to push out pure air. We take one step back and lay a little word to each thing. Suffocating. When summer runs long I hide on the island for days to gather distance and then swim into it crying out like an English woman dying just to live in one real moment of silence. Finding great relief each year in my surprise that this simple and deliberate mechanism remains effective. I swim ashore and return to work. The work. [Eliot, to the Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel] I have sent the commissioners of the colony 'my requests for some help of some great charges this year; but they are pleased to answer me with silence, as it is wont to be … and my humble request is that it may be paid, and then I shall be out of debt; but if it should be refused, than my hands are tied, I can do little; yet I am resolved through the grace of Christ, I will never give over the work so long as I have legs to go. I am at a dead lift in the work; if the Lord stir up the hearts of men to help me, blessed be his name, and blessed be they that help me; if no man help me. … There be many things lie before me, wherein I might promote the work, and fix the hearts of the Indians, but I cannot come at them for want of means. … Messengers and instruments look for their pay, and if that fail, the whole moves very heavily and will quickly stand still. … My humble request unto yourselves the honorable corporation is, that you would put me into such an order or way, that I may know where to pay such instruments as I set on work. If instruments fail, the work will fail. Instruments are the wheels of our motion, and if they want oil they will soon want power of motion. I could employ a great revenue in promoting the work.' scientist and president of the Corporation, a personal note to Eliot] Honorable Reverend in Christ— As we both seek the improvement of souls by our clear faculties I fear lest our conversation become dull mortal money matters. Your work is the only answer of truth—and by that I proceed. You shall be supported. I enclose humble notes toward my latest work, A General History of Air, building from and toward fresh experiments, as I know our godly educated ministers of New England to be interested what experience and experiment can deduce of God's many gifts to us… I hope these notes may also serve the learned notions of your once savage translator… I swim toward the point, which is to remain underwater. The point is to remain. To remain separate from my self: if you find heaven under there, you will first experience it in fleeting only ached moments. But you can train yourself slow to remain longer without which keeps you out of heaven. And, like the grampus, you need only rise briefly into hell for a breath. And with keeping the ears out of the air. Just lungs lifting upward, eyes closed. 'Wherefore the Air, being a Body so important in our Speculations of Nature, and so necessary to the Continuance of our Lives, I could not but think it deserv'd, that we should solicitously inquire, whether it may or may not be produc'd by Art; for if it can be so by any, not very uneasily practicable ways, the Discovery may not only help us to explicate some difficult Phenomena of Nature, but may afford us, among several other Uses, that of enabling us to supply diverse, if not also submarine Navigators with fresh Air produced under Water, and thereby lengthen their staying in Places, where the Continuance of it may be of great Use both speculative and practical.' 'I shall offer to your Consideration the Accidents that often happen to Men, by the mere Air, as Convulsions, Cramps, Blastings, Lameness, Colds, many of which indure a Man's Life-time; and which (with many bitter Infirmities that sometimes seize upon a Man, while standing, walking, or lying in the Air) are rarely or never felt or discerned at the Instant of their Approach or Insults upon a Man.' |nothing in it;||darkness, upon||deep:| |the spirit of God||moved||upon waters.| |And,||was, or,||again, but,| |Kah,||mo, asuh,||wonk, qut,| |as,||in, so,||the, for this cause||is it, &c. …| |neane,||ut, nemehkuh,||ne, newaj||sun, &c. …| |All single||Notions are||Pairs| |which||inlighten each other,| |& them only:'| |& nish webe:'| [Sassamon, of Printing the Bible] These pages indeed require a new attempt at binding by us. We have not made something this big, never yet everything. The binding inlightens the Word into word order, His order, Ordo Salutis. The Old Testament three years in the press my arm forcing the devil's arm over and down pressing paper ink metal for three years. We have smoothed over the imposing stone with our endless literal sweat. Our bled letter'd fingertips. The inkballs making ink seemingly from their swinging through air I see the entire Bible writ there in reversed letters. At night my eyes close backward on verse I sleep outside myself for looking back down upon p & q upon me as I hope the Lord reads what's impressed into my very vision. Hand-justified, writ out from one pen each letter set after getting clean in my ear air eye as Eliot reads aloud. I dream: inside shut covers the volume of it is His eternal void & ocean the words swim meaning endlessly and then—we open it—and His divine direction falls the words to our senses. To see the tongue done and bound like this as in billable columns—one two three four to find it thus arranged four frozen waterfalls of eternally. Imagine our earth thus pressed if each holy page contains eternities is the book shut then rejoicing or otherwise? Ink sewing itself into the rag'd paper, pulped from what people have worn about are these imprints a worldly making of the inbetween subterraneal and heavenly— type form, tympan— the captured air words of just above our heads grabbed down and pressed to paper—as retrieved saints to the gravestone, what limited immortalization we are capable of with this press taking language of all God's intermediaries we have deduced and designed to our own designs this bookblock as the compressed aviary for captured prophets— yet most sense not the tension in binding these pages. Like a native tongue (to your mouth) laid out babbling from God's beginning of time even running past you to Revelation—such a totality of noise. And where do we stand? Between the last page of Jude and the first of Revelation! We are right now two inches of un-inked paper. Good luck and God bide you. We do indeed need two praying hands to hold it—such divine design. It looks lovely. I want to breathe it. [Boyle, to John Eliot] 'I waited this day upon the King with your translation of the Bible.' comments powered by Disqus

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Use the Percent Circle to Solve Percent Problems The percent circle is a simple visual aid that helps you make sense of percent problems so that you can solve them easily. The three main types of percent problems are finding the ending number, finding the percentage, and finding the starting number. The trick to using a percent circle is to write information into it. For example, the following figure shows how to record the information that 50% of 2 is 1. Notice that as you fill in the percent circle, you change the percentage, 50%, to its decimal equivalent, 0.5. Here are the two main features of the percent circle: When you multiply the two bottom numbers together, they equal the top number: 0.5 2 = 1 If you make a fraction out of the top number and either bottom number, that fraction equals the other bottom number: These features are the heart and soul of the percent circle. They enable you to solve any of the following three types of percent problems quickly and easily. Most percent problems give you enough information to fill in two of the three sections of the percent circle. But no matter which two sections you fill in, you can find out the number in the third section. Problem type 1: Find the ending number from the percent and starting number Suppose you want to find out the answer to this problem: What is 75% of 20? You’re given the percent and the starting number and asked to find the ending number. To use the percent circle on this problem, fill in the information as shown in the following figure. Because 0.75 and 20 are both bottom numbers in the circle, multiply them to get the answer: So 75% of 20 is 15. As you can see, this method involves translating the word of as a multiplication sign. You still use multiplication to get your answer, but with the percent circle, you’re less likely to get confused. Problem type 2: Find the percentage from the starting and ending numbers In the second type of problem, you start with both the starting and ending numbers, and you need to find the percentage. Here’s an example: What percent of 50 is 35? In this case, the starting number is 50 and the ending number is 35. Set up the problem on the percent circle as shown in the following figure. This time, 35 is above 50, so make a fraction out of these two numbers: This fraction is your answer, and all you have to do is convert the fraction to a percent. First, convert 35/50 to a decimal: Now convert 0.7 to a percent: 0.7 = 70% Problem type 3: Find the starting number from the percentage and ending number In the third type of problem, you get the percentage and the ending number, and you have to find the starting number. For example, 15% of what number is 18? This time, the percentage is 15% and the ending number is 18, so fill in the percent circle as shown in the following figure. Because 18 is above 0.15 in the circle, make a fraction out of these two numbers: This fraction is your answer; you just need to convert to a decimal: In this case, the decimal you find is the whole number 120, so 15% of 120 is 18.

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In the center of the site is a large C-shaped figure formed by six artificial earthen mounds. Today they are four to six feet high and 140 to 200 feet apart. These were first believed to form an octagonal enclosure and the Arkansas River eroded one side of it, but current information suggests that the area was eroded before they built these earthen mounds. These ridges are further divided by five aisles turning it into six unequal sections. It is believed that these aisles were used for astronomical sighting lines as well as boundaries between social and functional zones of the site. In the center of the six ridges is a large flat plaza of approximately 37 acres. There is a mound on the eastern side made of two levels on which wooden buildings were erected. On the other side of the plaza were two extremely large, deep pits. It is believed that these holes held huge poles for the marking of important calendar days. site that is very representative of the Poverty Point culture is the Jaketown site from the Yazoo Basin, Mississippi. The Jaketown site is over 200 acres and located on the bank of Wasp River in Humphreys County, Mississippi. At the site are six large mounds although four of them have been damaged by highway construction in the area. These mounds are thought to be of Poverty Point origin even though they are barely visible today. Although other cultures may have occupied this site at different times, the Poverty Point culture had the longest and most extensive occupation of the site. The surface collection of materials and the depth of deposits found there suggest this. When this site was first discovered, human bone, shell, and pottery were found on the surface around the six mounds. Later, in 1946, archeologists returned to the site and determined that the surface collections indicated occupation of the site by ceramic-producing cultures. Further investigations of the site using augers to go underground confirmed this idea of a ceramic history of the site. There were two cuts made into the earth for excavation. In the first cut there were many Poverty Point artifacts located in the lowest excavated level and in the second cut there was a domination of Poverty Point objects suggesting the lengthy occupation of Poverty Point cultures. In 1950 the state of Mississippi decided to relocate a highway into the area and thus damaged some of the mounds being excavated. Just before this occurred however, archeologists were able to excavate some of the smaller mounds and found an abundance of microliths with no sign of any Poverty Point artifacts. The conclusion was that this was a result of different activities in the area since plenty of Poverty Point objects were found at many other areas of the site where no microliths were

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en

Food and Diet Although all species of bears, including black and grizzly bears, are technically of the order Carnivora, they are essentially omnivores that eat plants, insects, fish, and animals. Bears spend most of their time perusing a patchwork of habitats throughout the year, feeding on vegetation, insects and other more reliable, though lower calorie food sources. Plant foods make up the majority of a bear's diet - sometimes as much as 90 per cent. However, fish and meat are important sources of protein and fat, though most non-coastal bears rely on carrion (including winter-killed animals). Some bears, however, become very effective predators on newborn elk, moose, deer or caribou. Others live in areas where salmon, suckers or other fish spawn for part of each year. When bears emerge from their dens in the spring, food is in short supply. Although bears are hungry, most trees and shrubs won't leaf for another month and only the grass at lower elevations has begun to green up. At this time of year, they are often found foraging on sunny, south-facing slopes where they can find overwintered berries or scavenge for winter-killed deer and moose. The first green grasses and sedges often sprout right at the edges of streams or in open wetland meadows, which also makes these areas attractive. Grizzlies, with longer claws and powerful shoulders, will also dig for sweet-vetch roots, glacier lily bulbs and other starch-rich foods. Coastal bears find a milder reception, especially along low-elevation river valleys. They feed on the roots of skunk cabbage and sedges, or where they can find them, the well-cured carcasses of salmon that died the previous fall after spawning. Because food is relatively scarce during spring, bears continue to lose weight until well into June. As the snowpack diminishes and the days lengthen, new greenery begins to sprout. In early summer, bears search for pockets of greenery in wet meadows and along creeks and rivers, on avalanche slopes, in aspen forests and along marsh edges. Bears that live near human development are often found grazing on the grasses of golf courses, ski runs, parks and other urban green spaces. As summer progresses, they spend a significant amount of time grubbing for ants and beetle larvae in fallen logs. Late in July or early in August, with the first ripening of huckleberries, blueberries and other berries, bears devote most of their attention to exploiting this high-energy food. In and around Banff National Park, grizzly bears have been documented eating more than 200,000 buffalo berries in a single day. In urban areas, bears can be found foraging on fruit trees and berry bushes. Fall is a critical time for both black and grizzly bears, when they enter a state of hyperphagia and attempt to pack on as much fat as possible to see them trough their long winter sleep. As the berry crop succumbs to the first heavy frost, food supplies begin to dwindle. Bears, particularly coastal bears, feed on spawning fish where these occur in reliable concentrations. Elsewhere, bears turn again to greenery or roots, which often persists near water. They also wander widely looking for gut piles and wounded animals left by hunters. Black and grizzly bears retire to their winter dens in November and December, when snow begins to accumulate, or, in coastal areas, when winter rains begin in earnest. In the lower latitudes and warmer climates, bears don't need to hibernate as food is available year round. In fact, many urban bears are forgoing hibernation as they learn that people provide good winter forage - such as birdseed, pet food and garbage. During the denning period, bears do not usually eat or drink, though some bears have been observed leaving their winter dens and feeding on winter-killed animals. Source: Bears: An Altitude SuperGuide by Kevin Van Tighem

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The Clyde Sea area has a wide range of habitats which support a large diversity of plant and animal species. There is some concern that human activities may have already had effects on those species and habitats, through overexploitation, habitat destruction and environmental change. Historically the Clyde has supported large populations of herring and whitefish, which have in recent years undergone a dramatic decline, and commercial fishing is now largely dependent on shellfish species. The fauna of the Clyde does show some anomalies when compared with that of the west coast, particularly the Clyde algal fauna, with some species only found in the Clyde (Maggs, 1986). An extensive amount of marine faunal lists have been published for the Clyde Sea over the past century from general accounts by Chumley (1918) to more specific accounts of specific groups, Polychaeta (Clark, 1960), Mollusca (Allen, 1962), fish (Bagenal, 1965), Amphipoda (Moore, 1984) and Echinodermata (Wilkie, 1989). The seas of the Clyde also support populations of megafauna such as seals, dolphins, whales and basking sharks. Many of theses species and habitats of the Clyde are recognised as being of national or international importance and have been afforded some level of protection under legislation to protect marine biodiversity. Figure 4.1 Location of species hotspots (shown in red) in the Clyde Sea Area identified by Langmead et al. (2008). The five areas were Northern Loch Fyne (HS2) and Loch Shira (HS1); Irvine Bay (HS8-11); East of Dunoon in the upper Firth of Clyde (HS4); East of Rothesay, Bute (HS7); and The Kyles of Bute (HS6) and Loch Striven (HS3 and 5). A recent review of the biodiversity of the Firth of Clyde (Langmead et al., 2008) identified and collated c.133,000 species and habitat data records for the area. The review also analysed patterns of biodiversity and determined the location of 'hotspots' defined as areas of high species and habitat richness that include representative, rare and threatened features (Ross et al., 2009). The locations of the species hotspots identified by this study are shown in Figure 4.1. It is the purpose of the following section to briefly describe the rich biodiversity of the area, discuss current threats and to describe some of the conservation and management measures that are already in place to protect biodiversity in the Clyde. 4.2 Benthic Fauna In general, the Firth of Clyde benthic populations have been given selective attention according to the habitat type, location and research interests in relation to specific environmental problems. As a result much of the work on the benthic fauna of the Clyde has focussed on the shallower coastal sediments of the rocky shores and sandy bays. A widespread littoral survey was undertaken in 1979 by Paisley College of Technology who examined 82 sites of both rocky and sedimentary types of the lochs and open coasts of the Firth (Connor, 1991). The survey suggested that the richest sediment shores were concentrated in the more sheltered parts of the Clyde such as Loch Fyne, Striven and Gareloch. The shores on the more exposed coasts of Ayrshire, the Kintyre peninsula and the coast of Arran tend to have fewer individuals and less species diversity. The intertidal infauna is dominated by the bivalves Angulus tenuis and Cerastoderma edule, the amphipod bathyporeia sp. and polychaetes Scoloplos armiger, Pygospio elegans, Arenicola marina and N. cirrosa. The intertidal fauna of sandy beaches in the Clyde have also been studied by Eleftheriou and McIntyre (1976) examining shores which are moderately exposed or sheltered. The exposed shores were dominated by crustaceans and polychaetes and the bivalve Angulus tenuis. On the sheltered beaches crustaceans were generally less common and bivalves represented the greatest biomass. Areas of particularly high benthic infaunal biomass are concentrated in Upper Loch Long, Loch Striven, the Kyles of Bute, the central Kilbrannan Sound and the Irvine and Ayr Bays. The benthos of the deeper sediments has also been investigated centred on the influence of the Garroch Head dumping site. Life in the deep muds of the Clyde is mainly buried in the soft, fine sediment. The most conspicuous species of the Clyde deep muds are the heart urchin Brissopsis lyrifera, the brittle star Amphiura chiajei, the bivalves' Nucula tenuis and N. sulcata, the polychaetes Glycera alba, G. rouxii and Lumbrinereis hibernica. In the shallower sandier muds A. filiformis tends to replace A. chiajei, Echinocardium cordatum becomes the dominant heart urchin and the most numerous bivalves in addition to N. tenuis are Thyasira spp., Alba spp. and Mysella bidentata. Sediments with significant admixtures of gravel in the Clyde tend to have the brittle stars Ophiothrix fragilis, Ophiopholis aculeata and Amphipholis squamata. The surfaces of the mud in the lochs of the Clyde Sea are also the habitat of the spectacular burrowing anemone, the fireworks anemone (Pachycerianthus multiplicatus). Wireweed (Sargassum muticum) was first found in Loch Ryan in 2004 and since then has been recorded in a number of locations throughout the Firth of Clyde. It is a fast growing large olive-brown seaweed that competes with native seaweeds through overgrowing, shading and abrasion and can alter the ecology of the habitat. In harbours and shallow water it is considered a nuisance where large floating masses can become a hazard to vessels through the entanglement of propellers and blocking of engine cooling systems (Ashton et al., 2006). The gaping file shell (Limaria hians) is a small bivalve, distinguished by long orange filamentous tentacles, which has been recorded along the west coast of Scotland around Kintyre and in the Clyde Sea (Hughes et al., 2009). In a study by Hall-Spencer and Moore (2000) it was concluded that the gaping file shell has disappeared from regions where it was once common including Ayrshire, the Isle of Bute and Stravanan Bay. The decline of file shell reefs in this area was attributed, by Hall-Spencer (2006), to the destructive effects of scallop dredging. The file shell has a thin delicate shell and damaged individuals dislodged from their nests are rapidly consumed by scavengers. The file shell reefs also have ecological importance as they support a rich fauna of small invertebrates and provide attachment surfaces for algae and larger sessile organisms. Sea pens are colonial cnidarians found on sandy and muddy sediments around the British Isle and in many Scottish sea lochs. They are typically found in areas of high salinity, highly sheltered areas where tidal streams are negligible. Some areas of the Clyde Sea may provide ideal habitats for sea pens. There are three sea pen species which occur in Scottish waters tall sea pens Funiculina quadrangularis, Virgularia mirabilis and Pennatula phosphorea. The two human activities which are most likely to affect this biotope are Nephrops trawling and organic pollution. Of the three sea pen species Funiculina quadrangularis is likely to be the most vulnerable to trawl damage due to its brittle stalk and inability to retract into the sediment. Heavy organic pollution can exclude sea pens from an area, with severe oxygen depletion probably having damaging consequence to sea pens. 4.3 Maerl beds Maerl beds are living sediments characterised by accumulations of unattached calcareous red algae (Corallinales, Rhodophyta), also known as rhodolith beds (Barbera et al., 2003; Steller and Foster, 1995). They occur in many environments including tropical, temperate and polar environments. In Europe they are patchily distributed occurring throughout the Mediterranean and along the Western Atlantic coast. Maerl beds appear as patchy, poorly sorted and complex sediment that differ greatly from more uniform habitats such as mud. The interlocking of the branching thalli creates a highly complex habitat that provides numerous microhabitats for macrofaunal organisms (Steller et al., 2003). They have high ecological importance as they support a wide range of species, some of which may be unique to this habitat (Keegan, 1974). Many studies have reported rare and unusual species living in association with maerl beds, they create areas of high biodiversity and hence the beds are of international conservation significance (BIOMAERL, 2003). In addition, maerl are slow growing and an ecologically fragile habitat considered to be a non-renewable resource. A study by Grall et al. (2006) demonstrated the high productivity of the maerl bed environment as shown by the co-dominance of endobenthic polychaetes (Eupolymnia nebulosa, N. latericeus), bivalves (V. verrucosa, Venerupis aureus) and Sipunculids with epibenthic crustaceans (Melitid amphipods, P. longicornis, etc.), Molluscs (chitons or gastropods) and sponges. Maerl beds can also be of importance to fisheries, providing nursery grounds for commercial species of fish and shellfish (Hall-Spencer et al., 2003). In the Clyde Sea area, the maerl beds coincide with many of the productive fishing grounds for scallops and infaunal bivalves and are under threat from dredging and bottom trawling in spite of their ecological and economic importance (Barbera et al., 2003). Maerl beds are known to be highly sensitive to physical disturbance and have a very low regenerative capacity and thus may require protection through appropriate conservation management strategies. It is thought that the UK, and particularly Scotland, is home to many of the most extensive maerl beds in Europe. It occurs on exposed west coasts, such as those in Scotland, Ireland and Brittany, but it is absent from large areas of European waters, such as most of the North Sea, the Baltic, the Irish Sea and the eastern English Channel (Birkett et al., 1998). However, studies which quantify the areas covered by maerl beds in anything other than very local studies, are rare. Maerl bed habitats in the Clyde There have been several observations of maerl beds, both dead and living, in the Clyde. However, a first question is what habitats in the Clyde could potentially be suitable for maerl? The physical environment needed by living maerl has been difficult to determine, as it's slow growth (~1mm per year) makes experimentation difficult. In terms of sea bed type, Birkett et al. (1998) suggest that Maerl beds can be found in association with a range of different sediments, varying in size from fine mud to coarse gravel and pebbles. Maerl can not withstand exposure, thus only forms below the low-water level (Birkett et al., 1998). As maerl is an algae, it requires light to grow. Thus light availability, and hence water turbidity, are parameters which will limit where maerl can live. These, in turn, will limit the depth-distribution of maerl as in clearer waters, maerl will be able to live at deeper depths compared to more turbid waters. A comprehensive study of the depth range within which maerl beds are found in the Clyde has not been performed, although Hall-Spencer (1995) suggested a range of 6-18m (Birkett et al., 1998). Maerl has not been found extensively below 30m in UK waters and is generally found shallower than 10m (Birkett et al., 1998). A further requirement is in terms of currents near the sea bed. Maerl requires a moderate flow of water, but can not withstand intense current or wave action (Birkett et al., 1998). Therefore it will not be found in either water that has limited movement, or extreme sea bed currents from either tide or waves. This implies there are minimum and maximum sea bed current tolerances of living maerl, although these have not been quantitatively determined. Wilson et al. (2004) suggest that maerl is not as susceptible to changes in temperature, salinity or heavy metal pollution as was previously thought. However, a critical factor was smothering by fine sediment. Thus maerl will not be found where there are natural sources of such sediment, for example near river mouths, where there is natural deposition of fine sediment, for example within persistent gyres, or where there is frequent resuspension of fine sediments by tide or wave action. Sedimentation from human activity, including trawling, dredging, sediment extraction, sewage discharges or fish farming will kill maerl (Wilson et al. 2004). Within the Clyde studies have found living (Kamenos et al., 2004) and dead (Hall-Spencer, 1995) maerl beds, as well as living maerl beds, but heavily impacted by the effects of fishing, primarily scallop dredging (Hall-Spencer and Moore, 2000). Surveys for maerl could include those by diver, direct remote physical methods from vessels such as grabs or towed dredges, direct visual methods from vessels such as lowered cameras or towed video, and indirect remote sensing from vessels using acoustic methods including ground determination acoustics (e.g. RoxAnn). Studies such as the BIOMAERL programme are advancing our overall understanding of maerl and will hopefully allow management of maerl to have a firmed scientific basis. Seabirds are species of birds which have adapted to exploit the potential food available from the marine environment. They fall into two broad categories; those which specialise in feeding from the air picking up food from the vicinity of the sea surface, such as terns and those which dive for food such as gannets which may swim underwater in pursuit of their prey (Monaghan and Zonfrillo, 1986). However, all seabirds are dependent upon the land to breed and their distributions are governed by the constraints of this environment, where there is a safe place to nest with sufficient food resources available in the surrounding waters. Although the Firth is home to three quarters of the UKs breeding seabirds, the Clyde coast does not support a major proportion of most species of the Scottish breeding population. This is largely due to the low-lying topography of the coast providing accessibility of the Clyde coast to the large human population which reside in central Scotland (Monaghan and Zonfrillo, 1986). The primary foods of seabirds are densely schooling lipid-rich pelagic fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods in the upper-mid water column (Hunt et al., 1996). Thus changes in the availability of pelagic fish may affect the breeding biology of these birds. Herring are especially important to the kittiwake and the decline in herring stocks may in part be responsible for the decline in kittiwakes in some areas. Ailsa Craig, the cliffs of the Ayrshire coast and Sanda Island located off the southeast coast of Kintyre, are the most notable seabird sites of the Firth of Clyde. Ailsa Craig and Sanda Island are both designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) set up for the protection of the breeding seabirds. Fishing activity in the Clyde is known to benefit seabirds by providing an easily exploitable food source in the form of discards. Regular scavengers include the fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), the great black-backed gull (Larus marinus) and the kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) which obtain a large proportion of their food from discards, the herring gull (Larus argentatus), great skua (Stercorarius skua) and gannet (Morus bassanus) also commonly scavenge behind fishing vessels. The basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) is the world's second largest fish and is regularly observed off the western British and Irish coast, mostly between April and October. It is entirely planktivorous and in Scotland basking sharks are regularly sighted around the outer Firth of Clyde where waters are plankton rich (Speedie et al., 2009). In particular the coastline of the Isle of Arran is a 'hotspot' for basking shark sightings. The spatio-temporal distribution of basking sharks can be directly attributed to changes in zooplankton abundances and this can have important implications for the management and conservation of the species (Thom et al., 1999). Historically the basking shark was exploited for the high oil content of its liver, which was used in the steel, medical, and cosmetic industries, as well as as a fuel for lighting. A fishery remained in the Clyde until the 1980s, when declining numbers and reduced public support meant the fishery was no longer viable. The basking shark is now protected within the 12 nautical miles limit off Scotland under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Potential threats to basking shark populations include by-catch in fishing nets and disturbance or impact with vessels. The basking sharks slow growth rate and late sexual maturity coupled with overfishing has resulted in the shark becoming rare in areas where it was once common. As a result of the decline in numbers the species qualifies as vulnerable on a global level and the British population is classified as 'endangered' on the IUCN Red List. In the waters of the Clyde, fifteen species of cetaceans have been recorded since 1980. However, there is a lack of data available on the abundance of cetaceans in the Clyde which limits the ability to determine trends and current status. Any reliable scientific data is restricted to observations of distribution rather than determining numerical abundance. 4.6 Threats to Biodiversity Some of the most significant non-fishing threats to biodiversity are outlined in the following section. The effects of fishing are discussed in Sections 6 and 7. 4.6.1 Invasive species Non-native invasive species are considered by the UN to pose a great threat to biodiversity. Recently there has been an increase in the incidence of non-native marine species in coastal areas around the UK with potentially damaging impacts on native flora and fauna including commercial species. These effects can include competition with native species for food and space, alteration of habitats, changes in water quality and transmission of disease (Donnelly et al. 2010). Recent introductions into the marine environment of the Clyde include the cord-grass Spartina anglica which colonises shallow mudflats and competes with the seagrass Zostera noltii. Two of the most important vectors of invasive species are shipping and the aquaculture industry. 4.6.2 Climate change In the last 60 years climate change has altered the distribution and abundance of many marine species (MarClim, 2006) and there is now increasing concern of the impacts of climate change on the conservation and management of marine biodiversity. As temperatures increase a general shift in species distributions is expected as species respond to the changes of suitable 'climate space' available to them (Fields et al., 1993; MarClim, 2006). Individual species are likely to respond to temperature increases at different rates due to differences in their metabolism and physiological processes (Sims et al., 2004). In addition, climate change could cause local extinction of species that are unable to adapt to fluctuations in their physical environment. 4.7 Protection of Biodiversity In order to effectively manage habitats and/or species of conservation importance, monitoring and regulation of those human activities likely to damage the areas of interest is essential. Criteria for assessing the conservation importance of a habitat or species are a matter of continued debate. Such criteria are especially difficult to establish in the marine environment where basic knowledge of ecosystem function is still at a relatively low level (Hughes, 1998). The UK already has obligations to protect internationally important species and habitats that are listed in a variety of directives and conventions. Scotland has been active in establishing closed areas to protect biodiversity, for example, through the establishment of a No Take Zone (NTZ) at Lamlash Bay, Arran. The Clyde Sea area also contains a wide range of protected sites of national and international importance for both biological and ornithological reasons. There are three types of protected areas related to the marine environment in the Clyde; Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Special Protection Areas (SPA) and Marine Consultation Areas (MCA). SSSI's are areas of land or water that Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) considers to best represent our natural heritage - its diversity of plants, animals and habitats especially those of greatest value to wildlife conservation. They are designated under the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 1981 and are intended to form the essential building blocks of Scotland's protected areas for nature conservation (SNH website, 2011). There are currently 1,450 SSSIs in Scotland of which there are 14 that protect some aspect of the marine environment (e.g. Seabirds, saltmarsh) of the Clyde Sea Area (see Table 4.1). SPA's are designated areas of the terrestrial and marine environment in response to the Wild Birds Directive which aims to protect the habitats of migratory and threatened bird species. In the UK, SPAs must first be designated as an SSSI before gaining the protection as an SPA. The Clyde has one designated SPA in the area - the island of Ailsa Craig (see Table 4.1). The Nature Conservancy Council has identified MCAs which deserve particular distinction in relation to the quality and sensitivity of their marine environment. The sites have no statutory status but are known to bodies such as SNH for marine conservation issues. The MCAs located in the Clyde include Loch Fyne and Loch Ryan due to the presence of important species such as the fireworks anemone and gaping file shell reefs. Implementing marine protected areas (MPAs) is a priority for Scotland as it has international commitments to establish an ecologically coherent network of MPAs under the OSPAR agreement and so alongside other management practices, establishing MPAs will underpin the future use of the seas around Scotland. Currently SNH, the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) and Historic Scotland are working closely with Marine Scotland and stakeholders to provide advice to the Scottish Government on where MPAs should be designated. To help target biodiversity conservation action SNH and JNCC have put together a focused list of habitats and species of importance in Scottish waters - Priority Marine Features (PMFs) which will underpin the selection of MPAs (Figure 4.2). The Clyde sealochs have been identified as areas which represent major priorities for the establishment of MPAs due to the presence of many PMFs such as sea pens, native oysters and flame shell beds (Moore and James, 2011). 4.8 Suggestion for Further Work There is much concern over inshore benthic habitats, especially those associated with maerl beds. It is estimated here that 10% of the sea bed of the Clyde might be able to support living maerl, although the figure may be smaller owing to constraints such as water flow and exposure (see Section 9). Most of these potential sites are within the 1 nm zone from the coast. In this zone the existing data sets of sea bed type, and also water depth, may be most in error. A comprehensive ground-determining acoustic survey, with associated validation using direct and indirect sampling methods, is needed of the Clyde 1 nm zone and waters out to the 20m depth contour. Table 4.1 Sites of Special Scientific Interest located in the Firth of Clyde. | Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) | | || SSSI || Protection || Area (ha) || National Grid Reference | | 1 || Sanda Islands || Birds | | 81.45 || NR 725037 | | 2 || Ballantrae Shingle Beach || Shingle || 32.74 || NX 080818 | | 3 || Turnberry Dunes || Beetle Assemblage || 55.71 || NS 199060 | | 4 || Maidens to Doonfoot || Shingle | | 224.5 || NS 316194 - NS 265177 | | 5 || Troon Golf Links and Foreshore || Sand dune || 150.11 || NS 335287 | | 6 || Western Gailes || Sand dune | | 92.58 || NS 320358 | | 7 || Portencross Coast || Mudflats | | 477.9 || NS 190521 | | 8 || Kames Bay || Sandflats || 4.6 || NS 171550 | | 9 || Ballochmartin Bay || Sandflats || 18.9 || NS 182570 | | 10 || Inner Clyde || Saltmarsh | | 1824.92 || NS 312811-NS494698 | | 11 || Ruel Estuary || Saltmarsh || 332.78 || NS 010800 | | 12 || Ailsa Craig || Birds | | 99.94 || NX 020998 | | 13 || South Coast of Arran || Shingle | | 218.3 || NR 042213 | | 14 || Clauchlands Point - Corrygills || Saltmarsh | | 46.18 || NS 048338 | Figure 4.2 The location of Priority Marine Features determined by SNH survey of the Firth of Clyde 2010.

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As a public college of the liberal arts, St. Mary’s College of Maryland aims to educate its students to lead productive and satisfying lives as citizens. To accomplish this goal, the program of study is designed to provide a first-rate general education, to promote competence in at least one academic field, and to help each student develop skills of analysis and expression necessary for a life of value. All students complete general college requirements, including two programs of study: Core Curriculum, and a major. The Core Curriculum program offers the student a broad understanding of several fields of knowledge. The major provides the opportunity to pursue one field in depth. The Core Curriculum at St. Mary’s College of Maryland represents a commitment to providing students with a broad grounding in the liberal arts. The curriculum was designed to stimulate a spirit of inquiry about a range of intellectual issues and develop students’ ability to think creatively and critically, with reason and imagination. Because students must develop the intellectual and ethical resources to flourish in our complex world, the Core Curriculum engages students in different modes of knowledge and learning. Through the Core Curriculum, our students develop the abilities to speak and write with clarity and precision; construct sound arguments; apply theoretical concepts and integrate knowledge; and use information and technology resources effectively and ethically. Students develop these abilities across all disciplines, in activities ranging from creative production in the fine arts to the use of scientific methods in the sciences. Our vision of learning at St. Mary’s College includes, welcomes, and depends upon many voices and viewpoints. The Core Curriculum begins the process through which faculty and students participate in ongoing conversations about value, meaning, understanding, and action. A student’s intellectual growth will therefore entail a deepening moral awareness. The Core Curriculum lays the foundation that will enable St. Mary’s College students to develop a sense of social and civic responsibility and be prepared to participate ethically and intelligently as informed citizens of the communities in which they work and live. The Core Curriculum will provide opportunities for students to: - engage in and articulate the value of creative and intellectual exploration; - use multiple modes of inquiry, resources, and knowledge from multiple disciplines to ask questions, identify issues, and solve complex problems, both within and across disciplinary boundaries; - develop an openness to diversity in all its forms and demonstrate social responsibility and civic mindedness; - learn about the “global community” and environmental stewardship; and - hone the fundamental liberal arts skills of critical thinking, information literacy, written expression and oral expression across a variety of disciplinary boundaries. The fundamental liberal arts skills (critical thinking, information literacy, written expression, and oral expression) are the cornerstones of a traditional liberal arts education and are essential to an integrative curriculum. All students in all majors employ them throughout their academic careers. Making sure that all students achieve proficiency in these four skills will lead to the excellence in education that our mission statement calls for. A liberal arts education is a comprehensive education designed to cultivate autonomous and well-rounded members of the world community by developing the fundamental skills enabling the full exercise and expression of one’s person. As such, these fundamental skills do not mark mere technique, but represent some of the core capacities shaping human intelligence. Critical thinking describes the capacity to recognize and appreciate the context of a line of thought (for example, a rhetorical argument, a mathematical proof, or a musical composition); the capacity to evaluate its consistency, coherence, importance, and originality; and the capacity to create an independent line of thought. Information literacy describes the capacity to identify the need for information and to locate, analyze, evaluate, and effectively use all forms of information (for example, written, oral, visual, or quantitative. Written expression and oral expression describe the capacities to clearly articulate a coherent, creative, and compelling line of thought in writing and speech, with attention to the power of both language and images. Although each skill maintains its identity as the definitions above signify, these skills inextricably inform one another. These skills will be introduced and practiced in the Core Curriculum, but as students matriculate beyond the Core Curriculum the outcomes for these skills will expand, multiply, and diverge. In other words, the idea of “all four skills in all four years” will form an integral part of the academic culture at St. Mary’s College of Maryland. Students will begin to understand this culture before they arrive on campus, become immersed in it during their time on campus, and further develop these skills after they leave the campus. Assessment of these skills will take place in a variety of ways in the Core, in the majors, and in the senior capstone experiences. In compliance with St. Mary’s College’s position as Maryland’s public honors college, the St. Mary’s Project (SMP) is the capstone of study at the College. The project is an eight-credit, independent, sustained endeavor of research or creative expression that is supervised by a faculty mentor and presented in a public forum. Each project realizes several of the following goals of this honors college: - The maintenance of high academic standards - The creation of a sense of intellectual community in which the academic disciplines are appreciated as both unique and interrelated - The development of each student’s ability to think critically and creatively in order to foster curiosity and promote inquiry - The encouragement of each student’s ability to identify personal educational goals and to select the courses that will help to realize these goals - An emphasis on learning not only in the classroom, but between faculty and students and between students and their peers - Sponsorship of a project of quality as the culmination and means of assessing the whole of a student’s education - High standards of intellectual and creative endeavor and a sense of responsibility and personal integrity that lead to meaningful performance in a world that is increasingly complex and interdependent As Maryland’s public honors college, St. Mary’s is committed to the ideal of providing an excellent and challenging education to a diverse population. As an honors college, St. Mary’s seeks talented students who are serious about their education. As a public college, St. Mary’s recruits a student body that is diverse socio-economically, ethnically, and by age. The two characteristics of academic strength and social diversity define the mission of this college, and the St. Mary’s Project offers students and faculty the means to fulfill the College’s unique educational opportunities. At St. Mary’s College, depth of knowledge is gained through intensive study in a major field. By assuming a major, the student goes beyond the introductory level in a chosen field, develops a coherent view of the subject, and attains competence in the use of skills appropriate to the discipline. This aspect of the curriculum allows students to experience the challenge and pleasure of pursuing a subject in depth. It also helps them refine their abilities of acquiring, analyzing, and synthesizing information, abilities needed to respond to the increasing complexity of the modern world. By the end of the sophomore year, each student must declare a major by using the SMCM web Portal. A student may change a major or declare a second major at any time before the start of his or her last semester at the College prior to graduation, except in the case of Independent Student-Designed Majors. In most cases there is no need for a student to designate a major until the end of the second year. However, if a student anticipates majoring in biology, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, natural science, or music, or plans to pursue the M.A.T., a faculty adviser in the field should be consulted early in the first year, preferably before the student enrolls in the first semester. Recognizing that many students may want to take a concentration of courses under a specific discipline but not with the intention of majoring in the subject matter, St. Mary’s College allows students to pursue approved minors. Minors require students to take 18-24 credit-hours in prescribed course work. Cross-disciplinary studies can increase intellectual community across disciplines, encourage cohesion in the choice of electives, and promote combinations of methods and materials that challenge the boundaries of knowledge. They involve at least three academic disciplines and require 18 to 24 credit-hours, at least eight (8) of which must be at the upper-division level. Cross-disciplinary studies include an integrative component such as a common course or requirement. At the discretion of the specific cross-disciplinary studies committee, students may complete the St. Mary's Project in the study area, provided they secure the approval of the department in which they are majoring. Completion of the course work in a cross-disciplinary study area is noted as a specific minor on a student's transcript. Currently, the College offers the following cross-disciplinary minors: African and African Diaspora Studies, Asian Studies, Democracy Studies, Environmental Studies, Museum Studies, Neurosciences, and Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies. To declare a minor, each student use the SMCM web Portal. There is no absolute deadline for the declaration of a minor, but departments offering minors must certify graduates prior to graduation. Therefore, it is highly advisable to declare a minor by the end of the fourth week of the first semester of the student’s senior year. The College awards the bachelor of arts degree upon successful completion of all requirements, including the Core Curriculum program and one or more of the designated majors. Students who complete the requirements for more than one major, as determined by the appropriate academic departments, will have that fact recorded on their permanent records. A liberal arts education equips the student for employment in a wide variety of spheres. For example, many St. Mary’s graduates enjoy successful careers in business and government as well as the arts, education, and the sciences. Many students plan for graduate study in academic fields, or for training in such professions as law and medicine. The Second Bachelor’s Degree Program is intended to fulfill the needs of college and university graduates who wish to achieve competency in a field of academic study different from the one in which they attained their first degree. Students seeking entrance into the program must have previously received a baccalaureate degree from St. Mary’s or from another accredited institution. To be considered for the program, there must be no extensive duplication among the major field requirements for the two degrees. Prospective students apply to the Office of Admissions for entrance into the program. The Office of the Registrar will assess the transferability of credits earned elsewhere. Students pursuing a second bachelor’s degree are subject to all academic policies that normally pertain to St. Mary’s degree-seeking students. To earn a second bachelor’s degree, a student must complete a) requirements “1” and “4” of the general College requirements listed below and b) a minimum of 32 credit-hours at St. Mary’s beyond those earned for the first degree. Interested students are urged to make a pre-application appointment with the Office of Admissions to receive advice regarding admissions procedures and transfer credit policies. Occasionally, a department may offer a course that is not listed in the catalog. Designated as experimental, such courses may be offered twice before being formally approved and incorporated into the curriculum or dropped from the College’s offerings. Such courses carry credit on the same basis as courses listed in the catalog.

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“They enrich our journey and make every day more interesting.” That’s how Dr. David L. Wagner, Assistant Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Connecticutt, began his talk Monday evening at the Austin Butterfly Forum. His audience of about 70 would be hard pressed to disagree after watching his entertaining and educational presentation. The author of Caterpillars of Eastern North America itemized the many reasons we should care about caterpillars (or butterflies-to-be, as I like to call them). Apart from their aesthetic contribution of morphing into the lilting butterflies we know and love, caterpillars are the “fabric that tethers the terrestrial communities” that keeps our forests and wildscapes whole, says Dr. Wagner. They’re also “the hamburger of the animal world.” Grizzly bears in Yellowstone Park were observed consuming 20,-30,000 moths per day and the average robin has been known to eat 165 caterpillars in a single 24-hour stretch–more than twice its own bodymass. And the bats that emerge from the Austin’s Congress Avenue bridge? The flying mammals consume 10-20,000 insects nightly, “mostly moths,” says Dr. Wagner. Where would all these creatures be without caterpillars? Birdwatchers are well aware of the consequence of caterpillars. They are the preferred grub of many songbirds. Dr. Wagner pointed out that caterpillar enthusiasts often start out as birders since effective birdwatching leads one to track the food source: caterpillars. Caterpillars are also pollinators and responsible for the silk shirts and sheets we enjoy (thank you, silk moth!). Some species are the janitors of the wild, eating and cleaning up dead leaf matter. One of the lesser known imports of caterpillars is how they play a big-but-indirect role in our daily lives by exerting a “chronic force” on plants to evolve defense mechanisms to discourage being consumed by them. “Plants are immobile. Caterpillars are omnipresent,” says Dr. Wagner. Plants have had to adapt to that. As a result, plants developed strong, often distasteful flavors like caffeine, latex and capsaicin to deter their consumption. Coffee, tea, latex, aspirin, the tannins in red wine, cinnamon, pepper, and many other spices all result from plants’ reaction to caterpillars. ”In a roundabout way, life would be considerably less rich and less interesting (and much less flavorful) without caterpillars,” said Dr. Wagner. Dr. Wagner showed dozens of amazing and entertaining slides of caterpillars in various contortions and camouflage–posing as sticks, pretending to be flower buds–but the biggest laugh came when he described a peculiar habit of a particular skipper, a cute yellow-and-brown caterpillar that morphs into a lovely brown butterfly. The silver spotted skipper, not uncommon in San Antonio and Austin, apparently practices the habit of “ballistic defecation”–shooting its excrement up to 153 centimeters from its body. The trick throws off predators by spreading its scent far and wide.Sunday morning a handful of Austin Butterfly Forum members were treated to an entertaining walk in the woods at the Barton Creek Greenbelt in Austin. Grabbing our “beating sheet” we tackled the dry riverbed, discovering myriad insects, but not a huge haul of caterpillars, thanks to the drought. For a proper demo of bush- beating technique, see the video, above. Dr. Wagner recommends carrying a magnifying glass or lens to better observe the fascinating creatures. ”Caterpillars are little mysteries. Much of the time you are not sure how they will turn out,” he says. Which surely contributes to their charm.

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There are several disorders thought by some to be caused by food allergies, but the evidence is currently insufficient or contrary to such claims. It is controversial, for example, whether migraine headaches can be caused by food allergies. Studies show people who are prone to migraines can have their headaches brought on by histamines and other substances in foods. The more difficult issue is whether food allergies actually cause migraines in such people. Cerebral allergy is a term that has been given to people who have trouble concentrating and have headaches as well as other complaints. These symptoms are sometimes blamed on mast cells activated in the brain but no other place in the body. Researchers have found no evidence that such a scenario can happen. Most health experts do not recognize cerebral allergy as a disorder. There is no evidence that food allergies can cause a disorder called the allergic tension fatigue syndrome, in which people are tired, nervous, and may have problems concentrating, or have headaches. Some people have several, non-specific complaints such as problems concentrating or depression. Sometimes this is blamed on small amounts of allergens or toxins in the environment. There is no evidence that such problems are due to food allergies. Some people believe hyperactivity in children is caused by food allergies. There is no evidence that a true food allergy can affect a child's activity except for the possibility that if a child itches and sneezes and wheezes a lot, the child may be uncomfortable and therefore more difficult to guide. Also, children who are on anti-allergy medicines that cause drowsiness may get sleepy in school or at home. There is also virtually no evidence that most rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis can be made worse by foods, despite claims to the contrary. Controversial and Unproven Diagnostic Methods One controversial diagnostic technique is cytotoxicity testing, in which a food allergen is added to a patient's blood sample. A technician then examines the sample under the microscope to see if white cells in the blood "die." Scientists have evaluated this technique in several studies and have not been found it to effectively diagnose food allergy. Another controversial approach is called sublingual or, if it is injected under the skin, subcutaneous provocative challenge. In this procedure, dilute food allergen is administered under the tongue of the person who may feel that his or her arthritis, for instance, is due to foods. The technician then asks the patient if the food allergen has aggravated the arthritis symptoms. In clinical studies, researchers have not shown that this procedure can effectively diagnose food allergies. An immune complex assay is sometimes done on people suspected of having food allergies to see if groups, or complexes, of certain antibodies connect to the food allergen in the bloodstream. Some think that these immune groups link with food allergies. But the formation of such immune complexes is a normal offshoot of food digestion, and everyone, if tested with a sensitive enough measurement, has them. To date, no one has conclusively shown that this test links with allergies to foods. Another test is the IgG subclass assay, which looks specifically for certain kinds of IgG antibody. Again, there is no evidence that this diagnoses food allergy. Controversial and Unproven Treatments Controversial treatments include putting a dilute solution of a particular food under the tongue about a half hour before the patient eats that food. This is an attempt to "neutralize" the subsequent exposure to the food that the patient believes is harmful. As the results of a carefully conducted clinical study show, this procedure is not effective in preventing an allergic reaction. Allergy shots have not yet been proven to reliably relieve food allergies. Read more about food allergies: Created by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Modified and updated by A.D.A.M., Inc. Illustration copyright A.D.A.M., Inc. Alan Greene, M.D., F.A.A.P., Department of Pediatrics, Packard Children's Hospital, Stanford University School of Medicine; Chief Medical Officer, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.

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Tuesday, May 22, 2012 Explain THIS. Part 1 Picture this: A teacher is standing in front of the class. A student asks a question. It suddenly dawns on the teacher that he/she doesn’t know the answer. It also goes through the teacher’s mind that it would be so much nicer if that student hadn’t shown up for class! So now what? All eyes are on the teacher, whose heart starts beating a tad faster and whose forehead is suddenly feeling quite moist. What to do? What to say? I bet you’re grinning right now. You can relate to that scenario, can’t you? I know I certainly can! But it’s an unavoidable occurrence in our profession; an occupational hazard, as they say. We just can’t know everything about everything! So I’m going to start a mini-crusade of sorts. I’m going to dedicate a number of my pieces on “Teacher Talk” to help teachers avoid some of those uncomfortable moments like the one I’ve just portrayed. I think the best way to approach this crusade of mine is to offer you some mini-dialogues and sentences to think about and ask you to come up with interpretations you’d give to your students. First, we’ll check out some individual words in the lexicon; later, we’ll deal with phrases, clauses, or sentences in which just one little word or one change in stress can change meaning tremendously, albeit subtly. Each of these mini-dialogues or individual sentences will have errors. Find the errors, correct them as you see fit, and figure out how you would explain your corrections to your students. That’s the most important part: how to explain the differences in meaning and/or usage. So let’s get started. Please have fun with these while you think about them – and DON’T use a dictionary. There isn’t going to be any fun in that! 1. (at a park) A: See that bird! She’s feeding her chicks. B: Where? I don’t look at her. 2. I’m going to show you how to decorate a birthday cake. Now look at me carefully. First, you … 3. A: Hey, Dad. You’re taking the car to get to work this morning? B: Yeah. I’ve got to run some errands after work, so I’ll need the car. Get on and I’ll drive you to school. A: Thanks! It’s awesome not to have to get in the bus! 4. (on a military base) A: Good morning, General. Good morning, Colonel. May I help you gentlemen? B: Good morning, Corporal. Our wives will be here very soon. Please ask them to wait right here for us. A: Yes, misters. 5. A: Good afternoon, madam. Welcome to Chez Maurice. Would you like a table? B: Not yet, thank you. I’m waiting for a friend of mine to arrive. We’re having lunch together. (a few minutes later) A: Good afternoon, madam. Welcome to Chez Maurice. Do you have a reservation? C: No, but my friend does. I’m meeting her here for lunch. A: Oh, yes, she’s over there. C: Hello, Belinda! I’m here! A: Please follow me to your table, madams. 6. A: I still think that Yuri Gagarin was the greatest cosmonaut/astronaut in the earth! B: I’m not arguing with you. He was the first man to go into outer space and circle the world. 7. A: I just bought five acres outside the city. I’d love to build a house there. B: I know how exciting this is for you. How does it feel to own ground for the first time in your life? 8. A: I know that paleoanthropologists may never be able to answer this question, but I keep wondering why our hominid ancestors stopped swinging in the trees and decided to come down to the B: Beats me. Maybe like some kids today, they just liked to play in the soil! A: Hah, hah! Very funny! 9. (at a department store) A: Excuse me. What are these sheets made with? B: One hundred percent Egyptian cotton. A: Do you happen to know if this paint is made from latex? B: Well, I believe that’s one of the ingredients. A: Is it true that this jewelry is made in abalone shell? B: Yes, isn’t it beautiful? 10. A: You know, I’m tired of the color scheme in our living room and dining room. Let’s exchange it. B: That’s okay with me. Since I have to go to the paint store to change this camel-hair brush I bought there for a nylon one, I’ll pick up lots of color samples for you to look at. A: That’ll be great. Now how was that? You had fun, didn’t you? If you found these challenging, great! That means this hasn’t been a waste of time! Answers will follow in my next piece, so hang in there.

