rlacombe/ClimateX · Datasets at Hugging Face

statement_idx int64 0 8.09k	report stringclasses 3 values	page_num int64 18 2.84k	sent_num int64 0 78	statement stringlengths 13 4.29k	confidence stringclasses 4 values	score int64 0 3	split stringclasses 2 values
7,600	AR6_WGIII	352	33	The use of bioenergy can lead to either increased or reduced emissions, depending on the scale of deployment, conversion technology, fuel displaced, and how/ where the biomass is produced	high	2	train
7,601	AR6_WGIII	353	1	CDR deployment in pathways serves multiple purposes: accelerating the pace of emissions reductions, offsetting residual emissions, and creating the option for net negative CO 2 emissions in case temperature reductions need to be achieved in the long term	high	2	train
7,602	AR6_WGIII	353	3	CDR through some measures in AFOLU can be maintained for decades but not in the very long term because these sinks will ultimately saturate	high	2	train
7,603	AR6_WGIII	353	14	Yet, these estimates do not account for the economic benefits of avoided climate change impacts	medium	1	train
7,604	AR6_WGIII	353	16	This holds true even without accounting for benefits in other sustainable development dimensions or non- market damages from climate change	medium	1	train
7,605	AR6_WGIII	353	20	When aggregate economic benefits from avoided climate change impacts are accounted for, mitigation is a welfare-enhancing strategy	high	2	train
7,606	AR6_WGIII	353	24	Mitigation has implications for employment through multiple channels, each of which impacts geographies, sectors and skill categories differently	medium	1	train
7,607	AR6_WGIII	353	26	Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present	high	2	train
7,608	AR6_WGIII	353	27	Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil fuel exporting regions and in poorer regions	high	2	train
7,609	AR6_WGIII	353	28	Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries; the actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger	high	2	train
7,610	AR6_WGIII	353	29	Mitigation at the speed and scale required to limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower implies deep economic and structural changes, thereby raising multiple types of distributional concerns across regions, income classes and sectors	high	2	train
7,611	AR6_WGIII	354	3	Dimensions with potential trade-offs include food, employment, water stress, and biodiversity, which come under pressure from large-scale CDR deployment, energy affordability/ access, and mineral-resource extraction	high	2	train
7,612	AR6_WGIII	354	10	Feasibility challenges are transient and concentrated in the next two to three decades	high	2	train
7,613	AR6_WGIII	390	8	However, delaying emissions reductions, or more limited emissions reductions in one sector or region, involves compensating reductions in other sectors or regions if warming is to be limited	high	2	train
7,614	AR6_WGIII	390	20	So, while pathways indicate some flexibility in emissions reductions across sectors, all pathways involve substantial CO 2 emissions reductions in all sectors and regions	high	2	train
7,615	AR6_WGIII	395	15	All pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower show substantial reductions in fossil fuel consumption and a near elimination of the use of coal without CCS	high	2	train
7,616	AR6_WGIII	395	34	Stringent emissions reductions at the level required to limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or 1.5°C are achieved through increased electrification of end use, resulting in increased electricity generation in all pathways	high	2	train
7,617	AR6_WGIII	400	1	Limiting warming to likely 2°C (>67%) or lower can result in large-scale transformation of the land surface	high	2	train
7,618	AR6_WGIII	400	26	Some AFOLU mitigation options can enhance vegetation and soil carbon stocks such as reforestation, restoration of degraded ecosystems, protection of ecosystems with high carbon stocks and changes to agricultural land management to increase soil carbon	high	2	train
7,619	AR6_WGIII	400	31	The time scales associated with these options indicate that carbon sinks in terrestrial vegetation and soil systems can be maintained or enhanced so as to contribute towards long-term mitigation	high	2	train
7,620	AR6_WGIII	400	34	In the very long term (the latter part of the century and beyond), it will become more challenging to continue to enhance vegetation and soil carbon stocks, so that the associated carbon sinks could diminish or even become sources	high	2	train
7,621	AR6_WGIII	401	8	Anthropogenic land CO 2 emissions and removals in IAM pathways cannot be directly compared with those reported in national GHG inventories	high	2	train
7,622	AR6_WGIII	402	2	The assessment in this section shows that if mitigation ambitions in NDCs announced prior to COP262,18 are followed until 2030, leading to estimated emissions of 47–57 GtCO 2-eq in 203019 (Section 4.2.2), it is no longer possible to limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot	high	2	train