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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 31 Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition Recommended Readings Evolution Dawkins, Richard1996Climbing Mount Improbable,W.W. Norton: New York and London. An authoritative and elegant account of the evolutionary explanation of the "design" of organisms. Fortey, Richard1998Life: A Natural History of the First Four BillionYears of Life on Earth,Alfred P. Knopf: New York. A lively account of the history of life on Earth. Gould, Stephen J.1992The Panda's Thumb,W.W. Norton: New York. Gould's Natural History columns have been collected into a series of books including Hen's Teeth and Horses Toes, An Urchin in the Storm, Eight Little Piggies, The Flamingo g Smile, and Bully for Brontosaurus. All are good popular introductions to the basic ideas behind evolution, and extremely readable. Homer, John R., and Edwin Dobb1997Dinosaur Lives: Unearthing anEvolutionary Saga,HarperCollins: New York. What it's like to uncover fossilized bones, eggs, and more, plus Homer's views on dinosaurs. Howells, W.W.1997Getting Here: The Story of Human Evolution,Compass Press: Washington, D.C.A very readable survey of human evolution by one of the fathers of physical anthropology. Johanson, Donald C., Lenora Johanson, and Blake Edgar1994Ancestors:In Search of Human Origins,Villard Books: New York. The companion volume to Johanson's NOVA series, "In Search of Human Origins." Mayr, Ernst1991One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesisof Modern Evolutionary Thought,Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA.An easily understandable distillation of Charles Darwin's scientific contributions. National Academy of Sciences1998Teaching About Evolution and theNature of Science,National Academy Press: Washington, DC.An engaging, conversational, and well-structured framework for understanding and teaching evolution. Nesse, Randolph, and George C. Williams1996Why We Get Sick: TheNew Science of Darwinian Medicine,Vintage Books: New York. The principle of natural selection as applied to modern-day health and disease. Helps to illustrate evolution as an ongoing phenomenon. Tattersall, Ian1998Becoming Human,Harcourt Brace: New York. A description of the current state of understanding about the differences between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Weiner, Jonathan1994The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolutionin Our Time,Alfred P. Knopf: New York. Discussion of basic evolutionary principles and how they are illustrated by ongoing evolution on the Galápagos Islands. Whitfield, Philip1993From So Simple a Beginning,Macmillan: New York. A large-format, beautifully illustrated book explaining evolution from genetic, fossil, and geological perspectives. A good general introduction for nonspecialists. Zimmer, Carl1999At the Water's Edge: Macroevolution and the Transformationof Life,Free Press: New York. Some creatures moved from water to land (the evolution land vertebrates) and others from land to water (the evolution of whales from land animals). Zimmer clearly explains these two events in the history of vertebrates and what might have brought them about. Evolution: Books for Children and Young Adults Cole, Joanna, and Juan Carlos Barberis1987The Human Body: How WeEvolved,Illustrated by Walter Gaffney-Kessell, William Morrow and Company: New York. This book traces the evolution of humans, from early prehistoric ancestors to modem tool-users. Grades 4-7. OCR for page 32 Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition Lauber, Patricia, and Douglas Henderson1994How Dinosaurs Came toBe,Simon and Schuster: New York. A description of the ancestors to the dinosaurs. Grades 4-7. Matsen, Brad, and Ray Troll1994Planet Ocean: A Story of Life, theSea, and Dancing to the Fossil Record,10 Speed Press: Berkeley, CA. Whimsically illustrated tour of history for older kids and adults. Grades junior high to high school. McNulty, Faith1999How Whales Walked into the Sea,Illustrated by Ted Lewin, Scholastic Trade: New York. This wonderfully illustrated book describes the evolution of whales from land mammals. Grades K-3. Stein, Sara1986The Evolution Book,Workman Publishing Co., inc.: New York. A hands-on, project-oriented survey of evolution and its mechanisms. Grades 4-8. Troll, Ray, and Brad Matsen1996Raptors Fossils Fins and Fangs:A Prehistoric Creature Feature,Tricycle Press: Berkeley, CA. A light-hearted trip through time ("Good Gracious — Cretaceous!") with similes kids will like ("Pterosaurs — some as big as jet fighters."). Grades 4-6. Origin of the Universe and the Earth Dalrymple, G. Brent1991The Age of the Earth,Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA. A comprehensive discussion of the evidence for the ages of the Earth, moon, meteorites, solar system, Galaxy, and universe. Longair, Malcolm S.1996Our Evolving Universe,Cambridge University Press: New York. A brief discussion of the origin and evolution of the universe. Silk, Joseph1994A Short History of the Universe,Scientific American Library: New York. Popular treatment of the evolution of the universe. Weinberg, Steven1993The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of theOrigin on the Universe,Basic Books: New York. An explanation of what happened during the Big Bang. Evolution and Creationism Controversy Godfrey, Laurie, ed. 1983Scientists Confront Creationism,W.W. Norton: New York. A collection of articles by scientists analyzing and refuting arguments of creation science. Kitcher, Philip1982Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism,MIT Press: Cambridge. A philosophical as well as scientific analysis of creation science. Matsumura, Molleen1995Voices for Evolution,National Center for Science Education, Inc : Berkeley, CA. A collection of statements supporting the teaching of evolution from many different types of organizations: scientific, civil liberties, religious, and educational. Numbers, Ronald1992The Creationists: The Evolution of ScientificCreationism,University of California Press: Berkeley, CA. A thorough history of the American creationist movement. Pennock, Robert T.1999Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against theNew Creationism,MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. A philosopher of science analyzes the newer "intelligent design" theory and "theistic science" creationism. Strahler, Arthur1987Science and Earth History: The Evolution/CreationControversy,Prometheus Press: Buffalo, NY. A comprehensive analysis of creationist scientific claims. Toumey, Christopher P.1994God's Own Scientists: Creationists ina Secular World,Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, NJ. An anthropologist's view of creationism as a belief system upholding the moral authority of both science and religion. Skehan, James W.1986Modern Science and the Book of Genesis,National Science Teachers Association: Washington, DC. Written by a geologist (former Director of the Weston Seismological Observatory) and bible scholar, trained as a Jesuit priest. Representative terms from entire chapter:

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Marine mammals forage in dynamic environments characterized by variables that are continuously changing in relation to large-scale oceanographic processes. The ability of naïve animals to forage in these conditions poses interesting questions about how they might perceive their environments. By analysing the tracks of juvenile southern elephant seals (n=16) from Marion Island (46°54’S, 37°45’E), Southern Indian Ocean, we see that the proximity to frontal zones has a positive influence on the probability of searching behaviour and that bathymetric features such as the South West Indian Ridge increases the probability of transiting behaviour. State-space modelling techniques are used to interpolate tracks over regular time intervals and predict behavioural states for locations based on variations in turning angle and speed. A mixed modelling approach is used to analyse the behavioural response of juvenile southern elephant seals to sea-surface temperature, sea-surface height anomalies as well as proximity to frontal and bathymetric features. This research highlights the importance of frontal features and sea-surface height anomalies for potential juvenile southern elephant seal feeding areas, and provides further evidence of the importance of the area west of Marion Island for higher trophic level predators.

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Adding Box Plots to Show Data Distribution in Dashboards [Part 6 of 6] This is a Guest Post by Robert on Visualization Techniques for Excel KPI Dashboards. This 6 Part Tutorial on Management Dashboards Teaches YOU: Creating a Scrollable List View in Dashboard Add Ability to Sort on Any KPI to the Dashboard Highlight KPIs Based on Percentile Add Microcharts to KPI Dashboards Compare 2 KPIs in the Dashboards Using Form Controls Show the Distribution of a KPI using Box Plots In this final post we will learn how to add a box plot to show the distribution of values The most common way in descriptive statistics to visualize the distribution of sets of numerical data is a box plot. But according to my experience in day to day business, most business people are not familiar with this type of visualization. Therefore we try to create a simpler chart which is hopefully easier to understand: The light grey bar visualizes the range of all values, the dark grey bar the range of the 10 items displayed on the management dashboard table. The cross shows the total average and – similar to the bullet graphs – the vertical line represents the target. This is less information than a real box whisker plot would provide, but I guess it will be easier to understand. Download the Excel KPI dashboard final workbook and read on how to create a simplified box plot. - Let’s bring our ducks in a row first. Calculate all necessary data to be shown in the box plots: the minimum and maximum of the total data and of the 10 displayed items on the dashboard, the average and the target. The formulas are quite simple. You can find them in the downloaded workbook in - The basis of our visualization is a stacked bar chart with only one category and 4 data series: - the invisible bar (the bar between 0 and the total minimum), - the left light grey bar (the bar between the total minimum and the minimum of the displayed 10 items), - the dark grey bar (the bar between the minimum and maximum of the 10 displayed values) and - the right light grey bar (the bar between the maximum of the 10 displayed items and the total maximum). Again the formulas to calculate these values are quite simple (see calculation!BF23:BI27). - Create a stacked bar chart and format the bars accordingly (no fill color and no border for the invisible bar, light and dark grey fill colors for the other bars). - Add the average and the target values as additional series to the chart and change the chart type of these new series to XY scatter charts (X is the average / target value, Y is a dummy 1). Format the average as a cross (or whatever you choose) and use the error bars to format the target as a vertical line. The method of creating a combination chart of bars and XY scatters is pretty much the same we used in the 4th post of the KPI dashboard series (here). - Remove or hide all unnecessary chart elements: no fill color and no border for plot or chart area; no line, tick marks etc. for the vertical axes, etc. - Repeat steps 3 to 5 to create charts for all 5 KPI. - Bring the charts to the dashboard, position them and add a caption to explain the chart elements. That’s it. Play around with the new feature: change the sort criteria or sort order or scroll up and down the dashboard table and see how the new charts are changing. This is a simplified version of box plot visualization and works only for data sets with positive values. Of course there is also a more sophisticated way of creating charts like this for any data (positive and negative values, i.e. bars crossing the vertical axis). This is a bit more complicated since you need 8 data series for the bar chart instead of 4 but the principle is exactly the same. Our final KPI dashboard looks like this (click on it for a larger version): With this last part I guess the time may have come to end the series about Excel Management KPI Dashboards here and to hand over the further development of this dashboard to the readers of Chandoo.org. I do hope the series of 6 posts have been useful for your daily work and provided new ideas. Make sure you have downloaded the Excel KPI dashboard tutorial workbook Thanks for all your comments and appreciations. Last but not least: Chandoo, my friend, once more thank you so much for hosting my ideas at Chandoo.org. Kind regards from Munich If not for Robert’s mail in August suggesting these wonderful ideas as posts in PHD, I would never have learned these things or shared them with you all. I am thankful to him for that. Well, I am constantly trying to learn new dashboard techniques and I will try to share the worthy ones with you all. Meanwhile if you have a good idea for excel dashboards (or charts, techniques etc.) and would like to share with everyone, feel free to drop a comment or write to me. I will be *happy* to feature your ideas. Further Reading on Dashboards using Excel Leave a Reply |Making Pie-charts look Sexy – The CNN’s tax burden analysis chart||Soon you can use Excel on the Web|

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DATE: October 01, 2012 Can you please explain what a stock index is? A stock index is a method of measuring a group of stocks with a goal to provide a one-number indication of how that group of stocks is performing. Indexes are often used in the same way that averages are used. When it comes to the stock market, there are many indexes. Some indexes, like broad-based indexes, attempt to measure the performance of the entire market. While other indexes, like narrow-based indexes, attempt to measure only a specific sector of the market. To learn more about stock indexes, view this week's segment of "Ask the Institute."

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BURLINGTON -- Summer may be starting to wind down, but the risk of exposure to poison ivy can continue well into the winter months. Poison ivy grows throughout Vermont, and its not just the leaves that are toxic. A person can get a rash by coming into contact with the oily residue from any part of the poison ivy plant, including the berries and roots. The rash can also be caused by touching anything, such as gardening tools, that came into contact with the plant and still has the residue on it. Poison ivy is definitely something to be on the lookout for, said Gayle Finkelstein, poison prevention educator at Fletcher Allen Health Care and the Northern New England Poison Center. It grows in woods and fields and along roadsides and riverbeds. It can be a high-climbing woody vine, a small low-growing shrub, or ground cover. Just remember the rule: Leaves of three, let them be. Poison ivy is distinguished by three thin, pointy, and shiny leaves. The shape and texture of poison ivy leaves can vary, though, as can the color. The leaves are reddish in spring, green in summer, and orange, red or bronze in the fall. The main symptom of poison ivy is a rash, which can appear up to a week after contact with the plant. The rash can vary in severity and usually starts with itching, redness and swelling, and it is sometimes followed by tiny pimples or blisters. The best way to treat poison ivy, said Finkelstein, is to immediately wash the exposed skin with cold water and soap. Wash contaminated surfaces with rubbing alcohol, and clean all affected clothes and shoes with hot water and soap. If you have trouble breathing, notice a swelling in your throat, or feel dizzy or weak, call 9-1-1. Scratching the itch of the poison ivy wont spread the disease, but it could leave scarring on your skin. Its also important to know that poison ivy is not contagious. One last tip, says Finkelstein, is to never burn poison ivy plants to get rid of them. The smoke can cause serious health problems, she says, including irritation to the eyes, skin, nose and throat and difficulty breathing. For more information on poison ivy, contact the Northern New England Poison Center at 1-800-222-1222 or visit

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Attractiveness of agriculture for young people | Blogs Series: Agriculture, ICTs and Youth The role of ICTs in increasing the attractiveness of agriculture for young people Unattractiveness of agriculture When choosing their field of study today, most youngsters tend to choose medical science, computer, management, engineering, finance and accounting, law etc. It is very rare to find students who choose agriculture for a career and there are many reasons behind it. First of all, when we think of agriculture, it is related to hard work, considered to be of low-status and not fashionable. Moreover, most students who study agriculture are in this field either because they had no other choice or they did not obtain results which were required to study the subject that they wanted. As a result, many cases exist where agriculture students have changed their field of studies as soon as they got another opportunity. Importance of young people to be interested in agriculture The question which arises is that if agriculture is so unattractive, why should youngsters be interested in it? Presently, agriculture in all countries are facing several challenges like aging farmer population, climate change resulting in high incidence of pest and diseases, high cost of production and most importantly, most countries in the world are not food secured as they are relying heavily on imports. The Millennium development Goal 1 deals with the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. In order to do that, agriculture plays an important role because according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the number of hungry people must be halved by 2015 by improving agricultural productivity and promoting agriculture by investing in the empowerment of smallholder farmers. Considering all these points it is clear how important agriculture is for our survival, whether we are from a developing country or a developed one. ICTs in agriculture UNESCO defines ICTs as the "new or advanced technologies that enhance the dissemination or creation of information and communication". Examples of ICTs in agriculture are classified into two categories, which are traditional ICTs and new ICTs. Traditional ICTs involve the use of videos, radios, television and newspapers, whereas new ICTs are all about the use of mobile phones, computers, internet, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), Geographical Information System (GIS). The link between agriculture, youth and ICT Certainly, it is possible to have a link between agriculture, youth and ICTs. This is because youth are people who have lots of ideas and like innovation, which is why they are very attracted to ICTs. ICTs are being used in agriculture in many countries today and the fact that we are using ICT in agriculture makes this field more fashionable and attractive. When we are talking about the use of ICTs in increasing the attractiveness of agriculture for young people, there are 2 main functions that it may have. Firstly, ICTs can be used to sensitize youth on the importance of agriculture and change their perception about it and secondly, ICTs can be promoted through empowerment/sensitizing programs by the government or other support organizations. Use of ICTs to sensitize youth on their use in agriculture Today, most young people are connected to the internet and to get through them, there is no easier way than to use ICT itself. The negative perception that young people have on agriculture can be changed by making videos, publishing articles on success stories of young entrepreneurs using ICTs in agriculture for them to realize that choosing agriculture for a career is not that bad after all, since they can do a "cool" job, be independent and successful at the same time. In addition, this can be done at a national, regional or international level by organizing radio/TV shows or competition on the use of ICTs in agriculture, so as to capture more young people as those who are not connected to the internet also will be targeted. Promoting ICTs through empowerment programs by government or support organizations. Despite the fact that many farmers/entrepreneurs are using ICTs in different countries over the world, it is not always clear to youth how they could apply ICT in agriculture to make farming an easier and more interesting job. In order to do this, governments of each country or other support organizations must consider the empowerment of youth on the use of ICT in agriculture. Some applications of ICTs, which may trigger the interest of young people in agriculture, include: - Use of internet and Web 2.0 tools This can be done by training young people in each country on the use of internet and web 2.0 tools. Social media can be beneficial in the sense that it is very easy to obtain, manage and share information with other stakeholders in agriculture, which can help in improving productivity and increase farm income. However, only training of young people on web 2.0 applications is not enough. Youth who have been trained must be tutored on how to apply this knowledge in agriculture. For example, one of the main problems in agriculture is the marketing of the products and the access to market information. If youth would be tutored how they can solve these problems by applying their knowledge on ICT in their farm activities, they will be keener to adopt it as they are already interested in technologies and new ways of doing things. - Use of mobile applications to make farming easier Nowadays, most young people in all countries over the world know how to use a mobile phone without training. If they are empowered about the potential of using mobile phone in agriculture, they may be more interested in practicing it. For example, in terms of managing farm data, marketing of their products, be in touch with their clients etc. - Better management of information and farm data When practicing agriculture, management of information and farm data is very important as the failure in doing so can have huge impact on the farm productivity and income. For example, record on the application of fertilizer/pesticides, planting and harvesting dates, crops grown in a particular area in the field, incidence of pest and diseases etc. The adoption of farming software (a Decision Support System for example) can be attractive for young people who are interested to become entrepreneurs. - Use of GPS for farming on large scale Since the conventional agriculture is not fashionable, ICTs can attract young people to become entrepreneurs and practice precision agriculture using ICTs. This involves huge investment, but instead of young people venturing and investing in other field, it is better that they choose agriculture in order to meet the Millennium and Development Goals 1. The above are only some of the examples about how ICTs can be used in agriculture and how youth can be attracted to agriculture through them. To conclude, we can say that the overall role of ICTs in making agriculture more attractive to young people is to make the job more fashionable, easier to manage farm activities and have a good image in the society. Comments are welcomed by clicking on the link below Nawsheen Hosenally is currently a student in BSc (Hons) of Agriculture with specialization in Agricultural Extension, at the University of Mauritius. She gained some experience in Agricultural Research and Extension Unit and at the Ministry of Agro Industry and Food security

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A string of record breaking maximum temperatures and numerous fires and almost no precipitation in Colorado during the month of June 2012 had people wondering - What's up with the weather? For example Boulder, Colorado had the hottest average maximum temperature (91.2° F) for the month of June. The period from March to June was the driest in the city's weather records dating back to 1894. Is this natural variation? Is it climate change? Has this happened before? The pages below give some background information to help answer these questions. - Regional Trends - Colorado Story - Historical Analog - Colorado Fires - Is This Climate Change? - Additional Information Over the past year, Colorado has seen drier and warmer than normal conditions. Click on a station in the map (or the arrow next to the station name) to see the time series for July 2011 to July 2012 for that station. Images generated by the High Plains Regional Climate Center The plots below show the record maximum, minimum and average temperatures (left) and the chance of precipitation (right) for Boulder, Colorado from 1950 to 2010. Some things to note about the graphs below in relation to 2012. Historically, the maximum high temperatures of the year (> 100 °F) occur in late June and early July. Also, note that there is a climatologically normal period of relatively dry weather at the end of June and into the beginning of July during the period between the usual wet spring season and the onset of the July-August monsoon season. Since 1901, both the maximum and minimum June temperatures have risen. Maximum temperatures have generally increased by 1-1.5 degree Celsius (2-3 degrees Fahrenheit). Minimum temperatures have risen more in western Colorado than the east. Trends in precipitation are most important on shorter timescales. In the image on the left below, one can see that over the past 2 years, the southern states have had generally dry conditions while the northwest and northeast have been wetter than average. This is consistent with the precipitation pattern associated with La Niña - a cooling of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. As described in the Southwest Climate Assessment: "It is likely that most of recent dryness over the Southwest is associated with a natural, decadal coolness in tropical Pacific sea surface temperatures." (Hoerling et al, 2012) In 1956, Colorado experienced a dry spring and a hot June. This was also a La Niña year as was the case in 2012 until late spring. The maps below compare the patterns of 1956 to those in 2012. These maps show a similar story in terms of circulation patterns and their effects. On June 26, 2012, lightning sparked the Flagstaff Fire above the NOAA building in Boulder, CO. The timelapse video below was taken by Dustin Henderlon shows the view from Boulder from 3 pm, June 26 to 10 am June 28th. The fires in Colorado and elsewhere in the US have people asking what is causing this and is this more extreme than usual? A good discussion on some of the factors leading to the large loss of property and 3 lives is here: According to the National Interagency Fire Center, through July 3, the acreage burned and number of fires are - Acreage - 2,199,484 - Number - 28,420 This compares to the average over the period available 2003-2012 - Acreage - 2,461,795 - Number - 39,502 So far this year, the U.S is slightly below average for acreage and considerably below average for number of fires. To compare with a relatively bad year over this short period, 2006 had - Acreage - 3,779,450 - Number - 57,609 In this 10-year record, on a most-to-least scale, so far 2012 ranks fourth out of ten for acres burned and ninth out of ten for number of fires. So while CO has experience severe fire loss, the US fire season as a whole has not been exceptional to date. A recent web chat was held between weather and climate experts and communicators (including Marty Hoerling from NOAA/ESRL/PSD) on the fires and other extreme events of June. The video below provides more information on the possible causes of these events: - How have changing conditions over the Southwest been symptomatic of human-induced climate change? - Is recent Southwest dryness a symptom of human-induced climate change? The charts below compare the observed trends of March-April-May (MAM) temperature and precipitation to two different model systems. These box and whisker plots show the observed values (green dot) compared to the range of values from the model ensembles. The range is denoted by the line (whisker) between the maximum (red asterisk) and the minimum (blue asterisk). The bottom and top of the box are the 25th and 75th percentile (the lower and upper quartiles, respectively), and the band near the middle of the box is the 50th percentile (the median). In each of the plots, the top half shows the temperature comparison and the bottom half shows the precipitation comparison. The CMIP5 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5) dataset is a set of coordinated model experiments from 20 climate modelling groups around the world. This ensemble of different solutions can be used to examine the observed change in temperature with model simulations that include forcings due to increasing CO2. In the plot below, the observed temperature trend aligns with the rise in temperature due to human-induced forcings. However, the observed change in precipitation (drying) is not well simulated by the CMIP5 model runs. The AMIP (Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project) is a standard experimental protocol for global atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs). The AGCMs are constrained by realistic sea surface temperature and sea ice so the output is forced by ocean surface processes instead of greenhouse gasses. In the plot below, the precipitation much more closely matches the AMIP solutions, indicating that the primary driving force of the reduced precipitation is a natural variation of the ocean related to El Niño/La Niña cycles. - Hoerling, M.P., M. Dettinger, K. Wolter, J. Lukas, J. Eischeid, R. Nemani, B. Liebmann, and K. E. Kunkel, 2012. Evolving Weather and Climate Conditions of the Southwest United States. Chapter 5 in Garfin, G., Jardine, A., Merideth, R., Black, M. and Overpeck, J., (eds.) Assessment of Climate Change in the Southwest United States: a Technical Report Prepared for the U.S. National Climate Assessment. Tucson, AZ: Southwest Climate Alliance. (in press) - McQueen, H. R. and H. J. Shellum, 1956: The Heat Wave From the Intermountain Area to the Northern Great Lakes, June 9-13, 1956. Mon. Wea. Rev., 84, 242–251. - Christian Science Monitor, Death Valley heat in Kansas? How the end of June got so hot

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Yoga Stretches for Children Yoga stretches give a satisfaction! Try bringing your children both the awareness of their spine and their alignment while educating them about a basic yoga posture. The Child's Pose can be a natural extension the Kidskills Training Program. The back exercise called: Old Nag! Mad Cat! teaches the youngster to maintain a solid position while standing on their hands and knees. The basic stand on the hands and knees should have their hands place shoulder width apart with all their fingers pointing forward. Take time to look at their back before their start the action. While keeping legs solid and arms straight the child acts like a Mad Cat, arching their spine, then ask them to drop their back [rib cage] and act like an Old Nag! This recruits the back and the supporting muscles. The brain gets lots of stimulation too! Coordination blooms and embeds! NOW, add the yoga stretch, Child's Pose! Ask the child to move from the hands and knees postion to a position sitting on their heels. Keep their arms l-o-n-g with their palms glued to the floor - just where they started. The knees and feet are held, side-by-side and the head is touching the floor. Let them hold the position for a minute. It will feel satisfying and will be an exercise that they will return to...over their lifetime. A lifetime skill...what a great legacy to give to your children. The JOY of movement!! Yoga Stretch: Child's Pose This position will lengthen the spine and will feel excellent. You can do it alongside your child. Take a minute of two to rest in this Child's Pose. If you find this activity useful for your children, there is a series of six KidSKILLS Movement and Sports Training Manuals available for Nooks, Kindles, and iPad. Source: kidskills.com via Diane on Pinterest

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In this era of computer chats and cellphone messages, hearing the voice of someone who loves you -- your mom, especially -- still carries a mighty biological boost at stressful times. A text just isn't enough, say researchers, who have found that among the virtues of voice is the ability to comfort at tense times. In a 2011 University of Wisconsin study, 68 girls, ages 7 to 12, were given a public-speaking assignment that resulted in high levels of the stress hormone cortisol in their bodies. One group was allowed to see, touch and talk to their mothers. Another group communicated with them via instant messaging. A third talked to their mothers by phone only, and a fourth group had no contact at all. When hormone production was measured again, the girls who had heard their mother's voice produced more oxytocin, which is associated with positive feelings, and the level of the stress hormone dropped. "There is something about the power of the human voice that is a lot like touch or other kinds of physical contact in that it can release social hormones and decrease stress," says the study's lead author, Leslie Seltzer, a biological anthropologist. "Communication online, like instant messaging, doesn't appear to have the same effect." That's not surprising since humans have had a million or so years to learn the intimacies of vocal communication, while written communication has been around a mere 5,000 or 6,000 years. "There's so much more information in the voice over and above the words being spoken," says Rebecca Brand, an associate professor of psychology at Villanova University. "You have all of the sound information and the timing information and the word information. In text, the timing's not clear, the emotions are not clear, and the familiarity of whatever you respond to in the sounds is missing."

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The UN environment report states that Ganga would disappear by 2030.There would be no need to train engineers or even Ganga... A report published in the Journal of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology suggests that babies of... Yes, the happening and looming threat of the loss of Bio-cultural diversity stares us in the face. This is particularly true... The Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (vavo) has filed a lawsuit against 37 us-based chemical companies, which supplied Agent Orange (ao) during the Vietnam war. Health problems arising out of the continuous spray of the toxic chemical in Vietnam between 1961 and 1971 form the basis of the class action complaint. The lawsuit has been submitted to the us Federal Court in Brooklyn, New York, and demands unspecified compensation on behalf of nearly 4 million victims. "The companies named include Dow Chemical Company, Monsanto Chemical Company, Pharmacia Corporation and Hercules Incorporated," revealed Nguyen Trong Nhan, vice-chairperson of the Hanoi-based vavo. "Three Vietnamese individuals -- Nguyen Van Quy, Phan Thi Phi Phi and Duong Quynh Hoa -- are co-plaintiffs in the case," added Nguyen. ao is a herbicide which comprises 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, and its contaminant tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (tcdd or dioxin); cacodylic acid; and picloram. The chemical was used to defoliate forests and destroy crops during the war. The lawsuit states that the companies were aware that the herbicides would be sprayed in Vietnam, but didn't object. The misuse of ao has led to mass health disorders in Vietnam. Plaintiff Phan Thi, a doctor who has been studying victims for the past 40 years, said: "About 100 million litres of chemicals were sprayed during the war, out of which 49 million litres were ao. We have found dioxin levels to be as high as one million parts per trillion in the environment." The us National Academy of Science accepts only 13 diseases linked to ao exposure, but Phan Thi has come across many more. "Not only have I seen cases of spina bifida (spinal birth defect), but also mental retardation, cerebral palsy, abortion, stillbirth, premature delivery and many forms of cancers," she asserted. "While the us war veterans received compensation amounting to us $180 million, the Vietnamese victims got nothing," pointed out Nguyen.

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Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native to tropical South Asia and needs temperatures between 20 °C and 30 °C (68 °F and 86 °F) and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes, and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the following season. When not used fresh, the rhizomes are boiled for several hours and then dried in hot ovens, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a spice in curries and other South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine, for dyeing, and to impart color to mustard condiments. Its active ingredient is curcumin and it has a distinctly earthy, slightly bitter, slightly hot peppery flavor and a mustardy smell. Curcumin can be used to test the alkalinity or acidity of foods. It turns yellow in an acidic food, and it turns red in an alkaline food. In medieval Europe, turmeric became known as Indian saffron since it was widely used as an alternative to the far more expensive saffron spice.

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Community Approaches to Improving Outcomes for Urban Children, Youth, and Families Dale A. Blyth University of Minnesota Before commenting on the strong chapter by Connell and Kubisch, as well as the larger issues they and others raised, I wish to make explicit up front that my comments come out of three recent experiences. First, efforts to help communities understand how they impact their youth's development: How do we, as professionals who study youth development, help communities become more intentional about their support of children and youth? Second, efforts to systematically evaluate such efforts: If we are to learn from what communities are trying, we must be able to establish evaluation systems that not only capture the impact of neighborhoods but also the impact of initiatives designed to improve the development of all children and youth within those “villages. ” And finally, direct observations of how the Community Action Framework for Youth Development is being applied to the 20-year initiative noted in their chapter. These experiences, often done in the framework of Search Institute's 40 assets youth need to succeed, have shaped my thinking and informed my perspectives. Let me begin by saying I believe the “village” has an enormous influence on how children and especially adolescents develop. This belief comes from both an empirical and a theoretical understanding of how context and people's understanding of context affects their development in a host of direct and indirect ways. Although these effects are difficult to measure, and although we have only begun to have the sophisticated methodological approaches talked about by Sampson and his colleagues, the effects are real and important. This realization is especially true in an era where changes in families, macroeconomic factors, and policies have caused an erosion in how communities operate and in their ability to impact children and adolescents. The question in my mind, and the one that I believe the Connell and Kubisch chapter addresses most directly, is not whether it takes a village, or to what extent it takes a village, or even how we accurately capture the Questia, a part of Gale, Cengage Learning. www.questia.com Publication information: Book title: Does It Take a Village? Community Effects on Children, Adolescents, and Families. Contributors: Alan Booth - Editor, Ann C. Crouter - Editor. Publisher: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Place of publication: Mahwah, NJ. Publication year: 2001. Page number: 223. This material is protected by copyright and, with the exception of fair use, may not be further copied, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means.

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Library Home || Primary || Math Fundamentals || Pre-Algebra || Algebra || Geometry || Discrete Math || Trig/Calc |Judy Ann Brown| |Pre-Algebra, difficulty level 4. Find information about Pick's theorem and solve an area problem using this method.| |Please Note: Use of the following materials requires membership. Please see the Problem of the Week membership page for more information.| © 1994-2012 Drexel University. All rights reserved. The Math Forum is a research and educational enterprise of the Drexel University School of Education.

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Post by Denise on her L'Aussie Writer site: Recent Post by Cathy Oliffe-Webster: What is flash fiction (FF)? 'Each drop encases its own separate note, the way each drop engulfs its own blue pearl of light.' This description of rain, from Stuart Dybek's story "Nighthawks," is as close to a definition of flash fiction as I can offer. A successful flash enchants us, each small story successfully rendered engulfing us for a brief moment - in a 'flash,' in its own brand of light, or truth. And the effects linger on...(Rose Metal Press) - FF is a place for reckless daring - you write strange sentences in a new voice. The ambition of a short short piece of fiction is not to get the readers to 'lose themselves' - how far can you get lost in a few hundred words? The effect of FF is just that, fast, (even if writing it isn't) and yet complete. The shape of the piece leaps out at the reader and is taken in as a whole, as if it were a picture, sketchy. - FF is about ambiguity, a singular moment, a slice of life, a sketch. - Consider how much you can leave out and still create a moving, complete narrative. Can you write a story that consists of only dialogue? How is it still a story? What is a story? Go here for a list of flash fiction sites where you can learn more.

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Determining Cell Data Types with Excel 2007's TYPE Function Excel 2007's TYPE function is an information function that returns the type of value in a cell. Aptly named, this function enables you to build formulas with the IF function that execute one type of behavior when the cell being tested contains a value and another when it contains text. The syntax of the TYPE function is The value argument of the TYPE function can be any Excel entry: text, number, logical value, or even an Error value or a cell reference that contains such a value. The TYPE function returns the following values, indicating the type of contents: 1 for numbers 2 for text 4 for logical value (TRUE or FALSE) 16 for an error value 64 for an array range or constant The following formula combines the CELL and TYPE functions nested within an IF function. This formula returns the type of the number formatting used in cell D11 only when the cell contains a value. Otherwise, it assumes that cell D11 contains a text entry, and it evaluates the type of alignment assigned to the text in that cell: The following formula combines the NOT and TYPE functions and a mathematical operator nested inside an IF function. If the value in cell D11 contains either TRUE or FALSE, the formula returns the opposite value. Otherwise, the formula assumes that D11 contains a numeric value and adds the value in cell C11 to it. You can't use the TYPE function to determine whether a cell contains a formula, only the data type that the formula returns.

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About This Item Volume 1 of our Behaviors! series, Behaviors with Friends, uses targeted video modeling to help teach your child how to behave appropriately, solve problems, make good decisions and properly communicate with their friends and other peers in common social scenarios and settings. In each lesson, we introduce a scenario and first show a child making an incorrect choice and exhibiting negative behaviors, which results in appropriate consequences for that child. We then help teach your child how to make a good choice in that scenario by modeling appropriate, positive behaviors. Lessons focus on common behavior problems for children, such as: - strategies to resolve conflicts with peers without resorting to tantrums, name calling or physical violence; - self-management and dealing with anger and frustration in a positive fashion; - sharing and taking turns with friends; - being a good sport; - telling the truth; - not interrupting; - being nice to friends and not taunting, and encouraging friends who are less competent instead of teasing; and - appropriate body boundaries. Behaviors with Friends also includes a segment for parents, which uses video examples to give you advice on how to help your child learn appropriate, positive behaviors on your own. For younger children, who might have difficulty knowing not to imitate the negative behavior models, a version is included that features only the positive behavior models. CAUTION: Because younger children, or older children with developmental delays, may not understand the distinction between the appropriate models used in the video, which should be imitated, and the negative models, which should be avoided, we have included a version that only includes positive behavior models. If your child doesn’t understand the difference, he or she may not learn the lessons as effectively, or even worse, may start imitating the negative behavior models! Accordingly, if you have any question about your child’s ability to properly distinguish between the positive models and the negative behavior models, you should only use the included version that features only positive behavior models. teach2talk Co-Founder Sarah Clifford Scheflen, M.S., CCC-SLP: Behavior issues are a common complaint from parents. Parents need strategies to help teach their children how to behave. Behavior with Friends not only teaches children how to behave appropriately, but also provides tips to parents on how to implement their own behavior modifications. teach2talk Co-Founder Jenny McCarthy, Mom: All parents want their kids to have friends. Traveling around the world, I met so many parents who said, “I don’t know how to deal with my child’s behavior problems!” So we made this video to help teach children and their parents how to resolve common behavior problems with friends.

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What once was solely the realm of science fiction is increasingly becoming part of the world we live in. A cadre of somewhat eccentric billionaires has backed a startup that aims to mine near-Earth asteroids, and now we have all the details. At first glance, this has all the earmarks of a fly-by-night operation destined for failure. However, the plan is well thought-out and the personalities involved aren’t just looking to make a quick buck. The company, called Planetary Resources, was founded by Eric Anderson and Peter Diamandis, who were involved with the X-Prize space race. The money is coming from people like Larry Page, Eric Schmidt, and James Cameron. This isn’t just some hair-brained scheme devised in a basement — this is actually happening. The press conference announcing Planetary Resources’ efforts is embedded at the bottom of this story. A cautious approach The headline is “asteroid mining,” and that gets a lot of eyeballs, but no one is about to strap a giant drill to a rocket any time soon. Planetary Resources is going to start next year with a robotic survey mission to hunt down the right space rocks. For everything we know about where near-Earth asteroids are, we don’t know exactly what they’re made of. This first phase will start with small orbital Arkyd telescopes, and will later progress to powered probes that will get up close and personal with some asteroids. There are potentially thousands of suitable near-Earth objects (NEOs) that could be accessible to robotic missions. The survey mission will catalog the asteroids in convenient Earth-like orbits to see which ones have the necessary resources. It’s not just precious metals Planetary Resources is looking for — there are other compounds needed to make the project work. Water, oxygen, nitrogen, and other materials with low boiling points are hard to come by in space, and will be necessary for further exploration. It costs quite a lot to get into space, and anything that can be waiting for you up there is money saved. Water in particular is expensive because it is incompressible and heavy. So setting up resource depots in space will be necessary before a single speck of mineral is extracted. The next part of this monumental effort will be to actually start mining for resources. The company will have to develop the technology from scratch to do this, but it might involve slowly dragging an asteroid closer to Earth — possibly even putting it in orbit around the moon. According to Planetary Resources, there could be as much platinum in a single asteroid as humanity has mined in all of history. What about profits? So the money is going roll in, right? By all accounts, it’s actually going to take many years before Planetary Resources makes any money at all. It isn’t the kind of endeavor you get into expecting a quick return on investment. For the people behind this venture, it’s not just about the money. They are willing to put their deep pockets to work developing a completely new industry. When and if a mining project gets up and running, it will prove to be an expensive but ethical source for precious metals. Much of the material needed to build the modern gadgets and widgets we have come to rely on is obtained under dubious circumstances. Tin, coltan, and gold are all sometimes bought and sold at the expense of human rights, but minerals from space come with little ethical baggage. This is as much about a human future in space as it is about scraping some gold out of an asteroid. The fuel and resource depots developed for the mining project could serve as a jumping-off point for both robotic and manned missions to the outer Solar System. Planetary Resources is run by people that love science and technology, and want to see humans continue advancing. Planetary Resources Chief Engineer Chris Lewicki has been making the rounds online talking about the technical side of the initiative, and he indicates that there is still another advantage to the mining project. When we’re not scooping out their insides, asteroids sometimes make suicide runs at Earth. Numerous mass extinctions have been caused by large impact events. When we as a species know more about the composition of these objects (and maybe have even moved a few of them around) the tools will exist to stop a large impact from happening. It would be the first time in Earth’s history that a species existed with the capability to deflect a dangerous space object. Is it possible? Despite sounding like a near-future hard sci-fi novel, the physics of Planetary Resources’ plan aren’t outlandish. There is a lot of engineering and science to be done, but many experts believe it’s possible. This is an era where government funding for space exploration is falling just as private space enterprises picks up. This is the time for something like Planetary Resources to happen. The difference between a government agency like NASA, and a private business like the orbital launch company SpaceX is that SpaceX needs to make money. Planetary Resources might be a little of both. It has lofty ideological goals of restarting a human era in space, but there is that payout from mining precious metals from asteroids at the end of it all. Along the way to that mine in the sky, new technologies will be developed, and science will be advanced by leaps and bounds. This is just the beginning of the process, but at least someone is doing what needs to be done to assure humans have a foothold in space. We could be on the verge of an era unlike any other. View full post on ExtremeTech

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The Constitution and Slavery: What Rights are Protected? The Constitution and Slavery: What Rights are Protected? In January of 1854, Stephen A. Douglas, the publicly recognized leader of northwestern Democrats, introduced a bill that would establish a new territory- Nebraska. Since Douglas understood the South would contest his proposal, he implemented a clause allowing the territory to establish its own laws regarding slavery. This notion of “popular sovereignty” was not enough to appease the Southern Democrats, so Douglas proposed that the new territory be split into two, with the second territory (Kansas) likely becoming a slave state. This event proved to be a turning point for slavery and our party system in America. Five years later, Frederick Douglass, an abolitionist and former slave, published a pamphlet that summarized his speeches that were given to northern antislavery listeners. Shortly before his pamphlet was published, John Brown led a massacre at Harpers Ferry, in an attempt to help promote antislavery sentiments. In his published pamphlet, Frederick Douglass explains his reasoning behind his abolitionist beliefs. He asks the audience to simply “…look at the American Constitution…and you will see with me that no man is guaranteed a right in prope I get the feeling that he believes enslavement is too sensitive an issue to leave up to interpretation. In order for Jefferson Davis to support his concepts, he asks the Senate to share his interpretations of the Constitution. He supports his belief of non-intervention by the Congress in his 1860 speech when he says, "Non-intervention then meant, as the debates show, that Congress should neither prohibit nor establish slavery in the Territories"(219). As both men disagree with each other on many issues regarding slavery in the United States, John Brown not only agrees with Douglass, but furthers it by taking physical action to support his cause. He felt that the lives and freedoms of blacks had been violated. While I do not see eye to eye with Davis"tm belief as presented in his speech to the Senate, I recognize that while he may have been wrong, he was adamant in his beliefs. All three men believe in what they stand for and all three men believe in the integrity of America. Davis, however, believes America"tms integrity lies within the borders of its territory, the United States. Before becoming president of the Confederacy in 1861, Jefferson Davis compiled a speech which he presented to the U. While Douglass"tm interpretation is not as seemingly contrived as Davis"tm, his argument is built off what the Constitution says-black and white. With the arguments of Davis and Douglass, it is simply a matter of interpreting the Constitution. So, how is it that beliefs as different as these two are supported by the same document It all comes down the "interpretation for the cause". However, they share a heavy conflict of opinions when it comes to what "property" actually is. While he did not deny his wrongdoings, he asked the court to consider this: "-had I so interfered in behalf of half of the rich, the powerful, the intelligent, the so-called great, or in behalf of any of their friends"it would have been alright; and every man in the court would have deemed it an act worthy of reward rather than punishment" (222). Some topics in this essay: Brown Americans, Douglass Davis, Jefferson Davis, Massacre Brown, American Constitution, "Your site is great! It provides a wide variety of essays on almost every topic." "I really like the way you organize the information. it's been quite easy to find what I was looking for!" "I signed up 2 years ago and have used your site to get ideas for my papers in several classes." "When I have writers block, this is the first site I visit. You never let me down!" "Thank you so much! You have loads of content and this really helps me come up with ideas for my essays!" | | | | |

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Back to Home Page or Contents Page or Stones Beryl is a mineral and in certain varieties a valuable gem material. It consists of aluminum berllyium silicate, Be3Al2(SiO 3)6, and it is the chief commercial ore of beryllium. Pure beryl is colorless and transparent. Emerald, a most valuable gem, is green with traces of chromium in it. Aquamarine, likewise a gemstone, is blue in color but less valuable than the emerald. There is a golden beryl and morganite or rose beryl that are even less valuable. Sometimes the colorless beryl is sold under the name of goshenite. Beryl helps heal liver complaints and diaphragm ailments. (see Gem Healing) A.G.H. "Beryl"; 70, 197.