7,623	AR6_WGIII	402	4	It would also strongly increase mitigation challenges to limit warming to 2°C (>67%)	high	2	train
7,624	AR6_WGIII	402	7	A lock-in to fossil fuel-intensive production systems (carbon lock-in) will increase the societal, economic and political strain of a rapid low-carbon transition after 2030	high	2	train
7,625	AR6_WGIII	413	1	However, it is robust across modelling frameworks that the marginal abatement cost of carbon increases for lower temperature categories, with a higher increase in the short term than in the longer term (Figure 3.32, left panel)	high	2	train
7,626	AR6_WGIII	413	10	Pathways that correspond to NDCs announced prior to COP26 in 2030 and strengthen action after 2030 imply higher marginal abatement costs of carbon in the longer run than pathways with stronger immediate global mitigation action (Figure 3.32b)	high	2	train
7,627	AR6_WGIII	415	12	Mitigation pathways with early emissions reductions represent higher mitigation costs in the short-run but bring long-term gains for the economy compared to delayed transition pathways	high	2	train
7,628	AR6_WGIII	418	15	The AR6 WGII finds that variation in estimated global economic impacts increases with warming in all methodologies, indicating higher risk in terms of economic impacts at higher temperatures	high	2	train
7,629	AR6_WGIII	418	17	The AR6 WGII’s assessment finds that the lack of comparability between methodologies does not allow for identification of robust ranges of global economic impact estimates	high	2	train
7,630	AR6_WGIII	418	18	Further, AR6 WGII identifies evaluating and reconciling differences in methodologies as a research priority for facilitating use of the different lines of evidence	high	2	train
7,631	AR6_WGIII	422	34	Through avoiding impacts, mitigation thus reduces economic inequalities and poverty	high	2	train
7,632	AR6_WGIII	422	46	Targeted policy areas must include healthy nutrition, sustainable consumption and production, inequality and poverty alleviation, air quality and international collaboration	high	2	train
7,633	AR6_WGIII	422	47	Lower energy demand enables synergies between mitigation and sustainability, with lower reliance on CDR	high	2	train
7,634	AR6_WGIII	423	9	Reducing warming reduces the population impacted by all impact categories shown	high	2	train
7,635	AR6_WGIII	423	16	Areas of co-benefits include human health, ambient air pollution and other specific kinds of pollution, while areas of trade-off include food access, habitat loss and mineral resources	medium	1	train
7,636	AR6_WGIII	425	21	Recent research shows that mitigation is compatible with reductions in inequality and poverty (Box 3.6).Lower demand – for example, for energy and land-intensive consumption such as meat – represents a synergistic strategy for achieving ambitious climate mitigation without compromising Sustainable Development Goals	high	2	train
7,637	AR6_WGIII	426	7	Climate change will reduce crop yields, increase food insecurity, and negatively influence nutrition and mortality. Climate mitigation will thus reduce these impacts, and hence reduce food insecurity	high	2	test
7,638	AR6_WGIII	427	2	Mitigating climate change while ensuring that food security is not adversely affected requires a range of different strategies and interventions	high	2	train
7,639	AR6_WGIII	427	18	Taken together, climate changes will reduce crop yields, increase food insecurity and influence nutrition and mortality	high	2	train
7,640	AR6_WGIII	427	28	Climate change also affects the occurrence of and exposure to hydrological extremes	high	2	train
7,641	AR6_WGIII	427	32	Climate models project increases in drought risk	very high	3	test
7,642	AR6_WGIII	427	34	The effect of climate change on water availability and hydrological extremes varies by region	high	2	train
7,643	AR6_WGIII	427	44	Limiting warming could reduce water-related risks	high	2	train
7,644	AR6_WGIII	427	50	The effect of climate change on water depends on the climate model, the hydrological model, and the metric	high	2	train
7,645	AR6_WGIII	427	54	However, the effect of socio-economic development could be larger than the effect of climate change	high	2	train
7,646	AR6_WGIII	427	78	Bioenergy and BECCS can increase water withdrawals and water consumption	high	2	train
7,647	AR6_WGIII	428	14	The effect of mitigation on water quality depends on the mitigation option, its implementation, and the aspect of quality considered	high	2	train
7,648	AR6_WGIII	430	29	Marine and coastal ecosystems Marine ecosystems are being affected by climate change and growing non-climate pressures including temperature change, acidification, land-sourced pollution, sedimentation, resource extraction and habitat destruction	high	2	train