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Organized crime or criminal organizations are transnational, national, or local groupings of highly centralised enterprises run by criminals for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most commonly for monetary profit. Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist organizations, are politically motivated. Sometimes criminal organizations force people to do business with them, as when a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for so-called "protection". Gangs may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. An organized gang or criminal set can also be referred to as a mob. Other organisations like, States, the Army, Police, Governments and Corporations may sometimes use organised crime methods to conduct their business, but their powers derive from democratically formed institutions. There is a tendency to distinguish organised crime from other forms of crimes, such as, white-collar crime, financial crimes, political crimes, war crime, state crimes and treason. This distinction is not always apparent and the academic debate is ongoing. For example, in failed states that can no longer perform basic functions such as education, security, or governance, usually due to fractious violence or extreme poverty, organised crime, governance and war are often complimentary to each other. The term Parliamentary Mafiocracy is often attributed to democratic countries whose political, social and economic institutions are under the control of few families and business oligarchs. In the United States, the Organized Crime Control Act (1970) defines organized crime as "The unlawful activities of [...] a highly organized, disciplined association [...]". Criminal activity as a structured group is referred to as racketeering and such crime is commonly referred to as the work of the Mob. In the UK, police estimate organized crime involves up to 38,000 people operating in 6,000 various groups. In addition, due to the escalating violence of Mexico's drug war, the Mexican drug cartels are considered the "greatest organized crime threat to the United States" according to a report issued by the United States Department of Justice. The demand for illegal goods and services nurtures the emergence of ever more centralised and powerful criminal syndicates, who may ultimately succeed in undermining public morals, neutralizing law enforcement through corruption and infiltrating the legal economy unless appropriate countermeasures are taken. This theoretical proposition can be depicted in a model comprising four elements: government, society, illegal markets and organized crime. While interrelations are acknowledged in both directions between the model elements, in the last instance the purpose is to explain variations in the power and reach of organized crime in the sense of an ultimately unified organizational entity. Patron-client networks are defined by the fluid interactions they produce. Organized crime groups operate as smaller units within the overall network, and as such tend towards valuing significant others, familiarity of social and economic environments, or tradition. These networks are usually composed of: Bureaucratic/corporate organized crime groups are defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures. Focusing more on how the operations works, succeeds, sustains itself or avoids retribution, they are generally typified by: However, this model of operation has some flaws: Whilst bureaucratic operations emphasis business processes and strongly authoritarian hierarchies, these are based on enforcing power relationships rather than an overlying aim of protectionism, sustainability or growth. A distinctive gang culture underpins many, but not all, organized groups; this may develop through recruiting strategies, social learning processes in the corrective system experienced by youth, family or peer involvement in crime, and the coercive actions of criminal authority figures. The term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably with “youth gang,” referring to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet “gang” criteria. Miller (1992) defines a street gang as “a self-formed association of peers, united by mutual interests, with identifiable leadership and internal organization, who act collectively or as individuals to achieve specific purposes, including the conduct of illegal activity and control of a particular territory, facility, or enterprise." "Zones of transition" refer to deteriorating neighborhoods with shifting populations - conflict between groups, fighting, "turf wars", and theft promotes solidarity and cohesion. Cohen (1955): working class teenagers joined gangs due to frustration of inability to achieve status and goals of the middle class; Cloward and Ohlin (1960): blocked opportunity, but unequal distribution of opportunities lead to creating different types of gangs (that is, some focused on robbery and property theft, some on fighting and conflict and some were retreatists focusing on drug taking); Spergel (1966) was one of the first criminologists to focus on evidence-based practice rather than intuition into gang life and culture. Klein (1971) like Spergel studied the effects on members of social workers’ interventions. More interventions actually lead to greater gang participation and solidarity and bonds between members. Downes and Rock (1988) on Parker’s analysis: strain theory applies, labeling theory (from experience with police and courts), control theory (involvement in trouble from early childhood and the eventual decision that the costs outweigh the benefits) and conflict theories. No ethnic group is more disposed to gang involvement than another, rather it is the status of being marginalised, alienated or rejected that makes some groups more vulnerable to gang formation, and this would also be accounted for in the effect of social exclusion, especially in terms of recruitment and retention. These may also be defined by age (typically youth) or peer group influences, and the permanence or consistency of their criminal activity. These groups also form their own symbolic identity or public representation which are recognizable by the community at large (include colours, symbols, patches, flags and tattoos). Research has focused on whether the gangs have formal structures, clear hierarchies and leadership in comparison with adult groups, and whether they are rational in pursuit of their goals, though positions on structures, hierarchies and defined roles are conflicting. Some studied street gangs involved in drug dealing - finding that their structure and behaviour had a degree of organizational rationality. Members saw themselves as organized criminals; gangs were formal-rational organizations, Strong organizational structures, well defined roles and rules that guided members’ behaviour. Also a specified and regular means of income (i.e. drugs). Padilla (1992) agreed with the two above. However some have found these to be loose rather than well-defined and lacking persistent focus, there was relatively low cohesion, few shared goals and little organizational structure. Shared norms, value and loyalties were low, structures "chaotic", little role differentiation or clear distribution of labour. Similarly, the use of violence does not conform to the principles behind protection rackets, political intimidation and drug trafficking activities employed by those adult groups. In many cases gang members graduate from youth gangs to highly developed OC groups, with some already in contact with such syndicates and through this we see a greater propensity for imitation. Gangs and traditional criminal organizations cannot be universally linked (Decker, 1998), however there are clear benefits to both the adult and youth organization through their association. In terms of structure, no single crime group is archetypal, though in most cases there are well-defined patterns of vertical integration (where criminal groups attempt to control the supply and demand), as is the case in arms, sex and drug trafficking. The entrepreneurial model looks at either the individual criminal, or a smaller group of organized criminals, that capitalize off the more fluid 'group-association' of contemporary organized crime. This model conforms to social learning theory or differential association in that there are clear associations and interaction between criminals where knowledge may be shared, or values enforced, however it is argued that rational choice is not represented in this. The choice to commit a certain act, or associate with other organized crime groups, may be seen as much more of an entrepreneurial decision - contributing to the continuation of a criminal enterprise, by maximizing those aspects that protect or support their own individual gain. In this context, the role of risk is also easily understandable, however it is debatable whether the underlying motivation should be seen as true entrepreneurship or entrepreneurship as a product of some social disadvantage. The criminal organization, much in the same way as one would assess pleasure and pain, weighs such factors as legal, social and economic risk to determine potential profit and loss from certain criminal activities. This decision-making process rises from the entrepreneurial efforts of the group's members, their motivations and the environments in which they work. Opportunism is also a key factor – the organized criminal or criminal group is likely to frequently reorder the criminal associations they maintain, the types of crimes they perpetrate, and how they function in the public arena (recruitment, reputation, etc.) in order to ensure efficiency, capitalization and protection of their interests. Culture and ethnicity provide an environment where trust and communication between criminals can be efficient and secure. This may ultimately lead to a competitive advantage for some groups, however it is inaccurate to adopt this as the only determinant of classification in organized crime. This categorisation includes the Sicilian Mafia, Jamaican posses, Colombian drug trafficking groups, Nigerian organized crime groups, Corsican mafia, Japanese Yakuza (or Boryokudan), Korean criminal groups and ethnic Chinese criminal groups. From this perspective, organized crime is not a modern phenomenon - the construction of 17th and 18th century crime gangs fulfill all the present day criteria of criminal organizations (in opposition to the Alien Conspiracy Theory). These roamed the rural borderlands of central Europe embarking on many of the same illegal activities associated with today’s crime organizations, with the exception of money laundering. When the French revolution created strong nation states, the criminal gangs moved to other poorly controlled regions like the Balkans and Southern Italy, where the seeds were sown for the Sicilian Mafia - the lynchpin of organized crime in the New World. |National||Historical or cultural basis||Family or hierarchy||Secrecy/bonds. Links to insurgents||Local corruption/influence. Fearful community.| |Transnational||Politically and economical unstable||Vertical integration||Legitimate cover||Stable supply of illicit goods. High level corruption.| |Transnational/transactional||Any||Flexible. Small size.||Violent. Opportunistic. Risk taking||Unstable supply of range of illicit goods. Exploits local young offenders.| |Entrepreneurial/transactional||Developed/high technology regions||Individuals or pairs.||Operating through legitimate enterprise||Provision of illicit services, e.g. money laundering, fraud, criminal networks.| Organised crime often victimize businesses through the use of extortion or theft and fraud activities like hijacking cargo trucks, robbing goods, committing bankruptcy fraud (also known as "bust-out"), insurance fraud or stock fraud (inside trading). Organised crime groups also victimize individuals by car theft (either for dismantling at "chop shops" or for export), art theft, bank robbery, burglary, jewelery theft, computer hacking, credit card fraud, economic espionage, embezzlement, identity theft, and securities fraud ("pump and dump" scam). Some organised crime groups defraud national, state, or local governments by bid rigging public projects, counterfeiting money, smuggling or manufacturing untaxed alcohol (bootlegging) or cigarettes (buttlegging), and providing immigrant workers to avoid taxes. Organised crime groups seek out corrupt public officials in executive, law enforcement, and judicial roles so that their activities can avoid, or at least receive early warnings about, investigation and prosecution. Organised crime groups also provide a range of illegal services and goods, such as loansharking of money at very high interest rates, assassination, blackmailing, bombings, bookmaking and illegal gambling, confidence tricks, copyright infringement, counterfeiting of intellectual property, fencing, kidnapping, prostitution, smuggling, drug trafficking, arms trafficking, oil smuggling, antiquities smuggling, organ trafficking, contract killing, identity document forgery, money laundering, point shaving, price fixing, illegal dumping of toxic waste, illegal trading of nuclear materials, military equipment smuggling, nuclear weapons smuggling, passport fraud, providing illegal immigration and cheap labor, people smuggling, trading in endangered species, and trafficking in human beings. Organised crime groups also do a range of business and labour racketeering activities, such as skimming casinos, insider trading, setting up monopolies in industries such as garbage collecting, construction and cement pouring, bid rigging, getting "no-show" and "no-work" jobs, political corruption and bullying. The commission of violent crime may form part of a criminal organisations 'tools' used to achieve criminogenic goals (for example, its threatening, authoritative, coercive, terror-inducing, or rebellious role), due to psychosocial factors (cultural conflict, aggression, rebellion against authority, access to illicit substances, counter-cultural dynamic), or may, in and of itself, be crime rationally chosen by individual criminals and the groups they form. Assaults are used for coercive measures, to "rough up" debtors, competition or recruits, in the commission of robberies, in connection to other property offences, and as an expression of counter-cultural authority; violence is normalised within criminal organisations (in direct opposition to mainstream society) and the locations they control. Whilst the intensity of violence is dependent on the types of crime the organisation is involved in (as well as their organisational structure or cultural tradition) aggressive acts range on a spectrum from low-grade physical assaults to murder. Bodily harm and grievous bodily harm, within the context of organised crime, must be understood as indicators of intense social and cultural conflict, motivations contrary to the security of the public, and other psychosocial factors. Murder has evolved from the honour and vengeance killings of the Yakuza or Sicilian mafia which placed large physical and symbolic importance on the act of murder, its purposes and consequences, to a much less discriminate form of expressing power, enforcing criminal authority, achieving retribution or eliminating competition. The role of the hitman has been generally consistent throughout the history of organised crime, whether that be due to the efficiency or expediency of hiring a professional assassin or the need to distance oneself from the commission of murderous acts (making it harder to prove liability). This may include the assassination of notable figures (public, private or criminal), once again dependent on authority, retribution or competition. Revenge killings, armed robberies, violent disputes over controlled territories and offences against members of the public must also be considered when looking at the dynamic between different criminal organisations and their (at times) conflicting needs. In addition to what is considered traditional organised crime involving direct crimes of fraud swindles, scams, racketeering and other Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) predicate acts motivated for the accumulation of monetary gain, there is also non-traditional organised crime which is engaged in for political or ideological gain or acceptance. Such crime groups are often labeled terrorist organisations There is no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition of terrorism. Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for a religious, political or ideological goal, deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians), and are committed by non-government agencies. Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war, especially crimes against humanity (See The Nuremberg Trials). The use of similar tactics by criminal organisations for protection rackets or to enforce a code of silence is usually not labeled terrorism though these same actions may be labeled terrorism when done by a politically motivated group. Notable groups include Al-Qaeda, Animal Liberation Front, Army of God, Black Liberation Army, The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord, Earth Liberation Front, Kurdistan Workers' Party, Lashkar e Toiba, May 19th Communist Organization, The Order, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, Symbionese Liberation Army, Taliban, United Freedom Front and Weather Underground. ||This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2011)| OC groups generate large amounts of money by activities such as drug trafficking, arms smuggling and financial crime. This is of little use to them unless they can disguise it and convert it into funds that are available for investment into legitimate enterprise. The methods they use for converting its ‘dirty’ money into ‘clean’ assets encourages corruption. OC groups need to hide the money’s illegal origin. It allows for the expansion of OC groups, as the ‘laundry’ or ‘wash cycle’ operates to cover the money trail and convert proceeds of crime into usable assets. ML is bad for international and domestic trade, banking reputations and for effective governments and rule of law. Estimated figures of money laundering were between $200 – $600 billion per year throughout the 1990s (US Congress Office 1995; Robinson 1996). In 2002 this was estimated between $500 billion to $1 trillion per year (UN 2002). This would make organised crime the third largest business in world after foreign exchange and oil (Robinson 1996). The rapid growth of money laundering is due to: Money Laundering is a three-stage process: Means of money laundering: In addition to ordinary banking, however, money and other forms of value can be transferred through the use of so-called 'remittance services' which have operated for hundreds of years in non-Western societies. Originating in southeast Asia and India, users of these systems transfer funds through the use of agents who enter into agreements with each other to receive money from people in one country (such as overseas workers) and to pay money to specified relatives or friends in other countries without having to rely on conventional banking arrangements. Funds can be moved quickly, cheaply and securely between locations that often don't have established banking networks or modern forms of electronic funds transfers available. Because such systems operate outside conventional banking systems, they are known as 'alternative remittance', 'underground' or 'parallel banking' systems. They are invariably legitimate and legal in many countries, although concerns have arisen in the recent decade that they could be used to circumvent anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing controls that now operate across the global financial services sector. Particular risks arise from the irregular forms of record-keeping which are often employed and the possibility that the laws of those countries in which they operate may not be fully complied with. 'Alternative remittance' is only one of a number of terms used to describe the practice of transferring value, including money, from one country to another. It is generally used where value is sent through 'informal' channels, as distinct from conventional banks. Terms used in other jurisdictions include hundi, hawala, poe kuan, informal funds transfer, underground banking, parallel banking, informal funds transfer and money/value transfer. The remittance system pre-dates modern banking and arose in various locations including China, southeast Asia and the Middle East where there was a need to move value without taking the risk of physically moving money itself. At its most basic, a remittance service involves a sender, a beneficiary and two intermediaries. The sender wishes to send a remittance to the beneficiary, often in the country of origin where the sender previously resided. In 2007, the OECD reported the scope of counterfeit products to include food, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, electrical components, tobacco and even household cleaning products in addition to the usual films, music, literature, games and other electrical appliances, software and fashion. A number of qualitative changes in the trade of counterfeit products: The economic effects of organised crime have been approached from a number of both theoretical and empirical positions, however the nature of such activity allows for misrepresentation. The level of taxation taken by a nation-state, rates of unemployment, mean household incomes and level of satisfaction with government and other economic factors all contribute to the likelihood of criminals to participate in tax evasion, As most organised crime is perpetrated in the liminal state between legitimate and illegitimate markets, these economic factors must adjusted to ensure the optimal amount of taxation without promoting the practice of tax evasion. As with any other crime, technological advancements have made the commission of tax evasion easier, faster and more globalised. The ability for organised criminals to operate fraudulent financial accounts, utilise illicit offshore bank accounts, access tax havens or tax shelters, and operating goods smuggling synidactes to evade importation taxes help ensure financial sustainability, security from law enforcement, general anonymity and the continuation of their operations. Identity theft is a form of fraud or cheating of another person's identity in which someone pretends to be someone else by assuming that person's identity, typically in order to access resources or obtain credit and other benefits in that person's name. Victims of identity theft (those whose identity has been assumed by the identity thief) can suffer adverse consequences if held accountable for the perpetrator's actions, as can organisations and individuals who are defrauded by the identity thief, and to that extent are also victims. Internet fraud refers to the actual use of Internet services to present fraudulent solicitations to prospective victims, to conduct fraudulent transactions, or to transmit the proceeds of fraud to financial institutions or to others connected with the scheme. In the context of organised crime, both may serve as means through which other criminal activity may be successfully perpetrated or as the primary goal themselves. Email fraud, advance-fee fraud, romance scams, employment scams, and other phishing scams are the most common and most widely used forms of identity theft, though with the advent of social networking fake websites, accounts and other fraudulent or deceitful activity has become commonplace. Copyright infringement is the unauthorized or prohibited use of works under copyright, infringing the copyright holder's exclusive rights, such as the right to reproduce or perform the copyrighted work, or to make derivative works. Whilst almost universally considered under civil procedure, the impact and intent of organised criminal operations in this area of crime has been the subject of much debate. Article 61 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires that signatory countries establish criminal procedures and penalties in cases of willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale. More recently copyright holders have demanded that states provide criminal sanctions for all types of copyright infringement. Organised criminal groups capitalise on consumer complicity, advancements in security and anonymity technology, emerging markets and new methods of product transmission, and the consistent nature of these provides a stable financial basis for other areas of organised crime. Cyberwarfare refers to politically motivated hacking to conduct sabotage and espionage. It is a form of information warfare sometimes seen as analogous to conventional warfare although this analogy is controversial for both its accuracy and its political motivation. It has been defined as activities by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks with the intention of causing civil damage or disruption. Moreover it acts as the "fifth domain of warfare," and William J. Lynn, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense, states that "as a doctrinal matter, the Pentagon has formally recognized cyberspace as a new domain in warfare . . . [which] has become just as critical to military operations as land, sea, air, and space." Cyber espionage is the practice of obtaining confidential, sensitive, proprietary or classified information from individuals, competitors, groups, or governments using illegal exploitation methods on internet, networks, software and/or computers. There is also a clear military, political, or economic motivation. Unsecured information may be intercepted and modified, making espionage possible internationally. The recently established Cyber Command is currently debating whether such activities as commercial espionage or theft of intellectual property are criminal activities or actual "breaches of national security." Furthermore, military activities that use computers and satellites for coordination are at risk of equipment disruption. Orders and communications can be intercepted or replaced. Power, water, fuel, communications, and transportation infrastructure all may be vulnerable to sabotage. According to Clarke, the civilian realm is also at risk, noting that the security breaches have already gone beyond stolen credit card numbers, and that potential targets can also include the electric power grid, trains, or the stock market. The term "computer virus" may be used as an overarching phrase to include all types of true viruses, malware, including computer worms, Trojan horses, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware and other malicious and unwanted software (though all are technically unique), and proves to be quite financially lucrative for criminal organisations, offering greater opportunities for fraud and extortion whilst increasing security, secrecy and anonymity. Worms may be utilised by organised crime groups to exploit security vulnerabilities (duplicating itself automatically across other computers a given network), while a Trojan horse is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions (such as retrieval of stored confidential data, corruption of information, or interception of transmissions). Worms and Trojan horses, like viruses, may harm a computer system's data or performance. Applying the Internet model of organised crime, the proliferation of computer viruses and other malicious software promotes a sense of detachment between the perpetrator (whether that be the criminal organisation or another individual) and the victim; this may help to explain vast increases in cyber-crime such as these for the purpose of ideological crime or terrorism. In mid July 2010, security experts discovered a malicious software program that had infiltrated factory computers and had spread to plants around the world. It is considered "the first attack on critical industrial infrastructure that sits at the foundation of modern economies," notes the New York Times. ||This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2011)| Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. A state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning "rule by thieves". Corporate crime refers to crimes committed either by a corporation (i.e., a business entity having a separate legal personality from the natural persons that manage its activities), or by individuals that may be identified with a corporation or other business entity (see vicarious liability and corporate liability). Note that some forms of corporate corruption may not actually be criminal if they are not specifically illegal under a given system of laws. For example, some jurisdictions allow insider trading. Heroin: Source countries / production: three major regions known as the golden triangle (Burma, Laos, Thailand), golden crescent (Afghanistan) and Central and South America. There are suggestions that due to the continuing decline in opium production in South East Asia, traffickers may begin to look to Afghanistan as a source of heroin." Human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation is a major cause of contemporary sexual slavery and is primarily for prostituting women and children into sex industries. Sexual slavery encompasses most, if not all, forms of forced prostitution. The terms "forced prostitution" or "enforced prostitution" appear in international and humanitarian conventions but have been insufficiently understood and inconsistently applied. "Forced prostitution" generally refers to conditions of control over a person who is coerced by another to engage in sexual activity. Official numbers of individuals in sexual slavery worldwide vary. In 2001 International Organisation for Migration estimated 400,000, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated 700,000 and UNICEF estimated 1.75 million. The most common destinations for victims of human trafficking are Thailand, Japan, Israel, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Turkey and the United States, according to a report by UNODC. People smuggling is defined as "the facilitation, transportation, attempted transportation or illegal entry of a person or persons across an international border, in violation of one or more countries laws, either clandestinely or through deception, such as the use of fraudulent documents". The term is understood as and often used interchangeably with migrant smuggling, which is defined by the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime as "...the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a person into a state party of which the person is not a national". This practice has increased over the past few decades and today now accounts for a significant portion of illegal immigration in countries around the world. People smuggling generally takes place with the consent of the person or persons being smuggled, and common reasons for individuals seeking to be smuggled include employment and economic opportunity, personal and/or familial betterment, and escape from persecution or conflict. The number of slaves today remains as high as 12 million to 27 million, though this is probably the smallest proportion of the world's population in history. Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt bondage incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations. It is the fastest growing criminal industry and is predicted to eventually outgrow drug trafficking. Labour racketeering has developed since the 1930s, effecting national and international construction, mining, energy production and transportation sectors immensely. Activity has focused on the importation of cheap or unfree labour, involvement with union and public officials (political corruption), and counterfeiting. Today, crime is sometimes thought of as an urban phenomenon, but for most of human history it was the rural interfaces that encountered the majority of crime. (Keep in mind, for most of human history, rural areas were the vast majority of inhabited places). For the most part within a village members kept crime at very low rates, however outsiders, such as pirates, highwaymen, and bandits attacked trade routes and roads, at times severely disrupting commerce, raising costs, insurance rates and prices to the consumer. According to criminologist Paul Lunde, "Piracy and banditry were to the pre-industrial world what organised crime is to modern society." If we take a global rather than strictly domestic view, it becomes evident even crime of the organised kind has a long if not necessarily noble heritage. The word 'thug' dates to early 13th-century India, when Thugs, or gangs of criminals, roamed from town to town, looting and pillaging. Smuggling and drug-trafficking rings are as old as the hills in Asia and Africa, and extant criminal organisations in Italy and Japan trace their histories back several centuries... As Lunde states, "Barbarian conquerors, whether Vandals, Goths, Norsemen, Turks or Mongols are not normally thought of as organised crime groups, yet they share many features associated with thriving criminal organisations. They were for the most part non-ideological, predominantly ethnically based, used violence and intimidation, and adhered to their own codes of law." Terrorism is linked to organised crime, but has political aims rather than solely financial ones, so there is overlap but separation between terrorism and organised crime. Cressey’s Cosa Nostra model studied Mafia families exclusively and this limits his broader findings. Structures are formal and rational with allocated tasks, limits on entrance, and influence the rules established for organisational maintenance and sustainability. In this context there is a difference between organised and professional crime; there is well-defined hierarchy of roles for leaders and members, underlying rules and specific goals that determine their behavior, and these are formed as a social system, one that was rationally designed to maximize profits and to provide forbidden goods. Albini saw organised criminal behaviour as consisting of networks of patrons and clients, rather than rational hierarchies or secret societies. The networks are characterised by a loose system of power relations. Each participant is interested in furthering his own welfare. Criminal entrepreneurs are the patrons and they exchange information with their clients in order to obtain their support. Clients include members of gangs, local and national politicians, government officials and people engaged in legitimate business. People in the network may not directly be part of the core criminal organisation. Furthering the approach of both Cressey and Albini, Ianni and Ianni studied Italian-American crime syndicates in New York and other cities. Kinship is seen as the basis of organised crime rather than the structures Cressey had identified; this includes fictive godparental and affinitive ties as well as those based on blood relations, and it is the impersonal actions, not the status or affiliations of their members, that define the group. Rules of conduct and behavioural aspects of power and networks and roles include the following: Strong family ties are derived from the traditions of southern Italy, where family rather than the church or state is the basis of social order and morality. One of the most important trends to emerge in criminological thinking about OC in recent years is the suggestion that it is not, in a formal sense, ‘organised’ at all. Evidence includes: lack of centralised control, absence of formal lines of communication, fragmented organisational structure. It is distinctively disorganised. For example, Seattle’s crime network in the 1970s and 80s consisted of groups of businessmen, politicians and of law enforcement officers. They all had links to a national network via Meyer Lansky, who was powerful, but there was no evidence that Lansky or anyone else exercised centralised control over them. While some crime involved well-known criminal hierarchies in the city, criminal activity was not subject to central management by these hierarchies nor by other controlling groups, nor were activities limited to a finite number of objectives. The networks of criminals involved with the crimes did not exhibit organisational cohesion. Too much emphasis had been placed on the Mafia as controlling OC. The Mafia were certainly powerful but they “were part of a heterogeneous underworld, a network characterized by complex webs of relationships." OC groups were violent and aimed at making money but because of the lack of structure and fragmentation of objectives, they were ‘disorganised’. Further studies showed neither bureaucracy nor kinship groups are the primary structure of organised crime, rather they were in partnerships or a series of joint business ventures. Despite these conclusions, all researchers observed a degree of managerial activities among the groups they studied. All observed networks and a degree of persistence, and there may be utility in focusing on the identification of organizing roles of people and events rather than the group’s structure. There may be three main approaches to understand the organisations in terms of their roles as social systems: Organised crime groups may be a combination of all three. International consensus on defining organised crime has become important since the 1970s due its increased prevalence and impact. e.g. UN in 1976 and EU 1998. OC is “…the large scale and complex criminal activity carried on by groups of persons, however loosely or tightly organised for the enrichment of those participating at the expense of the community and its members. It is frequently accomplished through ruthless disregard of any law, including offences against the person and frequently in connexion with political corruption.” (UN) “A criminal organisation shall mean a lasting, structured association of two or more persons, acting in concert with a view to committing crimes or other offences which are punishable by deprivation of liberty or a detention order of a maximum of at least four years or a more serious penalty, whether such crimes or offences are an end in themselves or a means of obtaining material benefits and, if necessary, of improperly influencing the operation of public authorities.” (UE) Not all groups exhibit the same characteristics of structure. However, violence and corruption and the pursuit of multiple enterprises and continuity serve to form the essence of OC activity. There are eleven characteristics from the European Commission and Europol pertinent to a working definition of organised crime. Six of those must be satisfied and the four in italics are mandatory. Summarised they are: with the Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (the Palermo Convention) having a similar definition: Others stress the importance of power, profit and perpetuity, defining organised criminal behaviour as: Definitions need to bring together its legal and social elements. OC has widespread social, political and economic effects. It uses violence and corruption to achieve its ends: “OC when group primarily focused on illegal profits systematically commit crimes that adversely affect society and are capable of successfully shielding their activities, in particular by being willing to use physical violence or eliminate individuals by way of corruption.” It is a mistake in using the term ‘OC’ as though it denotes a clear and well-defined phenomenon. The evidence regarding OC “shows a less well-organised, very diversified landscape of organizing criminals…the economic activities of these orgainsing criminals can be better described from the viewpoint of ‘crime enterprises’ than from a conceptually unclear frameworks such as “OC’.” Many of the definitions emphasise the ‘group nature’ of OC, the ‘organisation’ of its members, its use of violence or corruption to achieve its goals, and its extra-jurisdictional character….OC may appear in many forms at different times and in different places. Due to the variety of definitions, there is “evident danger” in asking “what is OC?” and expecting a simple answer. Some espouse that all organised crime operates at an international level, though there is currently no international court capable of trying offences resulting from such activities (the International Criminal Court’s remit extends only to dealing with people accused of offences against humanity, e.g. genocide). If a network operates primarily from one jurisdiction and carries out its illicit operations there and in some other jurisdictions it is ‘international,' though it may be appropriate to use the term ‘transnational’ only to label the activities of a major crime group that is centred in no one jurisdiction but operating in many. The understanding of organised crime has therefore progressed to combined internationalisation and an understanding of social conflict into one of power, control, efficiency risk and utility, all within the context of organisational theory. The accumulation of social, economic and political power have sustained themselves as a core concerns of all criminal organisations: Contemporary organised crime may be very different from traditional Mafia style, particularly in terms of the distribution and centralization of power, authority structures and the concept of 'control' over one's territory and organisation. There is a tendency away from centralization of power and reliance upon family ties towards a fragmentation of structures and informality of relationships in crime groups. Organised crime most typically flourishes when a central government and civil society is disorganised, weak, absent or untrusted. This may occur in a society facing periods of political, economic or social turmoil or transition, such as a change of government or a period of rapid economic development, particularly if the society lacks strong and established institutions and the rule of law. The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe that saw the downfall of the Communist Bloc created a breeding ground for organised criminal organisations. The newest growth sectors for organised crime are identity theft and online extortion. These activities are troubling because they discourage consumers from using the Internet for e-commerce. E-commerce was supposed to level the playing ground between small and large businesses, but the growth of online organised crime is leading to the opposite effect; large businesses are able to afford more bandwidth (to resist denial-of-service attacks) and superior security. Furthermore, organised crime using the Internet is much harder to trace down for the police (even though they increasingly deploy cybercops) since most police forces and law enforcement agencies operate within a local or national jurisdiction while the Internet makes it easier for criminal organisations to operate across such boundaries without detection. In the past criminal organisations have naturally limited themselves by their need to expand, putting them in competition with each other. This competition, often leading to violence, uses valuable resources such as manpower (either killed or sent to prison), equipment and finances. In the United States, the Irish Mob boss of the Winter Hill Gang (in the 1980s) turned informant for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He used this position to eliminate competition and consolidate power within the city of Boston which led to the imprisonment of several senior organised crime figures including Gennaro Angiulo, underboss of the Patriarca crime family. Infighting sometimes occurs within an organisation, such as the Castellamarese war of 1930–31 and the Boston Irish Mob Wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Today criminal organisations are increasingly working together, realizing that it is better to work in cooperation rather than in competition with each other (once again, consolidating power). This has led to the rise of global criminal organisations such as Mara Salvatrucha and the 18th Street gang. The American Mafia in the U.S. have had links with organised crime groups in Italy such as the Camorra, the 'Ndrangheta, Sacra Corona Unita, and Sicilian Mafia. The Cosa Nostra has also been known to work with the Irish Mob (John Gotti of the Gambino family and James Coonan of the Westies are known to have worked together, with the Westies operating as a contract hitman for the Gambino family after they helped Coonan come to power), the Japanese Yakuza and the Russian Mafia. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that organised crime groups held $322 billion in assets in 2005. This rise in cooperation between criminal organisations has meant that law enforcement agencies are increasingly having to work together. The FBI operates an organised crime section from its headquarters in Washington, D.C. and is known to work with other national (e.g., Polizia di Stato, Russian Federal Security Service (FSB), and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police), federal (e.g., Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Marshals Service, and the United States Coast Guard), state (e.g., Massachusetts State Police Special Investigation Unit and the New York State Police Bureau of Criminal Investigation) and city (e.g., New York City Police Department Organised Crime Unit and the Los Angeles Police Department Special Operations Division) law enforcement agencies. Based on the now outdated notion that regardless of the reason for committing crime, the decision to do so is a rational choice made after weighing up the benefits versus consequences of the crime, this theory treats all individuals as rational operators, committing criminal acts after consideration of all associated risks (detection and punishment) compared with the rewards of crimes (personal, financial etc.). Little emphasis is placed on the offenders’ backgrounds or circumstances surrounding the crimes or offenders. The role of criminal organisations in lowering the perceptions of risk and increasing the likelihood of personal benefit is prioritised by this approach, with the organisations structure, purpose, and activity being indicative of the rational choices made by criminals and their organisers. It ignores that in addition to financial gains, people commit crimes for the need of acceptance, respect and trust by other members of the organisation. This theory sees criminal behaviour as reflective of an individual, internal calculation by the criminal that the benefits associated with offending (whether financial or otherwise) outweigh the perceived risks. The perceived strength, importance or infallibility of the criminal organisation is directly proportional to the types of crime committed, their intensity and arguably the level of community response. The benefits of participating in organised crime (higher financial rewards, greater socioeconomic control and influence, protection of the family or significant others, perceived freedoms from 'oppressive' laws or norms) contribute greatly to the psychology behind highly organised group offending. Criminals learn through associations with one another. The success of organised crime groups is therefore dependent upon the strength of their communication and the enforcement of their value systems, the recruitment and training processes employed to sustain, build or fill gaps in criminal operations. An understanding of this theory sees close associations between criminals, imitation of superiors, and understanding of value systems, processes and authority as the main drivers behind organised crime. Interpersonal relationships define the motivations the individual develops, with the effect of family or peer criminal activity being a strong predictor of inter-generational offending. This theory also developed to include the strengths and weaknesses of reinforcement, which in the context of continuing criminal enterprises may be used to help understand propensities for certain crimes or victims, level of integration into the mainstream culture and likelihood of recidivism / success in rehabilitation. Under this theory, organised crime exists because legitimate markets leave many customers and potential customers unsatisfied. High demand for a particular good or service (e.g. drugs, prostitution, arms, slaves), low levels of risk detection and high profits lead to a conducive environment for entrepreneurial criminal groups to enter the market and profit by supplying those goods and services. For success, there must be: Under these conditions competition is discouraged, ensuring criminal monopolies sustain profits. Legal substitution of goods or services may (by increasing competition) force the dynamic of organised criminal operations to adjust, as will deterrence measures (reducing demand), and the restriction of resources (controlling the ability to supply or produce to supply). Sutherland goes further to say that deviancy is contingent on conflicting groups within society, and that such groups struggle over the means to define what is criminal or deviant within society. Criminal organisations therefore gravitate around illegal avenues of production, profit-making, protectionism or social control and attempt (by increasing their operations or membership) to make these acceptable. This also explains the propensity of criminal organisations to develop protection rackets, to coerce through the use of violence, aggression and threatening behaviour (at times termed 'terrorism'). Preoccupation with methods of accumulating profit highlight the lack of legitimate means to achieve economic or social advantage, as does the organisation of white-collar crime or political corruption (though it is debatable whether these are based on wealth, power or both). The ability to effect social norms and practices through political and economic influence (and the enforcement or normalisation of criminogenic needs) may be defined by differential association theory. Social disorganisation theory is intended to be applied to neighbourhood level street crime, thus the context of gang activity, loosely formed criminal associations or networks, socioeconomic demographic impacts, legitimate access to public resources, employment or education, and mobility give it relevance to organised crime. Where the upper- and lower-classes live in close proximity this can result in feelings of anger, hostility, social injustice and frustration. Criminals experience poverty; and witness affluence they are deprived of and which is virtually impossible for them to attain through conventional means. The concept of neighbourhood is central to this theory, as it defines the social learning, locus of control, cultural influences and access to social opportunity experienced by criminals and the groups they form. Fear of or lack of trust in mainstream authority may also be a key contributor to social disorganisation; organised crime groups replicate such figures and thus ensure control over the counter-culture. This theory has tended to view violent or anti-social behaviour by gangs as reflective of their social disorganisation rather than as a product or tool of their organisation. Sociologist Robert K. Merton believed deviance depended on society’s definition of success, and the desires of individuals to achieve success through socially defined avenues. Criminality becomes attractive when expectations of being able to fulfil goals (therefore achieving success) by legitimate means cannot be fulfilled. Criminal organisations capitalise on states of normlessness by imposing criminogenic needs and illicit avenues to achieve them. This has been used as the basis for numerous meta-theories of organised crime through its integration of social learning, cultural deviance, and criminogenic motivations. If crime is seen as a function of anomie, organised behaviour produces stability, increases protection or security, and may be directly proportional to market forces as expressed by entrepreneurship- or risk-based approaches. It is the inadequate supply of legitimate opportunities that constrains the ability for the individual to pursue valued societal goals and reduces the likelihood that using legitimate opportunities will enable them to satisfy such goals (due to their position in society). Criminals violate the law because they belong to a unique subculture - the counter-culture - their values and norms conflicting with those of the working-, middle- or upper-classes upon which criminal laws are based. This subculture shares an alternative lifestyle, language and culture, and is generally typified by being tough, taking care of their own affairs and rejecting government authority. Role models include drug dealers, thieves and pimps, as they have achieved success and wealth not otherwise available through socially-provided opportunities. It is through modeling organised crime as a counter-cultural avenue to success that such organisations are sustained. The alien conspiracy theory and queer ladder of mobility theories state that ethnicity and 'outsider' status (immigrants, or those not within the dominant ethno-centric groups) and their influences are thought to dictate the prevalence of organised crime in society. The alien theory posits that the contemporary structures of organised crime gained prominence during the 1860s in Sicily and that elements of the Sicilian population are responsible for the foundation of most European and North American organised crime, made up of Italian-dominated crime families. Bell's theory of the 'queer ladder of mobility' hypothesised that 'ethnic succession' (the attainment of power and control by one more marginalised ethnic group over other less marginalised groups) occurs by promoting the perpetration of criminal activities within a disenfranchised or oppressed demographic. Whilst early organised crime was dominated by the Sicilian Mafia they have been relatively substituted by the Irish Mob (early 1900s), the Aryan Brotherhood (1960s onwards), Colombian Medellin cartel and Cali cartel (mid 1970s - 1990s), and more recently the Mexican Tijuana Cartel (late 1980s onwards), the Russian Mafia (1988 onwards), Al-Qaeda (1988 onwards) and the Taliban (1994 onwards). Many argue this misinterprets and overstates the role of ethnicity in organised crime. A contradiction of this theory is that syndicates had developed long before large-scale Sicilian immigration in 1860s, with these immigrants merely joining a widespread phenomena of crime and corruption. According to Daily Record, a newspaper, top 10 (2008) are: |url=missing title (help). |Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Organized crime| Here you can share your comments or contribute with more information, content, resources or links about this topic.

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Pope John Paul II, in his 1995 encyclical Evangelium Vitae (The Gospel of Life), succinctly outlined the Church's long-held teaching on the sanctity of human life in light of current cultural trends. The Pontiff labels the modern notion of “compassionate” aid in dying as “false mercy,” and alludes to the situation in Eden, where man first became self-appointed arbiter of “good and evil.” SUICIDE IS always as morally objectionable as murder. The Church's tradition has always rejected it as a gravely evil choice. Even though a certain psychological, cultural and social conditioning may induce a person to carry out an action which so radically contradicts the innate inclination to life, thus lessening or removing subjective responsibility, suicide, when viewed objectively, is a gravely immoral act. In fact, it involves the rejection of love of self and the renunciation of the obligation of justice and charity towards one's neighbor, towards the communities to which one belongs, and towards society as a whole. In its deepest reality, suicide represents a rejection of God's absolute sovereignty over life and death, as proclaimed in the prayer of the ancient sage of Israel: “You have power over life and death; you lead men down to the gates of Hades and back again” (Wis 16, 13; cf. Tb 13:2). To concur with the intention of another person to commit suicide and to help in carrying it out through so-called “assisted suicide” means to cooperate in, and at times to be the actual perpetrator of, an injustice which can never be excused, even if it is requested. In a remarkably relevant passage St. Augustine writes that “it is never licit to kill another: even if he should wish it, indeed if he request it because, hanging between life and death, he begs for help in freeing the soul struggling against the bonds of the body and longing to be released; nor is it licit even when a sick person is no longer able to live.” Even when not motivated by a selfish refusal to be burdened with the life of someone who is suffering, euthanasia must be called a false mercy, and indeed a disturbing “perversion” of mercy. True “compassion” leads to sharing another's pain; it does not kill the person whose suffering we cannot bear. Moreover, the act of euthanasia appears all the more perverse if it is carried out by those, like relatives, who are supposed to treat a family member with patience and love, or by those, such as doctors, who by virtue of their specific profession are supposed to care for the sick person even in the most painful terminal stages. The choice of euthanasia becomes more serious when it takes the form of a murder committed by others on a person who has in no way requested it and who has never consented to it. The height of arbitrariness and injustice is reached when certain people, such as physicians or legislators, arrogate to themselves the power to decide who ought to live and who ought to die. Once again we find ourselves before the temptation of Eden: to become like God who “knows good and evil” (cf. Gn 3, 5). God alone has the power over life and death: “It is I who bring both death and life” (Dt 32, 39; cf. 2 Kgs 5, 7; 1 Sm 2, 6). But he only exercises this power in accordance with a plan of wisdom and love. When man usurps this power, being enslaved by a foolish and selfish way of thinking, he inevitably uses it for injustice and death. Thus the life of the person who is weak is put into the hands of the one who is strong; in society the sense of justice is lost, and mutual trust, the basis of every authentic interpersonal relationship, is undermined at its root. —Evangelium Vitae (61)

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The land seizures in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan before and after the 7 April 2010 uprising have been portrayed in the mass media as having been perpetrated by criminals and an ignorant rural class. In fact, they are a response to the uneven development of private property, a problem that goes back to the neo-liberal agricultural reforms and urban slums. This reflects a trend throughout the developing world. According to the 2003 United Nations-Habitat report, The Challenge of Slums, 32% of the world’s urban population live in slums, most of them in the developing world. Urbanisation, so often associated with modernity and a politics of hope, all too often now involves a Hobbesian struggle for survival. In Bishkek, illegal settlements are euphemistically called novostroyki (new constructions). There are over 300,000 people living in 28 slum settlements on the outskirts of the city, each settlement has its own name: ‘Ak-Jar’, ‘Ak-Bata’, ‘Kelechek’, ‘Nijnyaya Ala-Archa’ and so on. Many of the illegal settlements were established in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and they grew after the 2005 ‘Tulip’ Revolution. While some commentators note that the latest land seizures repeat past waves of land grabbing in the capital, land invasions, looting and communal riots are common occurrences in developing countries which have faced structural adjustment packages, urban slums and consumption crises. The International Monetary Fund, World Bank and World Trade Organisation have imposed upon Kyrgyzstan and many other developing countries a package of neo-liberal economic policies. Powerless to resist, governments have had to sign up to these structural adjustment programmes in return for international loans, foreign direct investment and other financial support. Since independence in 1991, Kyrgyzstan has undergone an extensive programme of liberal marketisation and privatisation: privatisation of land and property, a break-up of kolkhozes, reductions in subsidies and import tariffs, liberalisation of commodity prices, cuts in state expenditure, relaxation of foreign ownership rules in key sectors (such as gold mines), opening up of home markets to imports, floating the exchange rate and so on. The shock therapy approach to the ‘transition’ to a market economy has had negative consequences on the Kyrgyzstani agricultural sector, and indirectly on urban slums and land invasions. Given the small allocation of land that each family received in the 1990s in South Kyrgyzstan, most farmers struggle to eke a living, and are unable to absorb family labour, resulting in rural unemployment and underemployment. In addition, marginal and small farmers lack funds to buy adequate fertilisers, to invest into a proper irrigation system, to pay for effective livestock immunisation, or to capitalise their farms for future growth. Many farmers survive by pooling their resources, reviving some aspects of the Soviet kolkhozes. Some have abandoned farming, either by leasing their land rights to larger farmers, who possess the capital to undertake successful commercial farming, or by giving back their tenancy rights to ayil okomotu (local state administration), who then lease them to rich farmers. As a result, the rural society has become pauperised. Much of rural surplus labour has migrated to Bishkek, Osh or abroad, acting as a social safety valve. According to some estimates there are over 300,000 Kyrgyzstani migrants in Russia, and over 150,000 in Kazakhstan. In comparison to internal migration to Bishkek and Osh, external migration is more lucrative, but also more costly and dangerous. Developed countries may allow capital to move across national boundaries, but the West is a fortress to unskilled labour coming from ‘black’ countries. Bishkek has become a dumping ground for the displaced rural surplus labour. Slum dwellers face two problems: accommodation and employment. As there is an inadequate supply of social housing and new private housing only caters for the new middle class, many urbanised rural poor people have no choice but to rent small, poorly furnished rooms from slum landlords, struggling to pay exorbitant rent and often getting evicted. Some propertyless people may decide to construct their own home by grabbing plots of land on the outskirts of the city, preferably near their place of work. But as land becomes harder to acquire, some land grabbers (zakhvatchiki) are forced to build houses near hazardous areas, such as anthrax infected sites and gas pipes. Slum dwellers also face a threat of ecological and health disasters, such as water-borne diseases because of lack of sanitation. A report for the World Bank in 2007 notes that the whole city is vulnerable to an infectious health disaster should its groundwater become contaminated. Slum development tends to expand the informal sector and the bazaar economy. Many propertyless and poor people enter businesses and occupations with low barriers of entry, resulting in intense rivalry and lower income for all. They are often involved in labour-intensive and low-income generating activities, such as street-vending, construction, bazaars, cleaning and semi-skilled self-employment. In order to save time and money, many internal migrants desire to live near their place of work, such as ‘Dordoi’ Market. Lacking economic capital, social networks and know-how, propertyless and poor individuals cannot hope for entrepreneurial or occupational success, but rather focus on household economic survival. Successful economic practices depend upon super self-exploitation, unpaid family labour, kinship support, fierce competition, personal patronage, bribes, ethnic exclusion and clan loyalties. The informal poor class live in a Darwinian world of intense rivalry, survival niches, exploitative behaviour, corruption and nepotism. There is little goodwill, cooperation or social capital amongst the poor, as the exploited exploit the exploited. Thus, the country’s reliance on the World Bank's poverty-reduction strategies drawing upon urban community development, micro-finance lending and self-help organisations is woefully inadequate. Slums dwellers live in over-crowded, unhealthy and scanty conditions. They lack residence permits (propiskas), so that their access to education, health care and social benefits is limited. Without propiskas, they also cannot vote in Bishkek. Socially and politically disfranchised, they lack real power to make meaningful changes to their lives. They are sensitive to price and income changes, and are acutely conscious of life necessities. Rumours, jokes and stories circulate about the former president’s son, Maksim Bakiyev, who pillaged the country by privatising strategic companies, making secret deals over the US military base at Manas, and hiking up mobile call charges. In the run up to the 7 April uprising, they learnt even more from the Russian media. During the consumption crisis in 2009 and early 2010, poor people became more fearful about their ability to make ends meet. Immigrants’ remittances, started to decline as the Russian economy slowed down. Utility prices were hiked up at the start of 2010. Then on 1 April, Russia announced a sharp increase in fuel prices to Kyrgyzstan, causing many people to fear further economic hardship and greater strained relationship with the country’s major economic partner. Up until 7 April, communal violence had been contained by the police and security forces, but when Bakiyev was overthrown in the afternoon, violence exploded in a celebratory and riotous way. Urbanised rural poor began to pursue immediate goals, such as land invasions in search of accommodation and looting shopping malls and shops. This was neither a class revolt nor a demand for greater democracy, but rather an opportunity to make their daily life bearable. The politics of the informal poor class is not shaped by revolutionary or ideological ideals. Survival needs constitute their politics. They endorse populist leaders: Bakiyev and Kulov in 2005, now Otunbayeva, Tekebayev and Sariev, and should they fail to deliver immediate relief, other populist leaders will take their place. Communal violence and mob crowds are a manifestation of complex social structures, including class and ethnicity, and it is difficult to attribute causality to only one factor. On 19 April, large groups of ethnic Kyrgyzs attempted to seize plots of land belonging to a Turkic minority group in the village Mayevka, on the outskirts of Bishkek. Some shouted ‘Kyrgyz land for the Kyrgyzs!’ Driven by competitive survival instincts for scarce land, poor Kyrgyz slum dwellers ignored government and communal appeals for national unity and ethnic tolerance in search of easy land grabbing. Other easy targets, such as Bakiyev’s family homes, were also looted and occupied. Taking the route of least resistance, crowds did not target rich segregated communities, partly because armed private security guards deterred them. There appears to be no real evidence that elites and local populist leaders directed mob crowds against specific ethnic groups, or that they were fuelled by racial hatred and nationalism, unlike the recent ethnic clashes in Osh and Jalal-Abad. The leaders of the interim government seek to frame looting and land invasions in terms of law and order, rather than as a manifestation of social inequalities. They assure international and local business leaders that there will be no re-distribution of land, and have issued decrees protecting private property and outlawing land invasions. Although officials have sometimes been forced to meet the demands of the propiska-less and propertyless classes after days of public demonstrations, on current evidence there is nothing to suggest that the interim government aspires to transform society into a fairer one. In conclusion, the post-Soviet Kyrgyzstani state has been unable to provide real assistance and support to the urbanised rural and poor classes constrained as they have been by the neo-liberal orthodoxy of the international donor community. There are insufficient social provisions or public works programmes to meet the needs of the poor. Slum developments and the rural displacement of labour partly explain land seizures, looting and communal violence. But land invaders are also moved by anger and frustration, reflecting their understanding of corruption, inequalities and injustices in society. They articulate moral rights due to all citizens, irrespective to class and status. Dr Balihar Sanghera is a lecturer in sociology and director of social sciences at Britain’s University of Kent

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Moderate Exercise Cuts Breast Cancer Risk There was a study done few years back that emphasised on the need for women to exercise an hour a day to maintain weight. Most of us aware of the fact that regular exercise is not only goof for your heart but also for bones. But a new study that surprises all the women is that, regular exercises reduce the risk of breast cancer. The study did at the University Of North Carolina Gillings School Of Public Health, in Chapel Hill, N.C suggests that those women who exercise regularly cut the risk of breast cancer by 30 percent. The research was led by Lauren McCullough. Like Us on Facebook The researchers study included 1504 women who were a victim of breast cancer and 1555 similar women without any disease aged between 20 to 98 years old, enrolled in the Long Island Breast Cancer Study Project. In order to go ahead with the findings, the subjects were made to answer questions that were based on their physical activity over their lifetimes. They found women who exercised before or after menopause had a low risk of breast cancer. While the active women gaining a significant amount of weight, particularly after menopause, increased the risk of breast cancer, opposing the beneficial effect of exercise, the researchers found. McCullough said the reasons that exercise is linked with a reduced risk of breast cancer aren't known. Yet it is known that maintaining a normal body weight is associated with reduced breast cancer risk. McCullough said, "It is thought that a reduction in body fat results in less exposure to circulating hormones, growth factors and pro-inflammatory markers, all of which have been shown to be related to breast cancer risk. Other mechanisms include enhanced immune response, antioxidant capacity and DNA repair." Dr. Stephanie Bernik, chief of surgical oncology at Lenox Hill Hospital, in New York City, said "There is more and more evidence that one of the things women can do to reduce the risk of breast and other cancers is to modify their lifestyle, Women who exercise more probably lead a healthier lifestyle -- they watch what they eat, they don't smoke, they don't drink. It's hard to say it's just exercise. This goes along with what we tell patients: 'If you live a healthy lifestyle your risk for cancer probably can be lowered.'"

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In yesterday’s Disunion in the New York Times, Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman shared a piece entitled “Partners in Iniquity.” It basically explores how the northern states were complicit in and benefited from slavery throughout its existence. This is a fact well-known to the historical profession, but not as well-known outside it, so this blog appearing in the Times is both useful and timely (just as the continuing focus of Disunion on slavery in the Civil War has been salutary). Beckert and Rockman write, “Historians increasingly understand that slavery was not just important to one region of the United States, but to the economic development of the United States as a whole. This realization changes everything: by recognizing the economic interdependence of North and South and slavery’s centrality to American capitalism itself, it becomes possible to see the outbreak of the Civil War as more surprising than predictable.” From this perspective the Civil War was not an irrepressible conflict, but an avoidable war which business interests ultimately proved unable to prevent. What the authors don’t write about is that the interdependence they discuss continued even after April 1861. A trade existed, both legal and illegal, between North and South throughout the Civil War. Northern businessmen, operating under licenses issued by the U.S. Treasury Department, acquired cotton and other commodities from Confederate sources in exchange for manufactured goods, including military supplies. Although the Lincoln administration wanted to strangle the southern economy and mounted a naval blockade of Confederate ports, they recognized that it would be useful to allow some cotton to continue to flow out of the South to discourage European powers, such as Great Britain and France, from intervening in the conflict even if it meant some military goods made it back into the Confederacy. The Confederate decision early on to embargo exports of cotton to pressure the Europeans toward intervention actually assisted the North before the naval blockade became more effective in reducing but not extinguishing the Confederacy’s international trade. Allowing a limited trade with the South also served the goal of encouraging Unionist sentiments there. It was Lincoln’s hope to reconcile southerners to the Union by reviving the cotton trade in areas of the South that came under occupation by federal forces. (Indeed, this was one reason for exempting Union occupied areas of the South from the Emancipation Proclamation–planters there needed to be able to keep their slaves to grow cotton.) Particularly if the Federals could capture a major southern port, which they did with biggest one of all–New Orleans–on May 1, 1861, they could use it to draw southern interests in its hinterland back toward the Union with trade. But accomplishing this goal required allowing southern cotton planters, not only in areas under occupation, but also in areas still under Confederate sway, to be able to sell their cotton. Which was accomplished officially via the Treasury Department license system and unofficially via trade that took place by evading or with the tacit approval (often greased by bribes) of federal authorities. The Lincoln administration also had to permit some trade with the South so New England textile mills could continue to function (including clothing Union forces) and to allow the North to maintain its trade with Europe, which before the war had often involved northern merchants purchasing European goods with cotton they had acquired in the South. So a dirty fact, if not exactly a dirty secret, of the Civil War was that the North continued to be complicit in the southern slave economy until the last days of the war. The volume of the trade fell significantly compared to before 1861, which served Union military interests of strangling the Confederacy economically. But even as it extinguished slavery, the North continued as a “partner of iniquity” until the end of the peculiar institution.