7,649	AR6_WGIII	430	32	The danger or warming and acidification to coral reefs, rocky shores and kelp forests is well established	high	2	train
7,650	AR6_WGIII	430	49	Stringent mitigation that includes reductions in demand for animal-based foods and food waste could also relieve pressures on land use and biodiversity	high	2	train
7,651	AR6_WGIII	479	25	Working Group II contribution to this Assessment finds that the overall extent of adaptation-related responses in human systems is low	high	2	train
7,652	AR6_WGIII	521	33	IPCC SR1.5 found that sustainable development pathways to 1.5°C broadly support and often enable transformations and that ‘sustainable development has the potential to significantly reduce systemic vulnerability, enhance adaptive capacity, and promote livelihood security for poor and disadvantaged populations	high	2	train
7,653	AR6_WGIII	566	5	Rapid and deep changes in demand make it easier for every sector to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the short and medium term	high	2	train
7,654	AR6_WGIII	567	7	Behavioural nudges promote easy behaviour change, for example ‘Improve’ actions such as making investments in energy efficiency, but fail to motivate harder lifestyle changes	high	2	train
7,655	AR6_WGIII	582	45	The study shows that of all demand- side option effects on well-being, 79% are positive, 18% are neutral (or not relevant or specified), and only 3% are negative	high	2	train
7,656	AR6_WGIII	582	50	Well-being improvements are most notable in health, air, and energy	high	2	train
7,657	AR6_WGIII	582	53	Food (medium confidence), mobility (high confidence), and water	medium	1	train
7,658	AR6_WGIII	582	57	An exception is economic stability, suggesting that demand-side options generate stable opportunities to participate in economic activities	high	2	train
7,659	AR6_WGIII	589	11	Around 931 million tonnes of food waste was generated in 2019 globally, 61% of which came from households, 26% from food service and 13% from retail.Demand-side mitigations are achieved through changing Socio- cultural factors, Infrastructure use and Technology adoption by various social actors in urban and other settlements, food choice and waste management	high	2	train
7,660	AR6_WGIII	589	17	The technical mitigation potential of food loss and waste reductions globally has been estimated at 0.1–5.8 GtCO 2-eq	high	2	train
7,661	AR6_WGIII	590	1	The estimated technical potential for GHG emissions reductions associated with shifts to sustainable healthy diets is 0.5–8 GtCO 2-eq	high	2	train
7,662	AR6_WGIII	616	3	They also offer potential levers to change normative ideas and social practices in order to achieve extensive emissions cuts	high	2	train
7,663	AR6_WGIII	618	7	Countermovement coalitions work to oppose climate mitigation	high	2	train
7,664	AR6_WGIII	622	25	Although there is variability across innovations, sectors, and countries, the transitions literature distinguishes four phases, characterised by generic core processes and challenges: (i) emergence, (ii) early adaptation, (i) diffusion, (iv) stabilisation	high	2	train
7,665	AR6_WGIII	622	29	These four phases do not imply that transitions are linear, teleological processes, because set-backs or reversals may occur as a result of learning processes, conflicts, or changing coalitions	very high	3	train
7,666	AR6_WGIII	622	32	In the first phase, radical innovations emerge in peripheral niches, where researchers, inventors, social movement organisations or community activists dedicate time and effort to their development	high	2	train
7,667	AR6_WGIII	737	13	Replacing old coal with new coal facilities is inconsistent with limiting warming to 2°C or below	high	2	train
7,668	AR6_WGIII	742	10	Global fossil fuel subsidies represent more than half of total energy subsidies with predominantly adverse environmental, economic, and social effects	high	2	train
7,669	AR6_WGIII	742	23	Fossil fuel subsidies most commonly pursue non-climate objectives, for example, enhanced access to energy sources	high	2	test
7,670	AR6_WGIII	743	10	Costs have declined by 62% since 2015	high	2	train
7,671	AR6_WGIII	743	11	Key areas for continued improvement are grid integration and non- module costs for rooftop systems	high	2	train
7,672	AR6_WGIII	743	12	Most deployment is now utility-scale	high	2	train
7,673	AR6_WGIII	743	13	Global future potential is not limited by solar irradiation, but by grid integration needed to address its variability, as well as access to finance, particularly in developing countries	high	2	train
7,674	AR6_WGIII	743	14	The global technical potential of direct solar energy far exceeds that of any other renewable energy resource and is well beyond the total amount of energy needed to support ambitious mitigation over the current century	high	2	train