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There is grammatical ellipsis, which in general case might not introduce the sense of accelerated time, but quite the reverse, depending on how hard is it to parse, for example: The average person thinks he isn't. The parsing here needs backtracking which slows the reading, but gives an effect of delayed and double, in-depth comprehension. In terms of pure effect, look at diazeugma The figure by which a single subject governs several verbs or verbal constructions (usually arranged in parallel fashion and expressing a similar idea): The Romans destroyed Numantia, razed Carthage, obliterated Corinth, overthrew Fregellae. Wikipedia defines Diazaugma Disjunction: The subject appears at the beginning of the sentence and each verb follows in its respective clause. As I said - for pure effect this is diazeugma, but the problem is that the text is agrammatical and the figures apply to grammatically correct texts. However, I think that is a narrow view. I find this text explains the matter in appropriate detail, from which I will only very shortly cite: Almost 30 years ago, in An Alternate Style: Options in Composition (now out of print), Winston Weathers made a strong case for going beyond strict definitions of correctness when teaching style. Students should be exposed to a wide range of styles, he argued, including the "variegated, discontinuous, fragmented" forms used to great effect by Coetzee, Dickens, Mencken, and countless other writers. Finally, thanks to @Cerberus, under the same relaxed rules, the figure can be considered asyndeton, from wikipedia example "We must... hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends." Finally, the reason why I want to be tolerant of the fullstops is that I find it interesting and rewarding to interpret them as commas, but with certain dramatic pause of undetermined length and tend to read the text as an internal monologue of the storyteller. For answer on how common is this (I assume in literature?) head to literature.

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On Monday, NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory telescope recorded an awesome sight: one of the most visually spectacular solar eruptions in years. The mass of super-hot gases and charged particles exploded from the east limb of the sun, which is the left side for observers on earth. The false-color image above captures the prominence at its peak, showing charged particles from the sun’s magnetic field rising up from the surface. Solar prominences occur when these charged particles interact with the sun’s plasma, and are often associated with solar flares, which are momentary brightenings of the sun’s surface. The flare that accompanied this prominence rated an M1.7 on the Richter scale for solar flares, making it a medium-size event, but since it was not aimed toward Earth, it has had no effect on satellites or air travel. As captured in the video below, some of the particles did not have enough force to break away from the sun, and can be seen falling back toward its surface afterward. Have a look: Image Credit: NASA

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|Register||Search||Today's Posts||Mark Forums Read| |Chemistry Forum Chemistry Forum. Discuss chemical reactions, chemistry.| | ||LinkBack||Thread Tools||Display Modes| Choosing the Right Type of a Pipette & Micropipette It is crucial to know that Chemistry is not that easy especially when it comes to measuring chemicals. For this purpose, you need accurate “pipettes”. Pipettes that are used to measure chemicals need to be sterile and light-weight. You must also confirm about its resistance to UV rays. Another thing to look for is whether your measuring instrument is itself accurate .It should be devoid of DNase, RNase, Human DNA, Pyrogen & PCR inhibitor.It should be compatible and adaptable even for the most sensitive PCR work and is that it must be free of any types of lubricants and heavy metals.Your pipet must be resistant to any factors that can influence your chemical measurement. Last edited by admin; 11-21-2012 at 03:26 PM. |choosing , micropipette , pipet , pipette , type| |Thread||Thread Starter||Forum||Replies||Last Post| |Micropipette – get the best||helan||Chit Chat||0||08-06-2012 07:37 AM| |Microbial Lab Closed- Over 500 lots available||IET Ltd||Microbiology Forum||0||11-26-2008 08:05 PM| |Microbial Lab Closed- Over 500 lots available||IET Ltd||Microbiology Forum||0||07-24-2008 04:51 PM| |Microbial Lab Closed- Over 500 lots available||IET Ltd||Microbiology Forum||0||04-22-2008 05:11 PM| |What Type Of Particles Would Trigger An Ioniztion Type Of Smoke Detector ?||Robert11||Physics Forum||2||05-06-2007 12:05 AM|

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Water Opossum (Chironectes minimus) Also known as the yapok, the water opossum is a species of semi-aquatic marsupial found in Mexico and parts of Central and South America. Like most opossums this species does have a pouch, but the pouch is found in both sexes a trait only found in the extinct thylacine. As its name suggests this opossum is mainly aquatic, living near riverbanks and swimming at night to catch fish and crustaceans. They are the only known extant marsupial to live this lifestyle. Living near water presents problems for a marsupial as they keep their young in a pouch, however the water opossum has a evolved a way to combat this it has a strong ring of muscle which can close the pouch and make it watertight, so the young don’t drown when the mother is swimming.

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Maltese folklore 1 Although found in many parts of Europe, fossil sharks' teeth are especially associated with the small Mediterranean island of Malta where they were once collected in great numbers. During medieval times Malta was the centre of a flourishing trade supplying fossil sharks' teeth to many other European countries. One Maltese tongue stone legend concerns St Paul the Apostle who was shipwrecked on the island in AD 60. As written in the Acts of the Apostles (28:2-7), St. Paul was bitten by a snake, which rose out of a fire built to warm the shipwrecked sailors. St Paul flung the snake back into the fire, and it was noted that he was unharmed, thereby convincing the heathen islanders that he was a god. As a punishment to the snakes of the island, he reputedly took away their ability to produce poison (Zammit-Maempel 1989). The cursed Maltese snakes also lost their eyes and tongues. Different fossils found in the Miocene rocks that form Malta are believed to be 'serpents' eyes' (palatal teeth of another fossil fish) and 'serpents' tongues' (sharks' teeth). As a result of their connection with St Paul, all fossil sharks' teeth from Malta were considered to possess supernatural powers, especially against poison.

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Starthistle - Centaurea calcitrapa THIS PAGE IS UNDER CONSTRUCTION. Purple starthistle is an annual or biennial with a stout taproot. The leaves are simple, glabrous to pubescent. The leaf margins vary and can be pinnatifid, dentate, serrulate or entire. The upper leaves are sessile and slightly clasping; the lower leaves are short petioled. The flowers, in heads, are purple to pinkish. The involucre, 10-18 mm high, has bracts that are spinose ciliate to stoutly spine-tipped. Pappus absent. The fruit is an achene, compressed or obscurely four-sided. Purple starthistle can be locally abundant in fields, pastures, and waste places. A biennial, the plant reproduces primarily by seeds. Starthistle can rapidly colonize new sites displacing native vegetation, hence diminishing both the area and the nutrient supply for native species. Links to more information Website, video, and graphics by Rob Nelson For more information on this plant or management please contact US Army Corp of Engineers

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Winter 2000, Vol. 32, No. 4 The Covenant with Death and How It Was Made By Paul Finkelman © 2000 by Paul Finkelman One of the compromises made by the Constitutional Convention was to close the African slave trade in 1808. This manifest from the schooner Gustavus shows the increased value of slaves in the domestic market after that date. (Records of the U.S. Customs Service, RG 36)[full image] The abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison thought the U.S. Constitution was the result of a terrible bargain between freedom and slavery. Calling the Constitution a "covenant with death" and "an agreement with Hell," he refused to participate in American electoral politics because to do so meant supporting "the pro-slavery, war sanctioning Constitution of the United States." Instead, under the slogan "No Union with Slaveholders," the Garrisonians repeatedly argued for a dissolution of the Union.1 Part of Garrison's opposition to continuing the Union stemmed from a desire to avoid the corruption that came from participating in a government created by the proslavery Constitution. But this position was also at least theoretically pragmatic. The Garrisonians were convinced that the legal protection of slavery in the Constitution made political activity futile, while support for the Constitution merely strengthened the stranglehold slavery had on America. In 1845 Wendell Phillips pointed out that in the years since the adoption of the Constitution, Americans had witnessed "the slaves trebling in numbers—slaveholders monopolizing the offices and dictating the policy of the Government-prostituting the strength and influence of the Nation to the support of slavery here and elsewhere—trampling on the rights of the free States, and making the courts of the country their tools." Phillips argued that this experience proved "that it is impossible for free and slave States to unite on any terms, without all becoming partners in the guilt and responsible for the sin of slavery."2 The Garrisonians believed that if they worked within the political system they were merely spinning their wheels, spending their money and time on a cause that was doomed. The Constitution was proslavery, the national government was controlled by slaveowners, and politics was a waste of time. A quick look at the presidency underscored their view. From 1788 until 1860, only two opponents of slavery, John Adams and John Quincy Adams, held the nation's highest office, and for only a total of eight years. On the other hand, slaveowners held the office for fifty of these seventy-two years, and doughfaces-northern men with southern principles—like James Buchanan and Franklin Pierce—held it the rest of the time. This did not surprise the Garrisonians, who understood that the Constitution was heavily influenced by slaveowners. The Garrisonians did not necessarily see the Constitution as the result of a deliberate conspiracy of evil men; rather, they understood it to be the consequence of political give-and-take at the Convention of 1787. Thus, in The Constitution A Pro-Slavery Compact; or, Selections from the Madison Papers, Wendell Phillips analyzed "that 'compromise,' which was made between slavery and freedom, in 1787; granting to the slaveholder distinct privileges and protection for his slave property, in return for certain commercial concessions upon his part toward the North." Phillips argued that "the Nation at large were fully aware of this bargain at the time, and entered into it willingly and with open eyes."3 Phillips both exaggerated and understated the nature of the relationship between slavery and the Constitution. Certainly, some of those at the Convention "entered into" the bargain with great reservations, and many at the ratifying conventions may not have seen the full extent of the "bargain." On the other hand, the bargain involved more than commerce and slavery; it concerned the very creation of the Union itself. Both the text of the Constitution and the debates surrounding it help us understand that the "more perfect Union" created by this document was in fact fundamentally imperfect. Slavery in the Constitutional Structure The word "slavery" appears in only one place in the Constitution—in the Thirteenth Amendment, where the institution is abolished. Throughout the main body of the Constitution, slaves are referred to as "other persons," "such persons," or in the singular as a "person held to Service or Labour." Why is this the case? In a debate over representation, William Paterson of New Jersey pointed out that the Congress under the Articles of Confederation "had been ashamed to use the term 'Slaves' & had substituted a description." This shame over the word "slave" came up at the convention during the debate over the African slave trade. The delegates from the Carolinas and Georgia vigorously demanded that the African trade remain open under the new Constitution. Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania, unable to contain his anger over this immoral compromise, suggested that the proposed clause read: the "Importation of slaves into N. Carolina, S— Carolina & Georgia" shall not be prohibited. Connecticut's Roger Sherman objected, not only to the singling out of specific states but also to the term slave. He declared he "liked a description better than the terms proposed, which had been declined by the old Congs & were not pleasing to some people." North Carolina's James Iredell, who had been a delegate in Philadelphia, later explained that "The word slave is not mentioned" because "the northern delegates, owing to their particular scruples on the subject of slavery, did not choose the word slave to be mentioned." Thus, southerners avoided the term because they did not want unnecessarily to antagonize their colleagues from the North. As long as they were assured of protection for their institution, the southerners at the Convention were willing to do without the word "slave."4 Despite the circumlocution, slavery was sanctioned throughout the Constitution. Five provisions dealt directly with slavery: Art. I, sec. 2, par. 3. The three-fifths clause provided for counting three-fifths of all slaves for purposes of representation in Congress. This clause also provided that any "direct tax" levied on the states could be imposed only proportionately, according to population, and that only three-fifths of all slaves would be counted in assessing each state's contribution. Art. I, sec. 9, par. 1. This clause prohibited Congress from banning the "Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit" before the year 1808. Awkwardly phrased and designed to confuse readers, the clause prevented Congress from ending the African slave trade before 1808 but did not require Congress to ban the trade after that date. The clause was a significant exception to the general power granted to Congress to regulate all foreign and interstate commerce. Art. I, sec. 9, par. 4. This clause declared that any "capitation" or other "direct tax" had to take into account the three-fifths clause. It ensured that, if a head tax were ever levied, slaves would be taxed at three-fifths the rate of whites. The "direct tax" portion of this clause was redundant, because that was provided for in the three-fifths clause. Art. IV, sec. 2, par. 3. The fugitive slave clause prohibited the states from emancipating fugitive slaves and required that runaways be returned to their owners "on demand." Art. V. This article prohibited any amendment of the slave importation or capitation clauses before 1808. Taken together, these five provisions gave the South a strong claim to "special treatment" for its peculiar institution. The three-fifths clause also gave the South extra political muscle—in the House of Representatives and in the electoral college—to support that claim. Numerous other clauses of the Constitution supplemented the five clauses that directly protected slavery. Some, such as the prohibition on taxing exports, were included primarily to protect the interests of slaveholders. Others, such as the guarantee of federal support to "suppress Insurrections" and the creation of the electoral college, were written with slavery in mind, although delegates also supported them for other reasons as well. The most prominent indirect protections of slavery were: Art. I, sec. 8, par. 15. The domestic insurrections clause empowered Congress to call "forth the Militia" to "suppress Insurrections," including slave rebellions.5 Art. I, sec. 9, par. 5, and Art. I, sec. 10, par. 2. These clauses prohibited federal or state taxes on exports and thus prevented an indirect tax on slavery by taxing the staple products of slave labor, such as tobacco, rice, and eventually cotton.6 Art. II, sec. 1, par. 2. This clause provided for the indirect election of the President through an electoral college based on congressional representation. This provision incorporated the three-fifths clause into the electoral college and gave whites in slave states a disproportionate influence in the election of the President. Art. IV, sec. 4. In the domestic violence provision of the guarantee clause, the United State government promised to protect states from "domestic Violence," including slave rebellions. Art. V. By requiring a three-fourths majority of the states to ratify any amendment to the Constitution, this article ensured that the slaveholding states would have a perpetual veto over any constitutional changes.7 Besides specific clauses of the Constitution dealing with slavery, the structure of the entire document ensured against emancipation by the new federal government. Because the Constitution created a government of limited powers, Congress lacked the power to interfere in the domestic institutions of the states. Thus, during the ratification debates, only the most fearful southern antifederalists opposed the Constitution on the grounds that it threatened slavery. Most southerners, even those who opposed the Constitution for other reasons, agreed with Gen. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, who crowed to his state's house of representatives: We have a security that the general government can never emancipate them, for no such authority is granted and it is admitted, on all hands, that the general government has no powers but what are expressly granted by the Constitution, and that all rights not expressed were reserved by the several states.8 The final Constitution provided enormous protections for the peculiar institution of the South at very little cost to that region. At the Virginia ratifying convention, Edmund Randolph denied that the Constitution posed any threat at all to slavery. He challenged opponents of the Constitution to show, "Where is the part that has a tendency to the abolition of slavery?" He answered his own question asserting, "Were it right here to mention what passed in [the Philadelphia] convention. . . I might tell you that the Southern States, even South Carolina herself, conceived this property to be secure" and that "there was not a member of the Virginia delegation who had the smallest suspicion of the abolition of slavery." South Carolinians, who had already ratified the Constitution, would have agreed with Randolph. In summing up the entire Constitution, Pinckney, who had been one of the ablest defenders of slavery at the convention, proudly told the South Carolina House of Representatives: "In short, considering all circumstances, we have made the best terms for the security of this species of property it was in our power to make. We would have made better if we could; but on the whole, I do not think them bad."9 Slavery and Congressional Representation General Pinckney had good reason to be proud of his role in Philadelphia. Throughout the convention, Pinckney and other delegates from the Deep South tenaciously fought to protect the interests of slaveholders. In these struggles they were usually successful. When they arrived, the delegates probably did not think slavery would be a pressing issue. Rivalries between large and small states appeared to pose the greatest obstacle to a stronger Union. The nature of representation in Congress; the power of the national government to levy taxes, regulate commerce, and pay off the nation's debts; the role of the states under a new constitution; and the power of the executive were on the agenda. Yet, as the delegates debated these issues, the importance of slavery—and the sectional differences it caused—became clear. Throughout the summer of 1787 slavery emerged to complicate almost every debate. Most important by far was the way slavery figured in the lengthy debate over representation. On May 29, Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia submitted the series of resolutions known as the Virginia Plan to the convention. Randolph introduced these resolutions in response to the "crisis" of the nation "and the necessity of preventing the fulfillment of the prophecies of the American downfall."10 Randolph's plan called for a radical restructuring of the American government by making population the basis for representation in the national Congress. Under the Articles of Confederation, each state had one vote in Congress. By changing the basis of representation to population, Randolph's plan immediately created tensions between the large and small states at the convention. But the plan also raised the dilemma of whether slaves would be counted for the purposes of determining how many representatives each state would get in the new Congress. This dilemma of how to count slaves, or whether to count them at all, would trouble the delegates throughout the convention. Virginia was the most populous state in the nation, and thus Randolph had a vested interest in basing congressional representation on population. But how that population would be counted greatly affected the potential representation of Virginia and the rest of the South. Virginia's white population, as the 1790 census would reveal, was only slightly larger than Pennsylvania's. If representation were based solely on free persons, the North would overwhelm the South.11 But if slaves were counted equally with free persons, the Virginia delegation would be overwhelmingly larger than the delegation of any other state, and the South would have more members of Congress than the North. The Virginians of course realized that the northern states were unlikely to embrace enthusiastically a system of government that counted slaves for purposes of representation. Thus, Randolph's plan hedged the issue, declaring "that the rights of suffrage in the National Legislature ought to be proportioned to the Quotas of contribution, or to the number of free inhabitants, as the one or the other rule may seem best in different cases."12 The "other rule" would count unfree inhabitants. Squabbling over slavery began in earnest the next day, May 30. James Madison moved to delete the term "free inhabitants" from the Randolph Plan because he felt the phrase "might occasion debates which would divert" attention "from the general question whether the principle of representation should be changed" from states to population. Madison understood that an early debate on the role of slavery in the Union might destroy the convention before it got started. But his proposal would have left representation based solely on "quotas of contribution," and this was also unacceptable to most delegates. Madison himself agreed "that some better rule ought to be found." Alexander Hamilton then proposed that representation be based solely on the number of "free inhabitants" in each state. This proposal was also too volatile, and the delegates quickly tabled it. Other attempts at compromise failed before the convention adjourned for the day.13 On June 11 the issue of slavery reemerged when the convention considered for the first time and provisionally approved the three-fifths clause. Over the next three months the convention would, on a number of occasions, redebate and reconsider the three-fifths clause before finally adopting it. The evolution of the three-fifths clause during the convention shows that the clause was not essentially a compromise over taxation and representation, as historians have traditionally claimed, and as the structure of Article I, sec. 2, par. 3, implies.14 Rather, it began as a compromise between those who wanted to count slaves fully for purposes of representation and those who did not want to count slaves at all. On this crucial question the slave states won a critical victory without making any important concessions. On June 11 James Wilson of Pennsylvania and Charles Pinckney, the younger cousin of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, proposed what became the three-fifths clause. By teaming up, the nominally antislavery Pennsylvanian and the rabidly proslavery Carolinian may have hoped to undercut the antislavery sentiments of other northern delegates while also satisfying the demands of the proslavery delegates like Butler and Rutledge.15 While most delegates accepted this proposal, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts did not, sarcastically protesting, "Blacks are property, and are used to the southward as horses and cattle to the northward; and why should their representation be increased to the southward on account of the number of slaves, than horses or oxen to the north?" Gerry believed this would be an appropriate rule for taxation, but not for representation. He also argued that this clause would degrade freemen in the North by equating them with slaves. He wondered "Are we to enter into a Compact with Slaves?"16 Despite Gerry's objection, the convention endorsed the three-fifths clause as a basis for representation with little serious debate. The clause, which would give the South enormous political leverage in the nation, was accepted without any quid pro quo from the South. Application of the clause to taxation would not come until later in the convention. However, the issue would reemerge many times in the next month. On June 30, with the convention stalled over how to allocate representation between the small and large states, Madison offered a new mode of analysis for the delegates. He argued: that the States were divided into different interests not by their difference of size, but by other circumstances; the most material of which resulted partly from climate, but principally from their having or not having slaves. These two causes concurred in forming the great division of interests in the U. States. It did not lie between the large and small States: it lay between the Northern and Southern, and if any defensive power were necessary, it ought to be mutually given to these two interests. Madison proposed two branches of Congress, one in which slaves would be counted equally with free people to determine how many representatives each state would have, and one in which slaves would not be counted at all. Under this arrangement, "the Southern Scale would have the advantage in one House, and the Northern in the other." Madison made this proposal despite his reluctance to "urge any diversity of interests on an occasion when it is but too apt to arise of itself."17 The convention ignored Madison's proposal. But the theme arose again and again. Sectionalism—rooted in slavery—was clearly a major cause of division within the convention and the nation. Indeed, slavery continued to complicate the convention debates long after the division between large and small states had evaporated. On July 2 Charles Pinckney argued that there was "a solid distinction as to interest between the southern and northern states" and that the Carolinas and Georgia "had a peculiar interest which might be sacrificed" if they did not have sufficient power in any new Congress.18 On July 6, after the convention seemed solidly in favor of the three-fifths rule, Charles Pinckney argued that "blacks ought to stand on an equality with whites," but he "w[oul]d . . . agree to the ratio settled by Congs."19 But southerners were not the only ones dissatisfied by the compromise. On July 9 William Paterson of New Jersey sparked a four-day debate over slavery and representation when he complained about counting slaves for allocation representation. Paterson declared he regarded negroes slaves in no light but as property. They are no free agents, have no personal liberty, no faculty of acquiring property, but on the contrary are themselves property, and like other property entirely at the will of the Master. Paterson pointedly asked, "Has a man in Virga. a number of votes in proportion to the number of his slaves?" He noted that slaves were not counted in allocating representation in southern state legislatures, and asked, "Why should they be represented in the Genl. Gov't.[?]" Finally, Paterson argued that counting slaves for purposes of representation encouraged the slave trade.20 In response, Madison once again proposed that representation in one house of the legislature be based on total population and the other on only the free population. Pierce Butler again argued for wealth as a basis for representation. This proposal, of course, meant that slaves would be counted equally with whites. Rufus King of Massachusetts gave unexpected support to Butler by warning that the South would not unite with the rest of the country "unless some respect were paid to their superior wealth." Furthermore, King reminded his northern colleagues that, if they expected "preferential distinctions in Commerce," they should be willing to give up something. At least at this point in the convention, King was willing to accept the three-fifths ratio for representation.21 Here was the beginning of a major compromise between the Deep South and the commercially oriented states of the North. At the moment, King and other northerners were offering the three-fifths clause to the South, but the South offered no concession in return. On July 10 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney responded that the South did not require "a majority of representatives, but [he] wished them to have something like an equality." Otherwise, Congress would pass commercial regulations favorable to the North, and the southern states would "be nothing more than overseers for the Northern States." Hugh Williamson of North Carolina feared "the Southern Interest must be extremely endangered" by a northern majority in Congress.22 Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania, who was emerging as the convention's most vocal opponent of concessions to slavery, argued that in time of emergency, northerners would have to "spill their blood"23 because there were more free people in the North than in the South and because slavery made the South an unreliable ally in wartime. The next day, while debating the provision for a national census, Pierce Butler and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina "insisted that blacks be included in the rule of Representation, equally with the Whites." Butler argued that "the labour of a slave in South Carolina was as productive and valuable as that of a freeman in Massachusetts," and since the national government "was instituted principally for the protection of property," slaves should be counted fully for representation.24 On July 11 Wilson of Pennsylvania argued for retaining the three-fifths rule on pragmatic grounds. Admitting he "did not well see on what principle the admission of blacks in the proportion of three fifths could be explained." He asked, if slaves were citizens "why are they not admitted on an equality with White Citizens?" But if slaves were "admitted as property," it was reasonable to ask, "Then why is not other property admitted into the computation?" But Wilson argued that these logical inconsistencies "must be overruled by the necessity of compromise." Gouverneur Morris was unwilling to sacrifice principle. Having been "reduced to the dilemma of doing injustice to the Southern States or to human nature," Morris chose the former, asserting that he "could never agree to give such encouragement to the slave trade" by allowing the slave states "a representation for their negroes."25 The next day, July 12, the three-fifths clause was back on the floor, directly tied to taxation for the first time. Six southerners spoke, all threatening to oppose the Constitution if the South did not get substantial representation for its slave population. The South Carolinians once again demanded full representation for slaves, declaring themselves willing, even eager, to be taxed fully for their slaves in return for full representation for their slaves.26 William R. Davie of North Carolina, who had been virtually silent throughout the Convention, now declared "it was high time now to speak out." Davie warned that North Carolina would "never confederate" unless slaves were counted, at the very least, under a three-fifths ratio. Otherwise, he threatened "the business [of the convention] was at an end."27 Only Gouverneur Morris was prepared to call Davie's bluff. Morris warned that Pennsylvania would "never agree to a representation of Negroes," but he also agreed that it was "vain for the Eastern states to insist on what the Southern States will never agree to."28 Oliver Ellsworth and William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut answered Morris, strongly supported southern interests, foreshadowing an emerging compromise between New England and the South over slavery and commerce. After a heated debate, the convention finally adopted the three-fifths clause by a vote of six to two, with two states divided.29 After more than a month and a half of anguished argument, the convention had finally resolved the issue of representation for what would become the House of Representatives. Throughout, slavery had constantly confused the issue and thwarted compromise. Sectional interests caused by slavery had emerged as a major threat to the Union. No sooner had the convention laid to rest the issue of representation than it resurfaced as part of the debate over taxation. On July 13 Elbridge Gerry proposed that, until an actual census could be taken, taxation would be based on the initial representation in the House. This seemingly reasonable proposal set the stage for more debate over representation. Once again Madison asserted that "the difference of interest in the United States lay not between the large and small, but the Northern and Southern States." After much debate, the convention reiterated its commitment to the three-fifths clause, both for representation and for taxation.30 With the sense of the convention on this issue apparently clear, Randolph moved to bring language previously used in the working document into conformity with the three-fifths clause. Earlier in the convention the body declared that representation would be based on "wealth." Randolph now proposed substituting the wording of the three-fifths clause for the word "wealth."31 Gouverneur Morris mocked Randolph's attempt to replace the word "wealth" with the three-fifths clause. If slaves were "property," then "the word wealth was right, and striking it out would produce the very inconsistency which it was meant to get rid of." Morris then launched into a full-scale attack on southern demands. In the process, he suggested that a peaceful end to the convention, and the Union itself, might be in order. Morris asserted that, until this point in the convention, he had believed that the distinction between northern and southern states was "heretical." But he saw that it was "persisted in; and that the Southern Gentleman will not be satisfied unless they see the way open to their gaining a majority in the public Councils." The North naturally demanded "some defence" against this. Morris thus concluded: Either this distinction is fictitious or real: if fictitious let it be dismissed and let us proceed with due confidence. If it be real, instead of attempting to blend incompatible things, let us at once take a friendly leave of each other. There can be no end of demands for security if every particular interest is to be entitled to it. Morris argued that the North had as much to fear from the South as the South had to fear from the North.32 South Carolina's Pierce Butler responded with equal candor: "The security the Southn. States want is that their negroes may not be taken from them which some gentlemen within or without doors, have a very good mind to do."33 By Saturday the fourteenth, sectional tempers had cooled, and the convention now reconsidered the makeup of what would ultimately become the Senate. The small states again reiterated their fears that the large states would overwhelm them in a legislature based entirely on population. Madison yet again argued that "the real difference of interests lay, not between the large and small but between the Northern and Southern States. The institution of slavery and its consequences formed the line of discrimination." Madison seemed particularly worried that state equality would give the North a perpetual majority in one branch of the legislature.34 Over Madison's protests, the equality of the states in the Senate remained part of the Constitution. On the final vote on this issue, three of the four negative votes came from the South.35 This vote indicates that Madison's sense of sectional division was at least as important as the division between large and small states. Slavery and the Executive Branch Slavery also complicated the debates on how to choose the national executive. Many of the delegates instinctively believed in a direct election of a President, just as their governors were elected. But in the end, the most vocal opposition to election by the people came from three southerners: Charles Pinckney, George Mason, and Hugh Williamson. While Pinckney and Mason argued against the competence of the "people," Williamson was more open about the reasons for southern opposition. He noted Virginia's leaders would never be elected President because "her slaves will have no suffrage."36 The same of course would be true for the rest of the South. Madison believed the "the people at large" were "the fittest" to choose the President. But "one difficulty . . . of a serious nature" made election by the people impossible. Madison noted that the "right of suffrage was much more diffusive in the Northern than the Southern States; and the latter could have no influence in the election on the score of the Negroes." In order to guarantee that the nonvoting slaves could nevertheless influence the presidential election, Madison favored the creation of the electoral college.37 Under this system, each state was given a number of electors equal to its total congressional and senatorial representation. This meant that the three-fifths clause would help determine the outcome of presidential elections.38 Thus, the fundamentally antidemocratic electoral college developed, at least in part, to protect the interests of slavery. Paul Finkelman is the Chapman Distinguished Professor of Law at the University of Tulsa College of Law. He is the author of numerous books and articles including Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson (1996), Dred Scott v. Sandford: A Brief History (1997), and An Imperfect Union: Slavery, Federalism, and Comity (reprint ed., 2000).

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It is more common to find people concerned over losing weight. However, there are some who may actually need to gain weight. A number of people are thin naturally. But being thin is not always a good sign. Sometimes being underweight can be the result of a chronic disease or eating disorder – which are both harmful conditions for the body. An underweight person is also vulnerable to other diseases as well – their bones may become weak due to the lack of nutrients, and they cannot work as much as healthy people. Therefore, it is important to maintain a healthy weight that is just right. If you are one of those people who are thin and weak, and just cannot put on the pounds in your body, here are a few healthy tips for a weight gain diet that you can follow. Firstly, you have to understand that to gain weight, you must intake more calories than you burn. Healthy foods and healthy beverages can add calories to your body. You can start by consuming five to six square meals per day, taking three small meals, and three large meals alternately. A three hours break between each meal will give you time to digest what you have eaten. Many people over-stuff themselves with fatty foods when they want to gain weight. This is true, as fat does work to plump up the body. But it is important to remember that what we want to gain is not a fat but lean body mass. Therefore, exercising can help to keep the metabolism high. Exercises like resistance training helps to enhance muscle mass, which in turn increases metabolism. Exercise requires eating well. But it is important to eat not just anything, but a balanced diet. A diet composed of complex carbohydrates, lean proteins and healthy fats is an ideal one. Protein rich foods contain amino acids which helps prevent existing muscles from breaking down. Therefore, protein is the key to muscle mass. It is recommended to take 2.2 grams of protein per kilogram of weight everyday. Protein intake should be taken throughout the day, and should not be concentrated on a single meal. It is also necessary that the protein you take come from foods, and not from diet supplements. All kinds of fish, whey, meats, diary products, nuts and seeds from almonds pumpkin, sesame and sunflower are good sources of protein. Milk is a great source of protein as it contains two high quality proteins – whey and casein. Whey is easily broken down to amino acids and is absorbed in the bloodstream. Whey is very good after a workout. Casein is broken down slowly, and provides the body with continuous supply of protein for a long time. Healthy fats do not come from fatty foods, which is a common misconception. Monosaturated and polyunsaturated fats, and omega-3 fatty acids are healthy fats. Salmon, and some other kinds of fish, are rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Cold pressed oils, such as sunflower oil, olive oil, linseed and canola oil are taken as good sources of healthy fats. To give you a clear idea of what you should eat, here is a typical weight gain diet for one day: You can also snack on cottage cheese, yogurt, and fruits, milk or salads midway between every meal. Try avoiding fast foods such as fries, onion rings and donuts in order to keep unhealthy fat off the menu. If you follow the right diet, gaining weight may become easy for you. But you have to remember that to gain weight, you must not eat anything and everything, but you must consume a balanced diet that is calorie dense, and yet gives you all the nutrients that your body needs.

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|Origin:||aloof 'to windward' (16-18 centuries), from loof 'direction against the wind' (13-19 centuries), from Dutch loef| unfriendly and deliberately not talking to other people remain/stay aloof (from somebody) They worked hard, but tended to stay aloof from the local inhabitants. keep/hold yourself aloof (from somebody) She had always kept herself aloof from the boys in class. Beneath that aloof exterior, Gayle is a warm, sympathetic person. deliberately not becoming involved in something remain/stand aloof (from something) Initially, the President remained aloof from the campaign. hold/keep (yourself) aloof from something The doctor held himself somewhat aloof from the rest of the ship's crew. —aloofness noun [uncountable]

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Oropharyngeal and esophageal dysphagia typically produce different types of symptoms Table 02. - Oropharyngeal dysphagia is characterized by difficulty moving food or liquid to the back of the throat, and difficulty initiating a swallow. Food may accumulate in the mouth, spill out of the corners of the mouth, or move from the pharynx (the back of the mouth) into the nasal passages. Sometimes, food or liquid will actually move past the vocal cords and enter the trachea (windpipe), causing respiratory symptoms. A variety of other symptoms can accompany oropharyngeal dysphagia. - Esophageal dysphagia is characterized by a sensation that swallowed food or liquid is sticking in the esophagus somewhere near the neck or chest. Esophageal dysphagia often occurs as an isolated symptom, although it may be accompanied by other symptoms, depending on the underlying cause. Table 2. Possible Signs of Swallowing Difficulties Difficulty chewing Difficulty initiating swallowing Difficulty moving food or liquid from the mouth into the throat Sensation that food is getting stuck in the mouth, throat, or esophagus Persistent sensation of a ?lump? in the throat Frequent need to clear the throat Generalized mouth or throat pain Pain during swallowing Drooling Coughing or choking when eating Bad breath Reflux of food or liquid into the throat, mouth, or nose Change in voice (nasal voice or hoarseness) Difficulty speaking Hiccups Dry mouth and/or throat Weight loss Heartburn Chest pain Ear pain Frequent respiratory tract infections Pneumonia Inability to swallow solids, liquids, or both can provide clues about the underlying cause of dysphagia. The consistency of food associated with dysphagia often provides clues about the underlying cause. People with oropharyngeal dysphagia often have more difficulty swallowing liquids, while people with structural causes of dysphagia often have more difficulty swallowing solids. If the person’s esophagus has difficulty producing the contractions to move food down to the stomach often he or she may have difficulty swallowing either solids or liquids. Long-standing dysphagia can lead to complications; it is important to be alert for symptoms of these complications. Longstanding dysphagia carries risks of malnutrition, dehydration, and movement of food or liquid into the airway (aspiration). - Malnutrition is characterized by marked weight loss and deficiencies of the vitamins, minerals, and nutrients needed for general health. - Dehydration results from loss of water and the essential body salts required for the body to function normally. Dehydration is characterized by a variety of signs and symptoms such as dry mouth, thirst, low blood pressure, decreased urine output and decreased skin elasticity. - Entry of swallowed material into the airway (aspiration) may cause coughing and choking, but it may also occur silently. Frequent upper respiratory tract infections and pneumonia can indicate that aspiration is occurring. Adults must be alert for the symptoms of swallowing difficulties in infants and children. Infants and children with dysphagia may have residual food or liquid in their mouths after eating, may turn their heads or make exaggerated facial expressions when attempting to eat, or may vomit. They may also cough or choke if food or liquid enters the airway. However, aspiration occurs without obvious symptoms in about 70% of children. Frequent upper respiratory tract infections or pneumonia in an infant or child may be the first indication of aspiration. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) increases the risk of inflammation of the esophagus (esophagitis), esophageal strictures, and esophageal cancer, all of which can cause swallowing difficulties. The chronic acid reflux of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) often damages the esophageal lining. Inflammation of the esophagus (esophagitis) can cause dysphagia and pain during swallowing (odynophagia); over time, esophagitis can lead to narrowing (strictures) of the esophagus, and even esophageal cancer. Esophagitis, strictures, and esophageal cancer can all interfere with swallowing. Many drugs prescribed for various medical conditions may be associated with dysphagia. Dysphagia is a potential side effect of many drugs used to treat medical conditions. These drugs include central nervous system depressants (such as drugs used to treat anxiety or trouble sleeping), antipsychotics (used to treat psychosis), corticosteroids (a group of anti-inflammatory drugs that includes prednisone and is used to treat many diseases), lipid-lowering drugs (for people with high cholesterol), colchicines (used to treat gout and other medical conditions), aminoglycosides (a group of antibiotics), anticonvulsants (used to treat seizure disorders), and antihistamines (for allergies). Certain drugs can actually produce a chemical inflammation if they stay in contact with the esophageal lining for long periods of time. This inflammation is called pill esophagitis, and it can cause dysphagia. Certain antibiotics can cause pill esophagitis, such as tetracycline, doxycycline, and minocycline, as well as other drugs such as potassium chloride, iron supplements, vitamin C, and quinidine. Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs such as ibuprofen), zidovudine, and alendronate are also thought to cause to this burn. Certain hereditary conditions are associated with dysphagia. Hereditary conditions such as muscular dystrophy can lead to dysphagia because these patients lack the muscle control necessary for normal swallowing. - Common Side Effects of AntidepressantsFind out about common and not-so-common side effects of antidepressants and how to manage them. - How Drugs Can Lower CholesterolDiscover how cholesterol-lowering medications work in your body to bring your cholesterol numbers down to ideal levels. - Do Over-the-Counter Proton-Pump Inhibitors Work?You might wonder why you need a prescription for GERD if many PPIs are available over the counter. Get the answers to this and other questions about OTC PPIs.

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• SELECT SITE CURRENCY Select a currency for use throughout the site Customers who bought this item also bought Stylistic and Literary Criticism. Edition No. 1 VDM Publishing House, January 2010, Pages: 172 This book provides an instructive concept to stylistic analysis, literary analysis and literary criticism by using a variety of texts from poetry, short story, novel and drama. And, it enables literary scholars, teachers and students to read, analyze, understand and enjoy literature. Particularly, the overall aim of the book is to integrate literature in English Language Classroom as the analysis and exploration of literature can promote language enrichment and literary understanding. Balew Demissie,M.A:Studied Literature at Addis Ababa University,Ethiopia.Lecturer and Researcher at Gondar College of Teachers Education.

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Nicola Scafetta sends this along, I found this figure quite interesting, but there are many more in the full PDF available below. A regional approach to the medieval warm period and the little ice age Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist In order to gain knowledge of the temperature variability prior to the establishment of a widespread network of instrumental measurements c. AD 1850, we have to draw information from proxy data sensitive to temperature variations. Such data can be extracted from various natural recorders of climate variability, such as corals, fossil pollen, ice-cores, lake and marine sediments, speleothems, and tree-ring width and density, as well as from historical records (for a review, see IPCC 2007; Jones et al. 2009; NRC 2006). Considerable effort has been made during the last decade to reconstruct global or northern hemispheric temperatures for the past 1000 to 2000 years in order to place the observed 20th century warming in a long-term perspective (e.g., Briffa, 2000; Cook et al., 2004; Crowley and Lowery, 2000; D’Arrigo, 2006; Esper et al., 2002; Hegerl et al., 2007; Jones et al., 1998; Jones and Mann, 2004; Juckes et al., 2007; Ljungqvist, 2010; Loehle, 2007; Mann et al., 1999; Mann et al., 2008; Mann et al., 2009; Mann and Jones, 2003; Moberg et al., 2005; Osborn and Briffa, 2006). Less effort has been put into investigating the key question of to what extent earlier warm periods have been as homogeneous in timing and amplitude in different geographical regions as the present warming. It has been suggested that late-Holocene long-term temperature variations, such as the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) and the Little Ice Age (LIA), have been restricted to the circum-North Atlantic region (including Europe) and have not occurred synchronic in time with warm and cold periods respectively in other regions (Hughes and Diaz, 1994; Mann et al., 1999; Mann and Jones, 2003). This view has, however, been increasingly challenged through the ever growing amount of evidence of a global (or at least northern hemispheric) extent of the MWP and the LIA that have become available (see, for example, Esper and Frank, 2009; Ljungqvist, 2009, 2010; Moberg et al., 2005; Wanner et al., 2008). A main obstacle in large-scale temperature reconstructions continues to be the limited and unevenly distributed number of quantitative palaeotemperature records extending back a millennium or more. The limited number of records have rendered it impossible to be very selective in the choice of data. Palaeotemperature records used in a large-scale temperature reconstruction should preferably be accurately dated, have a high sample resolution and have a high correlation with the local instrumental temperature record in the calibration period (see the discussion in Jones et al., 2009). The number of long quantitative palaeotemperature records from across the globe, of which a majority are well suited for being used in large-scale temperature reconstructions, have been rapidly increasing in recent years (Ljungqvist, 2009). Thus, it has now become possible to make regional temperature reconstructions for many regions that can help us to assess the spatio-temporal pattern and the MWP and LIA. Only by a regional approach can we truly gain an understanding of the temperature variability in the past 1–2 millennia and assess the possible occurrence of globally coherent warm and cold periods. Presently, only four regional multi-proxy temperature reconstructions exist: two for eastern Asia (Yang et al., 2002; Ge et al., 2010), one for the Arctic (Kaufman et al., 2009), and one for South America (Neukom et al., 2010). Six new quantitative regional multi-proxy temperature reconstructions will here be presented in order to improve our understanding of the regional patterns of past temperature variability. The presently available palaeotemperature proxy data records do not support the assumption that late 20th century temperatures exceeded those of the MWP in most regions, although it is clear that the temperatures of the last few decades exceed those of any multidecadal period in the last 700–800 years. Previous conclusions (e.g., IPCC, 2007) in the opposite direction have either been based on too few proxy records or been based on instrumental temperatures spliced to the proxy reconstructions. It is also clear that temperature changes, on centennial time-scales, occurred rather coherently in all the investigated regions – Scandinavia, Siberia, Greenland, Central Europe, China, and North America – with data coverage to enable regional reconstructions. Large-scale patterns as the MWP, the LIA and the 20th century warming occur quite coherently in all the regional reconstructions presented here but both their relative and absolute amplitude are not always the same. Exceptional warming in the 10th century is seen in all six regional reconstructions. Assumptions that, in particular, the MWP was restricted to the North Atlantic region can be rejected. Generally, temperature changes during the past 12 centuries in the high latitudes are larger than those in the lower latitudes and changes in annual temperatures also seem to be larger than those of warm season temperatures. In order to truly assess the possible global or hemispheric significance of the observed pattern, we need much more data. The unevenly distributed palaeotemperature data coverage still seriously restricts our possibility to set the observed 20th century warming in a global long-term perspective and investigate the relative importance of natural and anthropogenic forcings behind the modern warming. Full report here (PDF)

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The recently published Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean, by Edward Kritzler, explores Jewish ties to the legendary pirates who plagued the Caribbean during the Age of Discovery. While the scholarship is lacking, according to Adam Kirsch, who wrote a review of the book for J. The Jewish News Weekly of Northern California, the links Kritzler makes are at least interesting. Here’s what Kirsch had to say about Kritzler’s claim on the infamous Jean Lafitte: Kritzler even stakes a Jewish claim on one of the marquee names in pirate history, Jean Lafitte, the patriot buccaneer who ran a smuggling empire from New Orleans in the early 19th century, then redeemed himself by fighting with Andrew Jackson against the British in the War of 1812. Kritzler quotes Lafitte himself on the importance of his Jewish ancestry: “My grandmother was a Spanish-Israelite … [She] told me repeatedly of the trials and tribulations her ancestors had endured at the time of the Spanish Inquisition … [Her teachings] inspired in me a hatred of the Spanish Crown and all the persecutions for which it was responsible — not only against Jews.” The oppressed becomes the foe of oppressors, the beaten-down Jew takes up a cutlass. It is an irresistible story line and the central premise of Kritzler’s book. But if Lafitte’s pronouncement seems too convenient, perhaps it is. Kritzler’s notes said he found the quotation in a book on the history of New Orleans Jews, where it is cited from “The Journal of Jean Lafitte.” Nowhere, however, does Kritzler mention that “The Journal of Jean Lafitte” was the work of a notorious forger named John Laflin, who also invented documents related to Davy Crockett and Abraham Lincoln. So maybe Jean Lafitte wasn’t Jewish after all, but Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean does at least make the connection that Christopher Columbus’s explorations occurred simultaneously to the Spanish Inquisition and the expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal. It makes sense that some of the diaspora, jilted by their homelands, would wind up fighting alongside country-less pirates in the seas of the New World. Adam Kirsch’s review is worth a full read, even if the book itself isn’t. Click here to read the full article, cleverly entitled “Yo ho ho and a bottle of Manischewitz.”

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What is it? Feed-in tariffs (FIT) are used to create a price mechanism to support the development of and demand for alternative sources of energy and encourage a transition towards renewable methods of energy generation. Electricity utilities are obligated to buy renewable electricity at above-market rates set by the government. An FIT should have a two pronged approach setting the price for renewable energy higher than the market price for energy and mandating energy utilities to purchase energy from renewable energy providers. Who advocates it? Greenpeace Australia and Australian Conservation Foundation How do they work? A feed-in tariff scheme mandates energy utilities to buy energy from renewable energy providers at an above market price. With a national FIT the price that producers receive for solar energy will be dramatically higher than the market price. This is an incentive for potential investors and producers to enter the market and generate renewable energy. The increased cost of energy consumption for consumers will be spread across all consumers and spending on energy consumption can be expected to increase marginally. To maximize the effectiveness of a FIT scheme it is important that the above-market price is guaranteed in the long-term. This ensures that there will be a return on investment from the production of renewable power within a few years. With a return on investment in the renewable energy sector ensured then market sources may be mobilized to meet the increased demand for solar panel and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Feed-in tariffs will not only assist large scale production of renewable energy but it will also encourage households to install solar panels and other renewable energy generators and transfer electricity into the grid. With above market prices for renewable energy the investment into renewable energy generation will soon be paid off and households will be able to earn money by producing renewable energy. Two kinds of tarrifs: Gross FITs and Net FITs: Some Australian states have experimented with the use of FIT. Unfortunately, these FITs have proved ineffective because they have paid only for the net production of renewable energy (the energy that is transferred to the grid) and not the gross production (total energy produced) of renewable of energy. To tilt the market in the favour of renewable energy and give them a sustained long term competitive advantage it is necessary that the FITs are set at a gross level. This means that renewable energy generation is truly encouraged and rewarded (Greenpeace 2009). A feed-in tariff of this kind increases the competitiveness of alternative sources of energy, welcomes producers of renewable energy into the market place and drastically reduces carbon dioxide emissions. Where have feed-in tariffs been tried? Germany has successfully used feed-in tariffs to foster a renewable energy industry and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The FIT scheme that Germany adopted, and which Australia arguably should copy, mandated energy utilities to purchase renewable energy at an above market price. This provided investors with certainty that the installation of renewable energy generators would generate a profit within a few years. As a consequence of Germany’s FIT scheme, in just ten years Germany’s solar energy production increased from 5% to 15% of total energy consumption at only a small cost to consumers (Martin 2009). Consequently, there has been a rush towards renewable energy, generating jobs while protecting the environment. Access Economics. (2008) “The Economics of Feed-In Tariffs for solar PV in Australia” Greenpeace Australia Pacific (2008) “Briefing: Will Australians be starved of renewable energy feed-in tariff?” Retrieved from: Kennedy, D., (2007), “A 2020 vision of a feed in tariff for Australia” Martin, D (2009) “Feed-in Tariffs Have Earned a Role in US Energy Policy” Norman, J and S O’Connor, (2009) “Embrace the Renewable Energy Future” retrieved from: http://www.greenpeace.org/australia/resources/reports/climate-change/briefing-will-australians-be

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The new book Teaching 2030, written by Barnett Berry, president of the Center for Teaching Quality, and a team of 12 teachers from around the country, is must-read material. The ideas in the book for how to help students now and in the future transcends the old stalemates and false dichotomies (ex. reformers vs. unions) On today’s Washington Post Answer Sheet blog, Berry concisely lays out 5 problematic myths and 5 worthy goals for schools and teachers. Read the whole (relatively brief) essay for more explanation, but here is the elevator pitch: Five problematic myths that impede real progress in the classroom: - Myth #1: Teacher preparation matters little for student achievement. - Myth #2: Teaching experience matters little for student achievement. - Myth #3: Removing incompetent teachers will fix our schools. - Myth #4: Teacher tenure rules make it impossible to get rid of poor teachers. - Myth #5: Merit pay will motivate teachers to teach more effectively. Five useful goals for schools and teachers: - #1: Teach the Googled learner, who has grown up on smartphones and virtual reality games and can find information (if not understanding) with a few taps of the finger; - #2: Work with a student body that’s increasingly diverse (by 2030, 40 percent or more will be second-language learners); - #3: Prepare students to compete for jobs in a global marketplace where communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creative problem solving are the “new basics”; - #4: Help students monitor their own learning – using sophisticated tools to assess whether students meet high academic standards and fine-tuning instruction when they don’t; and - #5: Connect teaching to the needs of communities It makes sense! Teaching 2030 puts these goals in context and illustrates the needed change levers and how to activate them. I want to live in the world of Teaching 2030, not one where the five counterproductive myths permeate the discourse. Full disclosure: The Center for Teaching Quality hosts teacherleaders.org.