7,675	AR6_WGIII	743	25	In many parts of the world, the cost of electricity from PV is below the cost of electricity generated from fossil fuels; in some, it is below the operating costs of electricity generated from fossil fuels	high	2	train
7,676	AR6_WGIII	745	2	The share of total costs of PV-intensive electricity systems attributed to integration costs has been increasing but can be reduced by enhancing grid flexibility	high	2	train
7,677	AR6_WGIII	745	23	The most important ways to minimise PV’s impact on the environment lie in recycling materials at end of life and making smart land-use decisions	medium	1	train
7,678	AR6_WGIII	745	60	Material demand for PV will likely increase substantially to limit warming to well below 2°C, but PV materials are widely available, have possible substitutes, and can be recycled	medium	1	train
7,679	AR6_WGIII	746	11	Many alternative PV materials are improving in efficiency and stability, providing longer-term pathways for continued PV costs reductions and better performance	high	2	train
7,680	AR6_WGIII	746	68	Solar energy elicits favourable public responses in most countries	high	2	train
7,681	AR6_WGIII	747	1	Costs have declined by 18% and 40% on land and offshore since 2015 (high confidence), and further reductions can be expected by 2030	medium	1	train
7,682	AR6_WGIII	747	2	Wind power is increasingly competitive with other forms of electricity generation and is the low-cost option in many applications, and critical areas for continued improvement are technology advancements and economies of scale	high	2	test
7,683	AR6_WGIII	747	3	Global future potential is primarily limited by onshore land availability in wind power-rich areas, lack of supporting infrastructure, grid integration, and access to finance (especially in developing countries) (high confidence).Energy from wind is abundant, and the estimated technical potentials surpass the total amount of energy needed to limit warming to well below 2°C	high	2	train
7,684	AR6_WGIII	749	5	Electricity from onshore wind is less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels in a growing number of markets	high	2	train
7,685	AR6_WGIII	750	6	Wind power plants pose relatively low environmental impact, but sometimes locally significant ecological effects	high	2	train
7,686	AR6_WGIII	750	23	Public support for onshore and particularly offshore wind energy is generally high, although people may oppose specific wind farm projects	high	2	train
7,687	AR6_WGIII	751	2	However, the future mitigation potential of hydropower depends on minimising environmental and social impacts during the planning stages, reducing the risks of dam failures, and modernising the ageing hydropower fleet to increase generation capacity and flexibility	high	2	train
7,688	AR6_WGIII	751	12	Hydropower is a mature technology with locally adapted solutions	high	2	train
7,689	AR6_WGIII	752	15	Hydroelectric power plants may pose serious environmental and societal impacts	high	2	train
7,690	AR6_WGIII	752	29	Yet, public support for hydro seems to differ for existing and new projects	high	2	train
7,691	AR6_WGIII	752	54	Doing so will require improvements in managing construction of reactor designs that hold the promise of lower costs and broader use	medium	1	train
7,692	AR6_WGIII	752	55	At the same time, nuclear power continues to be affected by cost overruns, high upfront investment needs, challenges with final disposal of radioactive waste, and varying public acceptance and political support levels	high	2	train
7,693	AR6_WGIII	752	56	There are sufficient resources for substantially increasing nuclear deployment	medium	1	train
7,694	AR6_WGIII	753	1	There are several possible nuclear technology options for the period from 2030 to 2050	medium	1	train
7,695	AR6_WGIII	753	20	Nuclear power costs vary substantially across countries	high	2	train
7,696	AR6_WGIII	753	28	Cost-cutting opportunities, such as design standardisation and innovations in construction approaches, are expected to make SMRs competitive against large reactors by 2040 (Rubio and Tricot 2016)	medium	1	train
7,697	AR6_WGIII	753	34	However, new reactor designs with passive and enhanced safety systems reduce the risk of such accidents significantly	high	2	train
7,698	AR6_WGIII	753	55	Nuclear power continues to suffer from limited public and political support in some countries	high	2	train
7,699	AR6_WGIII	754	18	Most of the countries that might introduce nuclear power in the future for their climate change mitigation benefits do not envision developing their own full fuel cycle, significantly reducing any risks that might be linked to proliferation (IAEA 2014, 2019).6.4.2.5 Carbon Dioxide Capture, Utilisation and Storage Since AR5, there have been increased efforts to develop novel platforms that reduce the energy penalty associated with CO 2 capture, develop CO 2 utilisation pathways as a substitute to geologic storage, and establish global policies to support CCS	high	2	train

7,600

AR6_WGIII

352

33

The use of bioenergy can lead to either increased or reduced emissions, depending on the scale of deployment, conversion technology, fuel displaced, and how/ where the biomass is produced

high

2

train

7,601

AR6_WGIII

353

1

CDR deployment in pathways serves multiple purposes: accelerating the pace of emissions reductions, offsetting residual emissions, and creating the option for net negative CO 2 emissions in case temperature reductions need to be achieved in the long term

high

2

train

7,602

AR6_WGIII

353

3

CDR through some measures in AFOLU can be maintained for decades but not in the very long term because these sinks will ultimately saturate

high

2

train

7,603

AR6_WGIII

353

14

Yet, these estimates do not account for the economic benefits of avoided climate change impacts

medium

1

train

7,604

AR6_WGIII

353

16

This holds true even without accounting for benefits in other sustainable development dimensions or non- market damages from climate change

medium

1

train

7,605

AR6_WGIII

353

20

When aggregate economic benefits from avoided climate change impacts are accounted for, mitigation is a welfare-enhancing strategy

high

2

train

7,606

AR6_WGIII

353

24

Mitigation has implications for employment through multiple channels, each of which impacts geographies, sectors and skill categories differently

medium

1

train

7,607

AR6_WGIII

353

26

Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present

high

2

train

7,608

AR6_WGIII

353

27

Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil fuel exporting regions and in poorer regions

high

2

train

7,609

AR6_WGIII

353

28

Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries; the actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger

high

2

train

7,610

AR6_WGIII

353

29

Mitigation at the speed and scale required to limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower implies deep economic and structural changes, thereby raising multiple types of distributional concerns across regions, income classes and sectors

high

2

train

7,611

AR6_WGIII

354

3

Dimensions with potential trade-offs include food, employment, water stress, and biodiversity, which come under pressure from large-scale CDR deployment, energy affordability/ access, and mineral-resource extraction

high

2

train

7,612

AR6_WGIII

354

10

Feasibility challenges are transient and concentrated in the next two to three decades

high

2

train

7,613

AR6_WGIII

390

8

However, delaying emissions reductions, or more limited emissions reductions in one sector or region, involves compensating reductions in other sectors or regions if warming is to be limited

high

2

train

7,614

AR6_WGIII

390

20

So, while pathways indicate some flexibility in emissions reductions across sectors, all pathways involve substantial CO 2 emissions reductions in all sectors and regions

high

2

train

7,615

AR6_WGIII

395

15

All pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower show substantial reductions in fossil fuel consumption and a near elimination of the use of coal without CCS

high

2

train

7,616

AR6_WGIII

395

34

Stringent emissions reductions at the level required to limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or 1.5°C are achieved through increased electrification of end use, resulting in increased electricity generation in all pathways

high

2

train

7,617

AR6_WGIII

400

1

Limiting warming to likely 2°C (>67%) or lower can result in large-scale transformation of the land surface

high

2

train

7,618

AR6_WGIII

400

26

Some AFOLU mitigation options can enhance vegetation and soil carbon stocks such as reforestation, restoration of degraded ecosystems, protection of ecosystems with high carbon stocks and changes to agricultural land management to increase soil carbon

high

2

train

7,619

AR6_WGIII

400

31

The time scales associated with these options indicate that carbon sinks in terrestrial vegetation and soil systems can be maintained or enhanced so as to contribute towards long-term mitigation

high

2

train

7,620

AR6_WGIII

400

34

In the very long term (the latter part of the century and beyond), it will become more challenging to continue to enhance vegetation and soil carbon stocks, so that the associated carbon sinks could diminish or even become sources

high

2

train

7,621

AR6_WGIII

401

8

Anthropogenic land CO 2 emissions and removals in IAM pathways cannot be directly compared with those reported in national GHG inventories

high

2

train

7,622

AR6_WGIII

402

2

The assessment in this section shows that if mitigation ambitions in NDCs announced prior to COP262,18 are followed until 2030, leading to estimated emissions of 47–57 GtCO 2-eq in 203019 (Section 4.2.2), it is no longer possible to limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot

high

2

train

7,623

AR6_WGIII

402

4

It would also strongly increase mitigation challenges to limit warming to 2°C (>67%)