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Astarte was connected with fertility, sexuality, and war. Her symbols were the lion, the horse, the sphinx, the dove, and a star within a circle indicating the planet Venus. Pictorial representations often show her naked. She has been known as the deified evening star. Astarte (Ishtar) was accepted by the Greeks under the name of Aphrodite or, alternatively, Artemis. The island of Cyprus, one of Astarte’s greatest faith centers, supplied the name Cypris as Aphrodite’s most common byname. Other major centers of Astarte’s worship were the Phoenician city states of Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos. Coins from Sidon portray a chariot in which a globe appears, presumably a stone representing Astarte. “She was often depicted on Sidonian coins as standing on the prow of a galley, leaning forward with right hand outstretched, being thus the original of all figureheads for sailing ships.” In Sidon, she shared a temple with Eshmun. Coins from Beirut show Poseidon, Astarte, and Eshmun worshipped together. Other faith centers were Cythera, Malta, and Eryx in Sicily from which she became known to the Romans as Venus Erycina. A bilingual inscription on the Pyrgi Tablets dating to about 500 BC found near Caere in Etruria equates Astarte with Etruscan Uni-Astre that is, Juno. At Carthage Astarte was worshipped alongside the goddess Tanit. Donald Harden in The Phoenicians discusses a statuette of Astarte from Tutugi (Galera) near Granada in Spain dating to the 7th or 6th century BC in which Astarte sits on a throne flanked by sphinxes holding a bowl beneath her pierced breasts. A hollow in the statue would have been filled with milk through the head and gentle heating would have melted wax plugging the holes in her breasts, producing an apparent miracle when the milk emerged. The Aramean goddess Atargatis (Semitic form ʻAtarʻatah) may originally have been equated with Astarte, but the first element of the name Atargatis appears to be related to the Ugaritic form of Asherah’s name: Athirat.

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Caesar returned to Italy in September, 45 BC, and among his first tasks was to file his will, naming Octavian as his heir. That out of the way, he returned to Rome approximately October 1. While away, the Senate had already begun heaping honors on Caesar. Whether Caesar started this process through his own supporters, or others did so trying to gain Caesar's favor is unknown, but there the Senate went along with nearly every recommended honor. Even though Caesar didn't proscribe his enemies, and in fact pardoned nearly every one of them, there seemed to be little open resistance to the great conqueror, at least publicly. Word of Caesar's victory in Spain reached Rome in late April, and games celebrating this event were to be held on April 21. Caesar apparently began to act with little deference towards the Roman state, and his ego began to alienate the Senate. Along with the games, Caesar was honored with the right to wear triumphal clothing, including a purple robe (reminiscent of the Kings) and laurel crown, on all public occasions. A large estate was being built at Rome's expense, and on state property, for Caesar's exclusive use. The title Imperator also became a legal title that he could use before his name for the rest of his life. An ivory statue in the likeness of Caesar was to be carried at all public religious processions. Another statue of Caesar was placed in the temple of Quirinus with the inscription "To the Invincible God." Quirinus, to the Roman people, was the deified likeness of the city's founder and first King, Romulus. This act clearly identified Caesar not only on equal terms with the divine, but with the kings as well. More outrageous, and even more clearly identifying Caesar with the kings, was yet a third statue. This statue was erected on the capitol alongside those of the seven Roman Kings, and with that of Lucius Junius Brutus, the man who led the revolt to expel the Kings in the first place. In yet more scandalous behavior, Caesar had coins minted bearing his likeness. This was the first time in Roman history that a living Roman was featured on a coin, clearly placing him above the Roman state, and tradition. When Caesar actually returned to Rome in October 45 BC, he further irritated the Senate by giving up his fourth Consulship (which he had held without colleague) and placed Quintus Fabius Maximus and Gaius Trebonius as suffect consuls in his stead. The act of giving up the Consulship was not the issue, but completely disregarding the Republican system of election, and performing these actions at his own whim was. He celebrated a fifth triumph, this time to honor his victory in Spain. Much like his triumph in Africa, even the common people were dismayed, knowing that the victory came directly against fellow Roman opposition. The Senate, however, despite their frustration, did little to stop Caesar's excesses. In fact, they continued to encourage more honors. A temple to Libertas was to be built in his honor, and he was granted the title 'Liberator'. They elected him Consul for the next 10 consecutive years, and allowed to hold any office he wanted, including those generally reserved for Plebeians, like the Tribune. They also seemed willing to grant Caesar the unprecedented right to be the only Roman to have imperium. In this, Caesar alone would be immune from legal prosecution and would technically have the supreme command of the Legions. There was a seemingly continual flow of honors, and while most sources agree that Caesar likely did little to encourage these, he also accepted them all with little objection. More honors continued, including the right to appoint half of all magistrates, which were supposed to be elected positions. He also appointed magistrates to all provincial duties, a process previously done by draw of lots or through the approval of the Senate. A tribe of the people's assembly was to be named for him, and his birthday, July 13, was to be recognized as a national holiday. And this after the month of July had already been named in his honor. He began to wear the red shoes previously only worn by the ancient kings and a temple and priesthood was established and dedicated in honor of his family. Caesar, however, did have a reform agenda and took on various subjects social ills. He passed a law that prohibited citizens between the ages of 20 and 40 from leaving Italy for more than 3 years unless on military assignment. This theoretically would help preserve the continued operation of local farms and businesses and prevent corruption abroad. If a member of the social elite did harm or killed a member of the lower class, then all the wealth of the perpetrator was to be confiscated. Clearly Caesar, despite his now raging ego still had the best interest of the state at heart, even if he believed that he was the only capable of running it. A general cancellation of ¼ of all debt also greatly relieved the public and helped to endear him even further to the common population. Additionally great public works were undertaken. Rome was a city of great urban sprawl and unimpressive brick architecture and it desperately needed a renewal to show it as the capitol of the western world. A new Rostra of marble, along with court houses and marketplaces were being built. A public library under the great scholar Varro was in the works. The Senate house, the Curia Hostilia, which had been recently repaired, was abandoned for a new marble project to be called the Curia Julia. The Pontine Marshes were drained and filled and a canal dug in the Corinthian Isthmus to aid in trade. The city Pomerium (or sacred boundary) was extended allowing for additional growth. Despite these improvements, the enmity between the Senate and Caesar continued to grow. The Senate, however, did little to argue with Caesar in person. Instead they continued to heap honors on him, yet blamed him for his excesses.

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Biomass Cogeneration Plant as Base Load Facility in the District Heating System of Lebork The city of Lebork with its 35'000 inhabitants is located in the Pomorskie Voivodship in Northern Poland. The Pomorskie Voivodship, with its vast forests, has an important potential for the exploitation of renewable energy sources in general and biomass in particular. Today, heat is supplied by mostly coal fired "Heat Only Boiler Houses (HOB)", with the corresponding negative impacts on the environment and human health. Therefore the project aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to increase health and living conditions in the city of Lebork. This is achieved by introducing a biomass based heat and power plant to supply base load heat and electricity to the city’s district heating system. Thema / Schwerpunktbereich Umwelt und Infrastruktur Basisinfrastruktur: Energieeffizienz und erneuerbare Energien The direct beneficiaries are the district heating system of the city of Lebork and its operator. Indirect beneficiaries are the heat customers of the district heating system as well as other residents and visitors of the region. The overall project objective is to reduce emissions and environmental pollution caused by the coal fired district heating system of the city of Lebork. A biomass fired cogeneration plant will be installed to provide base load heat for heating and hot water generation purposes. Furthermore, it will produce electricity for the district heating system. The plant will provide 37% of the annual heat fed into the district heating network. Thus, during summer months, no coal combustion at all will be required. The goal of the project is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to increase health and living conditions in the City of Lebork. Weiterführende Informationen und Dokumente Höhe des Schweizer Beitrags: Datum der Projektgenehmigung: Verantwortung für die Projektumsetzung:

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Rainforest Restoration Manual for South-Eastern Australia is the definitive guide to the recovery and restoration of Subtropical, Warm Temperate, Cool Temperate, Gallery, Dry, Dry Gully and Littoral Rainforests from south-eastern Queensland to Tasmania. All of these rainforest types were inherently rare prior to settlement, and today with depletion, feral animals, weeds and climate change, all are threatened – with many listed under state and federal legislation. The manual presents detailed restoration methods in 10 easy-to-follow steps, documenting the research and trials undertaken during rainforest restoration over more than two decades. These experiments and their results will empower readers to uncover answers to many of the problems they could encounter. The manual is supported by a CD that provides important background information, with 32 appendices, a propagation manual for the region's 735 rainforest plants, an illustrated glossary and resources for teachers. Species lists and specific planting guides are provided for the 57 rainforest floristic communities that occur from the coast to the mountains between Durras Mountain in New South Wales and the Otways in Victoria. Extensively illustrated with colour photographs, this book will empower you or your group to be able to restore, manage, protect and conserve the magnificent rainforests that are in your care. The general principles and techniques described will meet the needs of students and teachers, novices, experienced practitioners, community groups and agencies alike. Practical and easy to read Will appeal to a wide audience of professionals and community volunteers Extensively illustrated with colour photographs and includes a CD with a variety of background information Chapter 1 Background to rainforest restoration Chapter 2 Understanding your rainforest and applying first aid Chapter 3 Your rainforest and regional context Chapter 4 Immediate actions and site planning Chapter 5 Choosing the method of restoration Chapter 6 Resources Chapter 7 Project planning Chapter 8: Project implementation Chapter 9 What is success in restoration? Chapter 10 Maintenance and ongoing ecological management Contents for Supplementary material on CD-ROM Chapter S1 Scope and history Chapter S2 Why restore rainforest? Chapter S3 Social theory and philosophy Chapter S4 Ecological theory Chapter S5 Where your site sits in the landscape Chapter S6 General principles Chapter S7 Managing disturbance Chapter S8 Plant stock and planting Chapter S9 Rainforest depletion in south-eastern Australia Federal, state and municipal land management agencies Environmental consultants and contractors Conservation management networks Rainforest restoration ecologists and botanists University, TAFE and public libraries Lecturers and students in natural resource management courses "The multiple steps to restoration laid out include practical tips and tools, and they are well complemented with informative photographs and illustrations… Much of the book’s focus is on providing tools so that the reader can build capacity for context-driven research and knowledge building before any actual work is undertaken. As anyone who is involved in restoration projects anywhere knows, this is absolutely key… The CD included with the book is packed with useful tools, spreadsheets, and matrices of information, and in many cases explains the pros and cons of arguments for and against practices in more detail than the book." Kristin den Exter, Restoration Ecology, January 2012 "Bill Peel is an expert on rainforests... Throughout the book, his knowledge, passion and enthusiasm are evident and contagious. He has produced an excellent piece of work that is suitable for all. It is well written, well put together and easily understood. I highly recommend the book." Maria Gibson, The Victorian Naturalist, June 2011, Vol. 128 (3), pp.121-122 "This is the definitive guide for restoring and conserving the natural rainforests in Australia that is thoroughly researched and well presented." Paul Plant, subTropical Gardening, Issue 22, 2011 "This book is an absolute treasure trove of useful information about rainforest regeneration in south-eastern Australia." Claudia Catterall, Australian Plant Conservation, Vol 19, No 2, September-November 2010 "This book is the definitve guide...an essential part of any rainforest restoration project and distils the experiences of 30 years into one easy to use package. The general principles and techniques described will meet the needs of students and teachers, novices, experienced practitioners, community groups and agencies alike." R G Richardson, Plant Protection Quarterly, Vol 25(3), 2010 Bill Peel is an ecologist who has worked across a wide range of community organisations as well as state and federal natural resource management agencies, local government and in many consultancies over the last 30 years. During that time he has been a survey botanist, mapped and supervised mapping of vegetation and old-growth forests as well as the identification of National Estate values for regional forest agreements. He began his first rainforest restoration site in 1987 and his passion for restoration ecology has led to a region-wide research effort to document rainforest restoration techniques. He is a founding member of the East Gippsland Rainforest Conservation Management Network. He is currently the municipal ecologist for Port Macquarie-Hastings Council on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales. The print copy of this book contains a CD-ROM with supplementary material. You can also download a zip file of this material using the link below. For PC Users Right click on the Link and choose Save Target (Internet Explorer) or Save Link As (Firefox). For Mac Users Click and hold on the Link and choose Download Link to Disk (Internet Explorer) or Save this Link as (Firefox). All Firefox Users Please be aware that due to difficulties with Firefox you must specify which format you wish the file to be saved as. When saving your article choose your file name and add the .zip extension. e.g. Bookname.zip

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Imagine this scenario: your loved one has just passed away and you're grieving, but also having to handle the legal issues created by death. The funeral director approaches you and asks for the names of the parents. You know this information, but your mind goes blank. Seeing that you're upset, the funeral director tells you that it's not important and that they have enough information from other relatives/documents. The next thing you know, you're holding a certified death certificate in which your loved one's mother is listed as "Not stated." Here are a few examples of the good, the bad, and the ugly when it comes to death certificates. - The Good: - The death certificate exists and you obtain it. - It was filled out by a spouse or sibling who has known the deceased for a long time and has first hand knowledge of the dates and relationships. - The death certificate provides dates, locations and relationships for your ancestors. - Typed or written in print. - The Bad: - You can't find a death certificate anywhere. - If you did, it was filled out by a second spouse, child, distant relative or even a friend or institution who didn't know the information. - The death certificate provides no information at all: the dreaded "Not Stated." - Messy handwritten cursive. - The Ugly: - You know a certificate exists, but due to local laws, you can't access it. - It was filled out by a second spouse, child, distant relative or even a friend. They thought they knew the information. - The death certificate provides dates, locations and relationships for your ancestors - and it is all the informant's best guess. - Illegible scribbles. As you can see, sometimes the good, bad and ugly might be hard to differentiate. It can be difficult to tell if the information is right or wrong. Keep in mind that the information was rarely provided in advance by the deceased. It was provided by someone else who may or may not have the correct information. And of course, that's assuming you were able to obtain and read the certificate in the first place. If you don't already have other documents that provide similar information, work on getting them. Your best bet is to use this certificate as a starting point and compare it to other records with similar information: - Census records that confirm relationships and dates - Obituaries that can confirm relationship and maybe ages - Death certificates of siblings that list the same parents - Marriage certificates that confirm relationships - Visit the cemetery listed to find relatives in the same/nearby plots Take everything recorded on the certificate with a grain of salt. Without another document to confirm the information, a death certificate is a starting point, not the be-all and end-all.

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ENTER OUR SITE HERE To discuss what the Scriptures teach us about our stewardship of God's creation; - Present a Creationist perspective of the environment; and - Encourage the environmentally concerned with God's promises. |Any theory is only as good as its basic assumptions. Solutions that we come up with that are based on a flawed theory will fail to fix our problems. |The Bible says that our environmental problems result from our being "spanked" for disobeying God's commands, but this has not caused us to stop being rebellious. Instead we put our faith in "other gods" (technology, education, evolutionary processes) to deliver us from our physical trials, and as a result our efforts to overcome the effects of the Fall are failing. commentaries and perspectives presented in "Healing the Land" are written by Maurice Hamel, an environmental geologist, Creationist and evangelical Christian. He and his wife live on a small farm in

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Feature: Chemical Engineering Perfecting the process of making biofuels is not enough. We need machines that can efficiently burn them. Researchers in McGill’s Alternative Fuels Lab are figuring out what the next incarnation of the combustion engine will look like in the age of biofuels. By Sylviane Duval The Macdonald Engineering Building infamously burned to the ground in 1907. But now, over a century later, nobody minds that Jeffrey Bergthorson and his team like to play with fire in the safe confines of their newly renovated lab on the building’s first floor. The researchers carefully blend the right mix of fuel and air to create small, flat flames about three centimetres in diameter. Then they use laser diagnostics to probe the combustion chemistry of different fuels. These flames are the Number One apparatus of the Alternative Fuels Lab... This story first appeared in the winter 2012 issue of McGill University’s Headway magazine. Want to share your thoughts on this article? Write to us at firstname.lastname@example.org

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From Seo Wiki - Search Engine Optimization and Programming Languages Semantic targeting is a technique enabling the delivery of targeted advertising, a form of contextual advertising, for advertisements appearing on websites and is used by online publishers and advertisers to increase the effectiveness of their campaigns. The selection of advertisements are served by automated systems based on the content displayed to the user. Semantic Targeting has originated from the developments arising from Semantic Web. The Semantic Web enables the representation of concepts expressed in human language to data in such a way that facilitates automatic processing, where software can programmatically understand and reason how different elements of data are related. The concept of semantic targeting utilises this capability to identify these concepts and the contexts in which they occur, enabling marketers to deliver highly targeted and specific ad campaigns to webpages. The Evolution of Online Advertising The targeting of advertising to specific micro segments is a fundamental requirement for an effective ad campaign. The two methods of targeting of recent times have been behavioral targeting and contextual targeting. It is now generally accepted that these forms have pitfalls for both advertiser and consumer. Behavioral targeting aggregates data based upon a user's viewing of pages from a website. Generally this is facilitated by the placing of a cookie upon the user's PC. The cookie then reports the user's viewing behavior allowing for the identification of patterns of viewing behavior. However, great concern is expressed about the treatment of the user's right to privacy amongst consumer groups and legislators. Contextual advertising scans the content of webpages, seeking to identify keywords, against which advertisers have bid to have their ad linked. If a match is made the ad is placed alongside the content, through an automated process. However, such systems are unable to identify the context of the entire page and therefore, a placement could be made against content that is inappropriate, derogatory or insensitive to the subject. They are also unable to identify the sense or meaning of words, leading to a misplacement of ads. For example, the word "orange" can be a color, a fruit, a telecommunications company, a mountain bike, and countless other variants. How semantic targeting works Semantic targeting aims to match the specific context of content on page within a website to an available advertising campaign. A key difference of semantic targeting to a contextual advertising system is that, instead of scanning a page for bidded keywords, a semantic system examines all the words and identifies the senses of those words. Because most words are polysemous, i.e. have more than one meaning, without having an understanding of the true context in which words occur, it is possible to incorrectly assign an advertisement where there is no contextual link. A semantic targeting system has to examine all the words before it can accurately identify the subject matter of the entire text and deliver an in context advertisement. For example, if the user is viewing a website relating to golf, where that website uses semantic targeting, the user may see advertisements for golf related topics, such as golf equipment, golf holidays etc. Advertisers can locate their ads in given categories using an Ontology (computer science) or taxonomy, ensuring that their ads will only appear in the context that they request. Semantic targeting is also capable of identifying the sentiment of a webpage, through effective analysis of the language used on page. The systems would determine if the content was talking about a subject in a positive or negative light. If the page was being detrimental about a particular subject, the the semantic targeting system could deter the placement of a related ad alongside the story. Other capabilities of a semantic targeting system include the availability of brand protection filtering. This can enable the blocking of an ad placed alongside content of a controversial nature. Such systems can deter placement against such subjects as as Adult/Erotica, Alcohol, Nudity, Offensive language, Bad News and other such topics. This would then avoid the potentially brand damaging occurrence of, for example, and airline advertising alongside a story about an air disaster. Semantic targeting providers Semantic targeting is an emerging technology in advertising automation. Several companies have launched semantic targeting technologies: - ad pepper media (http://www.adpepper.com), based in Nurnberg, Germany, the market leader in semantic advertising with its isense semantic advertising solution (http://www.isense.net). Developed by linguist David Crystal, the system was the first semantic targeting technology, launched by Crystal Semantics in 2004. Subsequently acquired by adpepper in 2006. - Clikkit (http://www.clikkit.com), based in San Francisco, has developed SemSense, a semantic targeting technology to link video to the context of webpages - Collective Media - Personifi (http://www.collective.com) through its acquisition of Personifi, Collective provides an automated, multi-lingual semantic targeting platform with an interface that allows users to customize their own taxonomies. - Peer39 (http://www.peer39.com) has developed an automated semantic targeting platform called SemanticMatch. - 4AdNetworks (http://www.4adnetworks.com) offers ad networks a Semantic Targeting Solution based on a semantic technology that has been developed for 7 years by experienced linguists and IT specialists. - ↑ Renee Boucher Ferguson (2008-03-27). "A Battle Is Brewing Over Online Behavioral Advertising". E-week.com. http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Enterprise-Applications/A-Battle-Is-Brewing-Over-Online-Behavioral-Advertising-Market/. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ "FTC Staff Proposes Online Behavioral Advertising Privacy Principles". Federal Trade Commission. 2008-12-20. http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2007/12/principles.shtm. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ "Steve Irwin’s Death : Contextual Advertising Gone Bad". Shmula.com. 2006-09-05. http://www.shmula.com/194/steve-irwins-death-contextual-advertising-gone-bad. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ "Contextual advertising gone bad". etre.com. 2007.11.02. http://www.etre.com/blog/2007/11/contextual_advertising_gone_bad/. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ "When Contextual Advertising Goes Horribly Wrong". Mashable.com. 2008.06.19. http://mashable.com/2008/06/19/contextual-advertising/. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ "McCain campaign pulls ads from some anti-Obama Web sites". CNN.com. 2008-07-01. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/07/01/mccain.ads/. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ Graham Charlton (2008-05-16). "Q & A Prof. David Crystal & Sacha Carton on semantic targeting". e-consultancy. http://www.e-consultancy.com/news-blog/365601/q-a-prof-david-crystal-and-sacha-carton-on-semantic-targeting.html. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ "Semantic Targeting". isense.net. http://www.isense.net/index.php?id=68. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ Adelino de Almeida (2007-08-08). "Web Analytics - Part 4 - Behavior Targeting, Semantic Search and Semantic Targeting". Profitable Marketing. http://adelino.typepad.com/adelino_marketing/2007/08/web-analytics--.html. Retrieved 2008-10-10. - ↑ Scott Brinker, (2008-09-13). "Semantic advertising: 4 different kinds". iChief marketing technologist. http://www.chiefmartec.com/2008/09/semantic-advertising-of-4-different-kinds.html. Retrieved 2008-10-10.

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A Back-to School Checklist for Indoor Air Quality? It’s that time of year again and everyone can relate to the annual school supply checklist and the hours spent preparing for the upcoming school year. Binders – check. Pens – check. But, how many school staff, parents or students stop to think about whether the school they will return to is a healthy learning environment—free of indoor air quality (IAQ) issues? Before coming involved with EPA’s Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools program, little did I know that the everyday classroom environment can seriously affect student performance. Was that vanilla plug-in from my 7th grade math class a decoy to mask an odor problem, caused by poor ventilation? Did Fluffy the 3rd grade pet rabbit make my asthma worse? While I can’t change the past conditions, I look forward to a future where all schools can effectively manage indoor air quality and maintain a healthy learning environment. With the help of the Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools Action Kit, school staff and parents can learned on how to improve indoor air problems at little-or no-cost through straightforward activities. Use this back-to-school checklist help you get started this school year: - Learn more about IAQ issues, related health effects, and how student performance is affected. Equip yourself with EPA’s free resources that can help you explain IAQ issues and discuss an indoor air quality management program other parents, community organizers, and your school community. Consider becoming a volunteer to help coordinate the effort. - Build momentum for a school environmental health project. With the help of IAQ Curricula, even students can learn about the indoor air environment and how it can affect concentration, attendance, and performance. - Help manage asthma in the school environment. Discover ways reduce student and staff exposure to asthma triggers in your school. If your child suffers from asthma, be sure to provide the school with a copy of your child’s asthma action plan. - Encourage your school to apply for an award. If your school or school district has implemented a successful IAQ program, learn more about the EPA Awards Program. About the Author: Brandy Angell is a public affairs specialist with the Office of Radiation and Indoor Air’s Indoor Environments Division. She joined EPA in 2009 to focus on improving children’s health in the school environment and reducing the burden of asthma. Her work recently took on new importance with the impending arrival of a son in January 2011. Editor’s Note: The opinions expressed in Greenversations are those of the author. They do not reflect EPA policy, endorsement, or action, and EPA does not verify the accuracy or science of the contents of the blog. Editor's Note: The opinions expressed in Greenversations are those of the author. They do not reflect EPA policy, endorsement, or action, and EPA does not verify the accuracy or science of the contents of the blog.

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, (also known as 'FDR'), was a 20th century Human who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945, longer than any president in history. In an alternate timeline, Leonard McCoy saved Edith Keeler from a traffic accident, allowing her to continue striving for her goals of peace and eventually founding one of the largest peace movements in the United States of America. Her actions finally attracted the attention of President Roosevelt, with whom she met on February 23, 1936, to confer on her plan of action for assisting the needy. (TOS: "The City on the Edge of Forever") In a holoprogram set in 1944 France, a picture of Roosevelt adorned the tent of Captain Miller. (VOY: "The Killing Game") One also adorned the office of Dixon Hill's secretary, Madeline (TNG: "The Big Goodbye"), and later Dixon Hill's own office. (TNG: "Manhunt", "Clues") - Franklin D. Roosevelt at Wikipedia - Franklin D. Roosevelt at Memory Beta, the wiki for licensed Star Trek works |Selected Presidents of the United States of America| |George Washington (1789) • Thomas Jefferson (1801) • Andrew Jackson (1829) • Abraham Lincoln (1861) • Ulysses S. Grant (1869) • Theodore Roosevelt (1901) • Woodrow Wilson (1913) • Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933) • Harry S. Truman (1945) • Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953) • John F. Kennedy (1961) • Lyndon B. Johnson (1963) • Richard M. Nixon (1969) • Jimmy Carter (1977) • Ronald Reagan (1981) • George H.W. Bush (1989) • William J. Clinton (1993) • George W. Bush (2001) • ...|

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SparkPeople advertisers help keep the site free! Learn more Lowering your blood pressure isn't always as simple as eating fewer high-sodium foods. The fact is that multiple factors combined affect your blood pressure. There are two main categories of risks that contribute to hypertension—those that you can't change, and those that you can. Uncontrollable Risk Factors These variables are out of your control. Although you can't do anything to change them, it's important to know whether you fall into any of these higher-risk categories. Your age. Your risk of developing high blood pressure increases as you age. Men over 45 and women over 55 are more likely to have high blood pressure. Your gender. Up to age 55, men are more prone to high blood pressure than women. After menopause, a woman's risk increases. By age 75, high blood pressure is more prevalent among women than men. Women who take oral contraceptives are also at a higher risk for hypertension. Your family history. Your risk doubles if one or both of your parents had high blood pressure. Your race. In the U.S., African Americans (especially women) are more likely to develop high blood pressure, along with other minorities (Hispanics, American Indians and Alaskan natives). Although these factors are out of your control, there are several lifestyle habits that you CAN change to help lower your blood pressure. Controllable Risk Factors Factors that you can control are related to your lifestyle—the choices you make each day about what to eat and whether or not to exercise. These are areas of your life where you can take control to improve your blood pressure and enhance your overall health. Your diet. A diet high in sodium, saturated fat and cholesterol, and low in fiber, whole foods, and minerals (potassium, magnesium, calcium) can increase blood pressure. Eating a low-sodium, low-fat diet that is rich in whole foods and other nutrients can help. Your activity level. Sedentary individuals have a higher risk for hypertension. Regular exercise can lower both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Your weight. Being obese (a Body Mass Index over 30) increases your risk of developing high blood pressure. Dropping just 10% of your body weight can have positive effects on blood pressure. Your stress levels. Studies show that chronic stress (and "Type A" personality traits) can elevate blood pressure. Exercise, meditation, and yoga can help reduce and manage stress and blood pressure. Your drinking habits. Moderate to heavy drinking (more than 1-2 drinks daily) can dramatically increase blood pressure and other health risks. Health experts recommend no more than one drink a day for women, and no more than two drinks per day for men. Your smoking habits. Smoking is the leading preventable cause of heart disease, due to its effects on your arteries, heart, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels. Quitting can stop (and potentially reverse) a lot of the existing damage to your body, and improve your blood pressure. When you have other existing health conditions, you are compounding your risk of serious complications and disease if you don't lower your blood pressure. Add high risk factors into the picture (family history, age, and race) and your risk is compounded even more. The good thing is that you can break that chain of progressive disease at any point by changing the lifestyle choices above. Nicole was named "America's Top Personal Trainer to Watch" in 2011. A certified personal trainer and fitness instructor with a bachelor's degree in health promotion and education, she loves living a healthy and fit lifestyle and helping others do the same. Her DVDs "Total Body Sculpting" and "28 Day Boot Camp" (a best seller) are available online and in stores nationwide. Read Nicole's full bio and blog posts. SparkPeople, SparkCoach, SparkPages, SparkPoints, SparkTeams, SparkDiet, SparkAmerica, SparkRecipes, DailySpark, and other marks are trademarks of SparkPeople, Inc. All Rights Reserved. SPARKPEOPLE is a registered trademark of SparkPeople, Inc. in the United States, European Union, Canada, and Australia. All rights reserved.

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A paucity of epidemiologic research exists concerning the co-occurrence of birth defects and mental retardation (MR). Study of this co-occurrence may yield important clues about the causes of both. To examine the co-occurrence of birth defects and MR, taking into consideration the type of birth defect, level of MR, co-occurrence of MR with other developmental disabilities, and individual and maternal factors. A retrospective cohort study of infants born in the California Central Valley with and without a structural birth defect by 1 year of age, and with or without MR by 7 to 9 years of age. Setting and Participants One-year survivors (N = 119 556) born in nonmilitary hospitals in 8 California counties between January 1, 1992, and December 31, 1993, for whom information about birth defects was recorded within the first year of life. Main Outcome Measure Diagnosis of MR by age 7 years considered as being mild or severe and as occurring without other developmental disabilities (isolated MR) or as occurring with other developmental disabilities, including cerebral palsy, epilepsy, or a pervasive developmental disorder. Children with birth defects were nearly 27 times more likely to have MR by 7 years of age compared with children without a diagnosed birth defect regardless of type of defect (prevalence ratio, 26.8; 95% confidence interval, 22.7-31.7). Among those with birth defects, children with Down syndrome (prevalence ratio, 211.7; 95% confidence interval, 171.3-261.5) and children with sex chromosomal defects (prevalence ratio, 57.4; 95% confidence interval, 23.7-138.6) were at the highest risk for MR. Children with nonchromosomal defects, including central nervous system defects and all types of organ and system defects, were at substantially increased risk for all levels of MR. Risks of MR among children with Down syndrome and nonchromosomal defects were not substantially altered when adjusted for individual and maternal factors. Children with chromosomal and other structural birth defects are at a substantially increased risk for having MR by 7 years of age compared with children born without a birth defect. Children with birth defects are at an especially increased risk for having severe MR and MR occurring independently of other developmental disabilities.

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THE DAYS OF REAL SPORT: WHY IS A DUCK? By w. R. Mac'ilrath YOU see, it was this way: John, Rocks, Bad Eye and myself were sitting on the top rail of a stake-and-rider fence and pondering the imponderables, and trying to figure out what it was that made the planets go round and what would happen if one collided with the earth we are on? And if a gun were made strong enough to fire a bullet through the center of the sun, would it melt on the way through? And did the whale really swallow Jonah? And if so, was it the tobacco in Jonah's pocket that caused it to again discard him on a nice, dry beach? And if a man had springs in his legs like a flea, wouldn't he make a humdinger of a foot racer? Just as someone sprung one about "if . a hen could lay eggs as rapidly as a Maxim gun could fire and you had to pour cold water on her to keep her from setting herself afire" — but this "nut" never got to draw his conclusion, whatever it was, if there was any. It probably would have been something about how rich the owner of the said hen would be in an honr and ten minutes if his water supply was unfailing — for just then the top rail broke and the school of Socrates was precipitated into some high burdock and the valuable train of thought was lost. As we arose straightway up out of the burdock a lone duck was seen going south as if he knew exactly where he was going and what for; for he was working his propellers and rudder with admirable speed and clock-like precision, and he tarried not on his way. Then arose the question which is at least as old as the Parker Gun Factory, "Why.is a duck?" The school of Socrates could not agree although the members had at least one reason apiece if not more. The argument waxed eloquent and warm, and in the last half, just before the whistle, Bad Eye assured the rest of the bunch of the ancient school of freethinkers that, collectively, they didn't know a duck from a buzzard, but if they would "just foller" him he would "show them" to their utter and complete satisfaction, not only what a duck was for, "but what it was made out of, by !" The almost feminine modesty and reticence of the rest of us prevented us from replying almost in wrath to Bad Eye's derogatory remarks about us. But Rocks, who is Bad Eye's literal twin, and whom some unkind person named with a hard nickname, spoke substantially as follows or words to that effect : "Why you bloomin' skunk catcher, you! A duck would have to be both blind and sick to let you kill it. I'm goin' to get a duck and tame it for you, some time, so you can kill one. We'll foller ye, alright, alright, by !!" Rocks had spoken the thought of us all. A few days later it rained like everything, and "nothin" was doin'," and mallards began to come in and light in the shallow water and feed, and puddle about and wiggle their tails and gabble their duck talk. It was all mutually understood that somebody "had to be showed," and each man loaded his ancient artillery and betook himself into the whence where were the ducks. I carried the renowned Prima Donna, a shotgun so named because it was a high-reacher with fours in the right and little lead slugs, that I had cut and rolled with a board, in the left. Both on top of three fingers of black powder. "Humph," said I to myself, "I'll kill 'em stone dead at 80 yards." Bad Eye had the only modern artillery in the crowd, a Winchester pump of the hammer type. He took great pleasure in comparing his repeating cannon to our antediluvian weapons and was irrationally sarcastic in doing it. He claimed if he wanted to kill a duck a little farther than usual all he had to do was to push on the stock a little. Also, he impolitely called us "buzzard hunters," and kept saying we couldn't tell a duck from a buzzard (which was not so) and kept it up for about an hour. This repeated indecency got on our nerves, almost, for we were a pretty high-strung bunch and didn't just take everything, if we did take that. While he was talking, Bad Eye led the way to the famous duck lake, out from behind the high buck-brush of which proceeded the gabbling of animated duckdom. There was shallow water and high weed around the short side of the buck-brush which made it exceedingly difficult to proceed with cat-like caution, as it were. Presently, Bad Eye spied a small dead tree leaning upward at an angle of about 60 degrees and out over the lake. Bad Eye's alert mind at once perceived that if he could get up this tree high enough he could see over into the duck world beyond the brush. Forthwith he mounted himself straightway up into the tree and proceeded knowingly toward the top, saying: "Fellers, if I skeer 'em you shoot 'em." Which advice was appropriate for the occasion. As there were no other trees thereabout to ascend up into, we, unfortunate "buzzard hunters," had to remain glued in the mud that attached itself to us with an exceeding great gluishness, and remained so attached. In the midst of these preparations to shoot the ducks that were in the lake, John wanted a place to sit down. (Always there is one alien spirit. Why is it?). The rest of the "buzzard contingent" waited patiently standing while Bad Eye climbed up into the dead tree. At last Bad Eye arose to that height whereat he could see some of the ducks. "There are millions of them," asserted Bad Eye. We implored him almost with tears in our eyes to shoot and let us suffer the ignominy of remaining duckless. But Bad Eye had his gun fast between the tree and his knee and he couldn't let go with either hand. So Our entreaties returned to us void. Likewise, John had to cough, which stopped the duck talk of the national duck convention going on just a moment before on the other side of the buckbrush. And all the ducks, Bad Eye said afterward, sat with their necks very straight up in the air and still as painted ducks on a painted mud hole. Bad Eye said that for a couple of hours he never drew a breath after that cough, and the rest oi the "buzzard contingent" registered, each man, a solemn vow, to himself, that he would shoot John on the spot if he did it again. Why does anybody want to sit down for anyhow, where there is no place to sit down? Somebody tell me. "Bad Eye," said Rocks, "for heaven's sake, don't skeer 'em," just as though it was Bad Eye that coughed. Bad Eye looked so bad, then, that murder would have been like eating ice cream for him, but he dar'sent say anything, did Bad Eye. N-o-o-o-o Bad Eye didn't sk-e-e-e-er-r-r 'em! How could he ? How could such a thing be possible? Wasn't he going to show us what a duck was made out off Gentle and confiding reader, must the truth be known? Buzzard hunters ! Ugh! — Pop! The duck convention opened like a shaky market. Our stock was on the rise again. We had a narrow escape. Bad Eye had his'best eye riveted upon a limb above his head about the size of a broom handle. He hardened his heart and putting his conscience behind him set out for it. Oh, alas, alas, that he ever did it! Why did he do it ? The Buzzardites could not wring their hands and implore him not to do it. Bad Eye was possessed of a resolute soul, and had not the Buzzardites coughed, and talked out loud, and wanted to sit down where there was no place to sit down? So, like Belshazzar at the feast, he proceeded on his wicked way; even the handwriting was on the wall. N-o-o-o-o! He didn't sk-e-e-e-r-r 'em! At last his hand was upon the coveted limb. Now was the time. He could worm himself up — up — ever so easy. We held our breath. Oh, dear! If anything happened! Oh, it was unthinkable. Bad Eye had his knee upon the limb and his eye rested upon a lake full of ducks — for an instant, and then? Then, a mallard drake away out in the middle of the lake (that had no business being there anyhow) that was not near so close as some of the other ducks, arose with a mighty napping of his wings and splashing of water and with a vociferous squawking likened to the popping off of a railroad yard full of steam engines. After that, we don't remember, very clearly, what just did happen. But we know one duck got up first. (Oh, how I would like to shoot him, even today, for it! He had no right to get up that way, and if he did "have to go," why didn't he leave quietly like a well-bred duck should do? Somebody tell me?). In making his get-away he spiralled right over past Bad Eye and the rest of us. (I know his intentions were to alarm the other ducks, that's what he did it for). He must have disconcerted Bad Eye, for Bad Eye let his gun slip out from between his legs and it descended down upon and splashed into the water with a tremendous splash and sank and remained thereafter sunk. At once pandemonium let loose in the tree top. Gentle reader, let us not dwell upon the awful words that Bad Eye spoke in his desperation. He was vociferous beyond the comprehension of ordinary men and "talked in tongues." He sprang upon that limb and tore his hair and jumped up and down, and he saw green and yellow streaks before his eyes. The ducks in a mighty body arose as of one mind and filled the air with their bodies and the noise of their flying and squawking, and the noise and confusion thereof was astounding so that no words can describe it. And "they were all getting away" was the thought of each one of us. It was heartbreaking to see so many ducks get away. And in the midst thereof, while Bad Eye tore his hair and jumped up and down on the limb of the dead tree, the limb broke and he was precipitated straightway downward into the water of the lake and splashed therein with a terrific splash even more so than his gun before him, and he straightway sank like unto the gun, and his last estate was worse than the first. But he did not remain sunk, but came out on the bank where were those who were killing ducks "hand over fist." And the words that he spake with his mouth were unprintable in a nice magazine like this, for red was the color of the streaks he now saw before his eyes as the ducks came down around him. Rocks aimed for two crossing each other with each barrel but only got one with the second shot. John had a single barrel breech-loader and he loaded and fired this as fast as he could and he fired where the ducks seemed thickest to him, and at all ranges. I fired my right early in the action and got a drake, the mate to the one that started the thing. (I am morally sure I killed him because he looked like the one that started it and let all those ducks get away). Then I waited for a bunch to thicken up like a swarm of bees to use the slugs in the left. When the ducks in the atmosphere seemed to be of about the right consistency I aimed at the thickest spot and let go, and Prima Donna kicked me as I hope never to be kicked again, for I had forgotten and put the load of slugs in on top of a big load of shot. For a moment I envied Bad Eye his estate. And the ducks "rained down," but my shoulder hurt terribly and Prima Donna was let fall, and fell, and sank and remained sunk. After a little the ducks thinned out but John continued to fire at all ranges, from 20 yards to 125. One little duck came over alone very high up in the blue and was working his propellers as though to get a "hot box" when "Janas" "c-u-t do-w-n" on him and he turned over away up there where he didn't look bigger than a bumble-bee and came down straight as a plummet and fell right close to us. It was about the prettiest duck shot I ever saw, but John blew the smoke out of the barrel of his gun and nonchalantly shoved another shell into the breech and tried very hard to look unconcerned as though he did such things every day as a matter of course. Then we proceeded to gather the dead, wading out into the lake and seeking in the buck-brush. And lo! and behold, while we hunted, a duck fell from the sky into our midst. Upon examination we found he had a single head wound; in all probability from one of the slugs — for it tore a great hole in his bill just in front of his face very close up. Bad Eye prospected in the waist-deep water for his gun until he found it, and great was the rejoicing upon the part of the "Buzzardites" when it was found; for they heaped showers of compliments upon Bad Eye and praised him to his face, and paid felicitations to him who would not reply in kind and cursed them openly for their kind interest in him. They even offered to let him carry some of their ducks, seeing he had none, that passers-by might not see that he was devoid of ducks. To which Bad Eye arose up in his wrath and told the "Buzzardites" to "Go to H — !!!" Hunter-Trader-Trapper. October: 1921, |Are you aware that Google is offering +1 to Everyone? Share your +1 with Every One of Your Friends by looking for the +1 on websites everywhere!" | If you liked this site, click Order Online 24 Hours a Day, 7 Days a Week, 365 Days a Year

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Super-Comet or Big Asteroid Belt This graph of data from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope demonstrates that the dust around a nearby star called HD 69830 (upper line) has a very similar composition to that of Comet Hale-Bopp. Spitzer spotted large amounts of this dust in the inner portion of the HD 69830 system. The bumps and dips seen in these data, or spectra, represent the "fingerprints" of various minerals. Spectra are created when an instrument called a spectrograph spreads light out into its basic parts, like a prism turning sunlight into a rainbow. These particular spectra reveal the presence of the silicate mineral called olivine, and more specifically, a type of olivine called forsterite, which is pictured in the inset box. Forsterite is a bright-green gem found on Earth, on the "Green Sand Beach" of Hawaii among other places; and in space, in comets and asteroids. Because the dust around HD 69830 has a very similar make-up to that of Comet Hale-Bopp, astronomers speculate that it might be coming from a giant comet nearly the size of Pluto. Such a comet may have been knocked into the inner solar system of HD 69830, where it is now leaving in its wake a trail of evaporated dust. Nonetheless, astronomers say the odds that Spitzer has caught a "super-comet" spiraling in toward its star -- an unusual and relatively short-lived event -- are slim. Instead, they favor the theory that the observed dust is actually the result of asteroids banging together in a massive asteroid belt. The data of HD 69830's dust were taken by Spitzer's infrared spectrograph. The data of Comet Hale-Bopp were taken by the European Space Agency's Infrared Observatory Satellite. The picture of forsterite comes courtesy of Dr. George Rossman, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena.

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One of the most frequently asked questions I get when teaching cooking classes is - how do you store it? Right on. I hate throwing out produce because I didn’t get to it soon enough or it wasn’t stored at the right temperature. One hint is to take note of how produce is arranged at the grocery store. For example, onions, squash and potatoes are usually kept in the middle of the produce section, often down low - that’s because these vegetables prefer cool, dry air, whereas leafy greens need an even cooler and very moist atmosphere. Bananas and mangoes are born in a tropical climate, you can put them in the refrigerator but its a little chilly for them and the flavor seems fuller at room temperature. Here are some tips: Citrus is best kept at room temperature of 60-70 degrees and used within two weeks. Do not store in plastic bags. Berries and Cherries are best covered in the fridge. Don’t wash until you use them - too much moisture in the package speeds spoilage. Avocados & Bananas are best stored and eaten at room temperature. Both will ripen with time. To speed ripening of green bananas store them in a paper bag with an apple in a warmish place. If they still don’t ripen after 1 week, they have been transported at a low temperature, and you might as well make chutney of them. If you don’t use the whole avocado in one sitting, store the remainder with the pit intact in a bag in the fridge - the pit will keep the fruit from discoloring Apples are best kept in the fridge, stored loose-they need to breathe to stay crisp. Use within a month. Eggplants, Potatoes, Onions, Winter Squash, Rutabagas, & Sweet Potatoes are best kept moderately cool, no lower than 50 degrees. A cool, dry dark place is best- on the counter, in a cupboard or basket. Apricots, Peaches, Pears, Nectarines, Kiwis, Plums and Melons should be ripened before refrigeration, stored in plastic bags when ripe. Melons should be used as soon as possible after ripening. Tomatoes should be kept uncovered at room temp, but can be refrigerated if very ripe. All other fresh vegetables belong in the refrigerator. Green Beans and Peas should be kept in plastic bags or containers. They’ll last 3-5 days in the fridge. Corn keep in it’s husk in the fridge. Eat as soon as possible because it’s sugar quickly turns to starch, causing it to lose it’s flavor. Carrots, Radishes, Turnips, Beets, and Parsnips should be stored in plastic bags. They’ll last two weeks in the fridge. Take tops off carrots before storing, leave greens on radishes, turnips and beets, with both roots and tops in the bag. Broccoli, Brussel Sprouts, Scallions, and Summer Squash will last 4-7 days in plastic bags in the crisper. Spinach, Kale, Chard, Lettuce, Salad Greens, and Cooking Greens have the same crisper life and should be kept in plastic bags. Any bunch greens can be freshened by cutting an inch of the bottom stalks and soaking the entire bunch in cold water for 10 minutes. If you are slow about diving into your greens and REALLY want them to keep for a while, soak in a sink full of cold water, spin dry then lay leaves flat on a clean cotton dish towel and roll up like a rug. Put your cloth roll in a plastic bag in the fridge. You’ll be surprised by how long they keep. Peppers & Cucumbers should be stored in the crisper, and washed before use. Cauliflower, Fennel, Jerusalem Artichokes and Leeks wrap in plastic and use within a week. Cabbage and Celery have a fridge life of up to two weeks. Wrap celery in plastic. Parsley and Cilantro are best with bottoms of stems trimmed, placed upright in a jar of water in the fridge. Basil can be stored upright in a jar of water at room temperature, or in an open bag on the counter. I also have luck with cilantro and parsley by washing and spinning the bunch then storing them wrapped in a damp cotton dish towel in a plastic bag in the fridge. Thyme and Rosemary should be stored in the fridge in bags for up to a week, after that they can be brought out onto the counter to dry. Dry herbs should be stored tightly in a jar. Mushrooms do well kept in a cool, dark place in a paper bag. Do not wash until ready to use. Ginger will keep in the fridge for a week or two, but for longer term should be frozen in a bag or jar. You can easily grate the root direct from the freezer.

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Muara Jambi Temple is considered one of the richest archaeological sites on the island of Sumatra. The eight temple-like structures appear to be Buddhist, and were probably built around the 14th century. Archaelogists conclude that the site was the center of Old Jambi, the capital of ancient Malay kingdom which reigned supreme about ten centuries ago. The capital was sieged and destroyed in 1377 by armies from Burma. For centuries, the site had been lost and forgotten deep in the jungle, only to be rediscovered in 1920 by a British military expedition team. Muara Jambi temple complex covers an area of 12 km2, along the side of Batanghari river. There are eight main temples in the complex. All of them are located in the center area, fortified by walls. Three of them are already renovated. In 1982, a 32-centimeters tall female bronze statue was found at Koto Kandis, in the Muara Sabak sub district. It is believed to be the goddest Laksmi, holding a lotus bud in her left. In addition to the archaelogical sites, many visitors find the riverside an ideal recreation and picnic spot.

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Click the Study Aids tab at the bottom of the book to access your Study Aids (usually practice quizzes and flash cards). Study Pass is our latest digital product that lets you take notes, highlight important sections of the text using different colors, create "tags" or labels to filter your notes and highlights, and print so you can study offline. Study Pass also includes interactive study aids, such as flash cards and quizzes. Highlighting and Taking Notes: If you've purchased the All Access Pass or Study Pass, in the online reader, click and drag your mouse to highlight text. When you do a small button appears – simply click on it! From there, you can select a highlight color, add notes, add tags, or any combination. If you've purchased the All Access Pass, you can print each chapter by clicking on the Downloads tab. If you have Study Pass, click on the print icon within Study View to print out your notes and highlighted sections. To search, use the text box at the bottom of the book. Click a search result to be taken to that chapter or section of the book (note you may need to scroll down to get to the result). View Full Student FAQs Chapter 5 Psychological Measurement Researchers Tara MacDonald and Alanna Martineau were interested in the effect of female college students’ moods on their intentions to have unprotected sexual intercourse (MacDonald & Martineau, 2002).MacDonald, T. K., & Martineau, A. M. (2002). Self-esteem, mood, and intentions to use condoms: When does low self-esteem lead to risky health behaviors? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 299–306. In a carefully designed empirical study, they found that being in a negative mood increased intentions to have unprotected sex—but only for students who were low in self-esteem. Although there are many challenges involved in conducting a study like this, one of the primary ones is the measurement of the relevant variables. In this study, the researchers needed to know whether each of their participants had high or low self-esteem, which of course required measuring their self-esteem. They also needed to be sure that their attempt to put people into a negative mood (by having them think negative thoughts) was successful, which required measuring their moods. Finally, they needed to see whether self-esteem and mood were related to participants’ intentions to have unprotected sexual intercourse, which required measuring these intentions. To students who are just getting started in psychological research, the challenge of measuring such variables might seem insurmountable. Is it really possible to measure things as intangible as self-esteem, mood, or an intention to do something? The answer is a resounding yes, and in this chapter we look closely at the nature of the variables that psychologists study and how they can be measured. We also look at some practical issues in psychological measurement. Do You Feel You Are a Person of Worth? The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1989)Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image (rev. ed.). Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. is one of the most common measures of self-esteem and the one that MacDonald and Martineau used in their study. Participants respond to each of the 10 items that follow with a rating on a 4-point scale: Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree. Score Items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 by assigning 3 points for each Strongly Agree response, 2 for each Agree, 1 for each Disagree, and 0 for each Strongly Disagree. Reverse the scoring for Items 3, 5, 8, 9, and 10 by assigning 0 points for each Strongly Agree, 1 point for each Agree, and so on. The overall score is the total number of points. - I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. - I feel that I have a number of good qualities. - All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. - I am able to do things as well as most other people. - I feel I do not have much to be proud of. - I take a positive attitude toward myself. - On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. - I wish I could have more respect for myself. - I certainly feel useless at times. - At times I think I am no good at all.

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A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indirect rule. Resident Ministers This full style was common as a diplomatic rank for the head of a mission ranking just below envoy, usually reflecting the relatively low status of the states of origin and/or residency, or else difficult relations. On occasion, the Resident Minister's role could become extremely important, as when in 1806 the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV fled his kingdom of Naples, and Lord William Bentinck, the British Resident, was the author of a new and relatively liberal constitution. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments. For instance, the British sent Residents to the Mameluk Beys who ruled Baghdad province as an autonomous state in the north of what is now Iraq, until the Ottoman sultans regained control over it and its Wali (governor). As international relations developed, it became customary to give the highest title of diplomatic rank, ambassador, to the head of all permanent missions in any country, except as a temporary expression of downturned relations or where representation was merely an interim arrangement. Pseudo-colonial Residents Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, in practice exercised a degree of indirect rule. Some such Residents were former military officers, rather than career diplomats, who resided in smaller self-governing protectorates and tributary states and acted as political advisors to the rulers. A trusted Resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects they acted as an ambassador of their own government, but at a lower level, since even large and rich native states were usually seen as inferior to Western nations. Instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a Resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create an artificial geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the British Indian Empire. In some cases, the intertwining of the European power with the traditional native establishment went so far that members of the native princely houses became Residents, either in other states or even within their own state, provided that they were unlikely ever to succeed as ruler of the state. A Resident's real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler(s). Some residents were little more than observers and diplomats, others were seen as the "face of the oppressor" and were treated with hostility, while some won enough trust from the ruler that they were able to exercise great influence. In 1887, when both Boers and gold prospectors of all nationalities were overrunning his country, the Swazi paramount chief Umbandine asked for a British resident, seeing this as a desirable and effective form of protection. His request was refused. British & dominion Residents Residents in Africa - In the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the second 'homeland' of the Omani dynasty, since 1913. From 1913 to 1961 the Residents were also the Sultan's vizier. There were Consuls and Consuls-general until 1963. - In present day Kenya, in the Sultanate of Witu, after the British took over the protectorate from the German Empire, which had itself posted a Resident. - In British Cameroon (part of the former German Kamerun), since 1916, in 1949 restyled Special Resident (superior to the new two provinces) for Edward John Gibbons (b. 1906 – d. 1990), who stayed on in October 1954 as first Commissioner when it became an autonomous part of Nigeria. - in Southern Africa: - when the military party sent from Cape Colony to occupy Port Natal on behalf of Great Britain was recalled in 1839, a British Resident was appointed among the Fingo and other tribes in Kaffraria until the definite establishment of British rule in Natal and its 1845 organization as an administrative entity, when the incumbent Shepstone was made Agent for the native tribes. - In kwaZulu, which since 1843 was under a British protectorate, after it became the Zulu "Native" Reserve or Zululand Province on 1 September 1879: two British Residents (William Douglas Wheelwright, 8 September 1879 to January 1880, then Sir Melmoth Osborn until 22 December 1882). Thereafter there were Resident Commissioners until Zululand was incorporated into the crown colony of Natal as British Zululand on 1 December 1897. - in 1845 the resident 'north of the Orange river' chose his residency at Bloemfontein, which became the capital of the Orange River Sovereignty in 1848. In 1854 the British abandoned the Sovereignty, and the independent Boer republic of the Orange Free State was established - in the Boer republic of Transvaal at Pretoria - with the Matabele chief at Bulawayo - in Ghana, with the rulers of the Asanteman Confederation (established in 1701), since it became in 1896 a British protectorate; on 23 June 1900 the Confederation was dissolved by UK protectorate authority, on 26 September 1901 turned into Ashanti Colony, so since 1902 his place was taken by a Chief Commissioner at Kumasi - in various parts of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, Southern Nigeria Protectorate and after their joining Nigeria protectorate, notably in Edo state at Benin City (first to the British-installed ruling council of chiefs, later to the restored Oba), with the Emir of and in Bauchi, to the jointly ruling bale and balogun of Ibadan (a vassal state in Yorubaland), with the Emir of Illorin, with the Emir of and in Muri (Nigeria), with the Emir of Nupe Residents in Asia British Residents were posted in various Princely states — in major states or groups of states—in the days of British India. Often they were appointed to a single state, as with the Resident in Lucknow, the capital of Oudh; to the Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda; to the Maharaja Sindhya of Gwalior; to the Nizam al-Molk of Hyderabad; to the Maharaja Rana of Jhalawar; to the restored Maharaja of Mysore, after the fall of Tipu Sultan; to the Maharaja Sena Sahib Subah of the Mahratta state of Nagpur; to the (Maha)Raja of Manipur; to the (Maha)Raja of Travancore; to the Maharana of Mewar in Udaipur. Even when Lord Lake had broken the Mahratta power in 1803, and the Mughal emperor was taken under the protection of the East India Company, the districts of Delhi and Hissar were assigned for the maintenance of the royal family, and were administered by a British Resident, until in 1832 the whole area was annexed to the North-Western Provinces. A Resident could however also be posted to a group of princely states, usually because most were considered rather unimportant, either to a geographical group or to one of states with other links between them. British Residents were also posted in major states considered to be connected with India, neighbouring or on the sea route to it, notably: - in Aden (while subordinated to the Bombay Presidency), the only part of the present-day Yemen made a colony in full British possession. The last of three British Political Agents since 1939 stayed on as first Resident since 1859, the last again staying on in 1932 as first Chief Commissioner; he was the only diplomatic representative to the various Arabian rulers who over time accepted British protectorate, but since the 1935 legal separation from British India was followed in 1937 by a reorganisation into an Eastern and a Western Aden Protectorate (based at Mukallah and Lahej; together covering all Yemen), the British Representatives in each were styled British Political officers - in Afghanistan, a kingdom entitled to a gun salute of 21 guns (the highest rank among princely states, not then among Sovereign monarchs): the first British Residents were Sir Alexander Burnes (1837 – 2 November 1841); William Hay McNaghten (7 August 1839 – 23 December 1841); Eldred Pottinger (December 1841 – 6 January 1842).After that, four native Vakils acted on behalf of the British government: Nawab Foujdar Khan (1856 – April 1859), Ghulam Husain Khan Allizai (April 1859–1865), Bukhiar Khan (February 1864 – January 1868, acting), Attah Muhammad Khan Khagwani (January 1868–1878); then there were two more British Residents Louis Napoleon Cavagnari (24 July 1879 – 3 September 1879), Henry Lepel-Griffin (1880); next came two Military Commanders (8 October 1879 – 11 August 1880) and until 1919 ten native British Agents, one of whom served two non-consecutive terms. - Capt. Hiram Cox (died 1799) was the first British Resident to the King of independent Burma (October 1796 – July 1797), and there were more discontinuous posting to that court, in the 19th century, never satisfactory to either party; after the British conquest of Burma there were two separate British Residents in a border zone of that country: in the Northern Shan States and in the Southern Shan States (each several tribal states, usually ruled by a Saopha=Sawbwa) in 1945–1948 (each group had been under a Superintendent from 1887/88 till 1922, then both jointly under a Resident Commissioner till the 1942 Japanese occupation) - after five military governors since the East India Company started chasing the Dutch out of Ceylon in August 1795 and occupying the island (completed in 16 February 1796), their only Resident there was Robert Andrews, 12 February 1796 – 12 October 1798, who was subordinate to the presidency of Madras (see British India), afterwards the HEIC appointed Governors as it was made a separate colony - to the Sultan of the Maldives archipelago since he formally accepted British protection on 16 December 1887 (informally since 1796, after the British took over Ceylon from the Dutch), but in fact this office was filled ex officio by the colonial Governors of until 4 February 1948, abolished on 26 July 1965 - in Nepal since 1802, accredited to the Hindu Kings (title Maharajadhiraja), since 15 March 1816 exercising a de facto protectorate—the last staying on 1920 as Envoy till the 1923 emancipation - with the Imam/Sultan of Oman, 1800–1804, 1805–1810 and 1840 (so twice interrupted by vacancy), then located with the African branch of the dynasty on the island of Unguja, since 1862 his role was handed over to a Political Agent - in Transjordan (present Jordan) April 1921 – 17 June 1946 four incumbents accredited to the Hashemite Emir/King Even in overseas territories occupied ('preventively' or conquered) to keep the French out of strategic trade and waters, residencies could be established, e.g. at Laye on Sumatra, an island returned to the Dutch East Indies Residents in (British) European protectorates Since on 5 November 1815 the United States of the Ionian Islands became a federal republic of seven islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo and Paxos), as a protectorate (nominally of the allied Powers; de facto UK protectorate; the highest office was the always-British Lord High Commissioner), until its 1 June 1864 incorporation into independent Greece, there were British Residents, each posted with a local Prefect, on seven individual islands, notably: Cephalonia (Kephalonia), Cerigo (Kythira), Ithaca, Paxos, Santa Maura (Leucada/Lefkada) and Zante (Zakynthos) Residents on (British & dominion) Ocean Island states - in the early colonial settlement phase on New Zealand (where the Polynesian Māori declared independence on 28 October 1835 as the Confederation of the United Tribes, under British protectorate), from 10 May 1833 James Busby (b. 1801 – d. 1871; from 1834–1836 jointly with Thomas McDonnell as co-Resident) till 28 January 1840, then two Lieutenant governors (as part of New South Wales, in Australia) and many Governors since 3 January 1841 - at Rarotonga since the 1888 establishment of the British protectorate over the Cook Islands; the third and last incumbent stayed on as first Resident Commissioner since 1901, at the incorporation in the British Western Pacific Territories (under a single High Commissioner, till its 1976 dissolution, in Suva or Honoria), until the abolition of the post at the 1965 self-government grant as territory in free association with New Zealand, having its own cabinet (still under the British Crown, which after the 1976 appoints a special King's/Queens Representative as well as a High Commissioner). Residents in protectorates of decolonised Commonwealth states - Sikkim, where the Maharaja had been under a British protectorate (1861 – 15 August 1947; the crown representative was styled Political Agent), became immediately afterwards a protectorate of newly independent India (formally from 5 December 1950; in the meantime the Indian representative was again styled Political Agent, the first incumbent actually being the former British Political Agent—India was a dominion, still under the British crown, till 26 January 1950) until 16 May 1975, it was annexed as a constituent state of India. Dutch colonial Residents French colonial Residents France also maintained Residents, the French word being Résident. However the 'Jacobine' tradition of strict state authority didn't agree well with indirect rule, so often direct rule was preferred. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a native ruler or chieftain. Style Résident - A single post of Resident was also created in Côte d'Ivoire, i.e. Ivory Coast (from 1881 subordinated to the Superior Commandant of Gabon and the Gulf of Guinea Settlements; from 1886 subordinated to the Lieutenant Governors of Guinea), where in 1842 France had declared protectorates over the Kingdoms of Nzima and Sanwi (posts at Assinié 1843–1870, and Grand Bassam, Fort Dabou 1853–1872, part of the Colony of Gorée and Dependencies in Senegal]): - 1871–1885 Arthur Verdier (to 1878 Warden of the French Flag) (b. 1835 – d. 1898) - 1885–1886 Charles Bour -Commandant-particular - 1886 – 9 March 1890 Marcel Treich Leplène (b. 1860 – d. 1890) - 9 March 1890 – 14 June 1890 Jean Joseph Étienne Octave Péan (acting) - 14 June 1890–1892 Jean Auguste Henri Desailles - 1892 Eloi Bricard (acting) - 1892 – 12 November 1892 Julien Voisin (acting) - 12 November 1892 – 10 March 1893 Paul Alphonse Frédéric Heckman; thereafter it had its own Governors - On the Comoros, in the Indian Ocean, several Residents were posted with the various native sultanates on major islands; they were all three subordinated to the French administrators of Mayotte island protectorate (itself constituting the native Maore or Mawuti sultanate): - On Ngazidja (Grande Comore island, divided in eleven sultanates, some of which on occasian had the superior title of Sultani tibe): November 1886–1912 - On Ndzuwani (Anjouan island) with the Phany (sole Sultan): only two incumbents 188x–189x - On Mwali (Mohéli island) from 1886; then 1889–1912 filled by the above résidents of Anjouan - On Wallis and Futuna, after a single French Representative styled chargé de mission (7 April 1887 – 26 June 1888, Maurice Antoine Chauvot), there was a long list of Residents from 7 April 1887; since 3 October 1961, when both islands were joined as the Wallis & Futuna overseas territory, their successors were styled Administrateur supérieur 'Administrator-superior', but the native dynasties remain; they represented the French government by virtue of the protectorate treaties with the Tui (ruler) of `Uvea (Wallis island, 5 April 1887; 27 November 1887 administratively attached to New Caledonia) and on 16 February 1888 with the two kingdoms on Futuna—Tu`a (also called Alo) and Sigave Résident supérieur This French title, meaning "Superior" (i.e. Senior) Resident, indicates that he had junior Residents BOO In Upper Volta (present Burkina Faso), which had its own Lieutenant governor (before) or Governor (after) and intermediately has been part of one or (carved up) more neighbouring French colonies, there has been one Résident-Superieur of "Upper Ivory Coast", 1 January 1938 – 29 July 1940, while it was part of the Côte d'Ivoire colony: Edmond Louveau - In Cambodia, where the local royal government was theoretically maintained, the resident at Phnom-Penh was the Resident-Superior, over the various Residents posted throughout Cambodia. The Resident-Superior of Cambodia answered to the Governor-General of French Indo-China German colonial Residents In the German colonies, the title was also Resident; the post was called Residentur. - in Wituland: Ahmed ibn Fumo Bakari, the first mfalume (sultan) of Witu (on the Kenyan coast), ceded 25 square miles (65 km2) of territory on 8 April 1885 to the brothers Clemens and Gustav Denhardt’s “Tana Company”, and the remainder of the Wituland became the German Schutzgebiet (Protectorate) of Wituland (Deutsch-Witu) on 27 May 1885. The Reich was represented there by the German Residents: Gustav Denhardt (b. 1856 – d. 1917; in office 8 April 1885 – 1 July 1890) and his deputy Clemens Andreas Denhardt (b. 1852 – d. 1928) until on 1 July 1890 imperial Germany renounces its protectorate, ceding the Wituland to Great Britain which had on 18 June 1890 declared it a British protectorate). - in German East Africa - Resident of Ruanda: 1906 – 15 November 1907 Werner von Grawert (d. 1918), formerly the last military district commander of Usumbura (the other district being Ujiji) - Resident of Urundi (present Burundi): 15 November 1907 – June 1916, starting with the same as above; formally accredited to the native Mwami (King; on 8 October 1905 the Germans recognized the already ruling Mwezi IV Gisabo as "Sultan" of Burundi and its only supreme authority) - Resident of Bukoba west of Lake Victoria overseeing an area of 32,200 km²; Portuguese colonial Residents - In Cabinda (in present Angola), five incumbents from 1885 (18 July 1885 Portuguese Congo district created after 14 February 1885 confirmation by the Berlin Conference of the 1883 Portuguese protectorate over "Portuguese Congo") to 1899 (end of autonomy under the Governors of Congo district which had its seat in Cabinda since 1887) - In the Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá (in present Benin), civil residents served from 1911 (withdrawal of the Portuguese military garrison) until 31 July 1961 (invasion of the fort by the Benin military forces) Residents-general (and their subordinate Residents) British Residents (-general) British Malay states and possessions At the "national" level of British Malaya, after the post of High Commissioners had been filled (1 July 1896 – 1 April 1946) by the governors of the Straits Settlements (see Singapore), Britain appointed the following Residents-general: - 1 July 1896–1901 Frank Athelstane Swettenham (b. 1850 – d. 1946; from 1897, Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham) - 1901–1904 William Hood Treacher (b. 1849 – d. 1919) - 1904–1910 Sir William Thomas Taylor (b. 1848 – d. 1931) - 1910–1911 Arthur Henderson Young (b. 1854 – d. 1938) Then there were various British Chief Secretaries 1911–1936 and two Federal Secretaries until 31 January 1942; after three Japanese Military governors, the British Governor (1 April 1946 – 1 February 1948) stayed on as first of four High Commissioners as de facto Governor-general of the Federation of Malaya until independence on 31 August 1957 saw the creation of an elective federal Paramount ruler styled Yang Dipertuan Agong (since 16 September 1961 with the addition bagi Malaysia). There were specific Residents accredited in most constituent Malay states: - 1885–1911 British Residents were appointed to the Sultans (until 1886 styled Maharaja) of Johore, an unfederated state until 1946; thereafter the British crown was represented by General Advisers until the Japanese occupation, finally by Commissioners 1945–1948 - 1888–1941 to the Yang Di Pertuan Besar (state's elective ruler) of the nine member-confederation Negeri Sembilan, which accepted a British protectorate in 1888 and acceded in 1896 to the Federation; again British Commissioners after the Japanese occupation - 1888–1938 British Residents were appointed to the Sultans (until 1882 styled Bendahara Seri Maharaja) of Pahang from the start of the British protectorate; again British Commissioners after the Japanese occupation - 1874–1941 British Residents to the Sultans of Perak as written in the Pangkor Treaty of 1874, since they exchanged Thai sovereignty for a British protectorate; since 1 July 1896 part of the Federated Malay States; after the Japanese occupation a single British Commissioner - 1875–1941 British Residents to the Sultans of Selangor during the Klang War, a year after accepting British protectorate (never under Thailand), 1 July 1896 part of Federated Malay States; after the Japanese occupation British Commissioners A similar position, under another title, was held in the other Malay states: - 1909–41 British Advisers replaced the Thai king's Advisers in the sultanate of Kedah, an unfederated state; after Japanese and Thai occupation, British Commissioners were appointed - 1903–41 British Advisers replaced Thai ones in the sultanate of Kelantan, an unfederated state; after Japanese and Thai occupation, British Commissioners were appointed - 1909–1941 British Advisers replaced Thai ones with the Rajas of Perlis, since the acceptance of British protectorate as an unfederated state instead of the Thai sovereignty (since the secession from Kedah) and were appointed again after Japanese and Thai occupation, until 1 April 1946 it joins the Malay Union (from 16 September 1963, Malaysia) - 1904–25 British Agents were appointed to the Sultans of Terengganu, i.e. even before the 9 July 1909 exchange of Thai sovereignty for a British protectorate as unfederated Malay state, then Advisers 1919–1941 (overlap merely both titles for the same incumbent); after Japanese and Thai occupation, British Commissioners were appointed. In the Straits Settlements, under direct British rule: - in Singapore, after two separate British Residents (7 February 1819 – December 1822 William Farquhar, then John Crawfurd), the Governors of the Straits Settlements filled the post 1826 – 15 February 1942; after four Japanese Military Administrators and two Japanese Mayors, a British Military Administrator 12 September 1945 – 1 April 1946, then four British Governors and the second incumbent stayed on as first of two gubernatorial 'Heads of state' styled yang di-pertuan negara, his Malay successor also becoming the first President after independence - In Malacca (Melaka), a former Dutch colony, seven consecutive British Residents were in office 1795–1818, followed by three Dutch governors; after the final inclusion in the British Strait Settlements, 1826, most were titled Resident Councillor, except the periode 1910–1920 reverting to the style Resident; after the Japanese occupation, Resident Commissioners took their place until the 1957 independence installed Malaysian Governors and Chief Ministers - In Penang (Pinang), after three Superintendents for the British East India Company (1786–1799; only Prince of Wales Island had yet been ceded to the British by the Sultan of Kedah), then two Lieutenant-governors (in 1801 Province Wellesley on the mainland was added) and many Governors after 1805 (since 1826 as part of the Strait Settlements), only Resident Councillorss were in office 1849–1941 (name Penang assumed in 1867); after four Japanese and since 1945 two British military governors, four Resident Commissioners 1946–1957, since then Malaysian-appointed "heads of state". but to the still sovereign Sultans of Brunei, lying between those larger states, British Residents were appointed 1906–1959 (interrupted by Japanese commander Masao Baba 6 January 1942 – 14 June 1945), afterwards only High Commissioners for the matters not transferred under autonomy (and 1971 self-government) until full independence went in force 1 January 1984. The French word is Résident-général. - In Morocco, accredited with the Sultan: Residents-general 28 April 1912 – 2 March 1956 (first incumbent previously military governor) - In Tunisia, accredited with the Basha Bey Residents-general 23 June 1885 – 31 August 1955; first incumbent was the last of the two previous Resident ministers - On Madagascar: 28 April 1886 – 31 July 1897 - In present Vietnam & Laos: Residents-general for Annam-Tonkin (at Hué) 11 June 1884 – 9 May 1889 - In Cambodia Residents-general 12 August 1885 – 16 May 1889; - later downgraded (under Hué) to Residents-superior 16 May 1889 – 15 October 1945 - several regional Résidents (Belgium mainly used French in the colonies; the word in its other official language, Dutch, is Resident-generaal) - Burundi (cfr. German above; there were Belgian Residents ): 1960 – 1 July 1962 Jean-Paul Harroy (b. 1909 – d. 1995), staying on after being its Belgian last Governor (and Deputy Governor-general of the Belgian Congo) Japanese (original title) In the protectorate Korea, accredited to the Choson Monarch (rendered as King or Emperor) 21 Dec 1905 – 1 Oct 1910 three incumbents, all Japanese peers (new western-type styles, rendered as: Marquess/Duke or Viscount); the last stayed on as the first Governor-General after full annexation to Japan Postcolonial Residents On occasion, residents were maintained, notably by former colonial powers, in territories in a transitional process to a new constitutional status, such as full independence. Such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. Thus after World War I, there were Residents in some mandate territories: - after the French and British occupation of the former German colony Kamerun (since 26 September 1914), Britain started appointing a long line of Residents (some were District Officer or Senior D.O., others Deputy Resident or Senior Resident) in its zone from 1916, even before the 28 June 1919 formal division into French and British Cameroons and the 20 July 1920 British Cameroons, League of Nations mandate; they continued in the 13 December 1946 created British Cameroons United Nations trust territory, until 31 December 1949; next a single Special Resident was appointed (although in 1949 Southern Cameroons was divided into two provinces: Bamenda, capital Bamenda, and Southern, capital Buea) until 1 October 1954 when British Cameroons became an autonomous part of Nigeria; next two Commissioners were appointed in stead, until on 1 October 1961 Southern British Cameroons was incorporated into the Republic of Cameroon (the former French Cameroun), the northern part was already united with Nigeria on 1 June 1961. - Present Jordan was part since 12 May 1920 of the British mandate of Palestine (under a British High Commissioner), but in August 1920 the British create autonomous local administrations in Ajlun, Salt, and Karak—with limited success; 11 April 1921 the Emirate of Transjordan (under British mandate); 26 May 1923 Transjordan formally separated from Palestine; 28 Feb 1928 Britain recognizes Transjordan mandate as independent, but maintains military and some financial control; 25 May 1946 proclamation of the Hashemite Kingdom (style Malik) of Transjordan (present Jordan); the 17 June 1946 formal independence from Britain finally ends the term of the last of four British Residents: - April 1921 – 21 November 1921 Albert Abramson (b. 1876 – d. 19..) - 21 November 1921 – April 1924 Harry St. John Bridger Philby (b. 1885 – d. 1960) - August 1924 – March 1939 Henry Cox (from 1937, Charles Henry Cox) (b. 1880 – d. 1953) - March 1939 – 17 June 1946 Alec Seath Kirkbride (b. 1897 – d. 1978) Also after World War II, and not only in former mandate territories; e.g. in parts of Libya, a former Italian colony, put under UN administration since 1946 prior to their unification as a Libyan kingdom, Britain maintained a Resident in Tripolitania April 1949 – 24 December 1951 and another in Cyrenaica 17 September 1949 – 24 December 1951, and France one in Fezzan 1950 – 24 December 1951. In a later phase a former colony could itself appoint such Residents, as India did 5 December 1950 – 16 May 1975 in its Himalayan protectorate Sikkim, then still an independent monarchy (afterwards absorbed into India as an additional constitutive state) where Britain had obtained a protectorate over the Maharaja in 1861, see above. Variations on the title - Government Resident: in Australia: - in the Northern Territory, under the authority of the Governor of New South Wales, after having been merely under Military Commanders: 3 March 1864 – 1 January 1911, at which date it became a separate territory but the last incumbent stayed on as first of six Administrators; then again 1 February 1927 Robert Hunter Weddell was Government Resident for North Australia, until from 12 June 1931. Administrators were (and still are) appointed, even after on 1 July 1978 self-government was granted. - 1 March 1927 – 12 June 1931, while the above was split, there were two consecutive incumbents for Central Australia - during the late 1860s, the title was often used in reference to Robert John Sholl, the chief government official in the North District of the Colony of Western Australia. Sholl, who was based in Roebourne, was officially responsible for all government matters in the northern part of the Colony. (His position was later downgraded to that of Resident Magistrate for Roebourne.) - Resident Administrator: in Australia: on Lord Howe Island, repeatedly: - at least two incumbent 1869–1882 (the first before the settlement started in 1834 was included in New South Wales; in 1878 the island was declared a forest reserve, reclassified botanic reserve in 1883; since 1913 this had a Local Advisory Committee); next came non-resident Magistrates and non-resident Chairmen of a Control Board in Sidney, then two Superintendents August 1940–1945; - again (incumbents not known) 1945–1953, then again Chairmen of the newly created Lord Howe Island Board; since 1982 the island is a UNESCO World Heritage site Other uses - In espionage, resident (or rezident) may be used to refer to the head or representative of a country's intelligence services in a foreign country, often within an Embassy. - In the U.S. and Canada, the term "chief resident" applies to a physician who is appointed to act as head of the residents in his or her hospital, program or department. See also Sources and references - This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. (passim) - WorldStatesmen here India—see also its Princely States and other present countries mentioned or the pages for polities there - RoyalArk various mentions, usually in the extensive genealogies, in various states

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The Naval Museum is located in San Sebastian's port, in a building constructed in the mid-18th century as the headquarters for the association of San Sebastian's merchants and sailors. The museum is devoted to the study of the long relationship that has existed between the Basques and the sea, with a special focus on the technological evolution the naval field has undergone. It has a collection of carpentry tools, ship replicas, and navigational instruments, which give an idea of the contributions Basques have made to the trades of the sea. The museum has a specialized library, video library and archive, as well as guided tours to adult and school groups. Educational, Tours, Arts & Museums

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|Browse All Terms| |Beginning With||By Language| |A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z :: All|| A co-enzyme important in various biochemical reactions. It comprises a phosphorylated vitamin B2 (riboflavin) molecule linked to the nucleotide adenine monophosphate (AMP). It functions as a hydrogen acceptor in dehydrogenation reactions, being reduced to FADH2. This in turn is oxidized to FAD by the electron transport chain, thereby generating ATP (two molecules of ATP per molecule of FADH2). Publication Source: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Publication Date: 1999 Do you have a term that should be included in the glossary? Submit a term for review

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Oxygen therapies comprise a group of unproven alternatives promoted as cures for cancer and other degenerative diseases, such as HIV/AIDS. In the case of cancer, it is claimed that tumors thrive in oxygen-poor environments, that cancerous tissues can be reoxygenated by a variety of therapeutic means, and that the process of oxygenation destroys the aberrant cells. The justification for this approach appears to stem from the work of Nobel laureate physician Otto Warburg, who discovered in the 1930s that tumor cells use oxygen differently and respire more slowly than normal cells. These treatments, which typically involve introducing additional oxygen into the body in liquid or pill form, are currently available in the United States, Mexico, and Europe. Oxygen therapy is administered in other ways as well, including intravenously, via colonic delivery of hydrogen peroxide(Drug information on hydrogen peroxide), and by infusion of ozone-treated blood. There is no scientific evidence to support claims that anaerobic conditions cause cancer, that oxygen is absorbed by the digestive system, or that oxygen treatments have any efficacy in the treatment of disease. Serious adverse effects and at least five fatalities associated with oxygen therapies have been reported. Energy therapies are premised on the existence of energy fields around the human body. It is believed that these fields can be manipulated to treat disease and restore health. Such manipulations typically are carried out through one of two modalities: by healers using techniques such as “therapeutic touch,” which actually involves no touch, or by the application of electromagnetic energy from special devices. Neither the existence of such energy fields nor the ability to manipulate them for greater health is supported by scientific evidence. Therapeutic touch is a technique commonly practiced by nurses in the United States and other countries; in this technique, the healer passes his or her hands several inches above a patient’s body to sweep away “blockages” in the free flow of the patient’s “energy.” Known also by several other terms, such as biofield therapy, healing touch, and energy therapy, the technique may provide emotional benefit, but it lacks biological plausibility as a treatment for disease and is unproven. Still, some practitioners claim the ability to treat cancer in this way. According to HealingTouchInternational.org, one of numerous such organizations, “Healing Touch is a relaxing, nurturing energy therapy...that...works with your energy field to support your natural ability to heal.” There are many energy healers who sell their one-on-one services to cancer patients. Healers often market themselves as “miracle workers,” capable of healing cancer and other diseases. Such healers also offer long-distance healing, esoteric tutoring, energy clearing, and the like. An Internet site which posits that “Cancer-Healer” therapy is best claims: “No side effects such as hair loss, infections, pain, vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, weight loss, mouth-sores and loss of appetite. No damage to normal cells. Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy kill normal cells in addition to cancer cells.” Energy healing training also is available. The digital age brought computers and technology into the realm of questionable cancer treatments. Many types of unproven electronic devices are available; all promise to diagnose and treat cancer and other diseases with the use of electromagnetic fields and currents. These therapies frequently are described in pseudoscientific language borrowed from scientific biophysical concepts. Bioresonance therapy, for example, is based on the unsupported premise that cancer cells and other diseased tissues emit “electromagnetic oscillations” that vary from those generated by healthy cells. Bioresonance devices are said to cancel out or otherwise replace these negative oscillations with healthy ones, thus supporting the body’s own healing processes. One such machine, the BICOM 2000, is said to pick up “frequency patterns” from the patient’s body. According to the manufacturer’s website, the device “is equipped with special electronics which...transform the modulated frequency patterns from the device into ‘bioresonance magnetic frequency patterns.’” These patterns are then transmitted into the patient’s body as the therapy. Despite its claims, a disclaimer on the website notes that this therapy “has not been subject to scientific research and is, therefore, not yet approved.” Another device in this category, known alternately as the Quantum Xrroid Interface System (QXCI), EPFX, or SCIO, is said to balance the body’s “bio-energetic forces.” Neither the existence of such forces nor an ability to manipulate them has been documented scientifically. The creator of this device fled to Hungary after being indicted on charges of fraud in the United States but still sells his machine internationally from abroad. In 2008, the FDA banned importation of the device, although it is still used by US practitioners and is purchased by patients in North America. The American Cancer Society strongly cautions cancer patients against using such devices for treatment. Emotional Stress and Mind/Body Techniques Many alternative approaches to healing are premised on the concept of the mind/body connection, and specifically on the theory that patients can harness the power of their mind to heal their physical ills. Many mind/body techniques, such as meditation and biofeedback, have been shown to reduce stress and promote relaxation, and are effectively and appropriately used as complementary therapies today. However, some proponents of these techniques overpromise, suggesting that emotional stress or other emotional issues can cause diseases like cancer and that correction of these deficiencies through mind-body therapies can effectively treat major illnesses. Such claims are unsupported. Many of these ideas were promoted by a former Yale surgeon, a popular author who advocated special cancer patient support groups in his books. The importance of a positive attitude was stressed, as was the idea that disease could spring from unmet emotional needs. This belief anguished many cancer patients, who assumed responsibility for getting cancer because of an imperfect emotional status. Among alternative modalities, the mind/body approach has been especially persistent over time, possibly in part because it resonates with the American notion of rugged individualism. A related approach, which claims a direct link between the emotional and physical self, is promoted by Ryke Geerd Hamer in his “German New Medicine.” This philosophy asserts that “every disease is caused by a shock experience that catches us completely off guard,” and that this emotional shock instantaneously leads to a physical change in the brain, reportedly causing “a lesion that is clearly visible on a brain scan.” The affected area of the brain is then said to trigger cancer, tissue degeneration, or other problems in the organ system it controls, with the specific nature of the disease “determined by the exact type of conflict shock.”[33,34] The treatment focuses on resolving the initial “psychic shock” and overcoming fear of one’s diagnosis, which paves the way for the body to heal itself. This modality has no biological basis or evidence to support its claims, but is widely disseminated, producing some 175,000 results when searched on Google. Finally, chronic disease patients may turn to personal prayer or intercessory prayer in hopes of curing cancer and other serious illnesses. Although prayer is harmless—and very helpful to many when used in conjunction with appropriate mainstream treatment—some patients elect to forgo mainstream care in the hope that prayer alone will heal them. A 2009 Cochrane review found that, although certain individual studies suggest some benefit from intercessory prayer, there is no clear evidence that it has any impact on clinical outcome. Prayer may be useful, but not as an alternative to mainstream cancer treatment. Quackery is an ancient problem, depicted in art perhaps most famously in the 17th century by Jan Steen in his painting “The Charlatan” (“Quacksalver”—from which we get the term “quackery”). Some quacks are true charlatans, while others are believers in what they preach. Both, however, promote unproven or disproved alternative therapies as “cures” for disease. Unfortunately, there is no shortage of patients willing to embark on these questionable and often very expensive treatment plans. Desperate patients and their loved ones—especially when facing serious or untreatable illness—are inclined to believe in miracles. Unproven approaches are dangerous to patients. Even when the therapy itself does not harm, people too often choose to shun conventional treatment entirely and replace it with an alternative treatment that does nothing to diminish their disease. Public education can help, along with knowledgeable doctors who are familiar enough with alternative approaches to successfully guide patients away from them. With science-based treatment options achieving ever-greater cure rates, quack treatments may eventually lose their appeal. Financial Disclosure: The authors have no significant financial interest or other relationship with the manufacturers of any products or providers of any service mentioned in this article.