high

2

train

7,624

AR6_WGIII

402

7

A lock-in to fossil fuel-intensive production systems (carbon lock-in) will increase the societal, economic and political strain of a rapid low-carbon transition after 2030

high

2

train

7,625

AR6_WGIII

413

1

However, it is robust across modelling frameworks that the marginal abatement cost of carbon increases for lower temperature categories, with a higher increase in the short term than in the longer term (Figure 3.32, left panel)

high

2

train

7,626

AR6_WGIII

413

10

Pathways that correspond to NDCs announced prior to COP26 in 2030 and strengthen action after 2030 imply higher marginal abatement costs of carbon in the longer run than pathways with stronger immediate global mitigation action (Figure 3.32b)

high

2

train

7,627

AR6_WGIII

415

12

Mitigation pathways with early emissions reductions represent higher mitigation costs in the short-run but bring long-term gains for the economy compared to delayed transition pathways

high

2

train

7,628

AR6_WGIII

418

15

The AR6 WGII finds that variation in estimated global economic impacts increases with warming in all methodologies, indicating higher risk in terms of economic impacts at higher temperatures

high

2

train

7,629

AR6_WGIII

418

17

The AR6 WGII’s assessment finds that the lack of comparability between methodologies does not allow for identification of robust ranges of global economic impact estimates

high

2

train

7,630

AR6_WGIII

418

18

Further, AR6 WGII identifies evaluating and reconciling differences in methodologies as a research priority for facilitating use of the different lines of evidence

high

2

train

7,631

AR6_WGIII

422

34

Through avoiding impacts, mitigation thus reduces economic inequalities and poverty

high

2

train

7,632

AR6_WGIII

422

46

Targeted policy areas must include healthy nutrition, sustainable consumption and production, inequality and poverty alleviation, air quality and international collaboration

high

2

train

7,633

AR6_WGIII

422

47

Lower energy demand enables synergies between mitigation and sustainability, with lower reliance on CDR

high

2

train

7,634

AR6_WGIII

423

9

Reducing warming reduces the population impacted by all impact categories shown

high

2

train

7,635

AR6_WGIII

423

16

Areas of co-benefits include human health, ambient air pollution and other specific kinds of pollution, while areas of trade-off include food access, habitat loss and mineral resources

medium

1

train

7,636

AR6_WGIII

425

21

Recent research shows that mitigation is compatible with reductions in inequality and poverty (Box 3.6).Lower demand – for example, for energy and land-intensive consumption such as meat – represents a synergistic strategy for achieving ambitious climate mitigation without compromising Sustainable Development Goals

high

2

train

7,637

AR6_WGIII

426

7

Climate change will reduce crop yields, increase food insecurity, and negatively influence nutrition and mortality. Climate mitigation will thus reduce these impacts, and hence reduce food insecurity

high

2

test

7,638

AR6_WGIII

427

2

Mitigating climate change while ensuring that food security is not adversely affected requires a range of different strategies and interventions

high

2

train

7,639

AR6_WGIII

427

18

Taken together, climate changes will reduce crop yields, increase food insecurity and influence nutrition and mortality

high

2

train

7,640

AR6_WGIII

427

28

Climate change also affects the occurrence of and exposure to hydrological extremes

high

2

train

7,641

AR6_WGIII

427

32

Climate models project increases in drought risk

very high

3

test

7,642

AR6_WGIII

427

34

The effect of climate change on water availability and hydrological extremes varies by region

high

2

train

7,643

AR6_WGIII

427

44

Limiting warming could reduce water-related risks

high

2

train

7,644

AR6_WGIII

427

50

The effect of climate change on water depends on the climate model, the hydrological model, and the metric

high

2

train

7,645

AR6_WGIII

427

54

However, the effect of socio-economic development could be larger than the effect of climate change

high

2

train

7,646

AR6_WGIII

427

78

Bioenergy and BECCS can increase water withdrawals and water consumption

high

2

train

7,647

AR6_WGIII

428

14

The effect of mitigation on water quality depends on the mitigation option, its implementation, and the aspect of quality considered

high

2

train

7,648

AR6_WGIII

430

29

Marine and coastal ecosystems Marine ecosystems are being affected by climate change and growing non-climate pressures including temperature change, acidification, land-sourced pollution, sedimentation, resource extraction and habitat destruction

high

2

train

7,649

AR6_WGIII

430

32

The danger or warming and acidification to coral reefs, rocky shores and kelp forests is well established