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Tiny Wiki : Fast loading, text only version of Wikipedia. Blitzkrieg (German, "lightning war"; ) is "a headline word applied retrospectively to ''describe'' a military doctrine of an all-mechanized force concentrating its attack on a small section of the enemy front then, once the latter is broken, proceeding without regard to its flank." During the interwar period, aircraft and tank technologies matured and were combined with systematic application of the German tactics of infiltration and bypassing of enemy strong points. When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Western journalists adopted the term ''Blitzkrieg'' to describe this form of armored warfare. "''Blitzkrieg''" operations worked in the German invasions of Western Europe and initial operations in the Soviet Union. These operations were dependent on surprise penetrations (e.g. the penetration of the Ardennes forest region), general enemy unpreparedness and an inability to react swiftly enough to the attacker's offensive operations. Only later, during the invasion of the Soviet Union, would the flaws of "''blitzkrieg''" come to be realized. In France and Poland, the foot-bound infantry had been, at most, a few hours behind the armored spearheads. In the vast, open Russian steppe, delays of hours would become days. The Allies, both in the West and the Soviet Union, would realise the failings of "''Blitzkrieg''" warfare. There has been a great deal of debate about whether "''Blitzkrieg"'' existed as a coherent military strategy. Many historians now hold the position that "''Blitzkrieg'''" was not a theory at all, and the campaigns conducted by the German military in 1939 to circa, 1942 (with the exception of ''Operation Barbarossa'') were improvised invasions put together and modified at the last moment and therefore was not a proper military strategy. In the past "''Blitzkrieg''" has also been hailed as a Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA). In recent years the majority of historians have come to the conclusion it was not a new form of warfare invented by the German military, but an old method of pursuing decisive battles using new technology. [Citino 2005, p. 311.] What is Blitzkrieg? Common interpretation of "Blitzkrieg" The classic interpretation of German tactical and operational methodology in the first half of the Second World War is deemed to be that it was a new method of warfare. The word, meaning "lightning war", was associated with a deliberate strategy of quick and decisive short battles to deliver a knock out blow to an enemy state before it could fully mobilize. To do this the economy would not be fully mobilised to avoid disruption to civilian life as much as possible. Instead "superior" armaments and communications would achieve victory on the basis of quality rather than quantity. The method of this so-called "''Blitzkrieg'' strategy", was to use fifth columnists behind enemy lines to disrupt enemy communications which would be followed by massive air strikes to paralyze enemy movement and defenses. The next phase of the assault envisaged an attack by a fully motorised and mechanized army which would initiate deep thrusts into the defenders strategic depths with the aim of encircling the main forces and destroying them to achieve a rapid, decisive victory. Problems with the interpretation There is a widespread belief in the English-speaking world that during the period between the two world wars the Germans evolved a new doctrine or concept which they termed ''Blitzkrieg'', and which they put into practice with devastating effect in 1939–41. Such a view has been accepted not only by journalists and popular writers (amongst whom it originated) but by some of the most eminent academic authorities. In an essay published in 1965, the then Captain Robert O’Neill, Professor of the History of War at the Oxford University, summarized with great clarity and conciseness an interpretation which appears already to have become the orthodoxy. Writing on ''Doctrine and Training in the German Army 1919–1939'' for a Sir Basil Liddell Hart O’Neill stated: What makes this story worth telling is the development of one idea: the ''Blitzkrieg''. The German Army had a greater grasp of the effects of technology on the battlefield, and went on to develop a new form of warfare by which its rivals when it came to the test were hopelessly outclassed. Some historians were prepared to go even further, claiming that ''Blitzkrieg'' was not merely an operational doctrine of the German armed forces but a strategic concept on which the leadership of the ''Third Reich'' based its strategic and economic planning. Those who made the ''Third Reich’s'' military plans and organized its war economy appear rarely, if ever, to have employed the term ''Blitzkrieg'' in official documents. The idea that the German army operated on a "''Blitzkrieg'' doctrine" was vigorously attacked in the late 1970s by Matthew Cooper. The concept of a ''Blitzkrieg'' ''Luftwaffe'' was challenged by Richard Overy in the late 1970s and by Williamson Murray in the mid-1980s. The thesis that the ''Third Reich'' went to war on the basis of "''Blitzkrieg''" economics" was attacked by Richard Overy in the 1980s and Historian George Raudzens highlighted the many, somewhat conflicting, senses in which historians have used the word. Yet not only does the notion of a German ''Blitzkrieg'' concept or doctrine survive in popular consciousness and popular literature, it persists with many professional historians. Academic monographs continue to appear which purport to explore the "evolution" or "roots" of ''Blitzkrieg'', (such as James Corum's ''The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform''), a concept taken for granted and not clearly defined. The origins of the term Blitzkrieg are obscure. It was never used in the title of a military doctrine or handbook of the German army or air force. It seems rarely to have been used in the German military press before 1939. Recent research conducted at the German military historical institute at Freiburg has found only two military articles from the 1930s in which it is employed. Neither article advocates any radically new military doctrine or approach to war. Both use the term simply to mean a swift strategic knockout. The first, published in 1935, deals primarily with food(and to a lesser extent with raw material) supplies in wartime. The term ''Blitzkrieg'' is here employed with reference to Germany’s efforts to win a quick victory in the First World War and is not associated with the use of armoured or mechanized forces or with airpower. The argument is that Germany must develop self-sufficiency in food supplies because it might again prove impossible to deal a swift knockout to her enemies and a protracted total war might prove unavoidable. The second article, published in 1938, states that launching a swift strategic knockout has great attractions for Germany but appears to accept that such a knockout will be very difficult to achieve by land attack under modern conditions (especially in view of the existence of systems of fortification like the Maginot Line) unless an exceptionally high degree of surprise is achieved. The author vaguely suggests that a massive strategic air attack might hold out better prospects, but that topic is not explored in any detail. Another relatively early use of the term in a German-language work was in a book by Fritz Sternberg, a Jewish Marxist political economist who was a refugee from the ''Third Reich''. Entitled ''Die Deutsche Kriegsstärke'' (German War Strength), it was published in Paris in 1939. It had been preceded by an English-language edition of 1938 called Germany and a Lightning War. The German edition uses the term ''Blitzkrieg''. The book’s argument is that Germany is not prepared economically for a long war but might win a lightning war. It does not treat in any detail operational and tactical matters, and does not suggest that the German armed forces have evolved a radically new operational method. It offers scant clues as to how German lightning victories might be won. In his book, ''The Blitzkrieg Legend'', German historian Karl-Heinz Frieser refered to the notion of 'Blitzkrieg' as "a world wide delusion". Frieser, in agreement with Overy, Cooper and others that reject the existence of a Blitzkrieg doctrine, argues that after the failure of the Schlieffen Plan in 1914, the German Army came to the conclusion decisive battles could not be executed on a strategic level. This meant the idea of one early large scale offensive could not bring about a knockout blow. Frieser argues that the OKW had intended to avoid the decisive battle concepts of its predecessors and planned for a long all out war of attrition. It was only after the hastily improvised plan for the invasion of Western Europe in 1940 and its successful conclusion, which led the German General Staff to believe that decisive battles were not obsolete. It was only after the Battle of France German thinking reverted to the possibility of a Blitzkrieg method for the Balkan Campaign and ''Operation Barbarossa''. Opposition to the existence of "Blitzkrieg" The position of most academic literature regards ''Blitzkrieg'' as a myth. The notion the the ''Third Reich'' developed a ''Blitzkrieg'' strategy to achieve its total aims has been widely attacked. Historians Shimon Naveh and Richard Overy reject the idea that "''Blitzkrieg''" was a military doctrine. Naveh states, "The striking feature of the ''Blitzkrieg'' concept is the complete absence of a coherent theory which should have served as the general cognitive basis for the actual conduct of operations". Naveh described it as an "ad hoc solution" to operational dangers, thrown together at the last moment. Richard Overy also rejected the idea that Hitler and the Nazi regime ever intended a "''Blitzkrieg''" war. The suggestion that the German state intentionally streamlined its economy to carry out its grand strategy in a series of short campaigns in the near future was false. In fact Hitler intended to start an unlimited war, at a much later date than 1939. But the ''Third Reich's'' foreign policy had forced the Nazi state into war before it had fully prepared. Hitler's, and the ''Wehrmacht's'' planning attitudes during the 1930s do not reflect a "''Blitzkrieg''" method, but the exact opposite. Historian J. P Harris has pointed out that the Germans never used the word "''Blitzkrieg"''. It was never used in any German military field manual, either in the Army or the Air Force. It first appeared in September 1939, by a ''Times'' newspaper reporter. Harris also rejects that German military thinking developed any kind of "''Blitzkrieg''" mentality. In his book the ''Blitzkrieg Legend'', German historian Karl-Heinz Frieser also shares Overy's and Naveh's concerns over the myth of the "''Blitzkrieg''" economic and strategy. Moreover Frieser states that surviving German economists and members of the German General Staff have denied Germany went to war based on a ''Blitzkrieg'' strategy. The myth of the Blitzkrieg Economic The German armament industry did not mobilize until 1944, and this has led to some historians in the 1960s, particularly Alan Milward, to develop a theory of "''Blitzkrieg''" economics. Milward argued the German Reich could not fight a long war, so, it deliberately refrained from arming in depth to armament in breadth to enable it to win a series of quick victories. Milward alleged an economy positioned between a full war economy and a peacetime economy. In fact this was completely contrary to Hitler's and German planners' intentions. It was their fear of the spectre of 1914 that emerged victorious in the conflict of goals between armament in breadth for a short war and armament in depth for a feared long war. The Germans were aware of the error of the First World War, and rejected the concept of orientating its economy geared to fighting only a short war. Hitler proclaimed to rely on surprise alone was "criminal", and that "we have to prepare for a long war along with surprise attack". [Frieser 2005, p. 26.] During the winter of 1939–40, Hitler decreased the size of the fighting manpower in order to return as many skilled workers to the factories as was possible. It was realised that the war would be decided in the factories, not a quick-decision "Panzer operation". [Frieser 2005, p. 26.] Throughout the 1930s Hitler had ordered rearmament program that cannot be considered limited. In November 1937 Hitler had indicated that most of the armament projects would be completed by 1943–45. [Overy 1995, p. 195.] The rearmament of the ''Kriegsmarine'' was to have been completed in 1949, the ''Luftwaffe'' rearmament program was to have been completed in 1942 with a force capable of carrying out strategic bombing using heavy bombers. [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] The construction and training of motorised forces and a full mobilisation of the rail networks would not begin until 1943 and 1944 respectively. [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] Hitler needed to avoid war until these projects were complete. Hitler's misjudgements in 1939 forced him into war before he was able to complete rearmament. [Overy 1995, p. 195.] The myth of a 'Blitzkrieg Wehrmacht' The "Blitzkrieg method called for a young, highly skilled mechanized army. In 1939–40, 45 percent of the army was 40 years old, and 50 percent of all the soldiers had just a few weeks training. [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] The German Army, contrary to what the "Blitzkrieg" legend suggests, was not fully motorised. The German Army could muster only 120,000 vehicles compared to the 300,000 of the French Army. The British also had an "enviable" contingent of motorised forces. [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] Thus, "the image of the German "Blitzkrieg" army is a figment of propaganda imagination". [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] During the First World War the German army used horses for logistics, 1.4 million of them, in the 1939–45 war it used 2.7 million horses. Moreover just 10 percent of the Army was motorised in 1940. [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] Half of the German divisions available in 1940 were combat ready, [Frieser 2005, p. 29.] often being more poorly equipped than the British and French Armies, as well as the German Army of 1914. [Frieser 2005, p. 30.] In the spring, 1940, the German army was semi-modern. [Frieser 2005, p. 30.] A small number of the best equipped and "elite divisions were offset by many second and third rate divisions". [Frieser 2005, p. 30.] Apart from the few motorised and Panzer Divisions, 90 percent of the German Army was not "a "''Blitzkrieg''" army. [Frieser 2005, p. 30.] Old methods using new technology "''Blitzkrieg''" was not new. The Germans did not invent something called "''Blitzkrieg'' in the 1920s and 1930s. [Citino 2005, p. 311.] Rather the German concept of wars of movement stem from the examples of Prussia and the German wars of unification. [Citino 2005, p. 311.] The attempt to repeat the success of these deliberate, quick, and lively wars in the Schlieffen plan of 1914 failed. [Citino 2005, p. 311.] The ensuing ''Stellungskrieg'' had bled the German Army white. The appearance of the aircraft and tank in the First World War, often hailed as a revolution in military affairs (RMA), offered the German military a chance to get back to the traditional war of movement as practiced by Moltke the Elder. [Citino 2005, p. 311.] The so called "''Blitzkrieg''" campaigns of 1939 – circa, 1942, were well within that operational context. [Citino 2005, p. 311.] The German army at the outbreak of war had no radically new theory of war called Blitzkrieg or called anything else. In essence the operational thinking of the German army had changed surprisingly little since the First World War, indeed since the late 19th century. Nor, for that matter, had German strategic thinking changed. The Germans had always had a marked preference for short, decisive campaigns. It was just that they could not generaily manage to achieve short-order victories in First World War conditions. What made the difference, transforming the stalemate of the First World War into tremendous initial operational and strategic success in the Second, was partly the employment of a relatively small number of mechanized divisions, most importantly the Panzer divisions, and the support of an exceptionally powerful air force. Roots of German military methods Development of German tactical methods President Hindenburg attends a guard of honor of the Reichswehr, 1926. Reichswehr companies marching along the Wilhelmstrasse in honour of Hindenburg's 85th birthday, October 1932 German operational theories began to evolve immediately after Germany's defeat in the First World War. The Treaty of Versailles limited any German Army to a maximum of 100,000 men, making impossible the deployment of massed troops which had characterized German strategy before the War. Although the German General Staff was also abolished by the treaty, it nevertheless continued to exist as the Truppenamt or "Troop Office", supposedly only an administrative body. Committees of veteran staff officers were formed within the Truppenamt to evaluate 57 issues of the war. Their reports led to doctrinal and training publications, which became the standard procedures by the time of the Second World War. The Reichswehr was influenced by its analysis of pre-war German military thought, in particular the infiltration tactics which at the end of the war had seen some breakthroughs in the Western Front's trench war, and the maneuver warfare which dominated the Eastern Front. Return to Prussian and 19th Century methodology German military history had previously been influenced by Carl von Clausewitz, Alfred von Schlieffen and von Moltke the Elder, who were proponents of maneuver, mass, and envelopment. Their concepts were employed in the successful Franco-Prussian War and the attempted “knock-out blow” of the Schlieffen Plan in WW I. Following the war, these concepts were modified by the Reichswehr in the light of First World War experience. Its Chief of Staff, Hans von Seeckt, moved doctrine away from what he argued was an excessive focus on encirclement towards one based on speed. He advocated effecting breakthroughs against the enemy's center when it was more profitable than encirclement, or where encirclement was not practical. Under his command, a modern update of the doctrinal system called ''Bewegungskrieg'' ("maneuver warfare") and its associated leadership system called ''Auftragstaktik'' ("mission tactics"; i.e., units are assigned missions; local commanders decide how to achieve those missions) was developed, which influenced German operational planning early in the Second World War. ''Bewegungskrieg'' required a new command hierarchy that allowed military decisions to be made closer to the unit level. This allowed units to react and make effective decisions faster, which was a critical advantage and a major reason for the success of "''Blitzkrieg''". Von Seekt and opposition Von Seekt also rejected the notion of mass which von Schlieffen and von Moltke had advocated. While reserves had comprised up to four-tenths of German forces in pre-war campaigns, von Seeckt sought the creation of a small, professional (volunteer) military backed by a defense-oriented militia. In modern warfare, he argued, such a force was more capable of offensive action, could be readied and mobilized more quickly, and would be less expensive to equip with more modern weapons. The German leadership had also been criticized for failing to understand the technical advances of the First World War, having given tank production the lowest priority and having conducted no studies of the machine gun prior to that war. In response, German officers attended technical schools during this period of rebuilding after the war. The infiltration tactics developed by the German Army during the First World War became the basis for later tactics. German infantry had advanced in small, decentralized groups which bypassed resistance in favour of advancing at weak points and attacking rear-area communications. This was aided by coordinated artillery and air bombardments, and followed by larger infantry forces with heavy guns, which destroyed centers of resistance. These concepts formed the basis of the Wehrmacht's tactics during the Second World War. On Eastern Front of World War I, where combat did not bog down into trench warfare, German and Russian armies fought a war of maneuver over thousands of miles, giving the German leadership unique experience which the trench-bound Western Allies did not have. Studies of operations in the East led to the conclusion that small and coordinated forces possessed more combat worth than large, uncoordinated forces. Controversy over foreign influence During this period, all the war's major combatants developed mechanized force theories. However, the official doctrines of the Western Allies differed substantially from those of the Reichswehr. British, French, and American doctrines broadly favoured a more deliberate set-piece battle, using mechanized forces to maintain the impetus and momentum of an offensive. There was less emphasis on combined arms, deep penetration or concentration. In short, their philosophy was not too different from that which they had at the end of World War I. Although early Reichswehr periodicals contained many translated works from Allied sources, they were rarely adopted. Technical advances in foreign countries were, however, observed and used in part by the Weapons Office of the Reichswehr. Foreign doctrines are widely considered to have had little serious influence. British theorists J.F.C. Fuller and Captain B. H. Liddell Hart have often been associated with the development of blitzkrieg, though this is a matter of controversy. In recent years historians have uncovered that Liddell Hart distorted and falsified facts to make it appear as if his ideas were adopted. [Naveh 1997, p. 108.] After the war Liddell Hart imposed his own perceptions, after the event, claiming that the mobile tank warfare practiced by the ''Wehrmacht'' was a result of his influence. ''Blitzkrieg'' itself is not an official doctrine and historians in recent times have come to the conclusion it did not exist as such: It was the opposite of a doctrine. Blitzkrieg consisted of an avalanche of actions that were sorted out less by design and more by success. In hindsight—and with some help from Liddell Hart—this torrent of action was squeezed into something it never was: an operational design. By "manipulation and contrivance, Liddell Hart distorted the actual circumstances of the Blitzkrieg formation and he obscured its origins. Through his indoctrinated idealization of an ostentatious concept he reinforced the myth of ''Blitzkrieg''". By imposing, retrospectively, his own perceptions of mobile warfare upon the shallow concept of ''Blitzkrieg'', he "created a theoretical imbroglio that has taken 40 years to unravel." The early 1950s literature transformed ''Blitzkrieg'' into a historical military doctrine, which carried the signature of Liddell Hart and Heinz Guderian. The main evidence of Liddell Hart's deceit and "tendentious" report of history can be found in his letters to the German Generals Erich von Manstein and Heinz Guderian, as well as relatives and associates of Erwin Rommel. Liddell Hart, in letters to Guderian, "imposed his own fabricated version of ''Blitzkrieg'' on the latter and compelled him to proclaim it as original formula". Historian Kenneth Macksey found Liddell Hart's original letters to Guderian, in the General's papers, requesting that Guderian give him credit for "impressing him" with his ideas of armoured warfare. When Liddell Hart was questioned about this in 1968, and the discrepancy between the English and German editions of Guderian's memoirs, "he gave a conveniently unhelpful though strictly truthful reply. ('There is nothing about the matter in my file of correspondence with Guderian himself except...that I thanked him...for what he said in that additional paragraph'.)". During World War I, Fuller had been a staff officer attached to the newly-developed tank force, and was instrumental in planning the 1917 Battle of Cambrai, the first large-scale armoured offensive. He later developed plans for massive, independent tank operations and was subsequently studied by the German military. It is variously argued that Fuller's wartime plans and post-war writings were an inspiration, or that his readership was low and German experiences during the war received more attention. The Germans' view of themselves as the losers of the war may be linked to the senior and experienced officers' undertaking a thorough review, studying, and rewriting of all their Army doctrine and training manuals. The UK's response was much weaker. Both Fuller and Liddell Hart were "outsiders": Liddell Hart was unable to serve as an active soldier because of ill-health, and Fuller's abrasive personality resulted in his premature retirement in 1933. Their views therefore had limited impact within the British Army's official hierarchy. The British War Office did permit the formation of an Experimental Mechanized Force on 1 May 1927, composed of tanks, lorried infantry, self propelled artillery and motorized engineers, but financial constraints prevented the experiment from being extended. Although the British Army's lessons were mainly drawn from the infantry and artillery offensives on the Western Front in late 1918, one "sideshow" theatre had witnessed operations that involved some aspects of what would later become blitzkrieg. In Palestine, General Edmund Allenby had used cavalry to seize railway and communication centers deep in the enemy rear in the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918, while aircraft disrupted enemy lines of communication and headquarters. These methods had induced "strategic paralysis" among the defending Ottoman troops and led to their rapid and complete collapse. A comparatively less-discussed development was the recognition by Allied industrial and political figures (rather than military leaders), that maintenance of momentum required new methods and equipment. The British Ministry of Munitions under Winston Churchill was seeking in 1918 to develop mechanical means of achieving this. They planned to construct large numbers of vehicles with cross-country mobility, but the war ended before their efforts bore fruit. French doctrine was based on the "continuous defence". During World War I, even where defensive lines appeared to have been completely broken, such as during Operation Michael or the Battle of Amiens, the defenders could move reserves to the threatened sector by rail or motorized transport faster than attackers advancing on foot could exploit a breakthrough. Under Marshal Philippe Petain, French military doctrine concentrated on perfecting the defensive methods of 1918. Colonel Charles de Gaulle was a known advocate of concentration of armor and airplanes. His opinions were expressed in his book, ''Vers l'Armée de Métier'' (Towards the Professional Army). Like von Seeckt, he concluded that France could no longer maintain the huge armies of conscripts and reservists with which World War I had been fought, and sought to use tanks, mechanized forces and aircraft to allow a smaller number of highly trained soldiers to have greater impact in battle. His views little endeared him to the French high command, but are claimed by some to have influenced Heinz Guderian. [[http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article_print.php?id_article=20 1925–1940 : un officier anticonformiste - © www.charles-de-gaulle.org]] In 1916, General Alexei Brusilov had used infiltration tactics and surprise during the Brusilov Offensive. Later, Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky, one of the most prominent officers of the Red Army of the Soviet Union during the inter-war years, developed the concept of deep operations from his experiences of the Polish-Soviet War. These concepts would guide Red Army doctrine throughout World War II. Realising the limitations of infantry and cavalry, Tukhachevsky was an advocate of mechanized formations, and the large-scale industrialization required. However, scholarly opinion states that "''Blitzkrieg''" hold little in common with Soviet deep battle. The Reichswehr and the Red Army collaborated in war games and tests in Kazan and Lipetsk beginning in 1926. Set within the Soviet Union, these two centers were used to field test aircraft and armored vehicles up to the battalion level, as well as housing aerial and armored warfare schools through which officers were rotated. This was done in the Soviet Union, in secret, to evade the Treaty of Versailles's occupational agent, the Inter-Allied Commission. Guderian in the Wehrmacht Following Germany's military reforms of the 1920s, Heinz Guderian emerged as a strong proponent of mechanized forces. Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work. Guderian claimed there was opposition from many officers who gave primacy to the infantry or simply doubted the usefulness of the tank. Among them, Guderian claimed, was Chief of the General Staff Ludwig Beck (1935–38), who he alleged was skeptical that armored forces could be decisive. This claim has been disputed by later historians. For example, James Corum stated: Guderian expressed a hearty contempt for General Ludwig Beck, chief of the General Staff from 1935 to 1938, whom he characterized as hostile to ideas of modern mechanized warfare: [Corum quoting Guderian] "He [Beck] was a paralyzing element wherever he appeared....[S]ignificantly of his way of thought was his much-boosted method of fighting which he called delaying defense". The is a crude caricature of a highly competent general who authored Army Regulation 300 (Troop Leadership) in 1933, the primary tactical manual of the German Army in World War II, and under whose direction the first three panzer divisions were created in 1935, the largest such force in the world of the time. Another misconception, enhanced by Guderian's own account, that he was the sole creater of German tactical and operational methodology is also misleading. Between 1922 and 1928 Guderian wrote very few articles of barely more than a page or two concerning military movement. Guderian's ''Acthung! Panzer!'' (1937) relied heavily on other theorists such as Ludwig Ritter von Eimmannsberger, whose major book, ''The Tank War'' (''Der Kampfwagenkrieg'') (1934) gained a wide audience in the German Army. [Corum 1992, p. 139.] Another theorist, Ernst Volckheim, was also used by Guderian, and wrote a huge amount on tank and combined arms tactics, and is not acknowledged by Guderian. Guderian's leadership was supported, fostered and institutionalized by his supporters in the Reichswehr General Staff system, which worked the Army to greater and greater levels of capability through massive and systematic Movement Warfare war games in the 1930s. Guderian argued that the tank was the decisive weapon of war. "If the tanks succeed, then victory follows", he wrote. In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote "until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for land attack." Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that "since reserve forces will now be motorized, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war." He continued, "We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made." Guderian additionally required that tactical radios be widely used to facilitate co-ordination and command by having one installed in all tanks. After becoming head of state in 1934, Adolf Hitler ignored the Versailles Treaty provisions. A command for armored forces was created within the German Wehrmacht; the ''Panzertruppe'', as it came to be known later. The Luftwaffe, the German air force, was re-established, and development begun on ground-attack aircraft and doctrines. Hitler was a strong supporter of this new strategy. He read Guderian's book Achtung - Panzer! and upon observing armored field exercises at Kummersdorf he remarked “That is what I want—and that is what I will have.” Guderian's armored concept Heinz Guderian was probably the first to fully develop and advocate the principles associated with blitzkrieg. He summarized combined-arms tactics as the way to get the mobile and motorized armored divisions to work together and support each other in order to achieve decisive success. In his book, ''Panzer Leader'', he wrote: Guderian believed that developments in technology were required to support the theory; especially equipping armored divisions — tanks foremost, with wireless communications. Guderian insisted in 1933 to the high command that every tank in the German armored force must be equipped with radio. Spanish Civil War German volunteers first used armor in live field conditions during the Spanish Civil War of 1936. Armor commitment consisted of Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of PzKpfw I tanks that functioned as a training cadre for Nationalists. The Luftwaffe deployed squadrons of fighters, dive-bombers, and transports as the ''Condor Legion''. Guderian said that the tank deployment was “on too small a scale to allow accurate assessments to be made.” The true test of his “armored idea” would have to wait for the Second World War. However, the ''Luftwaffe'' also provided volunteers to Spain to test both tactics and aircraft in combat, including the first combat use of the ''Stuka''. During the war, the ''Condor Legion'' undertook the bombing of Guernica which had a tremendous psychological effect on the populations of Europe. The results were exaggerated, and the Western Allies concluded that the "city-busting" techniques were now a part of the German way in war. The targets of the German aircraft were actually the rail lines and bridges. But lacking the ability to hit them with accuracy (only three or four Ju 87s saw action in Spain), a method of carpet bombing was chosen resulting in heavy civilian casualties. Methods of operations The Germans referred to a ''Schwerpunkt'' (focal point and also known as ''Schwerpunktprinzip'' or concentration principle) in the planning of operations; it was a center of gravity towards which was made the point of maximum effort, in an attempt to seek a decisive action. Ground, mechanized and tactical air forces were concentrated at this point of maximum effort whenever possible. By local success at the ''Schwerpunkt'', a small force achieved a breakthrough and gained advantages by fighting in the enemy's rear. It is summarized by Guderian as “Nicht kleckern, klotzen!” (Don't fiddle, smash!). [Frieser 2005, pp. 156–157.] To achieve a breakout, armoured forces would attack the enemy's defensive line directly, supported by motorized infantry, artillery fire and aerial bombardment in order to create a breach in the enemy's line. Through this breach the tanks and motorised units could break through without the traditional encumbrance of the slow logistics of infantry on foot. In this, the opening phase of an operation, air forces sought to gain superiority over enemy air forces by attacking aircraft on the ground, bombing their airfields, and seeking to destroy them in air to air combat. The principle of ''Schwerpunkt'' enabled the attacker to win numerical superiority at the point of the main effort, which in turn gave the attacker tactical and operational superiority even though the attacker may be numerically and strategically inferior along the entire front. Having achieved a breakthrough into the enemy's rear areas, German forces attempted to paralyze the enemy's ability to react. Moving faster than enemy forces, mobile forces exploited weaknesses and acted before opposing forces could formulate a response. Central to this is the decision cycle. Every decision made by German or opposing forces required time to gather information, make a decision, disseminate orders to subordinates, and then implement this decision through action. Through superior mobility and faster decision-making cycles, mobile forces could take action on a situation sooner than the forces opposing them. Directive control was a fast and flexible method of command. Rather than receiving an explicit order, a commander would be told of his superior's intent and the role which his unit was to fill in this concept. The exact method of execution was then a matter for the low-level commander to determine as best fit the situation. Staff burden was reduced at the top and spread among commands more knowledgeable about their own situation. In addition, the encouragement of initiative at all levels aided implementation. As a result, significant decisions could be effected quickly and either verbally or with written orders a few pages in length. An operation's final phase, the "Cauldron Battle" (German, ''Kesselschlacht'', literally ‘kettle battle’), was a concentric attack on encircled forces earlier bypassed by the ''Schwerpunkt'' attack(s). It was here that most losses were inflicted upon the enemy, primarily through the capture of prisoners and weapons. During the initial phases of Barbarossa, massive encirclements netted nearly 4,000,000 Soviet prisoners, along with masses of equipment, in these "Cauldron Battles". Use of Air Power James Corum states a prevalent myth about the ''Luftwaffe'' and its ''Blitzkrieg'' operations is that it had a doctrine of terror bombing, in which civilians were deliberately targeted in order to break the will or aid the collapse of an enemy. [Corum, James. ''The Luftwaffe: The Operational Air War, 1918–1940''. University of Kansas Press. 2007. ISBN 0-7006-0836-2] After the bombing of Guernica in 1937 and of Rotterdam in 1940, it was commonly assumed that terror bombing was a part of ''Luftwaffe'' doctrine. During the interwar period the ''Luftwaffe'' leadership rejected the concept of terror bombing, and confined the air arms use to battlefield support of interdiction operations. General Walther Wever compiled a doctrine known as ''The Conduct of the Aerial War''. In this document, which the ''Luftwaffe'' adopted, the ''Luftwaffe'' rejected Giulio Douhet's theory of terror bombing. Terror bombing was deemed to be "counter-productive", increasing rather than destroying the enemies will to resist. Such bombing campaigns were regarded as diversion from the ''Luftwaffe's'' main operations; destruction of the enemy armed forces. The bombings of Guernica, Rotterdam and Warsaw were tactical missions in support of military operations and were not intended as strategic terror attacks. J.P. Harris states that most Luftwaffe leaders from Goering through the general staff believed as did their counterparts in Britain and the United States that strategic bombing was the chief mission of the air force and that given such a role, the Luftwaffe would win the next war and that: The Luftwaffe did end up with an air force consisting mainly of relatively short-range aircraft, but this does not prove that the German air force was solely interested in ’tactical’ bombing. It happened because the German aircraft industry lacked the experience to build a long-range bomber fleet quickly, and because Hitler was insistent on the very rapid creation of a numerically large force. It is also significant that Germany’s position in the centre of Europe to a large extent obviated the need to make a clear distinction between bombers suitable only for ’tactical’ and those necessary for strategic purposes in the early stages of a likely future war. Limitations and countermeasures The concepts associated with the term ''blitzkrieg'' – deep penetrations by armour, large encirclements, and combined arms attacks – were largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions. Where the ability for rapid movement across “tank country” was not possible, armored penetrations were often avoided or resulted in failure. Terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways. If it was instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, armour would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to break out at full speed. Additionally, units could be halted by mud (thawing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow. Armour, motorised and aerial support was also naturally dependent on weather. It should however be noted that the disadvantages of such terrain could be nullified if surprise was achieved over the enemy by an attack through such terrain. During the Battle of France, the German blitzkrieg-style attack on France went through the Ardennes. There is little doubt that the hilly, heavily-wooded Ardennes could have been relatively easily defended by the Allies, even against the bulk of the German armored units. However, precisely because the French thought the Ardennes as unsuitable for massive troop movement, particularly for tanks, they were left with only light defences which were quickly overrun by the Wehrmacht. The Germans quickly advanced through the forest, knocking down the trees the French thought would impede this tactic. The Hawker Typhoon posed a serious threat to German armour and motor vehicles during the Battle of Normandy in 1944. Allied air superiority became a significant hindrance to German operations during the later years of the war. Early German successes enjoyed air superiority with unencumbered movement of ground forces, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. However, the Western Allies' air-to-ground aircraft were so greatly feared out of proportion to their actual tactical success, that following the lead up to Operation Overlord German vehicle crews showed reluctance to move en masse during daylight. Indeed, the final German blitzkrieg operation in the west, Operation Wacht am Rhein, was planned to take place during poor weather which grounded Allied aircraft. Under these conditions, it was difficult for German commanders to employ the “armored idea” to its envisioned potential. ''Blitzkrieg'' is very vulnerable to an enemy that puts a great emphasis on anti-tank warfare and on anti-aircraft weaponry, especially if the side employing blitzkrieg is unprepared. During the Battle of France in 1940, De Gaulle's 4th Armour Division and elements of the British 1st Army Tank Brigade in the British Expeditionary Force both made probing attacks on the German flank, actually pushing into the rear of the advancing armored columns at times. This may have been a reason for Hitler to call a halt to the German advance. Those attacks combined with Maxime Weygand's Hedgehog tactic would become the major basis for responding to blitzkrieg attacks in the future: deployment in depth, permitting enemy forces to bypass defensive concentrations, reliance on anti-tank guns, strong force employment on the flanks of the enemy attack, followed by counter-attacks at the base to destroy the enemy advance in detail. Holding the flanks or “shoulders” of a penetration was essential to channeling the enemy attack, and artillery, properly employed at the shoulders, could take a heavy toll of attackers. While Allied forces in 1940 lacked the experience to successfully develop these strategies, resulting in France's capitulation with heavy losses, they characterized later Allied operations. For example, at the Battle of Kursk the Red Army employed a combination of defense in great depth, extensive minefields, and tenacious defense of breakthrough shoulders. In this way they depleted German combat power even as German forces advanced. In August 1944 at Mortain, stout defense and counterattacks against the German flanks by the US and Canadian armies closed the Falaise pocket. In the Ardennes, a combination of hedgehog defense at Bastogne, St Vith and other locations, and a counterattack by the US 3rd Army were employed. Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France, mobile operations could not be sustained by Germany in later years. Strategies based on maneuver have the inherent danger of the attacking force overextending its supply lines, and can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing and able to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm, as the Soviets did on the Eastern Front (as opposed to, for example, the Dutch who had no territory to sacrifice). Tank and vehicle production was a constant problem for Germany; indeed, late in the war many panzer "divisions" had no more than a few dozen tanks. As the end of the war approached, Germany also experienced critical shortages in fuel and ammunition stocks as a result of Anglo-American strategic bombing and blockade. Although production of ''Luftwaffe'' fighter aircraft continued, they would be unable to fly for lack of fuel. What fuel there was went to panzer divisions, and even then they were not able to operate normally. Of those Tiger tanks lost against the United States Army, nearly half of them were abandoned for lack of fuel. Operations in history Despite the term ''blitzkrieg'' being coined by journalists during the Invasion of Poland of 1939, historians generally hold that German operations during it were more consistent with more traditional methods. The Wehrmacht's strategy was more inline with ''Vernichtungsgedanken,'' or a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were deployed among the three German concentrations without strong emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of Polish forces and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely un-motorized infantry which followed. The understanding of operations in Poland has shifted considerably since the Second World War. Many early postwar histories incorrectly attribute German victory to “enormous development in military technique which occurred between 1918 and 1940”, incorrectly citing that “Germany, who translated (British inter-war) theories into action...called the result Blitzkrieg.” More recent histories identify German operations in Poland as relatively cautious and traditional. Matthew Cooper wrote that He went on to say that the use of tanks “left much to be desired...Fear of enemy action against the flanks of the advance, fear which was to prove so disastrous to German prospects in the west in 1940 and in the Soviet Union in 1941, was present from the beginning of the war.” [Cooper, Matthew. ''The German Army 1939–1945: Its Political and Military Failure''] John Ellis further asserted that “...there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of ''strategic'' mission that was to characterize authentic armored ''blitzkrieg'', and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies.” In fact, “Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzers and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery on Polish units. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht.” As Karl-Heinz Frieser points out, the ''Wehrmacht'' may have been only a few short weeks away from total disaster in Poland. Frieser states the German army and air force had spent most of its ammunition stocks and could not have fought much longer than they did. Western Europe, 1940 The German invasion of France, with subsidiary attacks on Belgium and the Netherlands, consisted of two phases, Operation Yellow (''Fall Gelb'') and Operation Red (''Fall Rot''). Yellow opened with a feint conducted against the Netherlands and Belgium by two armored corps and paratroopers. The Germans had massed the bulk of their armored force in Panzer Group von Kleist, which attacked through the comparatively unguarded sector of the Ardennes and achieved a breakthrough at the Battle of Sedan with air support. The group raced to the coast of the English Channel at Abbeville, thus isolating the British Expeditionary Force, Belgian Army, and some divisions of the French Army in northern France. The armored and motorized units under Guderian and Rommel initially advanced far beyond the following divisions, and indeed far in excess of that with which German high command was initially comfortable. When the German motorized forces were met with a counterattack at Arras, British tanks with heavy armour (Matilda I & IIs) created a brief panic in the German High Command. The armored and motorized forces were halted, by Hitler, outside the port city of Dunkirk, which was being used to evacuate the Allied forces. Hermann Göring had promised the Luftwaffe would complete the destruction of the encircled armies, but aerial operations did not prevent the evacuation of the majority of Allied troops (which the British named Operation Dynamo); some 330,000 French and British were saved. Overall, Yellow succeeded beyond what most people had expected, despite the claim that the Allies had 4,000 armored vehicles and the Germans 2,200, and the Allied tanks were often superior in armour and caliber of cannon. It left the French armies much reduced in strength (although not demoralized), and without much of their own armour and heavy equipment. Operation Red then began with a triple-pronged panzer attack. The XV Panzer Corps attacked towards Brest, XIV Panzer Corps attacked east of Paris, towards Lyon, and Guderian's XIX Panzer Corps completed the encirclement of the Maginot Line. The defending forces were hard pressed to organize any sort of counter-attack. The French forces were continually ordered to form new lines along rivers, often arriving to find the German forces had already passed them. Ultimately, the French army and nation collapsed after barely two months of mobile operations, in contrast to the four years of trench warfare of the First World War. The French president of the Ministerial Council, Reynaud, attributed the collapse in a speech on 21 May 1940: The truth is that our classic conception of the conduct of war has come up against a new conception. At the basis of this...there is not only the massive use of heavy armored divisions or cooperation between them and airplanes, but the creation of disorder in the enemy's rear by means of parachute raids. In actual fact, the new technologies had simply been applied to the older strategies of ''vernichtungsgedanke'' and since "the once-mighty and confident Allied armies (found) themselves torn asunder in a matter of days, brushed contemptuously aside by a German Army, which, six years previously, had been only 100,000 men strong and denied all modern instruments of offence such as tanks and heavy artillery..." the governments of those nations were eager to find a reason for it. According to Matthew Cooper, the "Blitzkrieg Myth" was more palatable for public consumption than the notion that they had simply been outfought. Soviet Union: the Eastern Front: 1941–44 After 1941–42, armored formations were increasingly used as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs. The black arrows depict armored counter-attacks. Use of armored forces was crucial for both sides on the Eastern Front. Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, involved a number of breakthroughs and encirclements by motorized forces. Its stated goal was “to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia.” This was generally achieved by four panzer armies which encircled surprised and disorganized Soviet forces, followed by marching infantry which completed the encirclement and defeated the trapped forces. The first year of the Eastern Front offensive can generally be considered to have had the last successful major mobile operations. After Germany's failure to destroy the Soviets before the winter of 1941, the strategic failure above the German tactical superiority became apparent. Although the German invasion successfully conquered large areas of Soviet territory, the overall strategic effects were more limited. The Red Army was able to regroup far to the rear of the main battle line, and eventually defeat the German forces for the first time in the Battle of Moscow. [Frieser 2005, p. 351.] In the summer of 1942, when Germany launched another offensive in the southern USSR against Stalingrad and the Caucasus, the Soviets again lost tremendous amounts of territory, only to counter-attack once more during winter. German gains were ultimately limited by Hitler diverting forces from the attack on Stalingrad itself and seeking to pursue a drive to the Caucasus oilfields simultaneously as opposed to subsequently as the original plan had envisaged. Even so, the ''Wehrmacht'' was becoming overstretched. By winning operationally, strategically it could not keep up the momentum as the superiority of the Soviet Union's industrial base and economy began to take effect. [Frieser 2005, p. 351.] In the summer of 1943 the ''Wehrmacht'' launched another combined forces offensive operation - ''Zitadelle'' (Citadel) - against the Soviet salient at Kursk. Soviet defensive tactics were by now hugely improved, particularly in terms of artillery and effective use of air support. All the same the Battle of Kursk was marked by the Soviet switch to offence and the use of the revived doctrine of deep operations. For the first time the ''Blitzkrieg'' was defeated in summer and the opposing forces were able to mount their own, successful, counter operation. By the summer of 1944 the reversal of fortune was complete and Operation Bagration saw Soviet forces inflict crushing defeats on Germany through the aggressive use of armour, infantry and air power in combined strategic assault, known as deep operations. Western Front, 1944–45 As the war progressed, Allied armies began using combined arms formations and deep penetration strategies that Germany had used in the opening years of the war. Many Allied operations in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front relied on massive concentrations of firepower to establish breakthroughs by fast-moving armored units. These artillery-based tactics were also decisive in Western Front operations after Operation Overlord and both the British Commonwealth and American armies developed flexible and powerful systems for utilizing artillery support. What the Soviets lacked in flexibility, they made up for in number of multiple rocket launchers, cannon and mortar tubes. The Germans never achieved the kind of fire concentrations their enemies were capable of by 1944. After the Allied landings at Normandy, Germany made attempts to overwhelm the landing force with armored attacks, but these failed for lack of co-ordination and Allied air superiority. The most notable attempt to use deep penetration operations in Normandy was at Mortain, which exacerbated the German position in the already-forming Falaise Pocket and assisted in the ultimate destruction of German forces in Normandy. The Mortain counter-attack was effectively destroyed by U.S. 12th Army Group with little effect on its own offensive operations. Germany's last offensive on its Western front, Operation Wacht am Rhein, was an offensive launched towards the vital port of Antwerp in December 1944. Launched in poor weather against a thinly-held Allied sector, it achieved surprise and initial success as Allied air power was stymied by cloud cover. However, stubborn pockets of defence in key locations throughout the Ardennes, the lack of serviceable roads, and poor German logistics planning caused delays. Allied forces deployed to the flanks of the German penetration, and as soon as the skies cleared, Allied aircraft were again able to attack motorized columns. The stubborn defense by US units and German weakness led to a defeat for the Germans.

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More In This Article Editor's Note: We are posting this feature from our March 2002 issue because of news from the annual meeting of the American Astronomical Society about the phenomenon discussed here. We live in a universe that is full of bright objects. On a clear night one can see thousands of stars with the naked eye. These stars occupy merely a small nearby part of the Milky Way galaxy; telescopes reveal a much vaster realm that shines with the light from billions of galaxies. According to our current understanding of cosmology, however, the universe was featureless and dark for a long stretch of its early history. The first stars did not appear until perhaps 100 million years after the big bang, and nearly a billion years passed before galaxies proliferated across the cosmos. Astronomers have long wondered: How did this dramatic transition from darkness to light come about? After decades of study, researchers have recently made great strides toward answering this question. Using sophisticated computer simulation techniques, cosmologists have devised models that show how the density fluctuations left over from the big bang could have evolved into the first stars. In addition, observations of distant quasars have allowed scientists to probe back in time and catch a glimpse of the final days of the “cosmic dark ages.” The new models indicate that the first stars were most likely quite massive and luminous and that their formation was an epochal event that fundamentally changed the universe and its subsequent evolution. These stars altered the dynamics of the cosmos by heating and ionizing the surrounding gases. The earliest stars also produced and dispersed the first heavy elements, paving the way for the eventual formation of solar systems like our own. And the collapse of some of the first stars may have seeded the growth of supermassive black holes that formed in the hearts of galaxies and became the spectacular power sources of quasars. In short, the earliest stars made possible the emergence of the universe that we see today—everything from galaxies and quasars to planets and people. The Dark Ages The study of the early universe is hampered by a lack of direct observations. Astronomers have been able to examine much of the universe’s history by training their telescopes on distant galaxies and quasars that emitted their light billions of years ago. The age of each object can be determined by the redshift of its light, which shows how much the universe has expanded since the light was produced. The oldest galaxies and quasars that have been observed so far date from about a billion years after the big bang (assuming a present age for the universe of 12 billion to 14 billion years). Researchers will need better telescopes to see more distant objects dating from still earlier times. Cosmologists, however, can make deductions about the early universe based on the cosmic microwave background radiation, which was emitted about 400,000 years after the big bang. The uniformity of this radiation indicates that matter was distributed very smoothly at that time. Because there were no large luminous objects to disturb the primordial soup, it must have remained smooth and featureless for millions of years afterward. As the cosmos expanded, the background radiation redshifted to longer wavelengths and the universe grew increasingly cold and dark. Astronomers have no observations of this dark era. But by a billion years after the big bang, some bright galaxies and quasars had already appeared, so the first stars must have formed sometime before. When did these first luminous objects arise, and how might they have formed? Many astrophysicists, including Martin Rees of the University of Cambridge and Abraham Loeb of Harvard University, have made important contributions toward solving these problems. The recent studies begin with the standard cosmological models that describe the evolution of the universe following the big bang. Although the early universe was remarkably smooth, the background radiation shows evidence of small-scale density fluctuations—clumps in the primordial soup. The cosmological models predict that these clumps would gradually evolve into gravitationally bound structures. Smaller systems would form first and then merge into larger agglomerations. The denser regions would take the form of a network of filaments, and the first star-forming systems—small protogalaxies—would coalesce at the nodes of this network. In a similar way, the protogalaxies would then merge to form galaxies, and the galaxies would congregate into galaxy clusters. The process is ongoing: although galaxy formation is now mostly complete, galaxies are still assembling into clusters, which are in turn aggregating into a vast filamentary network that stretches across the universe. According to the cosmological models, the first small systems capable of forming stars should have appeared between 100 million and 250 million years after the big bang. These protogalaxies would have been 100,000 to one million times more massive than the sun and would have measured about 30 to 100 light-years across. These properties are similar to those of the molecular gas clouds in which stars are currently forming in the Milky Way, but the first protogalaxies would have differed in some fundamental ways. For one, they would have consisted mostly of dark matter, the putative elementary particles that are believed to make up about 90 percent of the universe’s mass. In present-day large galaxies, dark matter is segregated from ordinary matter: over time, ordinary matter concentrates in the galaxy’s inner region, whereas the dark matter remains scattered throughout an enormous outer halo. But in the protogalaxies, the ordinary matter would still have been mixed with the dark matter.

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Economic Woes for the Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact was based around the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance for its member states, including both military agreement and economic cooperation. In reality, the Soviet Union decided both the military and economic policies for all of the Warsaw Pact's member states. Disagreement with Soviet policies had resulted in the invasion of Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. By 1980, however, the situation was changing. The Soviet Union's economic problems, including a decline in oil production, had undermined Soviet strength. To resolve the Soviet Union's economic shortages, Brezhnev's state planned a drastic reduction of the oil supplied to Eastern Europe. In this report to the Soviet Politburo about a recent Warsaw Pact meeting, Brezhnev's willingness to compromise with Erich Honecker, East Germany's Party Secretary, suggests the reality of Soviet weakness. Brezhnev's reaction also suggests the Soviet Union can no longer make unilateral decisions for all of Eastern Europe. Leonid Brezhnev, "On the Results of Cde. K. V. Rusakov's Trip to the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Bulgaria," 29 October 1981, Cold War International History Project, Virtual Archive, CWIHP (accessed May 14, 2008). RUSAKOV: During the negotiations, the leaders of the fraternal countries also raised economic questions. Chief among these was the question about reducing supplies of energy, above all oil. Although [our friends] said that this would be difficult for them, all of them reacted with understanding to our proposal and our request, and said that they will find a way to cope with the situation.... My conversation with Comrade Honecker, though, was different. He immediately said that [East Germany] could not accept such a reduction in the supply of oil, that this would cause serious damage to the[ir] national economy..., and that we shouldn't proceed with it. He even declared that they simply cannot put up with it, and requested a written response from Comrade Brezhnev to two letters that they sent. Thus, the question proved to be very contentious, and it essentially was left unresolved.... BREZHNEV. As you know, we decided to reduce the supply of oil to our friends. All of them believed this would be onerous for them, ... but deep down they naturally are hoping that we will somehow change our decision. Perhaps it would be worthwhile at the next meeting with our friends to say, somehow, on this matter that we will be taking all measures needed to fulfill and overfulfill the plan on oil, and that we hope we will succeed. If so, we could make adjustments in the planned deliveries of energy supplies, though we should say this of course without letting them think that we are now backing away from our decision.

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Scroll down to comment on this story. The NAPWA/TAEP HIV/AIDS POLICY REPORT Early Access to Treatment: an Effective Tool to Prevent HIV This past summer, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released data that show the rate of new HIV infections in the United States is much higher than previously thought. Using new technology, the CDC has obtained a more accurate measure of HIV incidence (the number of new infections in a given year) and HIV prevalence (number of people living with the HIV/AIDS overall) in this country. The CDC now estimates that there are 56,300 new infections a year; the previous estimate was 40,000 new infections annually. The long and the short of it is that HIV/AIDS is an even bigger cause for concern in the United States than we thought. In response to the newly released CDC data, the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Oversight and Government Reform held a congressional hearing. Many important suggestions were offered on how to improve HIV prevention efforts. Two strategies stood out: (1) redoubling our HIV testing efforts, including finding new ways to ensure that everyone is tested for HIV and (2) offering universal access to treatment for everyone who is HIV positive to reduce HIV transmission. During the congressional hearing, CDC director Julie Gerberding, MD, MPH, testified that far too many people living with HIV and those at risk for contracting HIV are not being reached by prevention programs. The latest data show that 21 percent of people living with HIV/AIDS in the United States are unaware of their infection. These people are believed to be responsible for more than half of new HIV infections in the United States as a result of unknowingly transmitting the virus.1 In addition, too many people learn they have HIV when they are diagnosed with AIDS, meaning that they were infected for years and not aware of their status. Sadly, this raises the possibility that they have also unknowingly passed along HIV to others. Breaking the cycle of ignorance may help break the cycle of new infections. Sixteen years ago, the National Association of People with AIDS (NAPWA) launched National HIV Testing Day because we believe that taking an HIV test makes it possible for us to protect ourselves and those we love. David Holtgrave, professor and chair of the Department of Health, Behavior and Society at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health in Baltimore, also presented at the congressional hearing. According to Holtgrave, for every 100 people living with HIV in the United States, there are just under five new infections on average in a year. That means that more than 95 percent of people living with HIV in America are not transmitting the virus to someone else in a given year.2 This information provides the fundamental basis for a prevention strategy that starts with HIV diagnosis. NAPWA supports a strategy whereby medical providers routinely offer an HIV test to all their patients, regardless of their perceived (or lack thereof) risk for HIV. The old approach of only testing individuals who we think might be at risk for HIV is failing to reach countless numbers of people; everyone should be offered an HIV test. However, patients must still retain the right to know they are being tested and must not be tested without their consent. In addition to finding new ways to expand HIV testing to reach all Americans, we must begin to recognize the interconnectedness between access to treatment and reduced HIV transmission. There is little point in testing someone if no treatment options are available. Several studies also suggest that effective medical treatment for HIV, whereby an individual’s viral load is reduced, significantly reduces the chance of transmitting the virus to somebody else. Two studies done in Switzerland and Thailand respectively concluded that HIV therapy alone can reduce HIV viral load to a level where it can’t be transmitted through sexual contact if certain other conditions are also met. Many in the community remain skeptical of these conclusions and continue to recommend using condoms consistently and correctly to reduce risk. But the relationship between effectively treating HIV and reducing the risk of transmission cannot be overlooked and should still be studied. However, as the debate over universal health insurance demonstrates, guaranteed access to medical care does not exist in the United States. Wide disparities in health care access exist by both geography and social status. It was the lack of access to HIV care in many parts of the country that led lawmakers to introduce the Early Treatment for HIV Act (ETHA) (S. 860 and H.R. 3326) in Congress. As we go to press, the bill remains deadlocked in the political process. ETHA would give states the option to amend their Medicaid eligibility to extend health care and treatment access to low-income, pre-disabled individuals with HIV. At the same time, the CDC and Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) report that 25 to 32 percent of individuals newly diagnosed HIV positive have no way to pay for HIV care and treatment.3 At the congressional hearing, NAPWA’s president and CEO Frank Oldham Jr. said, “It needs to be stated unequivocally that people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) are partners to achieving HIV prevention goals, but policies and laws that perpetuate stigma and discrimination and/or threaten confidentiality hurt efforts to engage PLWHA in prevention activities. Full and comprehensive access to HIV care and treatment as well as effective structural and biomedical prevention strategies must be included in our domestic response to HIV.” Oldham further said that success would only come with the support of broad social marketing campaigns focused on HIV/AIDS. Such marketing campaigns, he said, would depict people openly living with HIV/AIDS; they would discourage ignorance and misinformation about those who are living with HIV/AIDS and would thus fight AIDS-related stigma. In light of this information, the AIDS community has an obligation to demand more research to understand the role of HIV diagnosis, care and treatment in the battle against HIV/AIDS. Our priorities must be to encourage people to get tested for HIV and then to provide them with health care, treatment and support if they test positive. More evidence continues to emerge to show that this will slow the spread of HIV and save lives. 1. See CDC Testimony Before the Oversight and Government Reform Committee. United States House of Representatives. http://oversight.house.gov/documents/20080916101852.pdf 2. See CDC Testimony Before the Oversight and Government Reform Committee. United States House of Representatives. http://oversight.house.gov/documents/20080916115223.pdf 3. Julie Gerberding and Elizabeth Duke. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) Responses to the December 20, 2007, Letter From Representative Henry A. Waxman, Chairman, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. September 9, 2008. Search: CDC, HIV, infections, NAPWA, treatment Scroll down to comment on this story. Show comments (0 total)

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Walter Ashby Plecker was born on April 2, 1861, in Augusta County, Virginia. His father was a merchant and slave owner who fought in the Civil War. Plecker graduated from Hoover Military Academy in Staunton in 1880 and obtained a medical degree from the University of Maryland in 1885. He settled in Hampton, Virginia, in 1892, and became the Elizabeth City County public health officer in 1902. He took an active interest in obstetrics and public health issues. In 1912 he was asked to head the newly formed Virginia Bureau of Vital Statistics where he made great strides in educating midwives, inventing a home incubator, and prescribing home remedies for infants. His efforts are credited with an almost 50 percent decline in birthing deaths for black mothers. An avowed believer in white superiority, Plecker was a leading member of the elite white supremacist organization, the Anglo Saxon Clubs. With pseudoscientific arguments, he and other club leaders, John Powell and Earnest Sevier Cox, lead the campaign for the Virginia Racial Integrity Act. Passed by the state's General Assembly in 1924, the act recognized only two races, white and colored. Plecker believed that the state's American Indians had been completely integrated with its African American population. He feared that black people were attempting to pass as Indian and obsessively documented each and every birth and marriage registration submitted to his agency. Plecker's policies pressured state agencies to reclassify most citizens claiming Indian identity as colored. He went so far as to change the racial designations on birth certificates and marriage licenses without notifying the people they recorded. Plecker led the Bureau of Vital Statistics until his retirement in 1946. He was struck by a car while crossing a street in Richmond less than a year later and died on August 2, 1947. Warren Fiske. "The Black & White World of Walter Plecker" Virginian-Pilot (Norfolk), August 18, 2004. Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: 'Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro.'" Journal of Southern History 68, no. 1 (February, 2002): 65–106. Sherman, Richard B. "'The Last Stand': The Fight for Racial Integrity in Virginia in the 1920s." Journal of Southern History 54, no. 1 (February 1988): 69–92.

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Humanure at Dancing Rabbit by Brian Liloia In Nickelodeon’s recent A Kid Off The Grid TV program, Dancing Rabbit’s humanure system was explained. It quickly turned into a joke on The Daily Show soon after the Nick show aired. However, you might be wondering more about what humanure is, and how this human waste composting system works. Let’s look at it in more detail. Pooping is a natural process, and doing it in a bowl of drinking water (read: a flush toilet) is a horrific waste, and terribly polluting, too. That’s where the humanure system comes in. The term “humanure” refers to human waste which is recycled by methods of composting, and which can later be used for gardening or agricultural purposes. Before you think: “I don’t want dookie on my daisies!”, remember that everything (everything natural, that is) breaks down in due time. So let’s talk about humanure, and how human waste can be more effectively recycled and reused, instead of letting it continue to pollute ever-precious drinking water supplies. At Dancing Rabbit Ecovillage, we use the humanure system to deal with our poop. Instead of having flush toilets, we use simple five gallon buckets, sawdust, and compost bins to safely collect and store our waste. The term “humanure” has been popularized by Joseph Jenkins in The Humanure Handbook, a down and dirty guidebook to recycling human waste for use as a soil amendment. How does one create their own humanure system for purposes of recycling human poo? Well, instead of using a toilet, you might choose to use the bucket system, which is essentially a five gallon bucket. After doing one’s business, sawdust or straw is sprinkled on the bucket’s contents to prevent odor, add carbon, and absorb liquids. Humanure can then be dumped into compost bins, where it decomposes and cures after one to two years. After this time, you are left with nothing but purely organic matter, something quite like dirt. As long as the humanure is given enough time to decompose and reaches the right temperatures, there should be no fear about the spread of pathogens, and this material can be used as a soil amendment in gardening or agriculture. It’s that simple! It’s nature at its finest. For the full details on humanure and making your own humanure system, we highly recommend The Humanure Handbook, which is actually available for free online (in multiple languages, no less!) Human waste is someting to be embraced (well, ok, not literally), and recycled, not flushed away to continue polluting sensitive water tables. Full text of The Humanure Handbook

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Theory of Anything? Physicist Lawrence Krauss turns on his own. Lawrence Krauss, a professor of physics and astronomy at Case Western Reserve University, has a reputation for shooting down pseudoscience. He opposed the teaching of intelligent design on The NewsHour With Jim Lehrer. He penned an essay for the New York Times that dissed President Bush's proposal for a manned Mars mission. Yet in his latest book, Hiding in the Mirror, Krauss turns on his own—by taking on string theory, the leading edge of theoretical physics. Krauss is probably right that string theory is a threat to science, but his book proves he's too late to stop it. String theory, which stretches back to the late 1960s, has become in the last 20 years the field of choice for up-and-coming physics researchers. Many of them hope it will deliver a "Theory of Everything"—the key to a few elegant equations that explain the workings of the entire universe, from quarks to galaxies. Elegance is a term theorists apply to formulas, like E=mc2, which are simple and symmetrical yet have great scope and power. The concept has become so associated with string theory that Nova's three-hour 2003 series on the topic was titled The Elegant Universe (you can watch the whole thing online for free here). Yet a demonstration of string theory's mathematical elegance was conspicuously absent from Nova's special effects and on-location shoots. No one explained any of the math onscreen. That's because compared to E=mc2, string theory equations look like spaghetti. And unfortunately for the aspirations of its proponents, the ideas are just as hard to explain in words. Let's give it a shot anyway, by retracing the 20th century's three big breakthroughs in understanding the universe. Step 1: Relativity (1905-1915). Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity says matter and energy (E and m in the famous equation) are equivalent. His General Theory of Relativity says gravity is caused by the warping of space due to the presence of matter. In 1905, this seemed like opium-smoking nonsense. But Einstein's complex math (E=mc2 is the easy part) accurately predicted oddball behaviors in stars and galaxies that were later observed and confirmed by astronomers. Step 2: Quantum mechanics (1900-1927). Relativistic math works wonderfully for predicting events at the galactic scale, but physicists found that subatomic particles don't obey the rules. Their behavior follows complex probability formulas rather than graceful high-school geometry. The results of particle physics experiments can't be determined exactly—you can only calculate the likeliness of each possible outcome. Quantum's elegant equation is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It says the position (x) and momentum (p) of any one particle are never completely knowable at the same time. The closest you can get is a function related to Planck's constant (h), the theoretical minimum unit to which the universe can be quantized. Einstein dismissed this probabilistic model of the universe with his famous quip, "God does not play dice." But just as Einstein's own theories were vindicated by real-world tests, he had to adjust his worldview when experimental results matched quantum's crazy predictions over and over again. These two breakthroughs left scientists with one major problem. If relativity and quantum mechanics are both correct, they should work in agreement to model the Big Bang, the point 14 billion years ago at which the universe was at the same time supermassive (where relativity works) and supersmall (where quantum math holds). Instead, the math breaks down. Einstein spent his last three decades unsuccessfully seeking a formula to reconcile it all—a Theory of Everything. Step 3: String theory (1969-present). String theory proposes a solution that reconciles relativity and quantum mechanics. To get there, it requires two radical changes in our view of the universe. The first is easy: What we've presumed are subatomic particles are actually tiny vibrating strings of energy, each 100 billion billion times smaller than the protons at the nucleus of an atom. Paul Boutin is a writer living in San Francisco.

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31 August 2010 The United Nations agency charged with protecting intellectual property worldwide has welcomed the adoption by a number of African States of a new legal instrument that seeks to protect the continent’s traditional knowledge and folklore. The instrument, adopted earlier this month in Swakopmund, Namibia, by member states of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO), is designed to preserve and protect the use of Africa’s diverse knowledge systems and cultures for the continent’s sustainable development. It will enter into force following ratification by six ARIPO member states. Francis Gurry, Director General of the UN’s World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) welcomed the adoption of the Swakopmund Protocol on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Folklore as “an historic step for ARIPO’s 17 member states, and a significant milestone in the evolution of intellectual property.” Developed by African experts over a six-year period, the Swakopmund Protocol is a response to the misappropriation and misuse of the continent’s traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. It was developed in coordination with a similar instrument prepared over the same period by the 16 West African countries comprising the Organization Africaine de la Propriete Intellectuelle (OAPI), and adopted in July 2007. WIPO provided support to both organizations in the process of developing those instruments. Mr. Gurry said that WIPO was also ready to respond to requests from ARIPO and OAPI member states for support in the development of national laws for the protection of traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. Meanwhile, WIPO’s Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore is working towards the development of a legal instrument for the effective protection of traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions that would be international in scope. Following a productive intersessional working group meeting last month, that Committee will meet again in December to continue its work. News Tracker: past stories on this issue

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One of the major events of the upcoming year 2005 in the CPU market should inevitably be the release of the dual-core processor architecture. To cut the long story short, the idea behind dual-core CPUs is very simple. One processor physically based around a single semiconductor die will feature two equally functional processor cores. In other words, it will be a dual-processor system packed into a single processor casing. Right now the processor developers consider this way of increasing the processors performance and functionality to be very promising. As a result, not only the two leading CPU developers, such as AMD and Intel, but also the VIA Company are planning to start introducing single-silicon dual-core CPUs in the upcoming year 2005. In fact, the idea to put two processor cores onto a single physical die is not that new in this industry. In the end of last century the high-end multi-processor server developers, such as HP or IBM already pointed out the potentially prospective possibility of designing a CPU including two computational dies. As a result of significant progress made in this field there appeared dual-core HP PA8800 and IBM Power4 processors, which have been successfully used in different server solutions like IBM eServer pSeries 690 or HP 9000 until nowadays. However, we wouldn’t call these products mass products. Since they are pretty expensive, they have never got that widely spread. Why? Well, take for instance the die size of the dual-core IBM Power4 processor with 128MB L3 cache memory, which is equal to 115x115mm. So, I would not call processors such as IBM Power4 and HP PA8800 “real” predecessors of the upcoming dual-core processor solutions from Intel and AMD. Nevertheless, the mere idea of splitting the computational process into several parallel threads within a single CPU is not that new even for the desktop solutions. Intel undertook the first steps in this direction in the year 2002, when they first launched their Xeon and Pentium 4 processors supporting Hyper-Threading technology. The idea of Hyper-Threading technology implies that the processor based around one physical computational die emulates two independent CPUs working in SMP mode (symmetric multiprocessing). In fact, the CPU supporting Hyper-Threading technology has a very small number of duplicated functional units: registers (including general purpose and managing registers), Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC) and some service registers such as Next Instruction Pointer, for instance. All other resources, including caches, execution units, branch prediction logic, bus controller, etc. are shared between the two logical CPUs. This trick allows single processor silicon to process two threads of calculations simultaneously, because the second virtual core uses processor resources undemanded by the first virtual processor. Contemporary CPUs equipped with a few parallel execution units turn out more efficient fur to Hyper-Threading technology, because it allows loading the execution units more evenly.

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A study led by the University of Leicester has found that anti-obesity drugs coupled with lifestyle advice are effective in reducing weight and BMI. Dr Laura Gray and colleagues from the Department of Health Sciences at the University of Leicester have published a paper in the journal Obesity Review which looks at the effectiveness of anti obesity drugs and a modified lifestyle on weight loss and body mass index. The research was funded by an National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment (NIHR HTA) programme. The review was based on 94 studies including over 24,000 individuals and assessed how effective the drugs were in terms of weight loss and body mass index at 3, 6 and 12 months. Two of the included drugs (sibutramine and rimonbant) were withdrawn from use during the review due to possible side effects. The research also looked at the effect of lifestyle advice on weight loss. Lifestyle advice alone led to weight loss at 6 and 12 months but had less effective results in comparison to the anti-obesity drugs. Laura Gray, lead author of the report said: "This is the first review to combine all available evidence for anti-obesity drugs in a single analysis. In clinical practice, orlistat should be considered to aid weight reduction with lifestyle interventions in those individuals who have not been successful in reducing their weight with lifestyle alone. The effectiveness of the withdrawn interventions sibutramine and rimonabant suggests that more effective drugs may be available in the future if the side effect risk can be alleviated." Researchers recognize that although drugs are effective, all drugs can lead to several side effects and it is advised that a modified lifestyle is a beneficial way to prevent weight gain and to reduce body weight. Professor Kamlesh Khunti from the University of Leicester added: "Our study shows that some of the medications that we were using for weight management were beneficial, however, they have had to be withdrawn because of side effects. We are therefore limited in terms of drug treatment for weight reduction. Nevertheless, it is reassuring to note that lifestyle interventions (diet and exercise) were also effective, especially in people with diabetes at reducing weight in our study. Lifestyle interventions should therefore be promoted for weight reduction as they also have many other benefits as well."

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Diwali celebrates the victory of the good over evil and the restoration of Dharma. The most popular belief is that Lord Ram returned to Ayodhya after 14-year exile and people lit lamps to receive him. But the most important Hindu God that is worshipped during Diwali is not only Lord Ram – there are numerous other Gods that are worshipped during Diwali. In South India, on Deepavali it is Lord Krishna that is worshipped as Lord Krishna is believed to have annihilated demon Narakasura and therefore the celebrations are also known as Narak Chaturdashi. Numerous Gods in Hindu Pantheon are worshipped during the Diwali period in various regions and by different Hindu communities. Here is a look at some of the popular rituals and worships during Diwali. Lord Ganesha – All pujas, rituals and celebrations in Hinduism begin with the worship of Lord Ganesh. During the Diwali too all pujas and rituals begin after the worship of Lord Ganesha. Lord Ram – The most popular reason for observing Diwali is the return of Lord Ram to Ayodhya after 14-year exile along with Mata Sita, Lakshman and Hanuman. Lord Ram Temples perform special puja on the day. Diyas are lit on the day in remembrance of the return of Lord Ram, Sita, Laxman and Hanuman to Ayodhya after defeating Ravan and completing the exile period. Lord Krishna – In South , it is believed that Lord Krishna killed Demon Narakasura on this day and thus ensuring the victory of the good over evil. Another popular puja associated with Krishna is the Govardhan Puja - Lord Krishna lifting the mount Govardhan to rescue the people of Vrindavan from thunder and rains. Another ritual during the Diwali period associated with Lord Krishna is the Annkut. India Goddess Lakshmi – Mahalakshmi puja is the most important ritual on Diwali day for majority of Hindu communities. The ritual of worshipping Goddess Lakshmi is performed in homes and by shopkeepers and business community. Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped for wealth, prosperity, luck and prosperity. She is believed to have appeared on the Diwali day during the Churning of Ocean or samdura manthan. Goddess Kali – Kali Puja is performed on the day in Bengal and eastern parts of on Diwali day. Special murtis or idols of Goddess Kali are made and larg public pujas are performed on the day. India Lord Kubera – Lord Kuber is the Hindu God of wealth and Kubera is worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. He is propitiated on the day for wealth and prosperity. Lord Hanuman – Hanuman Puja is performed the day before Diwali celebrations in Gujarat. It is believed that Lord Hanuman appeared on this day by some Hindu communities in this region. Hanuman is worshipped for strength and security. Lord Dhanvantri – Lord Dhanvantri is the God of medicine and is worshipped by medical practitioners. He is believed to have appeared three-days before Diwali during the Samudra Manthan or Churning of the ocean carrying the Amrut or Elixer. Worship of Ancestors – On the no moon day or Amavasi during Diwali, ancestors are offered homage in many regions. In Orissa there is a popular belief that the lights that are lit on Diwali are to show the path to the spirits of ancestors returning to heaven. Go Puja – Cow is worshipped in certain parts western three days before Diwali and this marks the beginning of Diwali festival in these regions. This is known as Vasubaras. India Lord Yama – Lord Yama and Yami, sister of Lord Yama, are remembered on Bhai Dooj day. Bhaidooj is the last day of Diwali celebrations and is dedicated brother-sister relationship and it is based on a legend involving Lord Yama and Yami. Yamadeepdan is another ritual that is associated with Yama and is observed on the Dhanteras day. Chitragupta – Chitragupta, who is the keeper of the records of sins and good deeds, is worshipped on Roop Chaudas day in King Bali – Balipratipada or Bali Padyami during Diwali is the day when King Bali gets an opportunity to rule the world. He got this boon as he was pushed to the underworld on this day by Lord Vishnu in his Vamana Avatar. The one-day rule of King Bali is observed during the last day of Diwali festival and is of great importance in Karnataka and The list is never complete because there are numerous pujas that are performed by Hindus and as I learn more about them I will add them to the list.

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/* Style Definitions */ Trade in Indonesia country carry out the trade with other country to satisfy their requirements, because all of this country have the different requirements that could not be satisfied by themselves. Sell things abroad called export, while buy goods from abroad called import. we go to the market, usually we find many import things which shown in every shop there. Many buyers prefer to buy the import things to the local things. In their opinion, import things has a better quality than the domestic products. If that’s true, so what about the local products then? time a go, to export and import things had rules and the tax that were put into effect also very high. Everyone can not free to sell or buy something from overseas. The world is becoming more globalized, thre is no doubt about that. While that sounds promising, the current form of globalization, free trade, and open markets are coming under much critism. Now a days, many peoples wanted free trade so that everyone can get their right to sell or buy anything they want. With this free trade, the buyers have many choices to buy a quality things or the cheapest things. was the beginning of the free trade era. Free trade is a system of trade policy that allows traders to act and or transact without interference from government . Free trade implies the following features such as trade of goods without taxes including tariffs or other trade barriers, the absence of trade-distorting policies such as taxes, subsidies, reulatons, or laws that give some firms, household, or factors of production an advantages over others, free access to markets, free access to market information, inability of firms to distort markets through government imposed monopoly power, the free movement of labor between and within countries, and also the free movement of capital between and within countries. the free trade there are many import things that entered to Indonesia. Anyone had the right to sell or buy the things inter-country. But, free trade has very big impact against the Indonesian businessmen. Many businessmen which their products more uncompetitive than import products will bankrupt. Only the big company which can stay in this free trade era. With the such treats, businessmen has urged to increase their product quality. the existence of this free trade increasingly will facilitate the domestic businessmen to market their products overseas and to motivate them to increase the quality of their products. So that products of domestic businessmen can compete with the import products. free trade will affect local companies performance but it can not be avoided because it was agreed on a long time a go so that we have to abide by it. But all of this depend on the customers. The Indonesian customers better more choose to use the domestic product instead, because our products also have the best quality than others. By buying our domestic product can also promote our nation, so that the Indonesian businessmen can stay exist in this free trade

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A function model or functional model in systems engineering and software engineering is a structured representation of the functions (activities, actions, processes, operations) within the modeled system or subject area. A function model, also called an activity model or process model, is a graphical representation of an enterprise's function within a defined scope. The purposes of the function model are to describe the functions and processes, assist with discovery of information needs, help identify opportunities, and establish a basis for determining product and service costs. The model originates in the 1950s, after in the first half of the 20th century other types of management diagrams had already been developed. The first known Gantt Chart was developed in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, who called it a harmonogram. Because Adamiecki did not publish his chart until 1931 - and in any case his works were published in either Polish or Russian, languages not popular in the West - the chart now bears the name of Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed his chart around the years 1910-1915 and popularized it in the West. The first structured method for documenting process flow, the flow process chart, was introduced by Frank Gilbreth to members of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in 1921 as the presentation “Process Charts—First Steps in Finding the One Best Way”. Gilbreth's tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula. One of the first well defined function models, was the Functional Flow Block Diagram (FFBD) developed by the defense-related TRW Incorporated in the 1950s. In the 1960s it was exploited by the NASA to visualize the time sequence of events in a space systems and flight missions. It is further widely used in classical systems engineering to show the order of execution of system functions. Functional modeling topics Functional perspective In systems engineering and software engineering a function model is created with a functional modeling perspective. The functional perspective is one of the perspectives possible in business process modelling, other perspecifives are for example behavioural, organisational or informational. A functional modeling perspective concentrates on describing the dynamic process. The main concept in this modeling perspective is the process, this could be a function, transformation, activity, action, task etc. A well-known example of a modeling language employing this perspective is data flow diagrams. The perspective uses four symbols to describe a process, these being: - Process: Illustrates transformation from input to output. - Store: Data-collection or some sort of material. - Flow: Movement of data or material in the process. - External Entity: External to the modeled system, but interacts with it. Now, with these symbols, a process can be represented as a network of these symbols. This decomposed process is a DFD, data flow diagram. Functional decomposition Functional decomposition refers broadly to the process of resolving a functional relationship into its constituent parts in such a way that the original function can be reconstructed from those parts by function composition. In general, this process of decomposition is undertaken either for the purpose of gaining insight into the identity of the constituent components, or for the purpose of obtaining a compressed representation of the global function, a task which is feasible only when the constituent processes possess a certain level of modularity. Functional decomposition has a prominent role in computer programming, where a major goal is to modularize processes to the greatest extent possible. For example, a library management system may be broken up into an inventory module, a patron information module, and a fee assessment module. In the early decades of computer programming, this was manifested as the "art of subroutining," as it was called by some prominent practitioners. Functional decomposition of engineering systems is a method for analyzing engineered systems. The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of the block diagram can be described without an "and" or "or" in the description. This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure function. When a system is composed of pure functions, they can be reused, or replaced. A usual side effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic. Since the interfaces usually become simple, it is easier to replace a pure function with a related, similar function. Functional modeling methods The functional approach is extended in multiple diagrammic techniques and modeling notations. This section gives an overview of the important techniques in chronological order. Functional Flow Block Diagram The Functional flow block diagram (FFBD) is a multi-tier, time-sequenced, step-by-step flow diagram of the system’s functional flow. The diagram is developed in the 1950s and widely used in classical systems engineering. The Functional Flow Block Diagram is also referred to as Functional Flow Diagram, functional block diagram, and functional flow. Functional Flow Block Diagrams (FFBD) usually define the detailed, step-by-step operational and support sequences for systems, but they are also used effectively to define processes in developing and producing systems. The software development processes also use FFBDs extensively. In the system context, the functional flow steps may include combinations of hardware, software, personnel, facilities, and/or procedures. In the FFBD method, the functions are organized and depicted by their logical order of execution. Each function is shown with respect to its logical relationship to the execution and completion of other functions. A node labeled with the function name depicts each function. Arrows from left to right show the order of execution of the functions. Logic symbols represent sequential or parallel execution of functions. HIPO and IPO HIPO for hierarchical input process output is a popular 1970s systems analysis design aid and documentation technique for representing the modules of a system as a hierarchy and for documenting each module. It was used to develop requirements, construct the design, and support implementation of an expert system to demonstrate automated rendezvous. Verification was then conducted systematically because of the method of design and implementation. The overall design of the system is documented using HIPO charts or structure charts. The structure chart is similar in appearance to an organizational chart, but has been modified to show additional detail. Structure charts can be usedto display several types of information, but are used most commonly to diagram either data structures or code structures. N2 Chart The N2 Chart is a diagram in the shape of a matrix, representing functional or physical interfaces between system elements. It is used to systematically identify, define, tabulate, design, and analyze functional and physical interfaces. It applies to system interfaces and hardware and/or software interfaces. The N2 diagram has been used extensively to develop data interfaces, primarily in the software areas. However, it can also be used to develop hardware interfaces. The basic N2 chart is shown in Figure 2. The system functions are placed on the diagonal; the remainder of the squares in the N x N matrix represent the interface inputs and outputs. Structured Analysis and Design Technique Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT) is a software engineering methodology for describing systems as a hierarchy of functions, a diagrammatic notation for constructing a sketch for a software application. It offers building blocks to represent entities and activities, and a variety of arrows to relate boxes. These boxes and arrows have an associated informal semantics. SADT can be used as a functional analysis tool of a given process, using successive levels of details. The SADT method allows to define user needs for IT developments, which is used in industrial Information Systems, but also to explain and to present an activity’s manufacturing processes, procedures. The SADT supplies a specific functional view of any enterprise by describing the functions and their relationships in a company. These functions fulfill the objectives of a company, such as sales, order planning, product design, part manufacturing, and human resource management. The SADT can depict simple functional relationships and can reflect data and control flow relationships between different functions. The IDEF0 formalism is based on SADT, developed by Douglas T. Ross in 1985. IDEF0 is a function modeling methodology for describing manufacturing functions, which offers a functional modeling language for the analysis, development, re-engineering, and integration of information systems; business processes; or software engineering analysis. It is part of the IDEF family of modeling languages in the field of software engineering, and is built on the functional modeling language building SADT. The IDEF0 Functional Modeling method is designed to model the decisions, actions, and activities of an organization or system. It was derived from the established graphic modeling language Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT) developed by Douglas T. Ross and SofTech, Inc.. In its original form, IDEF0 includes both a definition of a graphical modeling language (syntax and semantics) and a description of a comprehensive methodology for developing models. The US Air Force commissioned the SADT developers to develop a function model method for analyzing and communicating the functional perspective of a system. IDEF0 should assist in organizing system analysis and promote effective communication between the analyst and the customer through simplified graphical devices. Axiomatic Design Axiomatic design is a top down hierarchical functional decomposition process used as a solution synthesis framework for the analysis, development, re-engineering, and integration of products, information systems, business processes or software engineering solutions. Its structure is suited mathematically to analyze coupling between functions in order to optimize the architectural robustness of potential functional solution models. Operator function model The Operator Function Model (OFM) is proposed as an alternative to traditional task analysis techniques used by human factors engineers. An operator function model attempts to represent in mathematical form how an operator might decompose a complex system into simpler parts and coordinate control actions and system configurations so that acceptable overall system performance is achieved. The model represents basic issues of knowledge representation, information flow, and decision making in complex systems. Miller (1985) suggests that the network structure can be thought of as a possible representation of an operator's internal model of the system plus a control structure which specifies how the model is used to solve the decision problems that comprise operator control functions. See also |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Functional diagrams| - Bus Functional Model - Business process modeling - Data model - Enterprise modeling - Polynomial function model - Rational function model - Scientific modeling - Unified Modeling Language - View model - Incidence function model (IFM) - FIPS Publication 183 released of IDEFØ December 1993 by the Computer Systems Laboratory of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). - Reader's Guide to IDEF0 Function Models. Accessed 27 Nov 2008. - H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profit, published by The Engineering Magazine, New York, 1910; republished as Work, Wages and Profits, Easton, Pennsylvania, Hive Publishing Company, 1974, ISBN 0-87960-048-9. - Gerard Blokdijk, Project Management 100 Success Secrets, Lulu.com, 2007, ISBN 0-9804599-0-7, Google Print, p.76 - Peter W. G. Morris, The Management of Projects, Thomas Telford, 1994, ISBN 0-7277-2593-9, Google Print, p.18 - Ben B. Graham (2002). Detail Process Charting. p.2. - Tim Weilkiens (2008). Systems Engineering with SysML/UML: Modeling, Analysis, Design. Page 287. - Harold Chestnut (1967). Systems Engineering Methods. Page 254. - Thomas Dufresne & James Martin (2003). "Process Modeling for E-Business". INFS 770 Methods for Information Systems Engineering: Knowledge Management and E-Business. Spring 2003 - Process perspectives. In: Metamodeling and method engineering, Minna Koskinen, 2000. - Systems Engineering Fundamentals. Defense Acquisition University Press, 2001 - The first version of this article is completely based on the NAS SYSTEM ENGINEERING MANUAL SECTION 4.4 VERSION 3.1 06/06/06. - Task Analysis Tools Used Throughout Development. FAA 2008. Retrieved 25 Sept 2008. - FAA (2006). NAS SYSTEM ENGINEERING MANUAL SECTION 4.4 VERSION 3.1 06/06/06. - IBM Corporation (1974).HIPO—A Design Aid and Documentation Technique, Publication Number GC20-1851, IBM Corporation, White Plains, NY, 1974. - Sandia National Laboratories (1992). Sandia Software Guidelines Volume 5 Tools, Techniques,and Methodologies SANDIA REPORTS 85–2348qUC–32 - Mary Ann Goodwin and Charles C. Robertson (1986). EXPERT SYSTEM VERIFICATION CONCERNS IN AN OPERATIONS ENVIRONMENT. NASA paper N88-17234. - NASA (1995). "Techniques of Functional Analysis". In: NASA Systems Engineering Handbook June 1995. p.142. - John Mylopoulos (2004). Conceptual Modelling III. Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT). Retrieved 21 Sep 2008. - SADT at Free-logisitcs.com. Retrieved 21 Sep 2008. - Gavriel Salvendy (2001). Handbook of Industrial Engineering: Technology and Operations Management.. p.508. - Systems Engineering Fundamentals. Defense Acquisition University Press, 2001. - Varun Grover, William J. Kettinger (2000). Process Think: Winning Perspectives for Business Change in the Information Age. p.168. - Suh (2001). Axiomatic Design: Advances and Applications, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-513466-4 - Operator Function Model (OFM). Accessed 27 Nov 2008.

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A town hall meeting is a name given to an informal public meeting. Everybody in a town community is invited to attend, not always to voice their opinions, but to hear the responses from public figures and (if applicable) elected officials about shared subjects of interest. Attendees rarely vote on an issue or propose an alternative to a situation. It is not used outside of this secular context. There are no specific rules or guidelines for holding a town hall meeting. If the turnout is large, and in a particular case the objective is to give as many people as possible an opportunity to speak, then the group can be broken down into smaller discussion groups. Each group in that case appoints someone to summarize discussion of their group. Many companies also have such meetings. To me, a town hall meeting is the modern equivalent to a clan gathering around the fire. To share, to question, to be reassured... To gain some sort of feeling of connection with neighbours, of commonality, to seek out reassurances or clarification from an elected offiicial... To promote inclusion, participation, involvement and engagement in local governance. Essentially, it's this: A venue, such as a community centre, a church, a school auditorium, a hall, etc. hosts the event. Local residents attend. In most cases, you'd expect the ward Councillor to attend. The moderator should probably be someone non-aligned with either the community or the elected official, perhaps from a radio or television station, a newspaper or online civic activism site. The meeting might have an open-structure: general news is offered by the Councillor and questions are fielded from the audience. Or an important issue might be the theme of the evening, and after The Councillor has briefed the resident, then it becomes a standard Q&A. The Councillor might be the only guest, or it might be that there's a panel. Or the Councillor might not even be there, it could be a seminar where guest speakers are brought in...there are myriad variations on the 'town hall meeting' theme. But I'll tell you what it isn't: -A group haranguing. -An endless venting of spleens. As I see it, one of the reasons there is a poor general relationship between residents and their elected officials is... ...there's never been sufficient effort applied to actually developing the relationship. On the one hand, this is unrelentingly sad. On the other...it provides some incredible opportunities for making Hamilton a much better place to live.

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Experts in Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides Small cationic peptides that are an important component, in most species, of early innate and induced defenses against invading microbes. In animals they are found on mucosal surfaces, within phagocytic granules, and on the surface of the body. They are also found in insects and plants. Among others, this group includes the DEFENSINS, protegrins, tachyplesins, and thionins. They displace DIVALENT CATIONS from phosphate groups of MEMBRANE LIPIDS leading to disruption of the membrane.

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Cats currently are the most popular pet in North America and are considered family members by many cat owners.1,2 Despite these facts, cats generally receive less veterinary care than dogs do. For example, a 2006 study by the American Veterinary Medical Association found that owners took dogs to veterinarians more than twice as often as they took cats.3 Reasons for this difference include the stress and fear associated with the carrier, car, and veterinary visit; the misconception that cats can take care of themselves; and the fact that signs of illness can be difficult to detect in cats. Owners also state that they do not know what care is necessary because veterinarians do not recommend it or the need or benefit was not In light of this information, the CATalyst Council (a national initiative to champion the cat), the American Association of Feline Practitioners (AAFP), and the American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA) identified the need for wellness guidelines to improve cat health. The goals of the AAFP-AAHA Feline Life Stage Guidelines, published in the January/February 2010 issue of the Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association and available at http://aahanet.org/PublicDocuments/FelineLifeStageGuidelines.pdf, are to 1. Provide optimal healthcare recommendations for cats throughout the different stages of life. 2. Provide practical suggestions and tools to facilitate improved veterinary visits. 3. Promote more effective client communication and education about the benefits of regular veterinary care. 4. Enhance the client-veterinarian clinical encounter. The life stages chosen are intended to focus attention on the physical and behavioral changes that occur during a cat's lifespan, recognizing that individual cats and body systems can age at different rates and that any individual can have a condition not common to that life stage. The life stage classification was developed by the Feline Advisory Bureau and adopted in the 2008 AAFP Senior Care Guidelines.4,5 The stages are Kitten—birth through 6 months Junior—7 months through 2 years Adult—3 through 6 years Mature—7 through 10 years Senior—11 through 14 years Geriatric—15 or more years Client education for owners of cats of any age includes the value of a microchip for the cat; ways to prevent and to recognize early and subtle signs of stress, pain, or illness; consideration of healthcare financial planning; and inclusion of pets in home disaster preparedness and estate plans.

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Resources for Teachers / Useful Web Links General Earth Science - The Earth Science World Image Bank (Images) - The Earth Science World Image Bank is a service provided by the American Geological Institute (AGI). This Image Bank is designed to provide quality geoscience images to the public, educators, and the geoscience community. - Earth Revealed (Background Information, Videos) - This site hosts a video instructional series from Annenberg Media on geology for college and high school classrooms and adult learners - 26 half-hour video programs. - The Digital Library for Earth System Education (DLESE) (Lessons, Resource, Images) - A distributed community effort involving educators, students, and scientists working together to improve the quality, quantity, and efficiency of teaching and learning about the Earth system at all levels. DLESE resources include electronic materials for both teachers and learners, such as lesson plans, maps, images, data sets, visualizations, assessment activities, curriculum, online courses, and much more. Funding for DLESE comes in part from the National Science Foundation. - The Discovery Channel's Dinosaur Guide (Resource, Images) - Go beyond dinosaur pictures and view these fascinating enigmas in 3-D. Explore the age of the dinosaurs with these Discovery programs and see what prehistoric animals may really have looked like. - DinoBase (Background Information, Resource, Images) - Search the Dinobase for your favorite dinosaur, see current news in the field of paleontology, or see pictures of dinosaurs on the dinosaur website at University of Bristol, UK. - Stratigraphy Time Scale Poster (Resource) - The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) has a detailed Time Scale poster you can download and a Time Scale Creator program that lets you use various user defined criteria to make a time scale poster. - Clocks in the Rocks (Resource) - Discusses radioactive dating of various materials and the question "How Old is the Earth?" Rocks & Minerals - Wonderful World of Rocks and Minerals (Background Information, Lessons) - This site has Web-Based Unit for Sixth Grade. It includes background information and a variety of lessons for both rocks and minerals. - Explore Shale (Resource, Background Information) - Very visual site which explores natural gas drilling and development in the Marcellus Shale. Complimentary posters are available for educators who fill out a form. - Earthquake Center (Resource) - This USGS site lets you discover where and when earthquakes have occurred. Includes historic earthquakes, recent quakes, and allows you to search regionally, globally, by size, etc. - Professor Larry Braile's Earth Science Education Activities (Lessons) - Lesson plans for teaching about seismology and other Earth Science topics. Includes descriptions of demonstrations, experiments and activities for teachers and students. The lessons are designed primarily for teachers of grades 5-12 but can be adapted. - This Dynamic Planet (Resource) - World map of volcanoes, earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics. Download a PDF version for free or order a print version from the USGS. - Volcanoes Lesson Plan from USGS (Lessons, Background Information, Images) - Nice overview of a variety of volcano-related topics. The teacher's guide and lessons area has lessons for grades 4-8 and are downloadable. - Incoporated Research Institutions for Seismology (Resource, Images) - A good web resource focused on seismology. Includes the Seismic Monitor, which shows current earthquakes, as well as downloadable animations and photos. - Did You Feel It? (Background Information) - A site used to report earthquake experiences. There is also some information regarding how the reports are used, as well as a list of actual earthquakes. - CRISM Curriculum Guide (Lessons, Background Information) - A great resource for comparing Mars and Earth features (Grades 5-8) The hands-on activities in our comprehensive curriculum guide will take students and teachers alike into the incredible world of Mars exploration. - National Atlas Map Maker (Resource) - An easy to use map-making site. You can add layers of geologic, environmental, climate, history, boundaries, and a ton more. - ESRI Free GIS Software (Resource) - ESRI is the company that makes ArcExplorer, a free Geographic Information System (GIS) software. They are based in California and have a very large user conference every year. - Cycles of The Earth and Atmosphere (Lessons, Background Information) - Several modules on Atmosphere, Ozone, Climate, and the "Greenhouse Effect". Each section provides background information, learning concepts, and activities. Designed for middle school though it has enough detail for introductory high school courses. - Introduction to the Atmosphere (Lesson, Background Information) - A brief overview of the properties associated with the atmosphere. Includes a very good background knowledge section and seven activities. Middle school level. - Water Cycle Demo (Resource) - A video demonstrating how to illustrate the water cycle. - Stormy Weather (Lessons) - This page provides a simple lesson plan for static electricity. Not much wow factor except with little kids. However, these lessons do demonstrate the concept well. - Weather Maps (Resource) - These maps can show the almost seamless movement of weather systems across the country over a period of several hours. Includes weather maps as well water, air quality, and more. Can mouse over to see forecast maps for the next three days. - Thunderstruck - Tornado Compilation (Resource) - A video showing tornadoes forming. - Cloud in a Bottle (Resource) - A video demonstrating how to make a cloud in a bottle. - The Rain Cup (Resource) - A video demonstrating how to use the Rain Cup activity. - How to Use the Tornado Machine (Resource) - A video demonstrating how to use the Tornado Machine. Climate Change, Global Warming, and the Greenhouse Effect - Project Vulcan (Resource) - This site has an online CO2 emmissions database for the entire country. The tool was made in attempt to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide emmisions. You will need to download the Google Earth Plugin if your browser lacks it. - Bringing Climate Change Into the Classroom (Lesson, Background Information) - This link is to a PDF unit covering Greenhouse Effect, Climate Change and Sea Salt. The teacher background is very good and the lessons are not overly complicated. Could be used just to beef up your knowledge also. - Earth's CO2 Home Page (Resource) - This site displays the most current CO2 level, along with other relevant information such as updates on global temperature and information on global carbon emissions. - Marine Geology and Geophysics Images: Visualizing Data (Images) - NOAA's National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) has posted an array of both high and low resolution images that you can download including the Great Lakes Geomorphology, Sediment Thickness of the Ocean Floor, Globes, Seafloor topos, and others. - Watersheds and Sediment Transport (Lessons, Resources) - The National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics has a few activities posted, which generally deal with sediment transport, and 3D maps that can be projected onto a screen or printed out. - El Nino (Lessons, Background Information) - El Niño begins when water warms up by more than 1°F along the equator in the eastern Pacific and off the coast of Peru. Nutrients normally found in the cold waters of the area disappear. More information and a variety of lessons are provided. To get to the lessons go to the "Educators" tab in the header bar. Grades 4-8. - El Nino (Background Information, Resources) - El Niño theme page posted by NOAA. Includes information, and resources, and frequently asked questions about El Niño and La Niña. The Solar System - The Earth as a Peppercorn (Lesson) - This site describes how to make a scale model of the solar system out of ordinary objects. A little dated but still useful for visualizing both the relative size and spacing of the planets. - Impact: Earth! (Resource) - A site used to calculate the effects of a hypothetical projectile hitting the Earth's surface. Input information such as diameter of the projectile and impact angle to discover the effect of the impact. Also includes a list of famous craters and a glossary of relevant terms. Technology and Education

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Nuclear energy is not an option for combating Climate Change Nuclear energy is an alternative solution for subsidizing the global green house gasses emission rate but is not a permanent solution .As nuclear power is not a clean or renewable form of energy , so to an extent it can be used as an effective means of reducing the green house gasses emission rate but not a permanent solution where better option are being explored and new technologies are being developed. Professing, the role of production of green house gasses, a large percentage of the emission is also related to electricity production where great quantities of fossil fuels are used in producing electricity. The Nuclear energy provides a better option in producing the non fossil electricity but the high investment, dangers of radiation or inevitable risks of catastrophic nuclear accidents and also increases the threat of nuclear weapons expansion and research . It’s neither the cheapest of the non-fossil fuel alternatives, nor is it the cleanest, but still the demand of nuclear power is growing due to its flexibility of operation and mass energy production capacity . Moreover, the booming of the renewable technologies has outstripped the nuclear power in development and performance, while ensuring the cost, effectiveness and efficiency, but is yet struggling to adapt the market. There are variable options like Wind Power, Solar Photo Voltaic, Solar Thermal, Geo Thermal, Hydro electricity; Bio Mass, Land gasses etc which are being explored and small fraction of it are being used in different parts of the world .More or less, whether it’s nuclear or any form of energy, if it helps in reducing the rate of emission in any way should certainly be capitalized where its pros and cons should be well evaluated . Now, looking back to the Nuclear energy prospects, the initial investment for setting up a nuclear plant may be huge or in billions but the average cost of producing nuclear energy is less than the cost of using fossil fuel or coal or hydroelectric which seems very lucrative and adaptive. Moving on the advancement in technology will bring the cost down further in the future but inherently the threats of nuclear power station also shadow its prospects . Nuclear energy is well recognized as an alternative energy where its demand has reached to the priority of developed and developing nation. To the level, Nuclear power is regarded as one of the options available for alleviating the risk of global climate change and Green house gases s effects, where controversies are raised in and against the use of Nuclear power . Further research and development is necessary in order to assess the technical and economical feasibility of those applications where the renewable options should be give chance on the basis of efficiency and effectiveness . As it’s said that an effort of a person is not a worth but the idea is worth catching thousand of mind where we as an individual can make a difference. 1. In December 1997 governments met in Kyoto, Japan, where they agreed the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, meaning that governments were committed to stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions to levels that would minimize climate change. The electricity generating sector contributes a large percentage of global greenhouse gas emissions by burning fossil fuels. Nuclear energy, along with renewable such as solar, wind and hydro generates electricity without greenhouse gas emissions. Nuclear energy provides a fully developed non-fossil electricity generating option with the potential for large scale expansion. A continued steady growth of nuclear energy will allow countries to avoid emitting greenhouse gases from their electricity sector and help them to meet their Kyoto commitment. 2. In the United States, for example, no new nuclear power stations have been ordered since 1978. This has happened in a country which launched the Pressurized Water Reactor design and which houses many more nuclear reactors than any other country. Construction and operating costs have risen so dramatically, especially since the extra safety demands made after the accident at Three Mile Island, that some companies have faced bankruptcy. In the United Kingdom, after a review of the privatization of the nuclear power industry, the government dismissed the industry’s demands for public funding to build new reactors to combat global warming. Six months later, British Energy cancelled two proposed stations, leaving the UK for the first time in over 40 years with no plans for new nuclear power stations. 3. In the Kyoto Protocol, agreed upon by the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in December 1997, Annex I countries committed to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Also, the Protocol states that Annex I countries shall undertake promotion, research, development and increased use of new and renewable forms of energy, of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of advanced and innovative environmentally sound technologies. One important option that could be covered by the last phrase, and is not specifically mentioned, is nuclear energy which is essentially carbon free. In this connection, the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) has investigated the role that nuclear power could play in alleviating the risk of global climate change. The main objective of the study is to provide a quantitative basis for assessing the consequences for the nuclear sector and for the reduction of GHG emissions of alternative nuclear development paths. The analysis covers the economic, financial, industrial and potential environmental effects of three alternative nuclear power development paths (“nuclear variants”). - Variant I, “continued nuclear growth”, assumes that nuclear power capacity would grow steadily, reaching 1 120 GWe* in 2050. - Variant II, “phase-out”, assumes that nuclear power would be phased out completely by 2045. - Variant III, “stagnation followed by revival”, assumes early retirements of nuclear units in the short term (to 2015) followed by a revival of the nuclear option by 2020 leading to the same nuclear capacity in 2050 as in variant I. 4. Challenges for the Nuclear Industry Variant I: The main challenges would be to ensure that nuclear power retains and improves it economic competitive position relative to alternative energy sources, and to enhance public understanding and acceptance of nuclear power. - Variant II: The nuclear sector will be challenged to meet the need for maintaining capabilities and know how to ensure the safe decommissioning of nuclear units and final disposal of radioactive wastes. Nuclear industries in a number of OECD countries have demonstrated already that capability. This variant might exacerbate challenges within the non nuclear energy sectors, in regard to long term security of supply and meeting UNFCCC commitments. - Variant III: would challenge the nuclear industry to ensure that technical and economic preparedness would be maintained and enhanced during more than two decades of stagnation, in order to keep the nuclear option open. A revival of nuclear power by 2015 is assumed to be based upon technologies that are able to compete favorably with advanced fossil fuelled technologies, renewable sources and other options for alleviating the risk of global climate change. 5. Nuclear energy is expensive. It is in fact one of the least expensive energy sources. In 2004, the average cost of producing nuclear energy in the United States was less than two cents per kilowatt-hour, comparable with coal and hydroelectric. Advances in technology will bring the cost down further in the future. 6. Nuclear waste is produced at every stage of the nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to the reprocessing of spent nuclear. Much of this waste will remain hazardous for thousands of years, leaving a deadly radioactive legacy to future generations. At nuclear power stations, highly radioactive waste has to be regularly removed from the reactor and at most sites this spent fuel is being stored temporarily in water-filled cooling ponds. According to independent experts, the global quantity of spent fuel produced without a climate based radical expansion of nuclear power is expected to increase from 145,000 tones in 1994, to 322,000 tones by the year 2010. Whilst a variety of disposal methods have been under discussion for decades, there is still no demonstrated method for isolating nuclear waste from the environment for adequate time periods. As part of the routine operation of every nuclear power station, some waste materials are also discharged directly into the environment. Liquid waste is discharged into the sea and gaseous waste is released into the atmosphere. 7. Nuclear Weapons: Uncontrollable World-wide Proliferation Plutonium is an inevitable consequence of nuclear power production. The plutonium is contained in the spent nuclear fuel. It is one of the most radiotoxic and dangerous substances in existence. A single microgram, smaller than a speck of dust, can cause fatal cancer if inhaled or ingested and a sphere of plutonium smaller than a tennis ball can be used to make a nuclear bomb capable of killing many thousands of people. The links between the civilian use of nuclear technology and military applications is one of the most disturbing aspects of the nuclear age. The very first, crude nuclear reactors were specifically built in the 1940s and 1950s to produce plutonium for the US, former Soviet Union and British bombs. Only later were they adapted to generate nuclear electricity. As nuclear technology spreads around the globe, so does the risk of nuclear proliferation. Nuclear weapons can be constructed using plutonium from either military or civilian sources. By Shreedeep Rayamajhi By Shreedeep Rayamajhi Tags: Nuclearplant , Nuclear This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-No Derivative Works 3.0 License.

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- Prune a fruit tree and explain why such a pruning was done. - Make a plan for planting a 2-acre fuit orchard. - Prepare and demonstrate how to use the following apple or other fruit tree sprays: - (a) dormant spray - (b) bud spray - (c) calyx spray - Demonstrate how to grade and pack two kinds of fruit. - Explain requirements for planting and management of two kinds of small fruit. - Bud or graft two fruit trees. - Demonstrate the propagation of grapes, strawberries and raspberries, and explain when and how to plant. | The official source for the information shown in this article or section is:| Handbook for Boys, 1948 Edition

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Healthy Ideas for Pumpkin Eaters Carve out a place in your diet for nutritious pumpkins. If your only annual encounters with pumpkins are carving a Halloween jack-o’-lantern and gobbling a Thanksgiving pie, you’re missing out on a nutritional bargain. Nutrient-dense, these stars of autumn holidays deliver a modest amount of protein and fiber, a mix of essential minerals, vitamins C and E, and especially beta-carotene, which is a form of vitamin A—with only 49 calories in one cup of cooked pumpkin. Botanically a fruit, the pumpkin is a type of winter squash and part of the gourd family. Its name, however, comes from the Greek for “large melon” (pepon). Pumpkins are originally from the Americas, where colonists who learned about them from native tribes cooked a sort of inside-out pumpkin pie by filling the gourds with milk, spices and honey and then baking in hot ashes. Pumpkins had arrived in Europe by the time of Shakespeare, who refers to a “pumpion” in The Merry Wives of Windsor. Early on, pumpkin was recognized as good for you, supposed to treat everything from freckles to snake bite. • The US produces some 1.1 billion pounds of pumpkins annually, valued at more than $140 million. • The top pumpkin-producing states are Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania • More than 90% of the pumpkins grown for processing as canned pumpkin in the US come from Illinois. Today, says Elizabeth Johnson, PhD, a scientist in Tufts’ HNRCA Carotenoids and Health Laboratory, “The key to a healthy diet is diversity within a food group and among the food groups. While there is no one food that will contain all the nutrition one needs, pumpkins should be considered a part of a healthy diet.” Keeping You Very Well A typical pumpkin is 90% water, but a cup of cooked pumpkin still has room for 2 grams of protein and 3 grams of fiber. Carbohydrates total 12 grams per cup—an important consideration for diabetics and others watching their carb intake. Just one cup of cooked pumpkin contains 564 milligrams of potassium—more than a banana and almost an eighth of what you need in a day. Pumpkin also provides copper, manganese, zinc, iron, selenium and magnesium. One cup contains 19% of the Daily Value for vitamin C, 11% of riboflavin and 10% of vitamin E. The orange color of pumpkins is a tip-off that, like carrots, they are stellar sources of beta-carotene, which your liver can convert to vitamin A. That one cup of cooked pumpkin packs a whopping 5.125 milligrams of beta-carotene. Best obtained from your diet rather than supplements, beta-carotene from foods like pumpkins may reduce the risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women, especially those at higher risk, and of ovarian cancer after menopause. Although it doesn’t prevent arthritis, dietary beta-carotene may keep the condition from getting worse. Some evidence suggests beta-carotene from food improves physical performance and strength in the elderly. Pumpkin is also rich in other carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin, associated with eye health and reduced risk of cataracts and age-related macular degeneration. Picking a Great Pumpkin Even if your pumpkins are destined for your plate rather than your front porch as jack-o’-lanterns, now is the time to buy them: 80% of the US pumpkin supply is available in October. Pick pumpkins that are firm and heavy for their size, with a deep orange color. Good pumpkins for eating, rather than carving, tend to be smaller—about the size of a cantaloupe, weighing two to five pounds—and may be labeled as “sugar” or “pie” pumpkins. Popular eating varieties include Autumn Gold, Baby Pam, New England Pie and Small Sugar. Kept in a cool, dark place, a whole pumpkin will keep up to two months. Seeds Worth Saving Save those pumpkin seeds for a nutritious snack, topping or granola ingredient. To toast, rinse thoroughly, removing pulp and stringy fibers, and pat dry. Spread in lightly oiled baking pan. Toss with 1 tsp olive oil or canola oil per half cup of seeds and a pinch of salt, if desired. Bake at 300 degrees until golden, 25 to 35 minutes, stirring every 10 minutes. Transfer to a bowl. Pumpkin seeds (pepitas) are high in protein, manganese, magnesium and phosphorus and contain heart-healthy mono- and polyunsaturated fats. A quarter-cup contains 190 calories (including oil for toasting), though, so enjoy in moderation. Halve the pumpkin from top to bottom and scrape out the seeds and fibrous matter inside—saving the seeds, which are nutritional standouts on their own (see box). You can cut the pumpkin into smaller cubes for faster cooking, roasting along with onions and other vegetables or incorporating into chilis and stews. Puréed in a blender or food processor, pumpkin becomes a base for soup, waffles, pancakes, quick breads or muffins. (Find pumpkin recipes at recipefinder.nal.usda.gov/recipes?ing=pumpkin.) Convenient canned pumpkin purée is just as good a choice as fresh pumpkin, as long as you look for 100% pumpkin products with no other ingredients such as added salt or sugar. Of course, you can also use pumpkin purée to make that traditional pie. You’ll still get all of pumpkin’s nutritional goodness, but go easy on the butter, sugar and whipped cream. For a lighter Thanksgiving dessert, try our Pumpkin-Maple Custards recipe from the November 2008 issue. (Can’t find your copy? Sign up for our free email newsletter at www.tuftshealthletter.com by Nov. 1 and you can get the recipe in the Nov. 2 email update.)

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Intro into Engineering Calling all entry level engineers! Intro to Engineering Science Kit provided a welcoming opening to explore hands-on activities for kids to learn how engineers apply scientific and technical knowledge to designing machines and devices. No dry science here though, as the 48 page full color guidebook provides instructions for making 25 different projects. Locate a store near you. : CHOKING HAZARD - Small parts. Not for children under 3 years.

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At a time when Copenhagen talks and the Kyoto Protocol seem likely to end in failure, calling for an entirely different framework for addressing the climate crisis may seem like madness. Carbon Trading: How it works and why it fails produced by the Transnational Institute's Carbon Trade Watch Project, is sure to change your mind. Due to the resistance of the northern governments, it now appears extremely unlikely that the Copenhagen climate conference will produce the strong, comprehensive agreement which the world needs to avert irreversible climate change. It would be better for India to walk out of the talks then “greenwash” a deal that lets the North shirk its responsibility for climate change and pass on a good portion of its burden on to the South’s underprivileged people. As politicians meet for more climate talks in Barcelona, they continue to be fixated on measures like carbon trading that will only exacerbate the climate crisis. Fortunately the last year in the UK and worldwide has shown that direct action against carbon-intensive projects can deliver results. India’s response to climate change has been paltry, half-hearted and directed at preserving existing elite lifestyles. Its credibility in international negotiations will only be restored if it takes urgent measures to reduce domestic energy use. As the UN climate talks in Copenhagen get closer, it is clear that the discourse on climate solutions has been hijacked by corporate interests. Carbon trading is being promoted as the only solution to the climate crisis, pushing aside alternative approaches...and it's proving to be a farce. Proposals to expand offsetting and carbon trading risk creating new loopholes, delays to urgent action in developed countries, and inequity by shifting of burden to developing countries usurping development space. Can this approach achieve science or equity objectives in the climate regime?

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HOHHOT, Oct.22 (Xinhua) -- China has developed 30 varieties of drought-resistant grass seeds to help green urban areas. Yun Jinfeng, chairman of the Chinese Grassland Society (CGS), said researchers in north China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region used transgenetic technology to select genes from spear grass, morningstar lily grass and two color-lavender herb grass. Some 95 percent of turf grass seeds in China are imported from America and European countries, with annual import volumes at around 10,000 tonnes. "Compared with imported grass seed, domestic grass seed is more adaptable to a dry environment. They need only one tenth of the water of imported turf grass," Yun said. "Chinese cities are building more urban green areas, and turf watering requires much water," said Wang Linhe, a professor at Inner Mongolia Agricultural University involved in grass seed research. He said the newly-developed grass seeds need watering only three times per year and can easily adapt to arid environments which receive less 500 millimeters of rainfall per year.

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Designing the Best Possible Conservation Buffers By Sharon Durham December 1, 2003 Restored riparian wetland buffers retained or removed at least 60 percent of the nitrogen and 65 percent of the phosphorus that entered from an adjacent site where manure was applied, according to results of a nine-year study by Agricultural Research Service scientists in Tifton, Ga., and cooperators at the University of Georgia. This is the first time that a study of a restored riparian buffer has shown that the retention of phosphorus was as high or higher than nitrogen retention. Riparian buffer zones are areas of vegetation that act like sponges, soaking up water and nutrients from the soil. Buffer zones also help reduce soil erosion along downward slopes due to rain or irrigation, both of which can cause surface runoff. Ecologist Richard Lowrance of the ARS Southeast Watershed Research Unit, and engineer George Vellidis of the University of Georgia, found that a particular type of buffercalled a restored zone 3 conservation bufferis especially effective in removing excess nutrients from water that runs off of agricultural fields where manure has been applied as a fertilizer. A zone 3 buffer is a grassy edge that sits next to the field. During the study, the amount of water and concentrations of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in water entering and leaving the riparian wetland were monitored. The stream flow concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus leaving the conservation wetland buffer were one-half (for nitrogen) and one-quarter (for phosphorus) of the incoming concentrations in surface runoff from adjacent fields. Other Tifton scientists are conducting various conservation buffer research studies that examine several different scenarios farmers encounter. Ultimately, this research should help growers develop a way to lower nutrients that make it to streams and waterways. about this research in the December issue of Agricultural Research ARS is the U.S. Department of Agriculture's chief scientific research agency.

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NASA going green with solar-powered Jupiter probe CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. (AP) — NASA heads for Jupiter this week. And its mission can't get much greener. A solar-powered, windmill-shaped spacecraft named Juno is set to become the most distant probe ever powered by the sun. The robotic explorer is equipped with three tractor-trailer-size solar panels. A rocket is set to launch the spacecraft on Friday morning from Cape Canaveral. It will take Juno five years to reach Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system. The spacecraft will orbit the planet for a year, sending back photos and other data. Juno is the first of three high-profile astronomy missions for NASA in the coming months. Other destinations include the moon and Mars.

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