high

2

train

7,650

AR6_WGIII

430

49

Stringent mitigation that includes reductions in demand for animal-based foods and food waste could also relieve pressures on land use and biodiversity

high

2

train

7,651

AR6_WGIII

479

25

Working Group II contribution to this Assessment finds that the overall extent of adaptation-related responses in human systems is low

high

2

train

7,652

AR6_WGIII

521

33

IPCC SR1.5 found that sustainable development pathways to 1.5°C broadly support and often enable transformations and that ‘sustainable development has the potential to significantly reduce systemic vulnerability, enhance adaptive capacity, and promote livelihood security for poor and disadvantaged populations

high

2

train

7,653

AR6_WGIII

566

5

Rapid and deep changes in demand make it easier for every sector to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the short and medium term

high

2

train

7,654

AR6_WGIII

567

7

Behavioural nudges promote easy behaviour change, for example ‘Improve’ actions such as making investments in energy efficiency, but fail to motivate harder lifestyle changes

high

2

train

7,655

AR6_WGIII

582

45

The study shows that of all demand- side option effects on well-being, 79% are positive, 18% are neutral (or not relevant or specified), and only 3% are negative

high

2

train

7,656

AR6_WGIII

582

50

Well-being improvements are most notable in health, air, and energy

high

2

train

7,657

AR6_WGIII

582

53

Food (medium confidence), mobility (high confidence), and water

medium

1

train

7,658

AR6_WGIII

582

57

An exception is economic stability, suggesting that demand-side options generate stable opportunities to participate in economic activities

high

2

train

7,659

AR6_WGIII

589

11

Around 931 million tonnes of food waste was generated in 2019 globally, 61% of which came from households, 26% from food service and 13% from retail.Demand-side mitigations are achieved through changing Socio- cultural factors, Infrastructure use and Technology adoption by various social actors in urban and other settlements, food choice and waste management

high

2

train

7,660

AR6_WGIII

589

17

The technical mitigation potential of food loss and waste reductions globally has been estimated at 0.1–5.8 GtCO 2-eq

high

2

train

7,661

AR6_WGIII

590

1

The estimated technical potential for GHG emissions reductions associated with shifts to sustainable healthy diets is 0.5–8 GtCO 2-eq

high

2

train

7,662

AR6_WGIII

616

3

They also offer potential levers to change normative ideas and social practices in order to achieve extensive emissions cuts

high

2

train

7,663

AR6_WGIII

618

7

Countermovement coalitions work to oppose climate mitigation

high

2

train

7,664

AR6_WGIII

622

25

Although there is variability across innovations, sectors, and countries, the transitions literature distinguishes four phases, characterised by generic core processes and challenges: (i) emergence, (ii) early adaptation, (i) diffusion, (iv) stabilisation

high

2

train

7,665

AR6_WGIII

622

29

These four phases do not imply that transitions are linear, teleological processes, because set-backs or reversals may occur as a result of learning processes, conflicts, or changing coalitions

very high

3

train

7,666

AR6_WGIII

622

32

In the first phase, radical innovations emerge in peripheral niches, where researchers, inventors, social movement organisations or community activists dedicate time and effort to their development

high

2

train

7,667

AR6_WGIII

737

13

Replacing old coal with new coal facilities is inconsistent with limiting warming to 2°C or below

high

2

train

7,668

AR6_WGIII

742

10

Global fossil fuel subsidies represent more than half of total energy subsidies with predominantly adverse environmental, economic, and social effects

high

2

train

7,669

AR6_WGIII

742

23

Fossil fuel subsidies most commonly pursue non-climate objectives, for example, enhanced access to energy sources

high

2

test

7,670

AR6_WGIII

743

10

Costs have declined by 62% since 2015

high

2

train

7,671

AR6_WGIII

743

11

Key areas for continued improvement are grid integration and non- module costs for rooftop systems

high

2

train

7,672

AR6_WGIII

743

12

Most deployment is now utility-scale

high

2

train

7,673

AR6_WGIII

743

13

Global future potential is not limited by solar irradiation, but by grid integration needed to address its variability, as well as access to finance, particularly in developing countries

high

2

train

7,674

AR6_WGIII

743

14

The global technical potential of direct solar energy far exceeds that of any other renewable energy resource and is well beyond the total amount of energy needed to support ambitious mitigation over the current century

high

2

train

7,675

AR6_WGIII

743

25

In many parts of the world, the cost of electricity from PV is below the cost of electricity generated from fossil fuels; in some, it is below the operating costs of electricity generated from fossil fuels

high

2

train

7,676

AR6_WGIII

745

2

The share of total costs of PV-intensive electricity systems attributed to integration costs has been increasing but can be reduced by enhancing grid flexibility

high

2

train

7,677

AR6_WGIII

745

23

The most important ways to minimise PV’s impact on the environment lie in recycling materials at end of life and making smart land-use decisions

medium

1

train

7,678

AR6_WGIII

745

60

Material demand for PV will likely increase substantially to limit warming to well below 2°C, but PV materials are widely available, have possible substitutes, and can be recycled

medium

1

train

7,679

AR6_WGIII

746

11

Many alternative PV materials are improving in efficiency and stability, providing longer-term pathways for continued PV costs reductions and better performance

high

2

train

7,680

AR6_WGIII

746

68

Solar energy elicits favourable public responses in most countries

high

2

train

7,681

AR6_WGIII

747

1

Costs have declined by 18% and 40% on land and offshore since 2015 (high confidence), and further reductions can be expected by 2030

medium

1

train

7,682

AR6_WGIII

747

2

Wind power is increasingly competitive with other forms of electricity generation and is the low-cost option in many applications, and critical areas for continued improvement are technology advancements and economies of scale

high

2

test

7,683

AR6_WGIII

747

3

Global future potential is primarily limited by onshore land availability in wind power-rich areas, lack of supporting infrastructure, grid integration, and access to finance (especially in developing countries) (high confidence).Energy from wind is abundant, and the estimated technical potentials surpass the total amount of energy needed to limit warming to well below 2°C

high

2

train

7,684

AR6_WGIII

749

5

Electricity from onshore wind is less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels in a growing number of markets

high

2

train

7,685

AR6_WGIII

750

6

Wind power plants pose relatively low environmental impact, but sometimes locally significant ecological effects

high

2

train

7,686

AR6_WGIII

750

23

Public support for onshore and particularly offshore wind energy is generally high, although people may oppose specific wind farm projects

high

2

train

7,687

AR6_WGIII

751

2

However, the future mitigation potential of hydropower depends on minimising environmental and social impacts during the planning stages, reducing the risks of dam failures, and modernising the ageing hydropower fleet to increase generation capacity and flexibility

high

2

train

7,688

AR6_WGIII

751

12

Hydropower is a mature technology with locally adapted solutions

high

2

train

7,689

AR6_WGIII

752

15

Hydroelectric power plants may pose serious environmental and societal impacts

high

2

train

7,690

AR6_WGIII

752

29

Yet, public support for hydro seems to differ for existing and new projects

high

2

train

7,691

AR6_WGIII

752

54

Doing so will require improvements in managing construction of reactor designs that hold the promise of lower costs and broader use

medium

1

train

7,692

AR6_WGIII

752

55

At the same time, nuclear power continues to be affected by cost overruns, high upfront investment needs, challenges with final disposal of radioactive waste, and varying public acceptance and political support levels

high

2

train

7,693

AR6_WGIII

752

56

There are sufficient resources for substantially increasing nuclear deployment

medium

1

train

7,694

AR6_WGIII

753

1

There are several possible nuclear technology options for the period from 2030 to 2050

medium

1

train

7,695

AR6_WGIII

753

20

Nuclear power costs vary substantially across countries

high

2

train

7,696

AR6_WGIII

753

28

Cost-cutting opportunities, such as design standardisation and innovations in construction approaches, are expected to make SMRs competitive against large reactors by 2040 (Rubio and Tricot 2016)

medium

1

train

7,697

AR6_WGIII

753

34

However, new reactor designs with passive and enhanced safety systems reduce the risk of such accidents significantly

high

2

train

7,698

AR6_WGIII

753

55

Nuclear power continues to suffer from limited public and political support in some countries

high

2

train

7,699

AR6_WGIII

754

18

Most of the countries that might introduce nuclear power in the future for their climate change mitigation benefits do not envision developing their own full fuel cycle, significantly reducing any risks that might be linked to proliferation (IAEA 2014, 2019).6.4.2.5 Carbon Dioxide Capture, Utilisation and Storage Since AR5, there have been increased efforts to develop novel platforms that reduce the energy penalty associated with CO 2 capture, develop CO 2 utilisation pathways as a substitute to geologic storage, and establish global policies to support CCS

high

2

train